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V . u’$w$c!¢¢Jt.»a:§».fJ2>§>¢&~=9‘X§l§h3u.§ :- . .. . . . ~%vVs1£1¢l\:¢<> .»»$B.,: if \ ‘ .¥) » §..v\:,i:1n.. .¢t¢v2.|l $ P 71- . 3‘ F} . 4 .£ ; ~. 3 -< . it. ‘P $1 . . \ 1 _ . . |$L.,.f.».§.1..L t.‘\r.=t-¢r!t.Q‘k lit “$§.!$.__~€!£‘.\:..v.. fri 41 ‘.‘M..3'1t.1\.Tw¢:kl.....: r: ..r.>.\.... 9.1 a 2 .= §4-¢.f..,I..€l,.>v2\¢, $25.5 & 401$} $‘r\~.;vV$\P=~ @,nfi\&1H|.r.‘.vu~HHm, the Virginian horned owl, or great horned owl, is very similar to the species just noticed, but of inferior size, although still a large and powerful, as it is also a bold bird. It carries oif with ease almost any inhabitant of the poultry yard. It is found in almost all parts of America. EAGLE PASS, the county-seat of Maverick county, Texas, on the Rio Grande River, 248 miles southwest of Austin. ( 5991 600 EAGLE, RED, ORDER on THE, in Prussia‘, founded in 1734 by the Markgraf George Frederick Charles. After passing through various modifications, the order was raised in 1791 by Frederick William II to the rank of the second order in the monarchy, and the decoration of a white enameled Maltese cross, surmounted by a royal crown, with the Bran- denburg eagle in the corner,was adopted. EAGLE ROCK, a village of Bingham county, Idaho, on the Snake River. It is the market place for a large part of Snake River valley. EAGLE IVOOD, a very fragrant wood used for incense by Asiatics. The tree is the Alae.ryZon, Agallochmn, or Aquz'iarz'a ovata, of the order Aqui- Zariacezr, and grows in tropical Asia. EAR. See Britannica, Vol. VII, pp. 591-95. EAR: in music, a figurative expression, meaning the possession of a sensitive, just, and delicate ap- preciation of sound and measure. EARL MARSHAL, an English office of great an- tiquity. and formerly of importance. For many generations the office has been hereditary in the family of the Duke of Norfolk, though the earls marshal having, to an unusual extent, had the fate to die either childless or without heirs-male, the line of descent has been by no means a direct one. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 574. EARLSTON, or ERCILDOUNE, a village in the southwest of Berwickshire, Scotland, on the Leader, a north branch of the Tweed, 30 miles south-south- west of Berwick. lVas the birthplace of Thomas the Rhymer. Population. 1,168. , EARLVILLE, a village of La Salle county, Ill., 74 miles southwest of Chicago. The place has manufactories and a steam mill. EARLY ENGLISH: in architecture, the term generally applied to the form of Gothic in which the pointed arch was first employed in England. The early English succeeded the Norman towards the end of the 12th century, and merged into the Decorated at the end of the 13th. Its characteris- tics are peculiar. Retaining much of the strength and solidity of the earlier style, it exhibited the graceful forms, without the redundancy of orna- ment which latterly degenerated into a fault in that which followed. EARLY, J UBAL ANDERSON, an American soldier, born in 1816. He served in the Florida war in 1837—88, and then began the practice of law in Vir- ginia. He was a member of the legislature in 18-11-42, and Commonwealth attorney from 1842 to 184.7, and again from 1848 to 1852. He served in the Mexican war, and in 1847 was acting governor of Monterey. At the beginning of the civil war he entered the Confederate army as a colonel, and later became brigadier-general. After the war he visited Europe, and later resumed his law practice in the South. EARN EST, or ARLES, as it is called in Scotland, a small sum of money which is given, or a simple ceremony, such as shaking hands. which is per- formed in proof of the existence of that mutual consent which constitutes a contract. In the first case the earnest is said to be pecuniary; in the sec- ond, symbolical. It is not the earnest but the con- sent, the agreement to a certain price; that is the root of the bargain; and the earnest thus becomes a mere adminicle of evidence, which may be dis- pensed with even in cases in which it is exacted by custom, if the parties choose to preserve other evi- dence of the completion of their bargain. EARS, a term in organ building given to small projecting pieces of metal on the sides of the mouths of metal pipes, put on for the purpose of assisting the pipes to speak promptly, especially when the organ is of small scale. EAGLE—-EAR TRUMPET J EARTH ALMOND, or CRUFA, a species of sedge, Cygoerus esculentus, whose tuberous roots are used in the South of Europe as a vegetable and in mak- ing a popular drink called orchatas dc chufas. It has been successfully grown in the warmer parts of the United States, and has been recommended as a substitute for coffee. E A R T H-H O U S E S, EIRD-HOUSES, or YIRD— Housns, the name which seems to have been gen- erally given throughout Scotland to the under- ground buildings, which in some places are called also “Picts’ Houses,” and in others, it would ap- pear, “ weems,” or caves. The earth-house, in its simplest form, is a single irregularly shaped cham- ber, from 4 to ten feet in width, from 20 to 60 feet in length, and from 4 to 7 feet in height, built of unhewn and uncemented stones, roofed by unhewn flags, and entered from near the top by a rude doorway, so low and narrow that only one man can slide down through it at a time. EARTHS: in chemistry, a class of substances which were regarded by the alchemists and older chemists as elementary, and which are insoluble in water. The earths proper are now known to be compound, consisting of a metal in combination with oxygen. The list includes alumina, glucina, zirconia, thoria, didymia, lantana, ceria, yttria, ter- bia, and erbia. They do not alter vegetable colors, are soluble in acids, and are precipitated from their solutions by ammonia, potash, or soda. EARTHWORM (Lmnbm'cus), a genus of Annelida, of the order Terricolee. There are many species, all of them pretty closely resembling in characters and habits the common earthworm or dew-worm (L. terr@str'is). See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 677. It has no head distinct from the body, no eyes, no antennae, nor any organs external to the rings of which its body is composed, except minute bristles pointing backwards, of which each ring bears four pairs, and which are of use in its locomotion. It sometimes attains to nearly a foot in length, and more than 120 rings have been counted in its body. The end at which the mouth is situated is pointed and the tail is flattened, while the general form is cylindrical. The mouth consists merely of two lips, the upper lip elongated; there are no teeth nor tentacles, and the worm subsists by swallowing fine particles of the soil, from which its digestive organs extract the digestible matter, the rest being voided often in little intestine-shaped heaps, called worm- casts, on the surface of the ground. The locomo- tion of the earthworm is effected by means of two sets of muscles, which enable it to contract and di- late its rings; its bristles preventing motion back- wards, and the whole muscular effort thus result- ing in progress, while the expansion of the rings, as it contracts the anterior segments, and draws forward the hinder parts, widens a passage for it through earth whose particles were close together before. Earthworms are thus of very great use, their multitudes continually stirring and loosening the soil through which they work their way; and moles, pursuing them for food, stir and loosen it still more; while worm-casts gradually accumu- late on the surface to form a layer of the very fin- est soil, to which it is supposed that the best old pastures in a great measure owe their high value. EAR TRUMPET, a contrivance for improving the hearing of the partially deaf. The principle in them all is the same—to collect the sonorous vibra- tions, and to convey them in an intensified form to the deeper part of the car. In this way, the hand, placed behind the external ear, constitutes the simplest form of ear-trumpet. There are many varieties of trumpet in use. The most useful and comfortable are those which are worn on the head-. _EASDALE-—EAST MAIN‘ and which go by the name of ear-cornets or acous- tic auricles. They can be concealed under the hair or cap, and may be adapted to one or both ears by means of a spring over the head. The apparatus most commonly in use requires to be held in the hand, and consists of a narrow portion which is inserted into the ear-passage, and which gradually expands into a wide mouth. Another variety, ap- plicable to the more severe cases of deafness, con- sists of an elastic tube, one end of which is tipped with ivory, and is placed in the ear of the patient; the other is held in the hand of the speaker, who applies his mouth to the open extremity. With this instrument only one voice can be heard at a time. With the first-mentioned variety, general conversation can be heard often quite well. EASDALE, a small Scottish isle on the west coast of Argyleshire, in the Firth of Lorn, ten miles south-southwest of Oban. It contains one and’a half square miles, and is situated in Kilbrandor parish. EAST: vaguely speaking, that quarter of the hori- zon where the sun rises, or which a person with his face to the south has on his left hand. It is only at the equinoxes that the sun rises exactly in the east point. A line at right angles to the meridian of a place points exactly east and west. EAST AURORA, a village of Erie county, N. Y., situated in a rich farming section. It is 17 miles southeast of Bufialo. EAST BRADY, a village of Clarion county, Pa., on the Alleghany River,”/'0 miles north of Pittsburgh. The Brady iron works are just across the river, and furnish employment to 1,500 persons. This village is near the Butler county oil regions, and considerable oil is brought in pipe lines to the vil- lage, and then shipped. EAST BRIDGEWATER, a post-township of Ply- mouth county, M ass., 25 miles southeast of Boston. It has excellent water-power, and is a thriving manufacturing place. Among the articles made here are brick, cotton-gins, iron, chains, nails, boots and shoes. EASTBURN, 1\/IANTON (1801-72), an American P. E. bishop. He was ordained in 1822, and for the succeeding five years was assistant minister in Christ Church, New York. In 1827 he became rector of the Church of the Ascension. In Decem- ber, 1842, he was consecrated assistant bishop of the diocese of Massachusetts, and two months later became bishop. He published several works on re- ligious topics. EAST CAPE, the name of the most easterly head- lands of the island of Madagascar, of the North Island of New Zealand, and of Siberia or Asiatic Russia. The first is in lat. 15° 20' S., and long. 50° 15’ E.; the second in lat. 37° -10' S., and long. 178° 40’ E., being almost precisely the antipodes of Car- thagena in Spain; and the third is that extremity of the Old World which is nearest to the New, being separated by Bering’s Strait from Cape Prince of ‘Vales in America. It is in lat. 66° 6’ N., and lone‘. 1690 38' W.; or rather, to follow the nat- ural reclronmg, 1900 22‘ E. EAST DORSET, a village of Bennington county, Vt., 25 miles south of Rutland. It contains valu- able marble quarries. EASTER OFFERINGS, small sums paid to the parochial clergy in England by their parishioners at Easter, as a compensation for personal tithes, or the tithe for personal labor. EASTER TERM, LEGAL, in England, was for- merly dependent upon the movable feast of Easter, and was hence called a movable term. It commenced on the Wednesday fortnight after Easter Sunday, and lasted till the following Monday three weeks. 601 But by 11 Geo. IV and 1 Will. IV, c. 70, amended by 1 lrVill. IV, c- 3, Easter Term now begins on April 15th and ends on May 8th. If any of the days be- tween the Thursday before and the Wednesday after Easter fall within term, no sittings in bane are held on those days, and the term is prolonged a corresponding number of days. EAST GREENWICH, the county-seat of Kent county, R. I., on Narragansett Bay, 14 miles south of Providence. It contains cotton and woolen- mills, print works, and has a good harbor. EAST HADDAM, a township of Middlesex county, Conn., on the Connecticut River. It contains a music seminary, three Britannia shops, and thirteen cotton-mills. _ EAST HAMPTON, a manufacturing town and railroad junction of Hampshire county, Mass., five miles southwest of Northampton. The place con- tains Williston Seminary for young men, and a public library, and has manufactories of pumps, vulcanized rubber, suspenders, thread and buttons. EAST HUMBOLDT MOUNTAINS, a high range of mountains in Elko county, Nev., extending north and south. Ruby Valley is on the east and Hunt- ingdon Valley on the west, while Secret Valley and Fremont Pass cut the range, some of whose . peaks exceed 12,000 feet in height. EAST INDIA ARMY. ‘When the East India Company first sent factors or agents to India, an army was not thought of. Military forces arose out of the exigencies of the times. Some of the first troops in the Company’s pay were mere adventurers, some were liberated convicts, some deserters from European armies. Gradually organization was introduced and improved arms furnished. As the power of the Company increased, natives entered the battalions, until at length most of the troops were Hindoos or Mohammedans, drilled by non- commissioned ofiicers sent out from England. A few regiments were raised in India; but all alike were ofiicered by the Company’s favored English officers. The ranks were filled by enlistment; the Company never compelled the natives to become soldiers; the pay ofiered was always such as to in- duce a sufiicient number of men to enter. Their periods of leave of absence were liberal; and after a certain number of years’ service they retired on a pension suflicient to support them for the remainder of their days. At the period immediately preceding the outbreak of the revolt in 1857, the army in the pay of the Company comprised about 24,000 royal troops (lent to, and paid for by, the Company); 18,000 European troops, raised and drilled by the Company in England; 180,000 native regulars, and 60,000 native irregular horse-—making about 280,- 000 in all. This large force was irrespective of 40,000 contingents furnished by dependent native princes, and of the native armies belonging to the independent and semi-independent princes. In August, 1858, the act which transferred the govern- ment of India from the Company to the crown received the royal assent, and the army was trans- ferred as well as the political power. EAST LIVERPOOL, a city of Ohio, near the eastern boundary of the State, on the Ohio River, and in Columbiana county. It is on the Cleveland and Pittsburgh railroad, 2-lmiles above Steuben- ville, and -11 miles west-northwest of Pittsburgh, Pa. Its chief industry is the manufacture of stoneware, earthenware, terra-cotta. g1-aniteware and yellow- ware. Population in 1880, 5,568; in 1890, 10,917. ‘ EAST MAIN, formerly a portion of the Hudson Bay terfitories, now incorporated in the Dominion of Canada. It is bounded north by Hudson Strait and west by Hudson Bay down to its southern extrem- ity, meeting Labrador on tbe east and Canada on 602 the south. This immense region, thrice as large as Great Britain, is generally bleak and sterile, yield- ing little to commerce but fish-oil and a few furs. A river of the same name, otherwise called the Slade, crosses its southern section, entering Hudson Bay, here known as James Bay, about lat. 520 15' north, after a course of 400 miles. EASTMAN, MARY Hnxnnnson, an American authoress, born in Va. in 1818; married Capt. Seth Eastman in 1835, and resided with him at various frontier stations. She has published numerous books on Indian life, and also many stories in magazines. She wrote Aunt PhiIZis’s Cabin, a reply to Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Mrs. Stowe. EASTMAN, SETH (1808—75), a United States soldier. In 1829-33 he was on frontier duty; in 1833—40 was assistant teacher of drawing at West Point; in 1840-41 was in the Florida war, and later on the western frontier. He was retired in 1863, and in 1866 was brevetted brigadier-general. He wrote a Treatise on Topographical Drawing. EASTON, the county-seat of Talbot county, Md., situated in a fine fruit region on a branch of the Great Choptank River. It has several schools, an orphan asylum, gas works, peach-canning and fruit-drying establishments, and manufactories of lumber, farm implements and castings. EASTON, a manufacturing township of Bristol county, Mass. It produces boots, shoes, thread, shovels and hinges. EASTON, a city of Pennsylvania, and county seat of Northampton county (see Britannica, Vol. VII, p. 616). Easton is delightfully situated on the right bank of the Delaware River, at the mouth of the Lehigh. A chain bridge across the Delaware connects it with Phillipsburg, N. J. It is an impor- tant railroad center, being on the Delaware, Lacka- wanna and Western, the Lehigh Valley, the New Jersey Central, the Belvidere Delaware, the Easton and Amboy, and the Lehigh and Susquehanna rail- roads. It is the outlet of a rich agricultural region, and has various manufactories, as well as iron works,tanneries, machine shops and paint works. Lafayette College (Presbyterian) is located at Easton. Population in 1880, 11,924: in 1890, 14,185. EASTON, NICHOLAS (1593-1675), a governor of Rhode Island. He was one of the first settlers in Newbury, lVI8.SS., and also in Hampton, N. H., but moved to Rhode Island in 1638, and built the first house in Newport. He was governor of Rhode Island in 1650-52. EAST ORANGE, a pleasant village of Essex county, N. J ., located 12 miles from New York city. It contains the handsome villas of many New York business men. EASTPORT, a port of entry of Washin ton county, Maine, situated on Moose Island, one o the small islands of Passamaquoddy Bay, which re- ceives the St. Croix, the international boundary between the United States and British America. The harbor of Eastport is deep enough for the largest vessels, and the tide rises within it to a height of 25 feet. The place is largely engaged in the fish- eries and in ship-building. Population, 3,736. EAST PORTLAND, a rapidly growing city of Oregon, near the northern boundary of the State, located in Multnomah county, on the east bank of the VVillamette River, opposite Portland, in 45° 30’ -north lat., and 122° 27’ 30" west long. It is 12 miles from the confluence of the \Villamette and Colum- bia Rivers, about 120 miles from the ocean, and at the extreme head of navigation for deep-sea vessels of both rivers. It is connected with Portland by two bridges and three ferry lines, and is practically a portion of Portland proper—so much so, in fact. that a movement is now (1891) under way to in- EASTMAN—E~AU“CLAI'RE -. corporate the two cities into one. Population, 1870, 830; 1880, 2,934; 1890, 10,481. EAST RIVER, the strait between New York Harbor and Long Island Sound. It is 20 miles long, separating New York city on the west from its suburbs, lVilliamsburg and Brooklyn, on the east. Its narrowest part is the Hurlgate or Hellgate, which is about the middle of its course. Here the rocks which once obstructed the passage have been removed by blasting. The name-—clear1y a misno- mer for an arm of the sea—-is convenient as con- trasted with the North River, or Hudson, and may have arisen from the river-like action of the tides—-an action so powerful as to have here and there materially deepened the channel. EAST ST. LOUIS, a city of St. Clair county, Ill., located on the Mississippi River, opposite St. Louis, Mo. A steel bridge across the Mississippi connects the two cities. East St. Louis is an important railroad center, no less than ten railways either passing through or terminating in the city. The largest stockyards in the United States, those of the National Stock Yards’ Company, are located here. They comprise 650 acres. The city contains extensive car shops, foundries,,rolling-mills, nail factories, gas works, soda factory, breweries, etc. The Howe Literary Institute (Baptist) is located here. There is also a high school, several graded public schools, an academy (Roman Catholic), and a public library, containing 5,000 volumes. Popula- tion in 1880, 9,185; in 1890,15,156. EASTVILLE, the county-seat of Northampton countv, Va., situated on the “Eastern Shore” be- tween Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean,4 mileg1 east of the bay, and 180 miles east of Rich- mon . EAST WEYMOUTH, a manufacturing village of Norfolk county, Mass, 14 miles south of Boston. Boots and nails are made here. EATON, the county-seat of Preble county, Ohio, situated on Seven-Mile Creek, 53 miles north of Cincinnati. EATON, DANIEL OADY, an American botanist, born in 1834. He became professor of botany in Yale College in 1864. He has published works on botany and many other scientific papers. EATON, VVILLIAM (1764-1811), an American sol- dier. At the age of 16 he entered‘ the Revolution- ary army, but left in 1783 after becoming sergeant. In 1791 he became clerk of the Vermont house of delegates, and in 1797 was appointed consul to Tunis. He returned to the United States in 1803; was appointed naval agent to the Barbary States, and accompanied the American fleet to the Mediterra- nean in 1804. He organized aband of troops, which he led across the desert against Derne, capital of a province of Tripoli, and, with the assistance of the American fleet, captured the place, which he held with great bravery. He was about to attack Trip- oli when operations were suspended by a treaty of peace between the United States and Tripoli. On his return to America, Massachusetts gave him 50,000 acres of land as a reward for his gallant con- uct. EATON RAPIDS, a city of Eaton county, Mich., on Grand River, 24 miles northwest of Jackson. It is a railroad junction, and is noted for its mineral magnetic springs. EATONTON, a city and the county-seat of Put- narn county, Ga., 21 miles northwest of Milledge- V1 e. EAU CLAIRE, a city of Wisconsin, and county- seat of Eau Claire county, situated at the head of steamboat navigation on the Chippewa River, and at the mouth of the Eau Claire River. It is the center of important lumber interests, and has ex- ) F EAU CREOLE--ECOENTRIC cellent railroad facilities. The two rivers divide the city into three sections. The public buildings are the court-house and city hall. The streets are well paved and lighted with gas and electricity. The industrial establishments include saw-mills, flouring-mills, grain elevators, iron foundries,paper- mills, machine shops, etc. Lumber is the principal article of export. Population in 1880, 10,119; in 1890, 17,438. EAU CREOLE, a fine liqueur, made in Marti- nique, by distilling the flowers of the Mammee ap- ple (Mammea Americana) with spirit of wine. EAU DE JAVELLE, a bleaching fluid and anti- septic, containing salt, potassium hypochlorite and potassium carbonate. EAUX BONNES, a watering-place of France, in the department of Basses-Pyrenees, situated 20 miles south-southeast of Oloron. It stands in a narrow gorge surrounded by rocks, and is much frequented on account of its hot sulphurous springs, which are four in number, and are used for bathing purposes. Their temperature does’ not exceed 910 F. EAUX CHAUDES, Lns, three miles southwest of Eaux Bonnes, and a similar place of resort. The springs of both places have the same properties. See Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 127. EAVES: in architecture, the edge of a sloping roof which overhangs the wall for the purpose of throwing off the water. EAVESDRIP, or Eavnsnaor (Ang.-Sax., yfes- dwype). “The owner of a private estate,” says Kemble (Saxons in England, Britannica, Vol. I, p. 45), “ was not allowed to build or cultivate to the extremity of his own possession, but must leave a space for eaves. The name for this custom was yfesdrype.” The space was regulated by the charter by which the property was held. This Saxon cus- tom corresponded to the well-known urban servi- tude of the Romans, called stillicide (stiZZz'm'dium). Similar regulations existed in Greece, and have probably existed in all countries. EAVES—DROPPERS “ are such as listen under walls or windows, or the eaves of houses, to hearken after discourse, and thereupon to frame slander- ous or mischievous tales.” Blackstone’s Comm.,IV, 168. Such persons are regarded as common nui- sances. They may be indicted, and, on conviction, are punishable by fine. EBEL, J OHANNES IVILHELM (1784-1861), a German clergyman. He taught for a while in the gym- nasium at Ktinigsberg; in 1807 became pastor at Hermsdorf ; in 1810 returned to Kiinigsberg as pro- fessor in Friederich College, and six years later was made preacher in the Old Town church there. He wrote many works on religious topics. EBELING, Cnmsrorn BANIEL (1741-1817), a Ger- man geographer. In 1769 he became a teacher in the commercial school in Hamburg, and in 17 84 be- came professor of Greek and history in the gym- nasium in that city. He contributed extensively to various periodicals, and published several works on history and geography. He possessed a wide reputation _for his knowledge of the geography of America. EBENACE./E, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, with alter- nate leathery leaves and axillary flowers, which are mono-petalous, somewhat leathery, and gener- ally unisexual, the fruit fleshy. About 160 species are known, mostly tropical, but a few are natives of temperate countries. The wood is in general re- markable for its hardness, as the different kinds of ebony and other species of Diospyros; and on ac- count of this quality, even that of species which never attain the ordinary size of timber trees is sometimes accounted valuable. 603 EBERLE, J orm (1787—1838), an American physi- cian. He began the practice of medicine in 1809, and later accepted a commission as surgeon of militia. In 1814 he was appointed physician to the poor in Philadelphia. He accepted the chair of physics in Jefferson Medical College in 1825, and in 1830 became professor of materia medica. The fol- lowing year he accepted a similar position in the Medical College of Ohio, and in 1837 became pro- fessor of the practice of medicine in the University of Transylvania, Lexington, Ky., where he re- mained until his death. He was the author of many works on medicine and other scientific sub- ects. J EBERNBURG, a small town in the Bavarian Palatinate, situated about 20 miles southwest of Mayence, at the junction of the Alsenz with the Nahe. It is notable on account of the ruins of its castle, which formerly belonged to the famous knight Franz of Sickingen, who was a devoted friend of the early reformers. His stronghold, which was once considered almost impregnable, aiforded a secure retreat from danger and persecu- tion to Melanchthon, Bucer, (Ecolampadius and U1- rich von Hutten, the last of whom composed sev- eral of his works here. EBERS, Gnonen Monrrz, a German Egyptologist and romance writer, born in 1837. He obtained permission to teach in Jena in 1865, and in 1868 became extraordinary professor. In 1869, and again in 1872, he made extensive tours through Egypt, discovering during his later visit the papy- rus which bears his name. In 1870 he was made professor of Egyptian antiquity in the University of Leipsic. EBERT. KARL Econ, Bohemian poet, born at Prague, June 5, 1801; educated there and at Vienna, and after filling several situations finally settled in Prague. His chief works are his Dichtungen (poems), 2 vols.. 1824; Wlasta, ein Bii7mm'schnationuIes Heldengediclzt in drei Bilchern (Wlasta, a Bohemian national heroic poem, in three books), 1829; and Das Kloster, idyllische Erziihlung in fiinf Gesdngen (Téie Cloister, a Narrative Idyl, in five cantos), 18 3. EBRARD, Jonann HEINRICH Aueusr, a German theologian, born at Erlangen, Bavaria, Jan. 18, 1818, educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and afterwards studied theology at the uni- versity there and at Berlin. In 1844 he was called to the professorship of theology at Zurich, Switzer- land; returned to Erlangen in 1847, and was made professor of Reformed theology, and in 1853 became counselor in the Royal Consistory of the Evangeli- cal church of the Palatinate at Spires, where he remained until 1861. On his return to Erlangen he devoted himself to literature; in 1875 became pastor of the French colony there, and since 1876 has been president of the reformed synod of east- ern Bavaria. He is author of many theological works, several dramas, and a number of short moral and religious stories; has translated Ossian’s Fingal into German, and prepared a grammar and dictionary of the mediseval Gaelic language. ECCE HOMO (Lat., “Behold the l¥Ian”), the name usually given by artists to paintings repre- senting Christ bound and crowned with thorns previous to his being led forth to crucifixion. The finest Ecce Homo is that of Correggio, in the Na- tional Gallery, London; the whole conception of this_remarkable picture being of the finest order of emus. ECCENTRIC: in machinery. a contrivarwe a taking an alternating rectilinear motion from a re— volving shaft. It consists of a circular disc or pulley, fixed on a shaft or axis which does not pass 604 through the center of the disc. The eccentric is chiefly used where a subsidiary motion of small power is required; as for working the force-pump that supplies the boiler of a steam-engine. ECCENTRICITY, a mathematical term which, in the older mathematical works, is used as the name of half the distance between the foci of an ellipse or hyperbola. More properly, the eccentricity is the ratio of half the distance between the foci to the semi-major axis. ECCHYMOSIS, a discoloration of the surface, produced by blood effused below or in the texture of the skin. It is usually attended by swelling to a reater or less extent, and is the result of injury. CCLESFIELD, a township in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, five miles north of Sheffield. The chief manufacture is cutlery, but flax, linen, and nails are also branches of industry. There are coal and iron mines in the vicinity. ECCLESIASTES. See Britannica, Vol. VII, pp. 623-26; also Vol. III, p. 639. ECCLESIASTICAL CORPORATION. The holder of an ecclesiastical benefice is, by law of England, regarded as a corporation. Ecclesiastical corpo- rations are divided into aggregate and sole. The former consist of several persons, as the head and fellows of a college, the dean and chapter of a cathe- dral, and are kept up by a continual succession of members. An ecclesiastical corporation sole con- sists of a single person and his successors in the benefice, as a bishop, a rector, a parson, or a vicar. The object of the Icommon law, in thus regarding the incumbent of the benefice as a corporation sole, is to preserve the temporalities which are vested in him, and which would otherwise descend to his right heirs. ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS, courts specially devoted to the consideration of matters relating to the clergy and religion. In England and Scotland they also have peculiar jurisdiction over questions of tithes, and matrimonial and testamentary causes. These courts were first instituted at the time of the Norman Conquest, and have continued with various modifications down to the present day. ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ASSUMPTION ACT, the title of an act of the English Parliament (14 and 15 Vict., c. 49) passed to prohibit the as- sumption of the title of archbishop, bishop, or dean, by any person in England or Ireland, claim- ing the right to such title by virtue of an appoint- ment by the Pope, or papal authorities. A penalty of £100 was provided for a violation of the act. By 34 and 35 Vict., c. 50, the Ecclesiastical Titles Assump- _ tion act was repealed. ECCLESIOLOGY, the name which has been given in the British Islands to the study of church architecture and decoration. It has a literature of its own, including a monthly journal, called “The Ecclesiologist.” There are societies for promoting its study, one of which, “The Ecclesiological late Cambridge Camden Society,” has published A Handbook of English Ecclesiology (Lond., 1847). ECCLESON, SAMUEL (1801-51), an American Roman Catholic archbishop. He was ordained in 1825, and later studied in Paris. On his return he became first vice-president, then president of St. Mary’s College. In 1834 he became archbishop of Baltimore. ICC-HELON, such a formation or arrangement of troops that, if viewed from a height, they would resent some analogy to the successive steps of a adder or staircase. The several divisions of the force. although parallel, are no two on the same allignment. ‘ach has its front clear of tl at in ad- vance, so that, by marching directly forward, it can form line with it. The word échelon is also used in ECCENTRICITY--ECQbLE~ POLYTECHNIQUE i~eference to nautical manoeuvers. A fleet is said to be arranged en échelon when it presents a Wedge- form towards the enemy. ECHIMYD (Echimys), a genus of rodent quadru- peds, in some of their characters agreeing with dormice, but differing from them in having the tail scaly, and the fur coarse and mingled with flattened spines. They are all South American. ECHINOCACTUS, a genus of plants of the cac- tus family, comprising more than two hundred spe- cies, most of which belong to Mexico and the United States. They bear large, showy flowers, and are armed with clusters of short spines. ECHIUM, a genus of boraginaceous plants, of which there are about fifty species, represented by the common blueweed or viper’s bugloss. ECHO: in music, the repetition of a melodic phrase, frequently written for the organ, on ac- \ count of the facility with which it can be produced by the stops.~ ECHO CANON, a remarkable ravine in the midst of magnificent scenery, in Summit county, Utah Territory, 975 miles from Omaha. ECKARDT, JULIUS, a German writer, born in 1836. In 1860 he settled in Riga as a consulting advocate, and later became secretary of the pro- vincial consistory of Livonia. For a time he edited the “Rigasche Zeitung,” the organ of the German party in the Baltic provinces,and in 1867 went to Germany,where he edited various journals. In 1870 he was made secretary of the Senate of Hamburg, and in 1882 became connected with the Prussian state service. He is the author of numerous works on the Baltic provinces. ECKERT, THOMAS Tnorrrson, an American tele - rapher, born in 1825. He was connected wit various telegraph lines until the beginning of the civil war, when he took charge of the military tele- graph oifice at the headquarters of Gen. McClellan. In September, 1862, he established the military telegraph headquarters in the "War Department building at I/Vashington. In 1864 he was brevetted brigadier-general, and then appointed Assistant Secretary of War, retaining the oflice until 1866, when he resigned. He has since been connected with various telegraph companies, and in 1881 be- came vice-president and general manager of the \Vestern Union Telegraph Company. B ECKHUNG CHOO, a river of Thibet, supposed to be the head stream of the Indus. It rises on the north side of the Himalayas near the sources of the Sutlej. Flowing to the northwest it reaches long. 790 E. before it assumes the name of Indus. ECLIPSAREON, the name given by Ferguson, the astronomer, to a contrivance which he in- vented for exhibiting the time, quantity, duration, and progress of solar eclipses. ECLIPTIC, the name given to the great circle of the heavens round which the sun seems to travel from west to east, in the course of a year. It took its name from the early observed fact that eclipses happen only when both bodies are in or near this path. ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE, one of the most celebrated military academies of France. It was es- tablished in Paris in 1794, at the Palais de Bourbon, for the purpose of educating young men for mili- tary, naval and civil engineering. In 1804 Napoleon made the organization of the school more strictly military, to identify it more fully with the army. Candidates are only admitted after competitive examination. To be eligible the youth must be French, and between sixteen and twenty years of age; although soldiers who have served two years in the regular army are admissible no to the age of twenty-five. The course of instruction lasts two ECONOMY—EDGINGS years, when graduates have the privilege of choos- mg from among the various public services sup- plied from this school, the particular branch they wish to enter. The school was reorganized in 1852, under the title of Ecole Impériale Polytechnique. ECONOMY, a Socialist village of Pennsylvania, I-on the right bank of the Ohio, about 17 miles from Pittsburgh. The settlement was planted in 1825 by immigrants from Germany. The inhabitants own everything in common—3,500 acres of land, up- wards of 100 houses, with a church, a school, a museum, and manufactories of wool, cotton, and silk. ECORCHE, a figure in which the muscles are represented, stripped of the skin, for purposes of .artistic study. From a portion of the figure, the upper muscles are also removed, so as to exhibit *th se which lie nearer to the bone. COUTES, in military operations, connected with siege works, are listening places. They are -small galleries, excavated at regular distances, and going out beneath and beyond the glacis, towards the lines and batteries of the besiegers. Their purpose is to enable the garrison to hear and estimate the works being carried on by the sappers =and miners of the enemy. ECTROPION, an everted condition of an eyelid, in consequence of which it does not cover the globe of the eye. It is capable of being remedied by a slight surgical operation. ECTROTIC, a term applied to methods of treatment which aim at preventing the develop- ment of a disease. ECTYPOGBAPHY, a method of etching, in which the lines are raised on the plate, in place of being sunk into it. ECTYPUM, a cast in relief of an ornamental de- sign, produced from a mold. ECUADOR (Republica del Ecuador). For its location, history, topography, climate, productions, political and social condition, and earlier statistics, -see Britannica, Vol. VII, pp. 644-649. According to the latest ofiicial statistics the area of the Re- public is 248,370 square miles, divided into 15 prov- mces and two territories, with a population of 1,220,000; 100,000 whites, 300,000 mixed, and 800,- 000 Indians, besides an unknown number of un- civilized Indians. The capital, Quito, has a popula- tion of 50,000. Other chief cities are Guayaquil, with .:a population of 40,000; Cuenca, 30,000; Riobamba, 18,000, and Latacunga, 10,000. The religion of the Republic, according to the constitution, is Roman Catholic, to the exclusion of every other. Primary education is gratuitous and obligatory. There is a university at Quito, and university bodies in Guenca and Guayaquil. There are 37 secondary schools, and 856 primary schools, with about 60,- 000 pupils. There are also a military school, com- mercial schools, and technical schools. The revenue of the Republic for 1889-90 was 4,252,- 522 sucres, and the expenditures for the same eriod 4,429,246 sucres. The public debt is $18,- 523,400. More than one-half the revenue is derived from customs duties on imports at the port of Guayaquil, the amount received from this source -during 1889 being 2,477,543 sucres. Although the national convention of 1884 determined that the standing army should consist of but 1,600 men, the ofiicial statement for 1889 places the number actually in service at 3,000. The national guard consists of 80,000 men. The exports from Ecuador in 1889 amounted to 12,000,000 sucres, of which the chief articles were: cocoa,valued at 5,400,000 sucres ;India-rubber,189,000 -sucres; hides, 195,000 sucres; cotfee, 590.000 sucres; ‘vegetable ivory, 210,000 sucres; precious metals, 605 810,000 sucres. There are no trustworthy statistics of imports. The foreign commerce is chiefly with Great Britain. The roads of the country are mostly bridle-roads, although a few cart-roads have been established in the interior. Only one railway is in course of con- struction, running from Duran (opposite Guaya- quil) to Chimbo, a distance of about 50 miles. The total length of telegraphs is about 1,200 miles. EDBROOK, WILLOUGHZBY J., an American archi- tect, born in 1843. In 1860 he became an appren- tice to his father, a contractor’ and builder, and de- voted himself to the study of architecture. The following year he went into business for himself, and soon became prominent as an architect. He is city commissioner of buildings of Chicago, Ill., and on April 13, 1891, became Supervising Architect of the United States Treasury. EDDY, THOMAS (1758-1827), an American philan- thropist. In 1779 he settled in New York and be- came a merchant, but failed in 1784. In 1790 he entered the insurance business and soon made a large fortune. He was active in the establishment of a penitentiary system, and was director of the first building for four years. He became a governor of the New York hospital in 1793, and in 1815 was one of the founders of the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum. He labored for the construction of the Erie Canal, and was one of the originators of the New York Savings Bank, and also of the New York Bible Society. He wrote a work on the State Prison of New York. EDDYSTONE, a group of gneiss rocks, daily sub- merged by the tide in the English Channel, nine miles ofi the Cornish coast, and 14 miles south-south- west of Plymouth breakwater. The rocks lie in lati- tude 500 10' 54" N ., and longitude 4° 15' 53" E., and have 12 to 150 iathoms water around. These rocks are the site of the light-house which bears their name. EDEN, a river rising in the east of YVestmore- land, in the Pennine Chain. It runs north-north- west through the east of \Vestmoreland and Cum- berland, past Appleby and Carlisle, and ends in a fine estuary at the upper part of the Solway Firth, after a course of 65 miles. EDENTON, a county-seat of Chowan county, N. C., and a port of entry on Edenton Bay, which opens into Albemarle Sound. EDGARTOVVN, a port of entry and county-seat of Dukes county, Mass. It is on 1\Iartha’s Vineyard, and has a small safe harbor. EDGECUMBE. 1. A bay in the coast of Australia, lies within the province of Queensland, near lati- tude 200 S. and lon itude 1480 E. It is sheltered on every side but tie north, its east barrier ter- minating in Cape Gloucester. 2. A mountain in Alaska marks the northwest point at the mouth of Norfolk Sound which connects the metropoli- tan settlement of New Archangel on the island of Sitka with the open ocean. It rises from the water’s edge an almost perfect cone. which during nearly the whole year is capped with snow. EDGEHILL, an elevation near the village of Keinton, \Varwickshire, Eng, where the first great battle of the civil war was fought on Sunday, Oct. 23, 1642, between the Royalist forces under Charles and the Parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex. The Royalists were defeated, and after the battle 4,000 men lay slain at the foot of Edgehill, most of whom were Royalists. EDGEBTON, a city of Rock county, TWis, 25 miles southeast of Madison. EDGINGS, a name given by gardeners to the bor- derings of walks in gardens and lawns. They are sometimes made of stone and not infrequently of 606 wire-work; but for many purposes the best edgings are formed of low 'growing plants. EDICTAL CITATION, or INTIMATION. By the for- mer practice of Scotland, where the party to be cited before a civil court was out of Scotland the citation required to be given by a messenger-at-arms mak- ing proclamation at the market-cross of Edinburgh and at the pier and shore of Leith. But the prac- tice in this matter was altered by the so-called judi- cature act (6 Geo. IV, c. 120), and the subsequent statute, 13 and 14 Vict., c. 36, s. 22, which enacted that services against persons forth of Scotland should be done by delivery of copies at the record oifice of the keeper of the records of the court of session. Abstracts of the copies delivered to the keeper are ordered to be recorded by him, and to be printed periodically at the end of each successive fourteen days, and the record is to be at all times open for inspection. In criminal cases, the old forms still remain unaltered. EDINBOROUGH, a village of Erie county, Pa., containing a State normal school. EDINBURGH, a village of Johnson county, Ind., on Blue River. It has good water-power, hominy- mills, and a starch factory. EDINBURGH, a small village of Grundy county, Mo. It contains Grand River College. EDINBURGH, ALFRED ERNEST ALBERT, DUKE or, second son of Queen Victoria, born at \Vindsor Castle in 1844, and entered the navy in 1858. The crown of Greece was ofiered to him in 1862, but he declined it. In 1866 he entered the House of Lords as first Duke of Edinburgh. In 1867 he visited Aus- tralasia, India, China, and Japan. In 1868 he was wounded by O’Farrell, a Fenian, who was subse- quently executed. In 1874 he married Marie Alex- androvna, daughter of the Czar Alexander II. In 1886 he was appointed admiral in command of the Mediterranean squadron, with which in 1888, he visited some of the chief continental capitals. He received, in the latter year, the honorary rank of general of infantry in the German army, and was invested by the queen-regent of Spain with the or- der of the Golden Fleece. EDISON, Tnouas ALVA, an American inventor, born in Alva, Ohio, Feb. 11, 1847. At the age of 12 he became a newsboy on the Grand Trunk line, and later printed the “Grand Trunk Herald,” which he sold with his other papers. Subsequently a station- master taught him telegraph operating. His first invention was an automatic repeater, by which a message could be transferred from one wire to an- other without the aid of an operator. In 1864 he conceived his duplex telegraph, and in 1872 this system was successful. In 1871 he invented the printing telegraph for gold and stock quotations. Among his later inventions are his system of du- plex telegraphy developed into quadruplex and sextuplex transmission; the carbon telephone transmitter; the microtasirneter; the acrphone; the megaphone; the phonograph, and the phono- meter. His attention has been given for some time to the development of electric lighting, and he perfected the incandescent lamp. He also solved the problem of the general distribution of electric- ity, like gas, and his system is now in general use. In 1878 Union gave him the degree of Ph. D., and the same year the French government made him a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. EDISTO, a river of South Carolina. It flows through the southwest part of the State, being formed near Branchville of the North Edisto and the South Edisto, and entering the Atlantic by two arms respectively named from the two confiuents. Edisto also designates the island which separates those two arms. The stream is navigable for 100 EDICTAL CITATION—EDUCATIONW miles upwards, and its mouth is about 20 miles ta the southwest of Charleston. EDMONDS, FRANCIS W. (1806-63), an American artist. He was a bank cashier in Hudson and New York until 1855, studying in the mean time at the National Academy of Design. He was elected an associate in 1838, then a trustee, and in 1840 he be- came an academician. He studied in Europe, and later was instrumental in the establishment of the New York gallery of fine arts. Among his produc- tions are: Barnyard, Sewing Girl, The City and Country Beaux, The Penny Paper, Vesuvius and Flor- ence, and The Sleepy Studmt. EDMONDS, JOHN Wonrn (1799-1874), an Ameri- can jurist. He began the practice of law in Hud- son, N. Y., in 1820, and later became State recorder. In 1831 he was a member of the State assembly and in 1832-36 of the State Senate. In 1836-38 he was on a special mission among the Indians for the Govern- ment, and on his return resumed the practice of law. In 1843 he became one of the State-prison in- spectors. and subsequently was instrumental in many important reforms in prison discipline. He was made a circuit court judge in 1845, a jud e of the State Supreme Court in 1847, and judge o the court of appeals in 1852. He was converted.to the doctrines of spiritualism in 1851, and later pub- lished books on this subject as well as on law. EDMONSTONE ISLAND, an outpost, as it were, of the Delta of the Ganges toward the Bay of Ben- gal, situated at the mouth of the Hoogly, the most westerly arm of the great river above mentioned, in latitude 210 32’ N ., and longitude 88° 20’ E. EDMONTON, a large village in the northeast of Middlesex, near the Ken, seven miles north-north- east of London. Population of parish (1871), 13,- 859. It contains many villas of London merchants, etc. Charles Lamb is buried in the churchyard here. Edmonton is connected with Cowper’s hu- morous poem of John Gilpin. EDMORE, a railroad county, Mich., 33 miles north of Ionia. EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN, an American statesman, born in 1828. He received a public school education and the instruction of a private tutor; studied and practiced law; was a member of the Vermont legislature in 1854, ’55,’57, ’58, and ’59, serving three years as speaker; was a member of the State Senate, and its presiding oflicer ro tem- pore in 1861-62; was appointed to the Unite States Senate as a Republican to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Solomon Foot, and took his seat April 5, 1866; was elected by the legislature for the remainder of the term ending March 4, 1869, and has since been successively reélected four times. He was a member of the Electoral Commission of 1877. His term of service would expire March 3, 1893; but in consequence of impaired health he tendered his resignation as Senator in April, 1891, to take effect Nov. 1, ensuing. EDi\IUND’S (ST.) HALL, Oxford, derives its name from St. Edmund, archbishop of Canterbury in the reign of Henry III. As early as 1269, it ap- pears to have been purchased by the canons of Osney, and devoted to purposes of education. On the dissolution of religious houses under Henry VIII, it fell into the hands of two citizens of Ox- ford, who sold it to \Villiam Denyse, provost of Queen’s College. The provost devised it to his college, and that society accordingly now nominates the principal of St. Edmund’s Hall. EDUCATION, SECONDARY, or that which inter- venes between the primary and the higher, is in America afforded by grammar and high schools, or by academies. The primary design of these in- stitutions is to fit students to enter upon col- junction in Montcalm l EDWARDS—EGAN legiate studies, and thus relieve well—equipped col leges from the incumbrance of fitting-schools. In addition to high schools and academies there are many private institutions that afford secondary ed- ucation, and many of the colleges have found it necessary to establish preparatory departments. EDWVARDS, AMELIA BLANDFORD, an English writer of fiction and Egyptologist, born in 1831. She early became proficient in music, and was in- clined to embrace that art, but being drawn into literature she soon became known to the world by her novels. Barbara’s History was published in 1864. Lord Brackenbarz, which appeared in 1873, has been five times translated. Her books of travel have also attained great popularity. Of these, Untroelolen Peaks and Unfrequentecl Valleys was published in 1873, and was followed in 1877 by A Thousand Miles Up the Nile. As an archaeologist she has written many valuable articles for leading re- views and magazines. It was largely due to her exertions that the Egyptian exploration fund was founded in 1883. During the winter of 1889-90 she lectured in the United States. Columbia College has conferred upon her the honorary degree of L.H.D. At the present writing, 1891, she is en- g)aged upon the revision of Wilson’s Egypt in the ast. EDWARDS, BELA BATES (1802-1852), an Ameri- can clergyman. He was licensed to preach in 1830. From 1828 to 1833 he was assistant secretary of the American Education Society. He was made pro- fessor of Hebrew in Andover Theological Seminary in 1837, and in 1848 was elected associate professor of sacred literature. In 1828-42 he was editor of the “American Quarterly Register ;” in 1833-35 of the “American Quarterly Observer ;” in 1835-38 of the “American Biblical Repository,” and in 1844- 52 of the “Bibliotheca Sacra.” He wrote several works on miscellaneous subjects. EDWARDS, J O1\*ATHAN, JR. (17-15-1801), an American theologian. He received a license to preach in 1766; was a tutor at Princeton College from 1767 to 1769, when he became pastor of the so- ciety in White Haven, Conn.; was made pastor of the church at Colebrook in 1796, and in 1799 be- came president of Union College. He wrote many important works on theological subjects. EDWARDS, JUSTIN (1787-1853), an American clergyman. He was ordained in 1812; became a member of the executive committee of the New England Tract Society, and in 1821 became cor- responding secretary. He was prominent in the organization in Boston of the “American Society for the Promotion of Temperance,” in 1825. He was for a while pastor of a new church in Boston, but re- signed in 1830 to devote the next six years to the cause of temperance. From 1836 to 18-12 he was president of the Andover Theological Seminary, when he became secretary of the American and Foreign Sabbath Union. The last few years of his life were spent in writing on religious topics. EDWARDS, D/IATILDA BARBARA BETHAM, an English novelist, born at Westerfield, Sufiolk, in 1836._ She began to write at an early age, and has %1bl1shed The Whz'z‘e House by the Sea; Doctor Jacob; itt ; A Winter/w'ith the Swallows in Algeria; A Year in estern France, and Mrs. Puneh’s Letters. EDVVARDS, NINIAN (1775-1833), a United States Senator. He was admitted to the bar in Kentucky in 1798, and in Tennessee the following year. He was appointed judge of the general court of Ken- tucky, judge of the circuit court in 1803, of the court of appeals in 1806, and chief justice of the State two years later. From 1809 to 1818 he was governor of the Territory of Illinois, and from 1818 till 1824 was a United States Senator from the State 607 of Illinois. From 1826 to 1830 he was again gover- nor of Illinois. EDWARDSVILLE, the county-seat of Madison county, Ill., on the Cahokia Creek, 19 miles north- east of St. Louis, Mo. ‘ EELEE, a river of Central Asia, 600 miles in length, rising on the north side of the Thian-shan Mountains, and entering Lake Balpash. EELEE, ELE, ILE, GOOLDJA, or KULJA, for- merly a town of the Chinese empire on the river Ili. Chinese criminals were banished to this place, which contained barracks, granaries and mosques. In 1868 insurgent Dungans massacred the inhabi- tants, destroyed the buildings and the place has not been rebuilt. EEL RIVER, a stream of Indiana about 100 miles in length, which rises in Allen county, and flows southwest into the lVabash at Logansport. There is another river in this State bearing the name and of about the same length. It rises in Boone county and enters the west fork of lVhite River in Greene county. EELS in paste, vinegar, etc., are animalcules (Infusoria) of the family l'ibriom'clze. When at rest they appear like very minute hairs, or bits of very fine thread. Some of them wind themselves about in a spiral form when they move. The species are numerous, and they occur in almost all vegetable substances beginning to undergo decay, which they hasten. See Britannica, ‘'01. IX, p. 98, note. EFFARE, or EFFRAYE, in heraldry, signifies that the animal to which it refers is to be represented as rearing on its hind-legs, as if it were frightened or enraged. EFFECT, the general impression produced on the mind by the first sight of a picture or other work of art, or the impression which it produces when seen from so great a distance as to render the de- tails invisible. The term has reference both to design and coloring, which, if correctly indicated, may be judged of with perfect confidence before either has been completed in detail. EFFENDI, a title of honor among the Turks, be- stowed upon civil dignitaries and persons of various ranks, in contradistinction to the title of Aga, borne by courtiers and military men. EFFERVESCENCE. Nearly all gases are more or less soluble in water, the amount of solubility depending on various conditions of pressure and temperature. The lower the temperature and the greater the pressure, the greater the solubility of a gas, so that when the temperature of such a solution is raised, or the pressure lowered, the gas escapes in small bubbles, giving rise to the phenomenon effervescence. EFFINGHAM, a city and county-seat of Effing- ham county, Ill., 199 miles southwest of Chicago. It is engaged in the manufacture of brick. EFFLORESCENCE, a term applied to the ap- pearance of a white incrustation on the walls of buildings, or when a salt loses its water of crystal- lization, and presents a white powdery appearance on the surface. Common washing-soda exposed to the air affords a good illustration of this phenom- enon. EFT, a term of Anglo-Saxon origin, applied both to lizards and newts, which, notwithstanding the important difierences between them, were until recently confounded even by naturalists. In works of natural history, the term eft is now used as syn- onymous with new‘. EGAN, PIERCE (1772-18-19), the author of many works, including Bo.z~iana and Life in London. His son Pierce Egan, the younger (181-l-80),wrote many novels for “ Reynolds’ Miscellany ” and the “ Lon- don Journal.” 608 EGERIA, the name of the Nymph or Camena, from whom, according to the legend, King Numa received the ritual of public worship which he es- tablished in Rome. The grove where Numa met the goddess to receive her instructions was dedi- cated by him to the Camenae. EGG, or Exec, an island 12 miles off the west coast of Inverness-shire, and eight miles southwest of the south point of Skye. It is 4% miles long by 2% broad. It consists chiefly of trap, which in the north alternates with sandstone and limestone, the latter rocks containing oo'litic fossils, carbon- ized wood and coal. EGGA, a large town of the Soudan, Africa, Yaruba country, situated on the right bank of the Niger, in latitude 8O 43’ north, longitude 6O 20’ east. Its streets are narrow; the houses are principally huts, built of clay, the walls smooth, and stained with indigo. Great quantities of narrow cotton cloth, generally dyed blue, are manufactured here. The population is partly Mohammedan and partly Pagan. See Britannica, Vol. XXII, p. 279. EGGAR MOTH, the name of certain species of moth, of the genus Lasioccmnpa, allied to the silk- worm moth (see Britannica, Vol. IV, plate XXX. Fig. 26). One species (L. tri_foZ’ii), of auniform foxy ocherous color, with wings expanding about two inches, produces a caterpillar as thick as a swan’s quill, hairy and ocherous brown. EGG-BIRD (H ydrochelidon fuliginosum, or Sterna fuliyinosa), a bird of the gull family, sometimes called the Soorv TERN (see TEEN’ in Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 189). It is larger than the common tern of the British shores; has a long, slender, nearly straight, compressed, sharp bill; very long, narrow, and pointed wings, and a long, deeply forked tail; the general color is glossy black 011 the upper parts, except the forehead and the edges of the wings, which, with the under parts, are white. It abounds in the ‘Vest Indian seas. The nest of the egg-bird is merely a little excavation in the sand, and usually contains three eggs, which are fully two inches long, of a pale-cream color, spar- ingly marked with light brown and purple tints. The eggs are esteemed delicious, and form an ob- ject of profitable adventure in the months of March, April and May, to the crews of numerous small vessels, fitted out from Kingston, Havana, and other \Vest Indian ports. EGGLESTON, EDWARD, an American author, born in 1837. He became a Methodist preacher in 1856, and later held pastorates at St. Peter’s, St. Paul, Stillwater and Winona. In 1866 he was as- sociate editor of the “ Little Corporal,” a children’s paper, published in Evanston, Ill.; in 1867-70 was editor of the Chicago “ Sunday-School Teacher ;” in 1870-71 was editor of the “New York Independent,” and in 1871-72 was editor of “ Hearth and Home.” From 1874 to 1879 he was pastor of the Church of Christian Endeavor, in Brooklyn. His novels de- pict early life in Indiana, and have been widely read. EGG-PLANT (Solcmwn melongena), an annual usually less than two feet high, with stem partially woody; fruit resembling an egg in shape only, being purple, and attaining very large dimensions under good culture in a proper climate, as that of New Jersey. The fruit is much used as a food, not only in the tropical countries of which the plant is a native, but in warm countries generally, into which it has been introduced. EGHAM, a village of Surrey, England, on the right bank of the Thames, eight miles south-south- east of Windsor and 21 west of London. In the vi- cinity are Runnymede, Cooper’s Hill and the Royal Holloway College for Women, opened by the Queen in 1886. Population of parish, 9,000. EGERIA-—EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND ‘ EGILSSON, SVEINBJCRN (1791-1852), an Icelandic antiquarian and lexicographe'r. In 1819 he became assistant in the Latin school at Bassastardir, and in 1846 was called to the rectorate at Reikjavik. He gained his reputation through his dictionary of the words used in the Old Norse poetry, his Latin translation of the sagas of the Norse kings, and his Icelandic translation of Homer. EGMONT, PORT, on the northern coast of lVest Falkland Island, between Saunders and Kappel islands. It has good anchorage and water for ves- sels, but no provisions can here be obtained. EGOISM, an ethical term, used in the sense of selfishness ; it is especially opposed to altruism. The word is sometimes used to denote a metaphys- ical system of subjective idealism, in which the ego is the sole reality. EGREMONT, a market-town of Cumberland, England, on the River Eden, six miles southeast of Whitehaven. It contains mines of iron ore. On an eminence stand the ruins of Egremont Castle, the legend of whose horn forms the subject of a poem by Wordsworth. From 1749 till 1845 Egremont gave the title of Earl to the VVyndham family. Population, 5,976. EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND, a society founded in 1883, under the presidency of Sir Erasmus lVilson, for the purpose of historical in- vestigation in Egypt, conducted in a scientific manner, with the object of solving some of the many important questions which await the result of excavation. Special attention has been directed to all that can bear on the history of the sojourn and exodus of the Israelites, and the early sources of Greek art. The work is conducted on the prin- ciple of careful examination of all details and pres- ervation of the objects found. These objects are of great interest in illustrating comparative art by the influences of Egyptian, Greek, and Syrian styles on one another, the technical processes of metal work, metrology, and the ceramic arts. The antiquities found are divided between the National Museum of Egypt, the British Museum, the Boston‘ Museum of Fine Arts, and various local museums in England and the colonies. Annual volumes are published, giving the results of each season’s work with maps and plates. In the spring of 1890 M. Edouard N aville, on behalf of the Society, made a short archaeological tour in Lower Egypt and the Fayum, with a view to exploring the mounds of Ahnas-el-Medineh, the I-leracleopolis of the Greeks. A concession of this site has been granted to the Egypt Exploration Fund by the Egyptian gov- ernment. The work of excavation commenced in 1891. The site of the ancient city of I-leracleopolis, capital of the Heracleopolitan nome, is identified with the “Hanes ” of the Bible; its Egyptian name was “Hakhen-en-Khonsu,” and we read of it in As- syrian inscriptions as “ I-Iininsi.” I-leracleopolis was the capital city of the obscure IXth and Xth Dy- nasty kings, of whose history little or nothing is known, and it is hoped that the present excavations will lead to the recovery of many lost links in Egyp- tian, Hebrew, Greek and Assyrian history. The mounds which entomb the ancient city are of great size, and its necropolis is very extensive, and practically unworked. In addition to its work of exploration, the society has during the year 1890 had a new and important undertaking in preparation--namely, an archaeolog- ical survey of Egypt. For this purpose officers of the Fund have been dispatched to Lower Egypt, in order to map, plan, photograph, and copy al the most important sites, sculptures, paintings, and in- scriptions yet extant in the province of Minieh. After completing this work another district will be EGYPT—-EIFFEL TOWER ‘ selected; the work to be carried on from province to province, till a faithful record of the fast-perish- ing monuments of Egyptian antiquity shall be se- cured. EGYPT. For the geography, climate, produc- tions, government, history, and earlier statistics of Egypt, see Britannica, Vol. VII, pp. 700-788. The historical record in Vol. VII closed in 1877, at which time Ismail I was the reigning Khedive. Under pressure of the English and French governments Ismail was forced to abdicate, June 26, 1879, and his son, Mohamed Tewfik, succeeded to the throne. From 1879 to 1883 two controllers-general, appointed by France and England, had considerable powers in the direction of the affairs of the country. In the summer of 1882, in consequence of a military rebel- lion, England intervened, subdued the uprising, and restored the authority of the Khedive. In this intervention England was not joined by France, and as a result the Khedive signed a decree, Jan. 18, 1883, abolishing the joint control of England and France. In the place of the control the Khedive, on the recommendation of England, appointed an English financial adviser, without whose concur- rence no financial decision can be taken. The financial adviser has a seat in the council of ministers, but he is not an executive oificer. 609 crops in 1888 was in feddans: Wheat, 1,298,310; maize and durrah, 688,524; clover, 1,200,500, beans, 1,021,250; barley, 584,- 159; lentils, 110,183; rice, 161,963; vegetables, potatoes, etc., 64.- 250; sugar-cane, 53,113. The imports for the year 1888 amounted to £E7 738,343, and the exports to .£E10,-118,213. Egy_ t has a rai way system of a total length of 1.109 miles 165 mi es double and 944 single. The length of the lines work- ing in 1889 was 956 miles. The telegraphs belonging to the Egyptian government were, at the opening of the ear 1889 of a total length of 3,172 miles, the length of the wire bein 5,423 miles. , Telephonic connection has also been established between Cairo and Alexandria. Tewfik Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt, died Jan. 7, 1892. He had been suffering from influenza, which developed into congestion of the lungs. This was complicated with a cardiac affection, and he succumbed. Tewfik Pasha was born Nov. 19, 1852, and was the oldest son of the late Ismail Pasha, who he suc- ceeded as Khedive of Egypt by a decree of the Ottoman Empire, June 25. 1879, upon his father’s forced abdication of the vice-royalty. He was in- vested August 1-1, and was the sixth ruler in the dynasty of Mohammed Ali Pasha, dating from 1806. The history of this dynasty was the first Mohammedan one based on primogeniture. Per- sonally the Khedive was a quiet, scholarly, affable and sincere man He married Jan. 18, 1873, Princess Emineh, and had two sons and two daugh- ters. His older son, Prince Abbas, born July 14, 187-1, succeeded him and took possession of the throne Jan. 16, 1892. Tewfik Pasha was devoted to his people in the cholera epidemic of 1883, visiting the sick and dying in company with his wife, and against the remonstrances of his Ministers. EHNINGEN, a town of \Viirtemberg, Germany, situated 21 miles S.S.E. of Stuttgart, is the ren- dezvous of a great number of peddlers, who traverse the neighboring districts for the purpose of dispos- ing of their wares. Population, about 6,000. EHNINGER, JOHN IVHETTON, an American artist, born in 1827. He studied in Europe in 1848-- 19, and again in 1851-52. Besides drawing in out- line, pencil and India ink, he has produced many popular paintings, principally illustrative of New England rural life. EHRENFELD, a busy town of Prussia, two miles west of Cologne, manufactures glass-wares, rail- way fittings, chemicals and bricks; it has also flour-mills and machine-shops. Population, 18,243. EICHIVALD, CHARLES Enw.-ran, a Russian nat- uralist, born at Mitau, Russia, July -1, 1795, died at St. Petersburg, Nov. 10, 1876. He studied at Ber- lin and Vienna. In 1810 he made a geological jour- ney through Italy, Sicily, and Algeria. His geog- nostic, botanical, and zoélogical researches were unquestionably of more service to Russia than those of any man since Pallas. EIFFEL TOWER, an immense iron structure designed and built by M. Eiffel, in Paris, France, for use in the great Paris Exposition in 1889. It was the outcome of a series of investigations under- taken by M. Eiffel in 1885 with the view of ascer- taining the extreme limits to which the metallic piers of viaducts could be safely pushed, this spe- cial line of investigation having reference first to a proposed bridge with piers 400 feet in height, and of 1-10 feet base. The general plan of the great tower speedily followed, and in its elaboration care was taken to give to the angles of the tower such curves as would best enable it to resist the transverse effects of wind pressures, without the use of diagonal bracings connecting the members of those angles. The Egyptian ministry is at present com posed of six mem- bers, among whom the departmental work is distributed as follows: 1. President-—Interi0r and Finance: 2. Justice; 3. War: 4. Public Works; 5. Instruction; 6. Foreign Affairs. On May 1, 1883, an organic law was promulgated by the Khedive creatinga number of representative institutions, based on universal suffrage. with a view of carrying on the government of the country in a more constitutional manner. hese institutions included a legislative council, a general assembly, and provincial boards. The_ legislative council is aconsultative body in matters of legislation, to which all general laws are submitted for examination; but the government is not obliged to act on its advice. The functions of the two other institutions are also of a limited character; but no new direct personal or land tax can be imposed withcut the consent of the general assembly, which has to be summoned every two years. ‘Prior to 1884 the sovereign of Egypt claimed rule over ter- ntories extenmng almost to the Equator. As a result of the rebellion of the Sudanese, the Sudan rovinces were practi- cally abandwned ( .nough still nominal y Egyptian), and Wady _alia, ab ut 80’1 miles up the N ih from Cairo, has been pro- visionally agreed up W as bllB baur dary of Egypt to the south. At the preseat ‘ime Egypt ,>rop, 1‘ extends from W ady Halfa, 21° 40’ lat. N., to the Me_d1te ranean. The total area, includ- ing the ear: in the Libyan Dtsert, the region between the Ni e and the Red Sea. and El-A1'1sh in Syria, is 400,000 square miles; but the culti ated and se*t-ed area, that is, the Nile Valley and Delta, covers 11 y 12,176 square miles. The popu- lation, according to the last_ fiicial census, which was taken in 1882, was 6,83 .81. The principal towns with their popula- tions Were: A 1L, 368,108; Alexandru 208,755; Dam1etta, 34,046; Tantab. ,725; Mansourah, 26,70-1; Zagazig, 19,046; Rosetta, 1 1,671; Port Said, 16,560: Suez, 10,913. The estiin ted revenue for 1891 amounted to 819,100,000, and the expen' L ures to 8-’. .600,000. The Egyptian debt on Jan. 1, 1891. amounted to $534,688,800. The latest ofiicial educational statistics are for the year 1887, at which time there were in Egypt 6,639 elementary schools, and 7,241 teachers. Education is not compulsory, and the teachers are paid by fees. There are also 17 schoo s supplorted by the administration of the Watefs, with 2,000 u i s. P Slept. 19,1882, the whole of the Egyptian army was disbanded by khedivial decree. In December of the same year the or- ganization of a new army \\ as intrusted to a British general officer, who was given the title of Sirdar. There are about 60 English officers serving at present in the Egyptian army. The army has a total strength of 9,400. _ Since the rebellion in 1882, an English army of occupation has remained in Egypt. Its strength on January 1, 1890, was 3,800. The chief productions of Egypt are cotton, sugar and cereals. The agricultural year includes three seasons or crops. The leading winter crops, sown in November and liarvested in May and June, are cereal produce of all kinds, the principal summer crops, sown in March and h_arvested in ctober and November, are cotton, sugar and rice; the au- tumn crops, sown in Julyr and gathered ~in September and October, are rice, sorgho (a sort of maize).and vegetables enerally. In 1888 thei'e‘svere 965,769 feddans (1 feddanequ_als 508 acres) devoted to the cultivation of cotton, yielding 2,900,000 kantars. The area devoted to the cultivation of other The Eiffel Tower,therefore. has been well described as con- sisting essentially of a iyi-amid composed of four great curved columns, indepen ent of each other. and connected together only by_belts of girders at the different stones.until the columns unite toward the top OI the tower, where they 2—2 610 are connected by ordinary bracing. Iron and not steel was used in the construction throughout. There are four independent foundations, each standing at one angle of a square, about 330 feet on a side; the two piers nearest the Seine were known as numbers 1 and 4, those ad- joining the Champ de Mars as 2 and 3. On the site of the two foundations 2 and 3, the bed of gravel was met with 23 ft. below the surface; the thickness at this oint is about 18 ft. The conditions for obtainin a good oundation were therefore extremely favorable, an the piers were built upon abed of cement concrete 7 ft. in thickness. The two piers nearest the Seine required different treatment. The bed of sand and gravel was only met with about 40 ft. below the sur- face: that is to say, about 16 feet lower than the mean water level of the Seine, and it was overlaid by soft and ermeable deposits. Excavations were pushed, by means 0 caissons and com ressed air, to a depth of about 52 ft. below the sur- face, an it was found that, under the gravel, variable de- posits of fine sand, formed of limestone and sandstone, had accumulated, having been left there by the water after the clay had been washed out in hollows by the stream. Owing to this there existed a good and incompressible bed about EIFFEL TOWER. 10 ft. thick under the western pier on the Grenelle side, and nearly 20 feet thick under the north pier on the Paris side. Apart, therefore, from the difiiculties in sinking for the foundations, the conditions were very satisfactory. The mode of sinking adopted was that of compressed air, with iron caissons 49 ft. 2 in. long by 19 ft. 8 in. wide; four such caissons were required for each pier, and they were sunk to adepth of-10 ft. below the surface, or 16 ft. lower than the Seine mean water level. The tower terminates at a height of 896 feet above the ground, with a latform about 53 feet square. The width of the column at t is level is 33 feet, the gallery being carried by brackets which are sufficiently wide to afford a consider- able area of platform. It is almost unnecessary to state that this space is securely protected by a railing and glass to pre- vent any voluntary or involuntary catastrophe. Above the latform rises the campanile, which is of the design shown; 1n the lower part of thislis established a spacious and very completely fitted laboratory, closed to tie public and in- tended for the prosecution of scientific research and obser- vation. Four latticed arched girders rise diagonally from each corner of the lower part of the campanile and un1te at a height of about 54 feet above the platform. By means of a spiral staircase get another gallery is reached about 19 feet in diameter, an surrounding the lantern which crowns the edifice and brings the height of the structure to 984 feet. Above this rises the great lightning conductor. Within the lantern, which is 22 feet high, will be placed a very powerful electric light, placed within a lantern of the first order, and - EIFFEL TOWER projecting white, blue, and red beams. Reflectors will throw these beams over Paris, and will help to illuminate the Champ de Mars. ' Provision is made for protecting the structure from the ef- fect of lightning by_ means of cast-iron pipes, 19 inches in diameter, and passing through the water-bearing strata be- low the level of the Seine for a distance of 60 feet. At one end these pipes are turned vertically, and are connected with the iron-work of the tower. There are eight pipes in all, two for each column. The total weight of wrought and cast iron that has been used in this unique structure is 7,300 tons, not including the weight of the caissons employed in the foundations nor the machinery installed for working the elevators. The total weight of iron employed in the structure itself is 7,300 tons. The weight of rivets is 450 tons, and their total number 2.500,- 000. Of this uantity 800,000 were riveted up by hand on the tower itself, uring the work of fixing together the finished pieces which had been completed at M. Eiffel’s establish- ment. The number of pieces of iron of different forms is 12,- 000, and each of these required a special drawing; there were thus no less than 12,000 working drawings sent into the work- shop, to say nothing of the innumerable sketches and plans prepared before the final details were decided upon. The total thrust upon the foundations is 565 tons, not includi the effect of wind, and 875 tons, under a maximum win pressure. The tower is painted of a rich chocolate color, the tone of which is lightened from the base toward the summit. The painting, which was of itself a considerable work, is very effective, especially when lighted by the sun. But little deco- ration has been attempted; it would have been wasted labor and expense. The level of the first story is marked by a bold frieze, on the panels of which, around all four faces of the tower, are inscribed in gigantic letters of gold the names of the famous Frenchmen of the present century who have most contributed to the advancement of science. Above this frieze the four-sided arcade covering the exterior gallery, is elaborately decorated, and considerable exce tion has been taken to this feature as marring the hold an graceful out- line of the tower. A similar arcade encircles the tower at the level of the second story, and the same objection may be raised with regard to it, but with less force, because the great height makes the arcade look insignificant. The slop- mg arches and spandrel fillings which connect the columns of the tower on the four faces beneath the first story are singularly well adapted to the gi antic scale of the wor . There are three systems of e evators to be used in the tower. From the ground to what may be called the first story, where great restaurants will be established, there will be four elevators two of the Otis system of Roux, Combaluzier, and epape, in which the car is elevated by means of a jointed piston, which has been compared to a vertebral column. From this story to the next one, about 400 feet from the ground, the Otis elevators onlv are employed in two of the legs of the tower. The cars of t e French svstem in the two bottom lifts are adapted to carry one hun red passengers each, while the cars of the Otis elevators carry only fifty each, but their speed is double that of the others. The top lift,a vertical distance of 493 feet, is made by elevators on the Edoux system, in which the carriage is worked by an enormous piston. Those w1:o go above this distance to the lantern will have to climb a spiral staircase. The total height of the tower is 984.24 feet, or 300 meters, but the inclined or curved part of the legs considerably in- creases the length of travel of the elevators in these portions, a vertical height therein of 372 feet making an actual length of the curved part of 493 feet. The angle of inclination in this 1portion varies from 54° at the start to about 80° at the finis 1, but the carriages are so hung as to alwa s accom- modate themselves to the varying angle, so that t eir floors will be kept even. The steps leading to the different landing places are made to fold up when the car is traveling. _ The great hydraulic cylinder of the Ot1s elevator, WhlCh is placed in the foot of the tower, per end1cularly to the cross- pieces is 38 inches in diameter an 41 feet lon , while the circulating pipe. valve, and water chest are _al 9 inches in diameter. In this cylinder is a piston fed with water from reservoirs placed on the stage where the vertical portion of the tower commences, or at avertical height of 372 feet above the lower end of the cylinder. The piston rod operates on a carriage bearing guide - wheels and multiply1n pulleys, cables thence connecting with stationary multip yin ul- leys, and the carriage being suspended by six ropes o s eel wire. One of these ropes alone is designed to have suf- ficient strength to bear the carriage full of passengers without breaking. The carriage is partly counterbalanced, and rises or falls twelve feet for one foot movement of the piston. Under the cabin is a safety brake, with the jaws working automatically in case of rupture or of the elongation of one of the ropes. _ The highest structures of ancient times are the pyramids of Old Egy t, the highest and best preserved of which are the gvrami of Cheops. near Ghizeh (450 feet high), and that of hephren (448 feet high). Both of these are less than half as high as the Eiffel tower. Heretofore the highest building 111 Europe was the Cologne cathedral (about 522 feet high , and the highest in America, the Washington Monument about 555 feet high). Both are greatly surpassed in height by the Eiffel tower. >attern and two of theH EIFFEL--EKATERINOGRAD EIFFEL, GUSTAVE, a French engineer, the de- signer and builder of the Eiffel Tower, Paris, born in Dijon, France, in 1832. He made the framework of Bartho1di’s Liberty, and constructed the Grand Vestibule, and the principal fagade of the Paris Ex- position of 1876, a work costing 3,000,000 francs. Another of his principal works is the bridge at Oporto, on the Lisbon railway, one of the finest specimens of engineering skill in Europe; the river is spanned by a magnificent arch 160 meters in horizontal length, and 61 meters high, the arch costing 1,500,000 francs. M. Eiffel also designed the railway viaduct of Garabet over the valley of Truyere, France, costing 3,248,000 francs. In this case the opening of the arch is 165 meters, and the height above the water is 124 meters. He has also constructed several other railway bridges and aque- ducts of note, as the bridges of Szeged, Hungary, 606 meters long, and the bridge at Vienna, Portu- gal, 736 meters long. G-USTAVE EIFFEL. EIFFEL, O1 EIFEL, THE, a barren and bleak plateau of Rhenish-Prussia, located between the rivers Rhine, Moselle and Roer, and showing ex- tensive traces of volcanic activity. Its surface, which ranges at an average altitude of 1.500 to 2,000 feet, is for the most part broadly undulating, and diversified by crater-like depressions and vol- canic peaks and ridges, whilst toward its edges it is seamed by deep, wooded, rocky ravines. Its highest and at the same time most inhospitable parts are in the west and northwest, whence it falls away gradually to the Rhine on the east and to the Moselle on the south. The central portion of the plateau is crossed by a range of basaltic summits, the loftiest in the Eiffel system, including the Hohe Acht (2,494 feet) Nurburg (2,255) and Kellberg (2,211). The ridges of the northwest are connected by the Hohe Venn with the Ardennes. Geologically, the basement of the plateau belongs to the Lower Graywacke of the Devonian formation, with erup- tions of Eiiel limestone, parts of which are rich in 611 fossils. Above this are deposited, with tolerable regularity in a horizontal position, strata of Trias- sic age, containing considerable quantities of me- tallic ores, especially zinc and lead. The Eiffel was for a long period the scene of volcanic activity; zones and islands of basalt are frequent, as also eruptive masses of basaltic lavas, with tufa and pumice. With the exception of the vine and fruit trees on the east and south edges of the plateau, and a little agriculture (up to 1,700 feet), the Eiffel is uncultivated, its rocky soil being too poor and its climate too raw and bleak for anything to grow but heather. EIGHT, PIECE or, a name once popularly given to the Spanish dollar, as being divided into eight reals. EIK: in the legal phraseology of Scotland, an addition made to a document for the purpose of meeting circumstances which have subsequently arisen. EIRE, EYRE, JUSTICES IN (corruption of Latin itinere). By this term, both in England and Scot- land,were the judges of assize formerly designated. Justices in eire were first established in England by the statute of Northampton (1176 A. 1).), in the reign of Henry II. At first, they made the circuit of the kingdom once in seven years; but by Magna Charta, c. 12, the chief Justices are directed to send justices through every county once in the year. The term is still in use in Scotland, where, at the commencement of every circuit, proclama- tion,is made to the lieges to attend the “circuit eire.’ EISENERZ, a small town of Austria, in the north of the province of Styria, 20 miles west-northwest of Bruck. It is worthy of mention only for its con- nection with the Erzberg (ore mountain), at the southern base of which the town lies. This moun- tain, which is about 2,840 feet high, and about five miles in circumference at the base, is literally a solid mass of iron ore, of a quality so rich, that, instead of cutting mines into it and following the metal in veins—which process was formerly adopt- ed here—the top and sides of the rock are quar- ried from the outside, and the ore is then brok- en small, and conveyed to the smelting-house without further preparation. Mines have been worked on this mountain for upwards of 1,000 ears. Y EISENLOHR, Aucusr, German Egyptologist, born at Mannheim, Oct. 6, 1832. He studied the- ology at Heidelberg and Giittingen. and afterwards devoted considerable attention to natural science, especially chemistry. About 1865 he became inter- ested in the study of Egyptian hieroglyphics, and in 1869 became instructor in Egyptology at the University of Heidelberg. Being sent by the Grand Duke of Baden to Egypt, he ascended the Nile to the second cataract, and returned through Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor. In 1872 he was made professor extraordinarius in the Univer- sity of Heidelberg. He has made valuable trans- lations of papyri belonging to the British Mu- seum. EKA, in chemical nomenclature. is prefixed to the name of a known element to indicate a hy- pothetical element supposed to stand next to it in the same group. Thus. gallium. previous to its actual discovery, was provisionally named by Men- delejeff eka-aluminium. EKATERINOGRAD, a town and fortress in the South of Russia, in the Government of Caucasus, situated on the left bank of the Terek, in lat. 400 43' N., and long. 440 3’ E. It is an important military post of the Cossacks. A stone triumphal arch was erected at Ekaterinograd by Catherine 11, in mem- 612 or;’ of Prince Potemkin, who founded the town in 17 7. EKOWE, the capital of the territory of Zululand. EL./EAGN US, a genus of Eleeagnaceae, the oleaster family, of which there are about thirty-five species, all natives of north temperate countries. EZ€€(1.g'r'l/LLS angusti_folia, the oleaster, sometimes called wild olive, is a small spiny tree of the Mediterranean region, hoary with stellate hairs, and is frequently planted for its silvery white foliage and fragrant flowers, ELJEOCABPACEE, a sub - order of Tiliaeeze, mostly East Indian trees. The fruits of some are eaten and the deeply-wrinkled stones, often called olive nuts, are made into beads for necklaces and bracelets in India. EL./EOCOCCA, a genus of Euphorbiaceee, the seeds of some of which yield useful oils. The oil obtained from Elaeooocca oerrueosa is used for food in Japan, notwithstanding considerable acridity. The tree is cultivated in the Mauritius, and the oil is there used only for burning. That obtained from Elas- ocoeea oernicia of China. is used in painting. ELZEODENDRON, a genus of trees of the natural order Celastraceaz, having a 5-partite calyx, 5 petals, a 5-angle disc, 5 stamens, the ovary im- mersed in the disc, and a drupaceous fruit. Elzeodendmn glaucum, anative of Ceylon and the South of India, is sometimes called the Ceylon Tea- tree, from the resemblance of its leaves to those of the tea-shrub. The timber of Elzeoolenolron crocewn, called safi'r-onwoocl at the Cape of Good Hope, is much used there in building and cabinet-making ; it is fine-grained, hard and tough. The fruit of Elaodenclron Knbn, another South African species, is eaten by the colonists. That ofElaeoclendron argon fields an oil similar to olive oil, much used by the oors. ELANET (Elanus), a genus of Falconidze, allied to the kites (see Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 104), which they resemble in many of their characters; but from which they differ in having the short tarsi half covered with feathers, and the claws, except that of the middle toe, rounded beneath. The tail is very little forked. One species (Elanet melan- opterus) is common in Africa, from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope, and is found also in India. Another species is the black-shouldered hawk (Elanet clispar) of America, the northern limit of Which appears to be South Carolina. Both of these feed chiefly on insects, which they catch on the wing, but they also prey on small birds and re tiles. ELASTIC TISSUE, known also as yellow fibrous tissue, derives its name from the remarkable physical property which it possesses of per- mitting its fibers to be drawn out to double their length, and again returning to their original length. It occurs in various ligamentous and other struc- tures of the animal body in which elasticity is required——as, for example, in the vocal chords, the membranes connecting the cartilaginous rings of the trachea, the middle coat of the arteries, the skin, etc. ELATER, a Linnaean genus of coleopterous in- sects, now divided into many genera, and forming the tribe or family Elatervidae. They have a narrow elongated body; the head is in almost all cases in- serted deeply into the thorax; a strong spine on the under part of the thorax at its base fits into a groove; the legs are short and rather slender. They are generally found upon the flowers and leaves of plants, which are their food. See Britan- nica, Vol. VI, p. 132. EL BASSAN, a town of Turkey, in central Albania, 75 miles south-southeast of Scutari, with EKOWE-nLEo§TioN LAWS manufactories of copper and iron-wares. It is the seat of a Greek bishop. Population, 8,000. ELBOW—PIECES: in armor, or condiéres, the metal plates used to cover the junction of the rere- brace and vant-brace, by which the upper and lower half of the arm were covered. An Elbow Gauntlet was a gauntlet of plate reaching to the elbow, adopted from the Asiatics in the 16th cen- tury. @ ELCHINGEN, a village of Bavaria on the left lplalnk of the Danube, about eight miles northeast of m. EL DORADO, city and county-seat of Butler county, Kan., situated on \Valnut River. It has waterworks, gas, and electric li hts, woolen and‘- flour-mills, machine shop, iron oundry, and ex tensive quarries of magnesian limestone. ELDORADO SPRINGS, a popular health re- sort of Missouri, located in the northwestern part of Vernon county. It is a rapidly grow- ing town, its popularity being due to the pres- ence of several springs, whose waters are chalyb- eate. ELDRED, a railroad junction of McKean county, Pa., 24 miles east of Bradford. ELECTION, in theological language, denotes the divine act by which certain individuals are chosen to salvation in Christ. It is defined in the seven- teenth of the thirty-nine articles. ELECTION LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES. Under the Federal Constitution the jurisdiction oi the election laws of the United States extends only to the elective oflicers of the Federal Government These are the President, Vice-President, and mem- bers of the House of Representatives. The State legislatures determine severally the qualifications for voting in those States. All the States except Wyoming restrict the right to vote at general elections to males of 21 years of age and upwards. In Wyoming women have voted on the same terms with men since 1870. They re- quested the constitutional convention to guarantee suffrage to them in 1889. This was done with prac- tical unanimity in convention and at the polls. As Congress declared that it “accepted, ratified and confirmed” this constitution, women have the full right of suffrage in Wyoming. In Kansas women have suffrage on the same terms with men in all municipal elections; and in Delaware municipal suffrage is accorded them in many places, school suffrage being universal throughout the State. In Montana women have the right to vote on questions of local taxation. In Washington Terri- tory women voted generally for five years, and then were excluded by decision of the Territorial Su- preme Court. In adopting a State Constitution» the women were not permitted to vote, and the woman suffrage clause was defeated. The women assert that they were illegally prevented from vot- ing, and have appealed to the United States Su- preme Court. In Utah women voted until excluded by the Edmunds law. In Pennsylvania women can vote on local improvements, by signing or refusing to sign petitions therefor. In New ork women can vote at school elections, at water-works elec- tions, and on questions of paving, grading, draina e, street lighting, and other local improvements. he right to vote at school elections is also accorded to women, on various terms, in Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin. In Arkansas and Missouri women vote (by signing or refusing to sign petitions) on granting liquorr licenses. ‘n1LEc'rIo1v" LAWS 613 QUALIFICATIONS OF VOTERS IN THE SEVERAL STATES. States. Requirements as to Citizenship. Persons Excluded from Suffrage. *5 In In In In Pre- State. County. Town. cinct. Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of United States or 1 year. 8mos.. 30 days 30 days Convicted of treason or other alien who has declared in- crime punishable by impris- tention. onment, idiots, or insane. Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of United States or 1 year. 6mos.. . . . . . . .. lmo... Id1ots,insane, convicted of fel- alien who has declared in- ony, until pardoned. teninon. California . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen by nativity, naturali- 1 year. 90 days ...... .. 30 days Chinese, insane, embezzlers of zation, or treaty of Q,uere- pubhc moneys, convicted of taro. infamous crime. Co1orado...... . . . . . .. Citizen or alien who has de- 6mos.. 90 days . . . . . . .. 10 days Convicted of felony and unre- clared intention 4 months stored to citizenship. ‘ previous to offering to vote. Connecticut-k . . . . . . .. Citizen of United States who 1 year. . . . . . . .. 6mos . . . . . . .. Convicted of any ofiense for can read constitution or which infamous punishment- statutes is inflicted. Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citfigen, anglgpaying county tax 1 year. lmo. .. . . . . . . .. 15 days Idiots, insane, paupers, felons. a er age~ . Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of United States or 1 year. Gmos. . . . . . . .. (a) Insane, under guardianship, alien who has declared in- convicted of felony, or any tention. who has paid capi— infamous crime. tation tax 2 years. Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of the United States.. 1 year. 6mos.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Idiots, insane, convicted of crime punishable by impris- Onment. Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of the United States. times. 30 days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Chinese, Indians.l\Iormons,fel- ’ ons, insane, convicted of brib- ery. Illinois. . . . . . . Citizen of the United States. 1 year. 90 days 30 days 30 days Convicted of crime punishable in penitentiary until pardon- _ ed and restored to rights. Indiana-I . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of United States or 6mos.. . . . . . . .. 60 days‘ 30 days Convicted of crime and distrau- “ alien who has declared in- chised by judgment of the , tention and resided one year court. in United States and 6 months in State. Iowa . . . . . . . .. Citizen of the United States. Gmos. 60 days . . . . . . .. ((1) Idiots, insane, convicted of in- famous crime, United States soldiers and marines not bona fide residents. Kansas..... . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of United States or Gmos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30 days Idiots, insane, convicts,rebels, alien who has declared in- public embezzlers, bribed. tention. Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2yrs"‘.. 1 year. . . . . . . .. 60 days Convicted of robbery, forgery, _ _ counterfeiting or like crime. Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of United States or 1 year. 6mos.. . . . . . . .. 30 days Idiots insane, convicted of alien who has declared in- trcason,embezzlement of pub- tcnlnon. lic funds. all crime punish- able by imprisonment in pen- - itentiary. Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of the United States. Smos. 3mos.. 3mos . . . . . . .. Paupers, persons under guar- _ dianship, Indians not taxed. Marylandi-.... . . . . . .. Citizen of the United States. 1 year. 6mos.. . . . . . . .. 1 day A person over 21 3'@fl1‘S COH- victed of larceny or other 1n- famous crime. unless pardon- ed, persons under guardian- ship. as lunatics or non compos mcntis. Massachusetts-f .. . .. Citizen who can read Constr 1 year. . . . . times. 30 days Paupers CSexeept honorably dis- tution in English, write, and charge U. S. soldiers and has paid tax within 2 years. sailors) and persons under _ _ _ _ guardianship. M1ch1gan-I- . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen or mhabitant who has 3mos.. . . . . . . .. 10 days 10 days Aliens who have not declared declared intention under U. intention 6 months previous S_. laws 6 months before elec- to election. Indians, duelists _ ‘ on. and accessories. MIHDCSOU&+ . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of United States or 4mosI 10 days . . . . . . .. 10 days ConvictedD& treason or felony, alien who has declared in- unless pardoned. persons un- gention, and civilized In- der guardianship or insane. 1ans. Mississippi ....... Citizen of the United States 2yrs 1 year. . . . . . .. 1 year. Insane, Indians not taxed, fel- who can read or understand one, persons who have not 1C()11§§s,;;it11tion after January paid taxes. ‘ ' I ‘Q ‘ u . u MISSOHII+ . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of Umted States or 1 year 60 days 60 days . . . . . .. U.S. soldiers and mar1nespau- alien who has declared in- tention not less than one vear or more than five be- fore ofiering to vote. Previous Residence Required. pers,criminals convicted once until pardoned, felons and violators of suffrage laws con- victed a second time. *Unless there has been one year’s previous residence in the county. 101138- 1And one year’s residence in United States prior to voting. -i-Australian Ballot Law or a modifica_tion of it in (a.)Actual residence in the precmct or district required. O 614 ELECTION LAWS QUALIFICATIONS OF VOTERS IN THE SEVERAL STATES—0ontz'nued. \ Previous Residence Required. States. Requirements as to Citizenship. Persons Excluded from Suffrage In In In In Pre- State. County. Town. cinct. Montana-3-.. .... .. Citizen of the United States . 1 year. 30 days 30 days 30 days Indians, felons not pardoned. Nebraska ..... .. Citizen of United States _or 6mos.. 40 days . . . . . . . . .. 10 days Idiots,insane,convicted of trea- alien who has declared in- son orfelony,unless pardoned. tention thirty days prior to election. _ _ Nevada. ............ .. Citizen of the United States. . 6mos.. 30 days . .. . . . .. . . . . Idiots,insane,convicted of trea- son or felony, unamnestied Con_federates who bore arms against the United States. New Hampshire..... Inhabitant, native or natu- 6mos.. . . . 6mos . . . . Paupers éexcept honorably dis- ralized. charge U S soldiers and sailors) ,persons excused from payiitig taxes at their own re- ques . New Jersey-t ....... .. Citizen of the United States.. 1 year. 5mos.. . Idi0ts,insane persens convicted of crimes U.IlIt:SS ardoned), which exclude t em from being witnesses,which crimes include blasphemy, treason, murder, rape, sodomy, arson, _ _ perjury, etc. New York} ........ .. Citizen who shall have beena 1 year. 4mos. . 30 days Convicted of bribery or any in- citizen for ten days. famous crime, unless pardon- ed, bettors on result of any election at which they offer to vote, bribers for votes and . _ _ the bribed. North Carolina. . . Citizen of the United States. . 1 year. 90 days .......... . . .. . . . . .. Convicted of felony or other in- . _ famous crime. North Dakota . . . . . .. Citizen of the United States, 1 year, 6m0s__ ,, 90 days United States soldiers and sail- alien who has declared in- ors, persons non comros men- te_ntion and civilized Indian* tis, and felons. Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . Citizen of the United States. . 1 year. 30 days .. 20 days Felony until pardoned and re- stored to citizenship, idiots, . . 1.11San?- . Oregon ............ . .. Citizen of United States or 6 m0s.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Idiots, insane, convicted of fel- ahenwhohas declared inten- ony, United States soldiers Eon one year preceding elec- and sailors, Chinese. ion. Pennsylvania - - - - - Citizen Of the United States at lyeari. ........ .. 2mos Convicted of some ofiense least one month, and if 22 whereby right of suffrage is years old or more must have forfeited, non-taxpayers. paid tax within two years. Bhode Island . . . . . . .. Citizen of the United States.. 2 years ________ __ 6mos.. .. Paupers, lunatics, persons non compos mentrls, convicted of bribery or infamous crime un- til restored to right to vote, ‘ under guardianship. South Carolina ---- .- Citwen of the United States.. 1 year. 60 days Convicted of treason, murder, or other infamous crime, or _ . of dueling, paupers, .i11Sa,1_1et South Dakota . . . . . Citizen of the United States 6mos.§ 6mos.. ........ .. 30 days Under guar _1anship, idiots, in- or alien who has declared sane, convicted of treason or intention. felony, unless pardoned. Tennessee-t . . . . . . . Citizen of the United States.. 1 year. 6mos.. . . . . . (a) Convicted of bribery or other _ infamous offense. Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Citizen of the United States or 1 year. 6 mos.. ........ .. (a) Idiots, lunatics, paupers, sup- alien who has declared in- ported by count , convicted tention. of felony, Unite States sol- diers and seamen in service. Vermont-I-..... ..... .. Citizen of the United States.. 1 year. . . . . . 6mos . . . . . . . . .. Unpardoned convicts and de- serters from United_ States militar or naval service dur- _ _ _ _ ingcivi war_,ex-Confederates. Virginia...... .... Citizen of the United States.. 1 year, 3m0S 3mos.. 30 days; Idiots, lunatics, convicted of bribery at election, embezzle- ment of public funds, treason, felony and petty larceny,duel- ists and abettors, unless par- _ ' doned by legislature. Washington+ ..... Citizen of the United States. . 1 year. 90 days ........ .. 30 days Indians not taxed. West Virginia . . . . . .. Citizen of the State. 1 year. 60 days . . . . . . . . .. (a) Paupers, persons of unsound mind, convicted of treason, _ j _ felony or bribery at elections. Wisconsm+ .. .. . . . . .. Citizen of the United States or 1 year. 10 days Insane, under guardianship, alien who has declared in- convictedof treasonorfelony, tention. . unless pardoned2 _ Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . Citizen of the United States or 6 mos.. 30 days . . . . . .. . .. . . ...... .. Under guardianshi , idiots in- alien who has declared in- sane, un ardone felon, bet- tention. tors on e ections. *Indian must have severed tribal relations two years next _ _ reviously been a qualifie months. t One year’s residence in t e United States prior to election required. tion of it in force. trict required. IOr if, having 8 receding the election. -l-Australian ballot law or a modifica- elector or native, he shall have r_emoved_ and returned, than F (a) Actual residence in the precinct or! ,3 ELECTION-ELECTORAL COMMISSION REGISTRATION. Voters are required to register in Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina Vermont and Vir- inia. In Georgia registration is re uired in a few counties; in Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska, in al cities. In Illinois reg- istration is required, but, except in a few cities, a legal voter not registered may vote upon filing an afiidavit by himself and another known legal voter that he is a qualified voter and has not already voted. In Minnesota registration is required in all cities of 1,200 inhabitants or over; in Missouri,in cities of 100,000 inhabitants and over; in New Jersey, in cities of over 10,000 inhabitants; in Wisconsin, in cities of 20,000 inhabitants or over; in Ohio, registration is generally required. Regis- tration is not re uired in Arkansas, Delaware, Indiana, Ken- tucky, Oregon, ennessee, Texas and West Virginia. It is prohibited in Arkansas, Texas and West Virginia by the con- stitution. In New York, voters in cities must register per- sonally; in all other places within the State they may register on the first two registration days by proxy. ELECTORAL COMMISSION, a special commis- sion appointed by act of the United States Congress approved Jan. 29, 1877, for the purpose of determin- ing the electoral votes of the States of Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina and of one vote of the State of Oregon, in the Presidential election of November, 1876. The commission consisted of United States Supreme Court Justices Clifford, Strong, Miller, Field and Bradley; United States Senators Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- man and Bayard, and United States Representa- tives Payne, Hunton, Abbott, Garfield, and Hoar. The question before the commission was of the gravest national interest. Its answer would prac- tically decide the choice of the nation with regard to the ensuing Presidential administration. The appointment of the commission was the result of prolonged discussion in both houses of Congress, and this plan of averting an impending evil was reported by a joint committee, representing not only both the Senate and House of Representa- tives, but also most equably the two great political parties. This joint committee was composed of Senators Geo. F. Edmunds, of Vermont; Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey; Roscoe Conkling, of New York; Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio; Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware, and Oliver P. Morton, of Indiana. Also of Representatives Henry B. Payne, of Ohio; Eppa Hunton, of Virginia; Abram S. Hew- itt, of New York; William Springer, of Illinois; Geo. WV. McCrary, of Iowa; Geo. F. oar, of Massachu- setts, and Geo. Willard, of Michigan. Of this com- mittee seven were Republicans and seven were Democrats. The committee reported the bill Jan. 18, 1877. and, with the exception of a single dissen- tient (Senator Morton), by a unanimous recommend- ation. The bill provided for the creation of the Electoral Commission, to be composed of five Sen- 615 ators, five Representatives, and five Associate Jus- tices of the United States Supreme Court, four of the latter being designated by their districts in the bill itself, the fifth to be chosen subsequently by those four. All certificates and other documents from the contesting parties, and all questions relating to the powers of Congress in the premises (with the au- thority to exercise the same powers in ascertaining the legal vote of each State) were to be referred to this commission as a tribunal; and the decision in each case to stand as final, unless rejected by the con- carrent vote of both houses of Congress. The bill also provided that objections that might be made to any electoral votes from States not presenting double certificates should be considered not by the commission but by the houses separately, and unless sustained by both should be of no effect. The bill thus reported with such remarkable unanimity was submitted to extended discussion in both houses, resulting in its adoption by the Senate, Jan. 25, by a vote of -17 yeas to 17 nays (the Republicans 24 yeas to 16 nays, and the Democrats 23 yeas to one nay) ; absent or not voting, nine Re- publicans and one Democrat. The vote was taken in the House, Jan. 26, resulting in the adoption of the bill by a vote of 191 yeas to 86 nays (the Demo- crats 158 yea's to 18 nays, and the Republicans 33 yeas to 68 nays) ; absent or not voting, seven Repub- licans and seven Democrats. As a majority of the Senate was Republican, and a majority of the House Democratic, it was agreed that three Republicans and two Democrats should be selected from the Senate and three Democrats and two Republicans from the House. Of the United States Supreme Court Justices the four, as stated above, were designated in the report of the joint committee, namely : Justice Clifford, of Maine; Justice Miller, of Iowa; Justice Field, of California, and Justice Strong, of Pennsylvania. These four appointed, as the fifth, Justice Joseph P. Bradley, of New Jersey. The commission perfected its organization Feb. 1,1877, and closed its work Feb. 27, and its deci- sion was reported at the joint electoral convention of the two houses of Congress held March 1, result- ing in the announcement early the next morning that Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and IVilliam A. Wheeler, of New York, had been elected, respect- isvely, President and Vice-President of the United tates. ELECTORAL CROIVN, or, more properly, GAP, was a scarlet cap, turned up with ermine, which was worn by the electors of the German Empire. It was closed with a demi-circle of gold, covered with pearls, and on the top was a globe with a cross on it, also of gold. - H6 ELECTRICITY FOR the general subject of electricity, and an elaborate and exhaustive discussion of the methods of applied electricity, brought down to the Year 1878, see Britannica, Vol. VIII, pp. 3-105; also see TELEGRAPH, Vol. XXIII, pp. 112-126. It is only required in these Revisions and Addi- tions that a record should be outlined of the later discoveries and progress in electrical science, and especially in applied electricity. ELECTRIC LIGIITING.---Tl18 principal uses to which electricity is put to-day, outside the all-important classes of electric signaling and electro-chemi'cal work, are for fur- nishing light, heat, and power; and of these three applications that of electric lighting is perhaps the most important. There are two kinds of lamps in use, entirely dissimilar in principle and construction, and used for entirely different purposes. In one, known as the “are” light, the light is obtained by causing a heavy current of electricity to cross a small space, taking a slightly curv- ed path, called the electric arc, from which its name is derived. This is the intensely brilliant light used for street lighting. In the other, known as the “incandescent,” the light is produced by passing a small current through a fine wire or filament, which it heats to a dazzling bril- liancy or incandescence. ;- , \ The arclight, which is much older “‘ ;\}_..~.,;’,}_ ; QZ__g than the mcandescent, 1S now pro- ;% ,; ¢/~}'Ss~I duced practically by passing a pow- . '5 / ' ‘* erful current between the points of "if two large carbon rods, which are kept close together by an automatic mechanism known as the regulator of the lamp. The space allowed be- tween the tips of the rods, across which the current jumps, is about ARC LIG111‘- one-sixteenth of an inch, and the duty of the regulator is to move one of the rods toward the other as fast as the tips are burned off by the intense heat, keeping the space to be jumped by the current as nearly uniform as possible. The carbon rods are placed per- pendicularly, one above the other. The electric current, after reaching the upper carbon, passes across the tips and through the lower carbon. thence through a wire which is wound around a magnet, thence to the continuation of the line, and on to the next lamp. This magnet attracts a lever which, when raised, grasps the upper carbon through the agency of a washer which allows the carbon to slide downward through it except when it is tilted by the action of the magnet and lever. The upper carbon is arranged in suitable guides to slide straight up and down, and the lower car- bon is held stationary. VVhen at rest the washer lies flat, and the upper carbon slides down until in contact with the lower one. \Vhen the current is turned on it passes across the tips of the carbons, which at first are in contact, and around the mag- net, causing it to raise the lever, tilt the washer till it grasps the carbon, and thus elevates the mov- able carbon until the increased length of the space between the tips weakens the current and checks the lifting action of the magnet. The light then “M . 'i ‘i burns steadily until enough of the tip is burned off to further weaken the current by increasing the space, when the magnet, being no longer able to support the carbon, lowers it enough to re- adjust the space. \\’OOD DYNAMO . So long as the source of power for producing the electricity was the galvanic battery, experience of this promising illuminator only served to lay bare its practical defects. It was found to be unsteady. flickering, and unreliable, and although great in- genuity was displayed in producing electric lamps but little real progress was made. The first mag- neto-electric machine, the forerunner of the dyna- mos of the present day, was exhibited at the French Académie des Sciences in 1832. With this. machine sparks and strong shocks were obtained, water decomposed, etc. In 1841 Wheatstone pat- SLATTERY INCANDESCENT DYNAMO. ented a plan by which more powerful effects could be obtained by combining several machines to- gether. The next important advance was made in 1866, when H.Wilde, of Manchester, Eng., announced the somewhat paradoxical principle thata current or magnet indefinitely weak could be made to pro- . ELECTRICITY duce a current or a magnet of indefinitely great strength. Carrying out this principle, Wilde con- structed a very powerful machine, which, turned by a steam engine, produced such a powerful electric current that an iron rod 15 inches long and a quar- ter of an inch thick was melted, and an electric light produced between carbon points of an in- tensity sufficient to cast shadows from the flames of ordinary gas burners a quarter of a mile distant from the source of light. The “reaction” principle in magneto-electric machines was discovered the same year (1866). In the machine of Wilde, the starting point of the source of power was a perma- nent steel magnet, but in the reaction principle the residual magnetism which is always found more or less in soft iron was made use of to originate the electric current. This principle has been far- IMPROVED also approached nearer the theoretical limit, until but little further improvement seems possible ex- cept in small matters of detail. \Vhile the dynamo was thus being gradually de- veloped towards theoretical perfection, regard was also had to the bettering of the carbon points or luminous electrodes of the light. The wasting of the carbon points necessitated a contrivance for regulating the distance between the points so as to keep the arc of sensibly constant width. In 1876, I’. J ablochkoff, a Russian, introduced a modifica- tion of the arc lanip by which all regulating mech- anism was dispensed with. The invention was called an electric “candle,” and promised very great things. In spite, however, of the progress made in “arc” electric lighting, the general results were not completely satisfactory except for special purposes, and it is diflicult to say what the fate of 617 reaching in its results, and upon it all the numer- ous “dynamos” of the present day are worked. In 1870 another important advance in “dynamo- electric” machines was made by Z. T. Gramme, of Paris. Gramme’s machine involved the new prin- ciple of forming the movable part of the machine of an endless ring of soft iron round which was coiled a series of bobbins of wire, all connected to- gether. By this invention a nearer approximation to a continuous electric current was obtained than by any previous form of machine. After this, in- vention followed invention, step by step, each one perfecting the dynamo machine more and more, so that not only were these machines made more com- pact and better generally in design, but the elec- tric power obtained from them for a given amount of horse power used to drive them continually, n W“ . 1 .1‘ ‘ , i W‘: “ER h ‘i ‘.1 \ ll‘ Mi if“ n I lib‘ ‘ \ : ; DYIYAMO. suchlighting would have been; but in September, 1878, Thomas E. Edison, of New York, announced his discovery of a method of dividing the electric light, so as to obtain from a given current many lights of moderate power in the place of one of ex- cessive brightness. He constructed an incandes- cent electric lamp, or glow lamp, in which the cur- rent is made to pass through a strip of some sub- stance. which, because of its high resistance, be- comes highly heated, and hence brilliantly incan- descent. He employed for this substance carbon in the form of a thin strip or wire, carefully pre- ared for the purpose and bent in a loop, inclosed in a bulb of glass from which the air had been ex- hausted. The vacuum prevented the consumption of the carbon at the high temperature to which it was raised. These lamps are readily applied to the existing gas fixtures at moderate cost, and MS mark an important era in the progress of electric lighting. The demand for incandescent lamps has II V. l D ‘I _ :1’ ,1, . Ff‘ ‘.1;-;_ -- - ‘- L . 4“ .. "" _.._ "‘ V-‘ - ~r ' W .___m' -"L _ :l"'~_'."‘- “ -~:fi "r."'—*-‘ "" .1 {1 1 A .5 /7 ' ‘ - ‘G ~ 0- M J v .-‘ #11471) ~. '‘‘r‘I-“\‘“<’“, ', \ ' ‘ w(~ -, \ M Q /1 ’ ! 5"" " ' ~.»,,;__¢.:£u J Y.._. {T , z '3; 4'!‘ rr +.§"r\ ¢- "'4 v 7; ‘- é,h 1'/‘°~‘ x. . " ~_-- ‘. 4‘ "" '-'Pk!1ra$'i5[§}“ . ./r ya- 1 IL.‘ vi‘ .,,*; r,..a. . :1? M :- 'l'( u% \ 3-; ' ‘e \- IH »: ' . (’,fo\,>','3 , $14: )> " x I . \*‘“’I3- .,. .-.J r If I ifif ,_: J X"'\I' fig Hi I 1 A J INCANDESCENT LAMP. been enormous, so that at the present time there are over 3,000,000 in use in the United States. PORTABLE ELECTRIC LAMP.—A device intended for street or lawn lighting at points where an electric lighting current is not accessible, is among the recent inventions in electrical appa- ratus. The device comprises, as will be understood from an inspection of the illustration, a case or stand provided with shelves, upon which a series of secondary battery cells may be mounted, and carries a bracket, to which is secured an incan- descent lamp. The device is controlled by a time switch so that the circuit may be closed and the lamp lighted at any desired hour. The case is provided with a door in which is arranged a bull’s- eye, through which the clock may be seen when the door is closed. The apparatus when com- pleted weighs about 200 pounds, which gives it suflficient stability for the purposes for which it is designated. Another form of portable electric lamp, illustrated in the accompanying cut, was exhibited at arecent electrical exhibition in Paris by M. Larochelle. The battery is inclosed in the lower part, and con- sists of an ebonite vessel divided into eight com- partments by partitions, furnishing eight cells, or elements, in a very compact form. The vessel will hold about three liters of liquid, capable of acting for about eight hours without exhaustion. Each element is made up of a rod of zinc and two rods of carbon fixed to a disk which can be lowered into the liquid, or lifted out of it, by turning a key ELECTRICITY \ , \ Q . s\\w:~\\%\'. ._-=—=:__ _—=_"=- 5: - ~ ~ \ - ~\ \ .-““ _~ \ . . ._~. -_- . ~ -,~. . .- . _ . ~ _ 9. -__ _- , . ‘ I - \ ~ e \' : 4 v \ -. . \ “ ‘ . ‘ \ l - . .. \ \ \ I Q .:_ § ...\_ I \ \\ ‘ \ \ “.\\\ \ ‘\I \\ \ \ \\ 4, q \ \ |_\ \L . \ '\-\\\~\ \ .\, . ~ ~ -. .- : - \ i _ .' \\ - ._ 3. .. 1_ ‘ ‘ '.|\ i -‘ ' i . - _§*n . .. \. M “\.. \\~ , ' _ ., . .-— __=._,.__..__.___. -_ - . U . -.-;_‘-.~'- -. - - .~ 4, __ 1\_._ ‘»..14_~_\,<.._-. 1 ~|., -.._ ‘ - -- .- PORTABLE ELECTRIC LAMP- TZELECTRICITY like that used in a Carcel oil-lamp. The power of the lamp is regulated by the depth to which the zincs and carbons are immersed. The zincs are screwed into the disk so as easily to be removed for renewal. ‘ THE ELECTRIC LIGHT IN MIcRoscoPY.—The incan- descent electric light is very highly recommended as a ‘substitute for the usual lamps used in micro- scopy, or even for the direct daylight. A small lamp, which only requires one cell of a bichromate battery to operate it, and-whichcan be adjusted to any position, is now made for this purpose. Among the advantages of the electric light are its intensity, which allows the use of very oblique rays in illuminating the object; the larger pro- portion of white and blue rays in the light, which bring out the finer details more clearly; the small amount of heat given out, which enables the lamp to be placed as close to the condenser of the micro- scope as may be desired; and the doing away - with the necessity of a mirror to reflect the light upon the object, since the lamp can be placed in any desired position in reference to it. It is also claimed that the light is less fatiguing to the eye than even ordinary daylight; while, for purposes of micro-photography, the large proportion of acti- nic rays in the electric light and the ease with which it can be regulated render it far superior to any other illuminant. EXAMINING THE STOMACH. BY ELECTRIC LIGHT. ILLUMINATING THE STOMACH BY ELECTRIC LIGHT.-— Medical electricians have recently devised a plan by which the interior of the human stomach may 619 be illuminated for examination. The patient is laid upon the operating table, and a slender tube carrying a glass bead upon its end is introduced into the stomach. A small light inside the bead is supplied by fine wires running out through the tube and connected to a small battery. The inte- rior of the stomach is plainly lighted, and all its parts are brought into view by a small movable mirror at the end of the tube. CAUTERY WIRE HEATED BY ELECTRICITY. CAUTERY VVIRE HEATED BY ELECTRICI'1‘Y.-——AI1- other application of electricity for physicians is the electro—cautery shown in the accompanying illus- tration, by which the principle of electric heating is applied to surgical operations. The instrument consists of a loop of fine plat-inum wire mounted in a rubber handle, through which connecting wires pass. These wires are led to a battery, the current from which follows the wires, and keeps the plati- num loop white-hot. The heat is inside the wire, as it were, and can be regulated to any intensity, and kept there during an operation without with- drawing the instrument for reheating. ELECTRIC LIGHTS FOR CARRIAGES.—I11 Paris mu merous private carriages are now fitted up with incandescent electric lamps, instead of the old- fashioned candles or oil lamps. Not only are the regular side-lights thus arranged, but the interior of the vehicle is also illuminated by a lamp suf- ficiently powerful to read by; and a similar lamp is sometimes placed on the head of the horse, produc- ing a very brilliant and “stylish” eifect. These lamps are connected by wires with small accumu- lators placed under the driver’s seat. These ac- cumulators are only about eight inches square and four inches high, and each one will supply a lamp of 5-candle power for six hours. During the day they are removed, charged with electricity from a dynamo-machine or otherwise, and at night they are ready for service. . r EDISON GENERATOR. Ennormc LIGHT AND PLANTS.--All the Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, Russia, there is a noted col- lection of ornamental plants, especially of fine palms, grown for decoration of the banqueting halls of the palace. Since the introduction of the electric light these plants have been greatly in- jured. The illumination of a room for a single 620 night will cause the leaves to turn yellow, dry up, and finally fall off. The days in winter at St. Petersburg are almost sunless, and the. sudden change from this dim light to the blinding glare of the electric lights is more than the plants can bear. Plants that are partly shaded escape injury to their foliage. SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHY.-—-The first submarine cable was laid across the English Channel, from Dover, England, to Calais, France in 1850. Being unprotected it lasted but a few hours. The con- necting wires (27 miles long) were placed on the government pier in Dover harbor, and in the Go- liath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in length of telegraphic wire, inclosed in a covering of gutta- percha, half an inch in diameter. The Goliath started from Dover, unrolling the telegraphic wire as it proceeded, and allowing it to drop to the bed of the sea. In the evening the steamer arrived on the French coast, and the wire was run up the cliff at Cape Grisnez to its terminal station, and mes- sages were sent to and fro between England and France. But the wire, in settling into the sea bot- tom, crossed a rocky ridge, and snapped in two, and thus the enterprise for that time failed. A stronger cable was prepared, the type of which is used at the present day almost entirely unmodi- fied, and in November, 1851, was laid between Dover and Calais, and successfully operated. The practicability of submarine telegraphy be- ing thus established, lines rapidly multiplied. In May, 1858, a cable was successfully laid and operated between Dover and Ostend, and in the following year connection was established be- tween Holyhead and Howth, and between Paris and Bastia. , As early as 1845 a plan to unite Europe and America by telegraph was entered at the govern- ment registration ofiice in England, and proposals for carrying out the plan were submitted to the government, but were not accepted. In 1857 the plan was attempted to be carried out by a company, with the concurrence of the British and American governments. The cable, 2,500 miles in length, hav- ing been constructed, and thoroughly tested, the work of laying it down commenced at Valentia, in Ireland, Aug. 5,1857. Four vessels were employed; two American, the Niagara and Susquehanna, and two British, the Leopard and Agamemnon. After sailing a few miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired, but on August 11, after 300 miles of the'cable had been laid, it snapped again, and the vessels returned to Plymouth. A second attempt to lay the cable, made in June of the following year, was defeated by a violent storm. Later in the year a third attempt was made, which was en- tirely successful. The junction between the two continents was completed by the laying down of 2,050 miles of cable, from Valentia, Ireland, to New- foundland. The first two messages were sent Aug. 5, 1858, and were: one from the Queen of England to the President of the United States, and the other his reply. This event caused great rejoicing in both countries; but, unfortunately, the insulation of the wire being faulty, the power of transmitting intel- ligence ceased a month later. A new company was formed in 1860, but it was not till 1865 that the work of laying down a new cable was undertaken. The Great Eastern steamer, engaged to lay down 2,800 miles of cable, with 25,- 000 tons’ burden, sailed for Valentia, July 15, 1865. After connecting the cable with the land, the Great Eastern sailed from Valentia, July 23. Tele- graphic communication with the vessel (inter- rupted by two faults, due to defective insulation, caused by pieces of metal pressed into the gutta ELECTRICITY , percha coating, which were immediately repaired) finally ceased Aug. 2. The apparatus for raising the wire proving insuificient, the vessel returned to England. ‘ During the winter the Atlantic Telegraph Com- pany was reconstituted as the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, and in June, 1866, the Great Eastern, with a new cable on board, again sailed for Valentia. The shore end was spliced with the main cable, and July 13, 1866, the Great Eastern sailed for America, reaching I-Ieart’s Content, New- foundland, and completing the laying of the cable July 27, 1866. During the same year the lost cable of 1865 was recovered, and its laying completed at Newfoundland. Prior to this cables had been laid connecting London with Constantinople, Cromer with Enden, Aden with Suez, l\/Ialta with Alexandria, England with Bombay, and Marsala with La Calle. r. c0 “ WRTLETT a RECORDING AND ALARM GAUGE. In 1868 the French government granted a con- cession for 20 years to Julius Reuter and Baron Emile d’Erlangen, for a French Atlantic telegraph line; and the European end of the cable was laid at Brest, June 17,1869, and the American end at Duxbury, Mass., July 23, 1869. In 1870 a cable was laid between Bombay and Suez, and in 1873 the fourth Atlantic cable was laid by the Great Eastern from V alentia, Ireland, to I-Ieart’s Content, Newfoundland. The Brazil telegraph cable was also opened in September, 1873. In 1874 a great electric cable ship, the Faradag/,was constructed, and sailed to lay the “Direct United States Company’s cable,” May 16. The shore end was laid in Nova Scotia, May 31, in New Hamp- shire, June 8, and connected with Newfoundland in July. The sixth Anglo-American telegraph was laid by the Great Eastern in August and September “ of the same year. In December, 1879, the South African cable line between Mozambique and Natal was opened to the ELECTRICITY ublic, and June 1, 1880, a new French Transat- antic cable from Brest to New York was com- pleted. The following year a new Atlantic cable was laid by the Faraday, and in September, 1882, a line was completed from England to Panama. During the last decade lines have multiplied until there are now (1891) 942 submarine cables, ex- clusive of the seven working Atlantic cables, with an aggregate length of 112,710 nautical miles. For laying and maintaining this huge network of cables, a fleet of nearly 40 vessels is constantly oc- cupied. THE PrIoNoroRE.—The phonopore is a telegraph- ing device invented by Mr. Langdon-Davies, of London. Some two or three years ago, he first de- veloped the system of transmitting signals through circuits which in the ordinary sense are not closed. Recent experiments in his laboratory were made through an artificial line of 4,000 ohms’ re- sistance, and comprised the sending of phonopore messages alone, and of phonopore and telegraph messages simultaneously, in the same wire, and in the same or opposite directions. In one expen- I ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. instruments, and as during operation the continuity of the line is constantly being broken by the work- ing, each instrument is shunted by a phonopore, so that the phonopore messages are translated some six times. This method of bridging the telegraph instru- ments does not in any way diminish the clearness of signals as compared with a continuous wire. The messages were printed on a Morse receiver, Which was actuated by a phonopore relay. The phonopore transmitter has a vibrating reed, and the distant phonopore receiver is also provided with a reed in the shape of a stretched steel band, which can be tuned to the same note. TELEGRAPHING FROM A TRAIN IN Mo'rIoN.—One of the latest inventions in the art of telegraphing is a device by means of which messages may be sent to and from a railroad train when traveling at ' any speed. The surprising feature of this invention is that there is no connection between the train and the telegraph wire beside ‘the track, over which the messages travel to the station, after jumping from 621 ment the same wire transmitted a telegraph mes- sage and two phonopore messages simultaneously, and the working of the phonopores was perfect, even after the resistance of the line had been in- creased to 23,000 ohms, when the telegraph mes- sages, which were received by needle instruments, could no more be read. A further experiment was made with a line wire open at both ends, and con- taining a resistance of 100,000 ohms. In this case the ordinary telegraph could, of course, not be worked at all, but duplex working of the phonopore was perfectly ieasible. At St. Pancras, messages were being sent by phonopore between London and Leicester in both directions, on one of the company’s wires which all the time transmitted ordinary telegraph messages. The London phonopore was joined to the line be- tween two Morse relays about half a mile apart, one at the passenger and the other at the goods station, while the Leicester phonopore tapped the line thirty miles from the nearest telegraph instru- ment, which is at Derby. Between Leicester and London there are on this wire about six telegraph ELPCTRIC ELEVATOR. the car to the wire. The message is telegraphed from inside to the tin roof of the car, and reaches the regular telegraph wire along the track by means of lines of force which each signal throws through the air as soon as it reaches the roof. The signals created in the main line in this way are much fainter than the ordinary telegraph signals, but this difliculty is easily "overcome by using more sensitive receiving instruments. The operation of telegraphing to the car is carried on in the same way. The message is sent along the line, and imparts a slight electrical effect to the metallic car roof at each signal. The weak signals thus produced in the car roof are listened to with a delicate receiving instrument in the hands of the operator. As the main-line wire is parallel with the track, it makes no difference where the car is; and as the action of electricity is almost immeas- urably quick, it makes no difference how rapidly the car is moving. The only special construction required to adapt a line for use with this system is that the wire be strung on rather short poles, so as 522 to bring it near the roofs of the cars. The instru- ments for the operator on the train are portable, and are arranged to be held in the lap like a writ- ing tablet. EXTENSION OF ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHING.-—The overland telegraph has assumed mammoth propor- tions. There is in the United States alone a total of 807,589 miles of wire, enough of the attenuated metal to go around the equatorial belt of the globe 32 times. France has 241,800 miles of wire; Ger- many 186,733; Great Britain and Ireland 183,502; and Russia 172,360. In number of messages trans- mitted the United States leads with 80,000,000, fol- lowed by Great Britain with 57,765,347; France 22,- 341,000; Germany 17,782,323; Austria-Hungary, 13,- 240,642. and Russia 10,477,049. The following table exhibits the number of miles of lines, of wire, and number of messages transmitted in each country of the globe for the year indicated: - - Number Countries. Year. Mfiilgsesof ‘\%\1,1§,iSOf of Mes- ‘ ’ sages. Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 7,000 16,000 . . . . . . . Argentine Republic . . . . .. 1889 14,700 28,550 3,511,420 Austria-Hungary . . . . . . . . . 1888 38,159 111,532 13,240,642 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 4,013 19,030 7 ,266,694 Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 180 . 16,127 Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 6,300 11,160 567,935 Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 2,750 . . . . . . . . . 620,692 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 29,460 61,219 4,064,381 Cape of Good Hope . . . . . . .. 1889 4,339 1,063,949 Chili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 10,640 . . . . . . . .. 572,333 Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1888 2,800 .. . .. Costa Rica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1888 600 . . . . . . . . .. 112,639 Costa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 2,810 Denmark. .. . . . . . . . .. 1889 3,674 10,280 . . Dutch East Indies. . . . . . .. 1887 6,556 . . . . . . . . .. 396,366 Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 1,200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 3,172 5,423 666,869 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 54,560 241,800 22,841,000 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 57,763 186,733 17,782,323 Great Britain and Ireland 1889 30,726 183,502 57,765,347 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 4,362 5,062 936,638 Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 1,923 . . . . . . . . . . 457,009 Hawaii.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1888 250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Honduras. ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 1,800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . India, British . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1888 31,894 93,517 2,807,617 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 19,460 73,160 8,772,671 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1888 6,164 . . . . . . . .. 2,564,514 Luxemburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 1,653 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 27,861 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Montenegro . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 280 . . . . . .. Netherlands.. .. 1889 3,100 10,850 4,059,674 New South Wales . . . . . . . . .. 1889 12,000 22,219 3,410,417 New Zealand ...... .. 18891 1,992 11,617 1,765,860 Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1888 1,700 . . . . . . . .. Norway. . . . . . . .. . . . 1889 5,638 10,282 1,314,583 Orange Free State . . . . . . . .. 1889 1,120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Paraguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Persia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 3,824 6,124 . . . . . . . . . Peru ........... ., ......... .. 1878 1,382 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Philip ine Islands . . . . . . .. 1889 720 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Porto ico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 470 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885 3,210 7,468 1,730,107 Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 9,167 16,648 1,284,438 Roumania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 3,271 8,084 1,317,689 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1888 88,280 172,360 10,477,049 Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1888 1.440 . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . Servia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 1,810 3,060 471,126 Siam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 1,000 . .. . . . . . . . . . .. South Australia . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 5,509 11,448 . . . . . . . . . . Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887 11,512 28,870 3,549,860 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 5,120 13,346 1,430,481 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 4,340 10,540 3,000,000 Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 1,894 2,505 271,769 Transvaal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889 1,250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tunis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 2,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Turkeg1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1889 15,000 . . . . . . . . . . .. Unite States . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1890 254,110 807,589 80,000,000 Uruguay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1890 2,234 . . . . 148,166 Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 3,000 . . . . . . . . 408,514 Victoria . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . 1889 4,194 10,360 2,743,938 Western Australia . . . . . . . .. 1889 2,385 2,659 80,7 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 842,812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. The Western Union Telegraph Company reports the average toll per message in 1868 was 104.7; in , ELECTRICITY 1889 was 31.2; in 1890 was 32.4. The average cost per message to the company in 1868 was 63.4; in 1889" was 22.4; in 1890 was 22.7. The number of messages annually transmitted throughout the World may be estimated at 300,000,000. PROGRESS IN RAPID TELEGRAPHING.--III 1837 the first telegraph of Cook and Wheatstoiie transmitted messages at the rate of four words per minute, five wires being required; now six messages are con- veyed by one wire on the Delaney multiplex appa- ratus at ten times that speed; and on the Wheat- stone fast-speed apparatus 600 words per minute are transmitted on one wire. TELEPHONE.—Th6 history of the telephone is quite modern, although as early as 1850 the prob- ability of speech being telegraphically trans- mitted was foreshadowed; and again in 1860, Reis- succeeded in transmitting musical sounds and im- perfect speech. It was reserved for Graham Bell,. in 1876, completely to solve the problem, and for dison a little later to perfect the same by the in- vention of the “carbon transmitter” (see Britan- nica, Vol. XXIII, pp. 127-135). An important ad- vance has been made in telephony by the dis- covery that the use of copper, instead of iron wire, enabled the telephone to work to a practically unlimited distance, and long-distance telephone- lines are being rapidly extended throughout the country. According to the latest statistics made public I by the American Bell Telephone Company, which practically monopolizes the telephone business in the United States, there were in 1890 in this country 757 exchanges, 471 branch oifices, 192,610 miles of land wire, 603 miles of submarine cables, 156,780 circuits, and 185,003 subscribers. The num- ber of instruments in the hands of licensees un- der rental at the beginning of 1890 was 444,861- The number of exchange connections daily in the United States is 1,240,147, or a total per year of over 400,000,000. The average number of daily calls per subscriber is 6.13. The company received‘ in rental of telephones in 1889 $2,657,361. It paid its stockholders in dividends during the same- year, $1,838,913. The Bell Company and its sub- sidiary companies represent about $80,000,000 of capital; the Long-Distance Telephone Company about $5,000,000. ELECTRIC Morons.-—Electric traction was first- practically worked in 1879 by Dr. 1Verner Siemens, who constructed and started an electric tramway in the grounds of the Industrial Exhibition at. Berlin. A train of three cars was placed upon the railway, which was 900 yards long. On the first car an electro-dynamic machine was so fixed as to- cause one pair of wheels to rotate when the cur- rent passed through its coils. A middle rail, sup- ported on insulating blocks of wood, ran between the working rails, and by this the current was led from the generating apparatus to the car. passing through the electric motor, it passed by the wheels to the outer rails, and so back to the gener- ating dynamo. Between twenty and thirty per- sons at a time could be accommodated on the train; and during the summer of that year 100,000 were carried over the line at a speed of from 15 to 20 miles an hour. The locomotive could exert 5-horse power, and was started and stopped by a commu- tator for closing and opening the circuit. Since then the progress of electric traction has been very rapid, and in the United States alone there were in 1891 over 200 electric railways, having a collective; length of 1,750 miles, with 2,400 motor-cars travel- ing thereon. In the present state of electrical science, however,. electric motors cannot take the place of the steanr After‘ ELECTRICITY engine for originating power. Given asupply of electricity, the motor can be used for all sorts of purposes, and can be applied to almost as many uses as a steam engine. But to obtain the elec- tricity cheaply we must have power of some kind. There must be a waterfall, or a steam engine. a tide-mill or a wind-mill to produce the power in the first place. By this power a dynamo can be driven, and this gives the electricity for driving motors. Electricity is the driving power of the electric motor as steam is of the steam engine. As a consequence the motor’s usefulness is limited to such places as are within the reach of an electric supply. By means of wires the electricity can be conveyed to motors over a distance of some miles from the generating station. The use of the electric motor cannot be considered applicable to all purposes until some means have been discovered whereby electricity may be produced from coal as directly as we now produce steam by burning coal beneath a boiler. At present we have first to produce power in order to generate electricity, then transmit it by wires to the motor which transforms the electricity again into power, and so does our work. The economy or the reason for this double transformation is found in the ease with which the transformation is ac- complished. Instead of costly and cumbersome 623’ shafting, belting or ropes, only moderate-sized wires are required. Instead of being limited to- short distances and to fixed locations, the wires give great freedom for the change of location, and the distance covered may be several miles. ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS.-—IIl an able paper on this subject, read before the Society of Arts in Boston in 1889, Capt. Eugene Griffin, well known as an electrical expert of high authority, presented a mass of statistics showing the great progress al- ready made in the use of electricity on street rail- ways, accompanied by a great amount of informa- tion of practical interest and value, portions of which we condense as follows: ' A brief description of the dynamo or generator and the motor is essential to a proper understanding of this subject. The modern dynamo electric machine is sim ly an appli- cation on a larger scale of Professor Faraday s discovery that if a wire be moved through the magnetic field of a per- manent e_lectro-magnet, a current of electricity is produced in that wlre. A dynamo machine consists of apair of field magnets, between whose poles or extremities revolves a soft iron _rotatin support, wound about with a series of coils of Wire 1n whic the current is developed. The revolvin body is called the armature. It is generally made to revo ve by belt1n as_team engine to a pulley on the armature shaft. As eac wire moves through the magnetic field of one pole of the magnet, the induced or generated current in the wire is in one d1rect1on' as the wire moves through the field of the other magnet po e the current is in the 0 posite direction. The current taken from the poles of the mac ine or generator, as it is usuall called, wou d therefore be alternating, were it not for the evice called a commutator. This consists of a copper cylinder on the armature shaft, divided into as many segments as there are separate coils of wire in the armature, each segment insulated electrically from the others and connected with its own armature e il. Th1S commutator revolves with the armature, and against it are pressed two copper brushes, as they are called, which do not revolve. These brushes are the current collectors. and when they are connected by a metallic wire five inches or ten miles long, so as to close the circuit, a direct current flows through this wire as long as the armature is made to revolve. With- out gomg into details, it is suflicient to say that the brushes are so laced that as each segment of the commutator comes in con act with the brush, the induced current in the cor- responding wire is flowing in a constant direction, so we have a direct instead of an alternating current. As a matter of fact the armature is not made up of separate coils; but the WESTINGHOUSE IRONCLAD GEARLESS MOTOR- The dynamo or generator and the motor are theoretically the same. If a steam engine be belted to an armature pulley and the armature gulley be made to revolve, acurrent of electric1ty 1s passe through the machine, the armature is made to revolve, and by be ting to the armature pulley, me- chanical power is available. In this way one dynamo will convert the mechanical power of the steam engine into elec- trical power, and the electrical power may be carried- through the wires to the second dynamo, perhaps five miles away, where it is reconverted into mechamcal power and so made available for any desired purpose. The second ynamo is called the motor, and differs from the first, not in princi- ple, but only in details, which make it better suited for its special work. In this way we do away with the zinc fuel and. come back to coal, except in those places where we are fortu- nate enough to have water power. connections are so made with the commutator segments that’ we may theoretically re ard the coils as separate. The motor is practica ly the same as the generator, except that the power applied is electrical energy and the power ob- tained is mechanical. The current coming from the genera- tor goes to the brushes on the motor, thence to asegmcnt of the commutator and so to the armature coils. The wire with a current flowing through it in a given direction is re- pelled by one pole and attracted by the other. The powers of attraction and repulsion com el the armature to move, it revolves and we have mechanica energy. We gear the arma- ture to the car axle and we have mot1on_. _ _ There are two general methods of usmg electricity for the propulsion of street cars: _ 1. The direct method by conductors extendmg from the dynamo along the track. _ 2. The indirect method, by the use of storage batteries, secondary batteries, or accumulators. In the direct method the conductors may be overhead, un- derground, or on the surface. _ In the conduit system the conductors are placed in a con- duit bctweon the rails or between the tracks. The wires- must b bare an 1 yet must be thoroughly 1_nsulated from the- ground a condition very diticult to obtain under such cir- cumstances. A slot about five-eighths of an inch wide gives accc as to the sonductors by means of a contact plow, but un- fortunately also permits the flow of water, slush, mud, etc., into the conduit. The overhead-wire is suspended from poles by brackets or from cross-wires which span the street between poles on either side. When the street is of sufficient width, poles are placed in the center of the street between the two tracks, with bracket arms carrymg the conducting wires. These poles are placed about 125 feet apart, and from actual expe- rience are found to present little or no obstruction to traffic. The wires may be single or double. When single wire is- @4 used, the rails are utilized for the return cnrrent. When two wires are used, one wire carries the outgo1 ng and one the re- turn current. Contact is obtained with the wire by an over- running or an under-running trolley. The over-ru_nn1ng trolley is a. light carriage with one or more wheels rcstmg on the wire. _ A flexible conductor carries the current down to the car. The trolley is pulled along by the flexible conductor. The objections to the over-running tr_ol_ley are that ii) 1s diflicult to keep the trolley on the wire, 1t 1s d1ificult to replace the trolley when it comes ofi, and any automatic system of switching on to a turnout, branch, or Y is impossible. The latter is such a serious objection that except 1n special cases the over-running trolley will never be used, _In the under- running trolley a li ht arm of the requisite length 1s mounted on the top 0 the car, reachm up to the wire. ‘A wheel on the end of the arm is presse u against the wire by means of springs at the other end, and t e current is car- ELECTRICITY ried from the wheel _down through the arm itself if made of metal or through wires if the arm is made of wood. This arm is usually called the contact bar. The under-running trolley is automatic in its action at curves, turnouts,etc. and follows the direction of the car. It turns on a swive through the entire circle, and moves through an arc of 90° in a vertical direction. In the storage system, a battery of about 120 cells is carried on the car, and the motors are driven by the current from this battery. The advantages of this system are: 1. The cars can run on any track. 2. No wires, either overhead or underground, are required. 3. Each car is more mdependent than is the case in other systems. i, The disadvantages are: 1. The extra weight of about two tons on each car. The power required to carry this dead weight in addition to that required to drive cars required by the other methods. -I U" \ --.-\-'-it llli€lii‘<‘i?f§> ’ I IIll up . ;l ‘ .-I7 1 THE IMPROVED EDISON LOCOMOTIVE. Each connecting material, be it car, man, wire or what- soever, receives a current of electricity which is absolutely and always determined by Ohm’s law that the current is equal to the electro-motive force or pressure divided by the resistance. The electro-motive force is always 500 volts. With several cars in operation, the amperes of current in the overhead system near the generator may run as high as 180, but each car takes its own proportion according to its resist- ance. The average resistance of aman is 4,000 ohms. If he places himself in the circuit,he will receive a current which 1s measured in amperes by dividing 500 by -1,000, or, in other words, a 500-volt current can only drive 1/8 of an ampere through the average human body. It would not make a par- ticle of difference to the man whether the overhead wire he touched was carrying a current of 1 ampere, or 180 amperes, or 180,000 amperes. The effect in his case would be the same; he would receive 18 of an ampere. W ere this not true, then the whole multip e are theory would be false, and electric railwa s, as at present operated, would be impossibilities. It won d then make no difference as to danger whether one or a million cars were in operation on the line. To make this matter plain to those unfamiliar with electri- cal terms, we may suppose the overhead wire to be alarge pipe or main through which a pump (the (generator) is forcing water; the rails, electrically connecte ,as another large pipe through which the water is to be forced back to the station. Su DPOSG the diameter of these mains is 12 inches. If they are c osed at the outer ends, we may fill the overhead main, but after that no water can flow until we connect the two pipes. Now we will put in aone-inch pipe connecting the upper main with the lower mam, say 1,000 feet from the pump or generator. A certain arnount of water will flow through the connecting pipe, which amount depends upon its size—-one inch-and upon the pressure of the water in the upper main. From the generator to the one-inch connect- ing-pipe the same amount of water flows 1n the upper mam as flows down through the connection, no more and no less. Beyond the connecting-pipe, no water is flowing in the upper mam. _ Now we will put 1n 9. second connecting pipe 1,000 feet be- yond the first. For the first 1 000 feet we have twice as much water flowing as before. Hal of it goes down through the first p1pe. It is the same with every additional connecting pipe we put in until we reach the capacity of the u per main or the capacity of the generator to force water t rough it. By increasing the pressure, we know that we could force more water through the one inch connecting pipe; but so long as the pressure remains the same, the quantity flowing through the inch pipe will be the same,whether the upper main be 12 inches, 12 feet, or 1,000 feet in diameter. The analogy to electric railway work is close. Electricity takes the place of‘the water and the connecting pipes are electric cars, or it may be some unfortunate man placed where he had not ought to be. He is only an inch pipe, how- ever, and the pressure (500 volts) can only drive so much electricity through him. The current for railway work has been fixed at 500 volts, as this 1s well within the safe limits. A shock from 500 volts is unpleasant, _but not dangerous. No man, woman or child has ever been killed or even seriously in'ured by a500-volt cur- rent. The Un1ted States Senate ha this question before them_ last summer. After a thorough investigation the D1str1ct_ committee unanimously reported that a ~500-volt current 1s not dangerous. If there were any real question of 1ts_be1ng dangerous, we should use 400 volts or 300 volts. The objectlon to this, however, is that by reducing the voltage we must correspondingly increase the quantity in order to re- tam the same horse power, and an increase in quantity (amperes) means an increase in the size of the overhead wires, which is objectionable. The danger limit with the electric current 1s probably about 1,000 to 1,200 volts. The poles cannot obstruct the street, as they are inside the curb. They arejust as much of an obstruction to the side- walk as lamp posts and awning posts are—no more and no less. If the sidewalks be narrow and ern1ission can be ub— tained from the property owners,hoo sor eyebolts may be placed on the buildings, the cross-wires fastened to these, and the poles done away with entirely. Every overhead wire is objectionable to the fire commis- sioners; the railway wire is less objectionable than any other, because there is but one wire, and this wire is in the middle of the street, away from the buildings. If the single overhead working conductor is insufficient to carry the current necessary to operate the cars, it must be reenforced by feeder wires. These feeder wires may be m- sulated and may be placed underground. The overhead wire ma be divided into sections of three, four, six, or 1,000 feet in ength. At the ends of each section a cut-out or switch may be placed on the pole like a fire-alarm box, so that in case of fire the current may be cut out of the section or sec- tions in the vicinity of the fire. The firemen would then have no difficulty in handling the wires, which in an event are easily cut by pliers with insulated handle. AS adders are usua ly raised parallel to the face of the building, rather than across the street, and as the cross-wires are 125 feet a art, it would be a very rare thing that the railway wires wou d be found to interfere at all with the operations of the fire de- artment. As Prof. Thomson pertinently remarked to the nsurance representative: “It will not be long before you will be taking power from these wires to put out your fires. It will not be long before we have electric motor fire engines.” . Charles J. Van Depoele and Leo Daft were the pioneers 1n the modern electric railway work_ in this country. . The first roads were built in 1884-85. _The new motive power was, however, viewed with suspicion, and progress was slow until the Richmond road was built by the Spra ue Company in 1887—88. This road did much to popularize e co- tric motors. The rapidity with which the horse is now going is shown by the growth of the railway business of the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, one of the several companies workin in this field. In the spring of 1888 th_1s company purchase the patents_ of the Van Depoele Electric Company, of Chicago. At that time there were some 14 reads operating under the Van Depoele electr1c system. The first T omson-Houston car was started at Crescent Beach, Mass., July 4, 1888. On the 1st of _April, 1889, in less than nine months, there were 18 roads with 104 motor cars in operation, and 33 roads with 210 motor cars under contract. The Amen- cans are essentially a fast people. We live fast, and, unfortu- nately, we die fast. But as long as we do live, we 0. Any time-saving device is gladly welcomed, and atpnce eco_mes popular. The limit of speed with horse cars its about eight mi es per hour. With e ectricity the only l1m1t is what we ma fix as a safe speed. If horse cars are delayed, there is litt cor no chance of making up lost time. rl‘_he reverse 1s true of electricity. With electricity we have rapid transit, and we can obtain it in a very simple and not too expensive way. Electric motor cars do not smoke or give off noxious gases or make disagreeable noises. It is not necessary to run them in the air or under the ground, though they would run. well in either position. They are safe, clean,fast, and reliable. The do not keep the street in an unclean and unhealthy con ition. They do not take up as much of the stre_et_as do horse cars, for they have no horses. They are brilliantly lighted at night. _ _ All of these qualities appeal to the public, and the verdict everywhere is favorable to electricity. The Umted States ELECTRICITY fienate and House of Representatives in reporting on _a pro- osed extension of the Washington road, said: _“ It Is un- fioubtedly the best electric railway in the U111ted States, and beyond comparison superior to any horse railway.” _ To obtain these advantages the pubhc must aid the rail- ways. The rails must be of suffic1ent wei t and of su_ch form as to best carry the increased weight and stand the 1n- ~<:reased speed Some form of girder rail weighing not less than 45 pounds to the yard is best suited to this work. The rail must be so placed as to be easily kept clean, and for this purpose should be slightly elevated above the surface of the street. art of the railway companies. while the first cost is great, t ey can look forward to reduced operating expenses, as greater car mileage per day, and a great Increase of trafiic. Electricity has undoubtedly come to stay. TELPHERAGE—-IS a special application of electric energy to traction for the conveyance of minerals and goods over a rough district, where the cost of railways is too great for practical use. A telpher line crosses rivers, roads, bridges, and valleys; and even when the whole of the line is erected over a territory continually rising, the telpher locomotive can easily be made to draw loads up gradients which cannot be done on an ordinary railway. In- genious means have been invented and practically applied to cause a telpher train to travel auto- matically, without any driver to control it. IV hen properly equipped a telpher train proceeds along the level and ascends or descends gradients at about the same speed. It is the great point in tel- pherage that the loads should be small, and that the trains should follow each other rapidly. Among the more recent telpher lines which have been made for the carriage of minerals is one at the Eastpool tin mine in Cornwall, England, over a mile and a quarter in length, for the transport of 1,000 tons of tin ore per week. ELECTRICAL Tnansrrrssron or PowER.—One of the most important applications of electricity to in- dustrial purposes which the modern development of the electric light has led to is the electrical transmission of power. Siemans a few years ago pointed out that no further loss of power was involved in the trans- formation of electrical into mechanical energy than is due to friction and to the heating of the conducting .. wires by the resistance ' they oppose. This loss, '1' careful researches have _ ' -A » ‘~‘\.;,:_.\_._;' _‘ demonstrated, need not be _‘ more than 13 per cent., _ - P provided there is no loss ? "2" in the connecting leads. .' The Paris Electrical Expo- sition of 1881 afforded in- ELECTRIC PERCUSSION DRILL'teresting illustrations of the performance of a variety of work by power electrically transmitted, including a short line of railway constructed by the firm of Siemans, which was a further development of the successful result already attained in Berlin by lVerner Siemans in the same direction, and was in turn surpassed by the considerably longer line worked by Messrs. jSiemans at the Vienna Exhibition two years ater. A further development of the electrical trans- mission of energy is to take place in the utilization of the power of Niagara, and a large tract of land about amile distant from the falls has been ac- quired for the purpose, with the view of erecting mills for utilizing the power, which it is proposed to transmit to distant towns. An International 627 Commission has been formed, which will carefully consider the problems involved in the execution of this grand scheme. STORAGE BATTERIES, on .ACCUMULATORS.--T118 problem how to save and store up the enormous amount of natural en- ergy which is daily dis- sipated in producing natural phenomena has _ , , long occupied the atten- I L .- ,‘-'_l tion of scientists.During . _ I the last few years this 0 attention has been es- ;-5-, pecially directed toward - electricity as an agent, and the result of experi- ,. ments has been the de- *- " " velopment of the elec- trical storage batteries. or accumulators, as they are sometimes called. In an interesting article on this subject, pub- lished in the “ Popular Science Monthly” for January, 1891, Prof. Samuel Sheldon states that the employment of these names for the appara- tus is very unfortunate. They are the cause of the popular idea that electricity, which is considered as a subtle, indefinite, and intangible something, is stored up in them, asvaluables are stored in avault. The commercial current electricity cannot, in large quantities, be stored and still preserve its character. It has but a flitting existence, and is no sooner pro- duced than it dissipates itself, and is converted into some other form of energy. The energy which a current may at any instant be said to possess is immediately transformed into heat in the circuit, which will under certain conditions produce light; into chemical energy; into motion, which may or may not produce sound; or into magnetic and electrotonic conditions. The last may either be permanent or have the same evanescent existence as the original current. lVhen electricity is employed to charge a storage battery, only that part which is transformed into chemical energy is used. The rest is dissipated. The battery, then, instead of being a place where electricity is laid away, is a place where chemicals are left by the current, with the expec- tation that they will in turn produce a current when called upon. This may seem a fine distinc- tion, but it is only apparently so. For instance, the current might be produced by a dynamo turned by Niagara water-power. The chemical left by it might be zinc deposited from a solution of zinc sul- phate. This might be transported, preserved, bought and sold, and finally be employed by some physicist to produce another current. To under- stand this transformation more clearly, and to ob- tain a clear idea of what goes on in a storage bat- tery, one must first become acquainted with that part of electricity which treats of the phenomena resulting when a current of electricity passes through a liquid. This is called electrolysis, and the liquid through which a current can be made to pass is called an electrolyte. If a current of elec- tricity flows into a liquid solution of any metallic salt by means of a wire. and if, after traversing it, it flows out through another wire, then it will, by its passage, separate the salt into two parts and deposit the metal upon the latter wire. If, for instance, the solution be one of silver cyanide, then silver will be deposited on the second wire. If a brass fork be connected with this wire and dipped in the so- lution. it will receive a coating of silver by the pro- 177?? /1 if, ' | 1/ . ' \ . 1vP""==:-' KQYFF‘ , 1,‘ ‘ T ‘ ' - \\ i‘€: \ -.'.r.‘ up ~:-'. ‘gt ‘ 2 if it 1. $\‘~ \ \ ‘ti '5 ; ;\ &;|:\ k .<-‘Si. : I-.\\;~ Z1‘ ELECTRICAL ACCUMULATOR. cess and will be silver-plated. Substitute asolution M8 of nickel nitrate, and the article would become nickel-plated. By using copper sulphate, the faces of types and cuts are coated with copper, which in- creases their hardness, and consequently their en- durance. The simplest storage battery, then,would seem to be one constructed of two copper plates suspended in a solution of some zinc salt. A current of elec- tricity passed into this would deposit zinc upon one of the plates. After disconnecting the charg- ing current, the battery of itself would give off a current until the zinc was redissolved. It might be well, right here, to define a primary battery. If any two different metals be dipped in an acidulated liquid, and if their external extremities be con- nected by wire a current of electricity will flow through the wire. Such a combina- tion is called a primary bat- tery. Under the same con- ditions the amount of elec- tricity obtained depends upon the character of the metals. If nickel and iron were employed, a small amount of electricity would result. If, however, zinc be used in connection with either silver, gold, platinum, carbon, or copper, a large ‘ “ ' ' amount is obtained. The PRIMARY BATTERY first three of the group are very expensive; hence, in most primary batteries, we find zinc combined with either carbon or copper, the differences between the various forms arising from difference in the liquids employed, or in the shape of construction. Furthermore, pieces of the same metal under different phys- ical conditions, when combined with each other, will give a current. For instance, a piece of polished iron opposed to a rusty piece gives a cur- rent; and a plate of very rusty lead, if we may use the expression, combined with a piece of bright lead, yields even more current than zinc or carbon. Un- fortunately, lead does not rust sufficiently well to suit electricians, and other physical reasons pre- vent its being used in primary batteries. It will thus be seen that a storage battery, when once charged, becomes nothing more or less than a pri- mary battery. In the case before described, after charging, we have zinc and copper in a solution of zinc sulphate. In describing the effects of electricity in passing through an electrolyte, we have assumed that the liquid contained a metal in solution. Su pose, now, that we take water, which has no metalhn it, and subject it to the action of the current. The electricity can get no metal to deposit on the wire, Where it passes out, and in consequence does the next best thing, and leaves one of the components of the water—namely, hydrogen gas. The other component, oxygen, collects around the entrance wire. The English physicist, Grove, showed that if these two wires, around which the gases had col- lected, were connected together, a current of elec- tricity would flow the same as if there were two metals instead of two gases. Now, water is cheap, and if there were not some serious difficulties as regards efliciency, Grove’s battery would be uni- versally employed. It was reserved, however, for M. Gaston Planté to construct the first practical secondary battery. He considered the following points in its construction: IVater is cheap; water, when subjected to the electric current, gives off oxygen and hydrogen; rusty lead, when combined 2;!‘ 7- I 1-; .- ' aw ,-_-_ _ V 2*“ 1”” a‘_ "' wrw " . 1 ,.*-*@i’Z"'*3"’»-1”""‘i-e-, .r.-,.,*-;>1Sr*" - -. ,» L 7‘-1-£:u'\W”.§\-*5-Z-sv::r..h_1 - F I 5;’ ".';"<'.*:'”i .- -_f-r 2;,‘ -=""'"— 2: A-nix _ -f. rfinsx. -, - ' w~ 7 A “ 1 {W 59 ' '\ ‘ "__‘ _ ~~ ‘ ‘ ' I‘ / I " -‘,1 v-. 1 *‘ l .. ‘‘ ELECTRICITY with bright lead, has a high electro-motive force; oxygen makes lead rusty, and hydrogen makes it bright. His battery consisted, then, of two lead plates suspended in water, which contained a little sulphuric acid to assist in the conduction. When a current of electricity was passed through, hydro- gen was thrown off at one plate, making it bright, and oxygen at the other plate, peroxidizing its sur- face. IVhen the charging source was removed, the altered plates would send off a current which was in a direction opposite to the one which had charged them, and this would keep until the plates had as- sumed their original condition. Planté’s choice of materials was most wise, and all practical storage batteries of to-day are but modifications of this style. In order that his battery might give a strong current, and one that would last a long time, it was found necessary that his two lead plates should be as near to each other, and that they should be as large as possible. He accomplished both of these ends with economy of space by winding large plates into a spiral form, they being separated from each other by strips of rubber. In charging this battery, care must be exercised that the current be not too strong; otherwise the gases would be sent ofi too rapidly for the lead to take them up, and they would then rise to the top of the liquid and escape into the air. The elec- trical energy which separated them would thus be lost. It accordingly takes a long time to charge a new Planté battery to its full capacity. After being subjected to the current for a day or two, it will be found that the plate which received the oxygen has changed its physical character; instead of having a smooth surface, it presents a spongy appearance, having little holes and cavities in it, and thus exposes a larger superficial area. If the battery be now discharged, and be again subjected to the charging current, it will be found that a much stronger current may be used than at first, without any gas escaping. This is owing to the much larger surface exposed and to its spongy character. This original char ing of a new bat- tery, to change the character of the lead surfaces, has been termed formation, and, inasmuch as only one plate is altered by a charge in one direction, a complete formation consists in a charging in two directions. From what has been said it will be seen that the electricity which is used for charging an accum u- lator is apparently used in the production of oxy- gen and hydrogen gases. These are made to oxidize one plate and clean up the other. Now, an inter- esting question arises, whether it would not be more economical to employ gases, which can be more cheaply produced through chemical means. Difficulties, however, arise here; for the oxygen of electrolysis is generated in the form of nascent oxy- gen, which is far more active than ordinary oxygen. A molecule of the ordinary gas contains two ele- mentary atoms, which work upon each other; with the electrolytic generation, however, a single atom is sent off, and this is chemically very active. It is sometimes called ozone; but chemists say that‘a molecule of ozone contains three atoms. Now, there is no known method of chemically manufac- turing ozone in lar e quantities, and ordinary oxy- gen does not pro uce the desired effect. Again, Planté’s supposition that the charging current pro- duced these two gases only, is incorrect. The sul- phuric acid in the water, which be supposed only assisted in the conduction, really acts upon the lead in forming lead sulphate. This has its use in preventing the charged battery from running down when not in use, and from too rapidly expending itself when put to use. ELECTRICITY The storage battery is susceptible of many im- provements, chiefly in respect of increasing its durability. A more perfect system is much to be desired. The advance made in the past few years in this direction has been encouraging, and to prophesy that a practicable system will be pro- duced before the world is many years older (in fact, in dealing with electricity, whose development is so rapid, we might say months instead of years), is to make a very safe prophesy indeed, as the en- tire history of electrical and mechanical invention points to such a conclusion. Pomon AND FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS.--In the police and fire alarm signaling system in use in Boston, Mass., and several other cities, numbered signal boxes, containing telephones and automatic sig- naling instruments, are placed on every patrol- man’s beat, and are electrically connected with the 629 police station. From them the patrolman can either telephone or automatically transmit ‘mes- sages to the station, or the station house can signal the patrolman. Citizens can also summon police assistance from any signal box. The signaling system consists of three distinct and non-interfer- ing methods of communications : namely, automatic and manual signaling from the street stations to the station house, automatic and manual signaling from the station house to the street stations, and telephonic communication between the street sta- tions and the station house and vice versa. These are arranged to operate over a single metallic circuit. The signaling from the street stations to the station house is further divided into two classes: alarm signals, comprising signals directing the station house to send a patrol wagon or ambulance, or to use the telephone; and “ patrol” or “ on duty” Fig. 1.—-POLICE AND SIGNAL SYSTEM.-'-STATION HOUSE DESK, SHOWING REGISTER, TIME-STAMP, ETC. signals, which indicate at the station house the movement of the patrolmen over the territory un- der their charge. The signaling from the station house to the street station is accomplished by the use of currents of electricity of a different charac- ter from those employed to signal from the street station to the station house, and they sound a bell in the street station to indicate the reception by the station house of an alarm signal, or to an- nounce to the patrolman that the station house de- sires to speak to him by telephone. The telephones are inductively connected with the circuit, and they are so arranged, with relation to the signaling part of the system, that conversation may be car- ried on between two or more points, signals may be sent from a street station to the station house, and from the latter to the former, all simultaneously over asingle wire without interference or confusion. Figure 1 illustrates the station house desk, show- ing register, electric time-stamp, etc. Figure 2 shows a signal box in position to be operated with a citizen’s key. Figure 4 shows a signal box with the door open. while Figure 3 shows the stable ap- paratus for patrol-wagon service. \Vhen the door of the signal box is open (Fig. 4), a large dial and pointer, the automatic signal pull cooperating therewith, a telephonic receiver and transmitter, are exposed to view. Upon the dial are inscribed the alarm signals as desired. Upon the inside of the dial is mounted the signaling mechanism, in- cluding a gong to receive and sound the signal sent from the station house. By turning the pointer to 630 the service required and operating it by the pull, any one of the inscribed signals may be automat- ically transmitted. A push button is also provided to communicate with the station when a connect- ing wire is broken. A call for the patrol-wagon may be sent from the outside with the door closed, by simply inserting a key, termed the “citizen’s key,” into a key-hole at the front of the box and turning it as far as it will go. This key cannot be withdrawn until the door is opened. A master-key is carried by each patrolman. The boxes are made of iron, very strong and substantial. The pointer may be turned to the right or left, and the act of Closing the door always sets it back to the zero or starting-point. The receiving cabinet to be used at the station house (Fig. 1) is carefully con- structed and wired, and serves as a very conven- ient operating table. The signals received from 1' ‘NH \‘fl or- 'l‘-r ]{l,,i}||li il|'|ll| 1111111,i _ *1 Q12-1'-9.1.‘-'11 _ . 0 1 , ‘I 1 r - "- L Fig. 2.—SIGNAL Box.—IN POSITION To BE OPERATED WITH " CITIzEN’s” KEY. the street stations are recorded in ink automat- ically upon a paper tape, which also receives the impression of an automatic time and date stamp, so as to mark upon the tape the exact time at which each signal is received. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT BY ELECTRICITY.-—Of all the potent forces capable of producing death, there is none known to science more nearly instantaneous than electricity. In the ordinary occurrence in nature, where a person struck by lightning falls dead, nothing can be more sudden or rapid. And where electricity is generated artificially for illuminating purposes, the interruption of the alternating current by the intervention of or con- tact with any portion of the human body is in- variably followed by the most serious consequences to the latter. Numerous cases of accidental death by such contacts have been recorded during the , ELECTRICITY past few years, and in every case the action of the current was so instantaneous as to leave not the shadow of a doubt that death was literally quicker than thought. The body was not mutilated; there were no indications of any death-struggle; none of physical pain. Respiration and heart-action in- stantly ceased, and electricity, with a velocity equaling that of light, destroyed life before nerve- sensation, at a speed of only one hundred and eighty feet per second, could reach the brain. I“ ~ 1 '3 “Jill I I ‘R .4 1|“ 5 :' ‘I- 1| | I l'I'|;'1|"i|I['|.|' J'.'*'-.}' I I ll I | I1, I , dlll ;r,. ' !l“llJ."'i“l:"L-. A _ _ V-_--_ ‘ "-_-__.,_. I-_ -- ‘a Fig. 4.-—STAIBLE APPARATUS, FOR PATROL WAGON sERvICE. Recognizing the advantages of electricity as a death-dealing agent, the legislature of the State of New York in 1888 amended its Code of Criminal Procedure by substituting for the death penalty by hanging the “ causing to pass through the body of the convict a current of electricity of suflicient intensity to cause death; and the application of such current must be continued until such convict is dead.” The first “electrocution” under this provision of the law took place in the State-prison at Auburn, N. Y., Aug. 6, 1890. After a few pre- liminaries the victim, William Kemmler, was ELECTRICITY Seated in a large oak chair, and securely confined with straps. An electrode, formed of a rubber cup containing a sponge wet with sodium chloride, was pressed down upon a spot upon the murderer’s ead, from which the hair had been closely cropped. The other electrode was similar in construction, but was attached to a stifi‘ spring, which projected upward from the seat of the chair. This was placed in contact with the bared skin at the base of the spine. The warden gave a pre-arranged signal to an assistant stationed at the switchboard in an adjoining room, who turned the switch and closed the circuit. There was a sudden momentary convulsion of the victim, and apparently all was over. Death appeared to be instantaneous and painless. In 17 seconds the current was turned off, WI“ l‘v!'*l‘l%=lm 1¢|;i' ‘ if : it11‘!iliniiimwilijid[ii§iifi§i“* lj 'l'Ir'i;i.ll*'lll'illl“i l it ill ll ~"' ‘j;’rfl,:.; l jl‘_."' 1 i:1\jl|;l1 .g u._._- Ir," “" U‘; fill‘. M“: _;‘._"li| - ,1. - ,,l . P3’ P ‘I if W E! {H l I M 48 \ W v~ X, W l I, ‘ M l _.,..' .__: 631 and the body at once collapsed. A moment later, however, Kemmler gave signs of life, and the cur- rent was turned on a second time, the circuit re- maining closed for a period of about four minutes, and until smoke was noticed curling upward from the two points of contact, and the pungent and sickening odor of burning hair and flesh pervaded the room. When the current was finally shut off, and the straps removed, the body collapsed and sunk in a heap on the chair. The facts regarding this first execution were so surrounded with secresy, prejudice and interest, that it is difiicult to arrive at a true understanding of the actual condition of affairs. The physicians in attendance disagree as to whether Kemmler was killed by the first or second shock. They agree .,jj . . -' (11 ‘ gr 1%‘; :mfi§ " :51 I ll}! ll " ~__ :¢- ‘W 1 9 I» Fig. 4.--SIGNAL IBOX.—DOOR ornn READY non ornnsrron. only that he was unconscious from the instant the fatal current first touched him, and hence that his death was painless, if not instantaneous. TEMPERING STEEL WITH ELEGTRICITY.—-An inter- esting application of electricity to the arts con- sists of tempering watch-springs by means of the electric current. A one-light dynamo is connected with an ordinary oil-tempering bath. One of the conductors connects with a point within the oil- bath, and the other with a point without. The piece of flat, soft steel wire that is to be tempered to the blue color is fed under the contact-point on the outside of the bath first, and then under the one on the inside. When it reaches the latter the circuit is complete, and the steel ribbon immedi- ately and uniformly becomes heated. No means have been devised to measure the current exactly for the purpose of doing the work mechanically. The variation in the percentage of carbon in dif- ferent pieces of steel forbids the delicate process of j tempering from becoming a purely mechanical piece of work. Therefore. with the electric current as with a fire, the color of the steel determines the length of time that it shall be heated. This pro- cess of tempering has several advantages. The chief one is, that the steel does not have time to oxidize, after it has been heated to the proper color, before it is under cover of the oil, and consequently that the steel ribbon is of the same thickness as it was before it entered the process. The heating is uni- form throughout the length of the spring, and there is less liability of defective spots. The pro- cess is a rapid one, the springs being heated and passing into the bath at the rate of four inches per second. Rnnuorron OF Om-:s.——One of the most important of the recent industrial applications of electricity is the reduction of refractory metallic ores by a method based upon the resistance of a mass of car- bon to the electric current. The furnace is built 6% of fire-bricks, and is rectangular in shape. Two carbon electrodes similar to those used, in arc lights, are passed through opposite walls of the furnace. The ore of the metal intended for reduc- tion is mixed with coarsely pulverized gas carbon, and formed into a sort of long core, the ends of which are connected with the electrodes referred to above. The furnace is filled with finely powdered charcoal, forming a bed in which the core of gas carbon and metallic ore rests. The charcoal pos- sessing greater resistance to the electric current than the gas carbon, nearly all the current passes through the core; and the walls of the furnace, which would otherwise be destroyed by the intense heat, are protected from injury. When the poles of a powerful dynamo-machine are connected with the electrodes, and the current sent through the central core, owing to its great resistance, an in- tense heat is developed, far surpassing that of the most powerful blast-furnaces. The most refractory oxides are unable to withstand the temperatures attained in this furnace. Aluminium, boron, silicon, manganese, sodium, and potassium, are all quickly reduced to the metallic state, and the charcoal it- self is changed to graphite in considerable quan- tities. Valuable results are expected from this process, not only in the cheapening of the cost of ELECTRICITY certain metals and alloys, but also in an increased knowledge of the behavior of different elements at I TW 1 THE DEATH PENALTY BY ELECTRICITY. temperatures hitherto unattainable, and the conse- quent aid to investigations in theoretical chemistry. ‘WELDING A. BAR BY ELECTRICITY. WELDING METALS BY ELEo'rRIoI'rY.—Another im- portant application of electric heating is the electric welding process. The parts to be welded are clamped in vises and pressed against each other at the point where it is intended to unite them. A current of great heating power is then passed through the joint by suitable cables fastened to the vises, and the joint is brought to a melting heat and cooled off again before the heat has had time to spread any distance through either piece. The scaling or defacing of the work by the action of the coals when buried in a blacksmith’s fire is thus avoided, and the risks of a bad joint from the presence of ashes or dirt are entirely disposed of. For the same reason very little flux is required. The nature of the joint produced is a little differ- ent from an ordinary weld. Instead of being ham- mered into a union at a red heat, the parts are actually melted together and frozen in an instant. RANGE—F1NDING AT SEA BY ELEo'rRIoITY.—-The latest advance in the art of finding distances at sea has been made in the United States, and re- sults have been obtained which show that the problem of making accurate and quick range measurements by automatic means has finally been solved. People discovered long ago that marine wars could not be ended by paving the bottom of the ocean with cannon balls, and sea captains were instructed not to engage an enemy until he came within point-blank range, which is the distance over which the shot will fly before striking the water when the gun is fired at level from its port on board ship. This distance was then about 500 yards. The greater accuracy of modern weapons has increased this fighting distance, but still no naval conflict has been fought with a greater distance be- tween the contending vessels than that of 1,100 yards. At any greater distance the firing was very inaccurate, not only because it is harder to hit a target at 1,500 yards than at 1,000 yards, but princi- pally because it was difficult to ascertain the exact distance, and hence to determine the exact elevation required for the gun. To insure effectiveness, therefore, beyond point-blank range the exact dis- ELECTRICITY tance must be ascertained, and as the target (an enemy’s ship) is usually in rapid motion, this measurement must be made instantaneously and automatically, and without calculation. This is now accomplished by the invention of Lieutenant Bradley~A. Fiske, of the U. S. Navy. The appa- ratus is by no means complicated, and involves nothing but simple elementary principles in math- ematics and electricity. It is based on the familiar mathematical proposition that if two angles and one side of a triangle are known, the other two sides of the triangle can easily be found. The Fiske range-finder, however, eliminates all calcu- lations, and finds the range automatically. A base- line fixed once for all on the ship is the known side of the imaginary triangle. The distance of the ob- ject is represented by either of the other two sides. The target, therefore, is at one angle of the imagi- nary triangle; and at the other angles, at the ex- tremities of the fixed base-line, are placed two spy- glasses, which can be directed upon it. As these spy-glasses are turned into the proper position they move over and touch wires which are bent in the form of arcs. The difference in length of the wires passed over corresponds mathematically to the distance of the object. As this length of wire in- creases or diminishes, it will offer more or less re- sistance to an electrical current sent through it. A very simple electrical contrivance, amounting practically to a balance, allows this resistance to be measured and read, not in units of resistance, but in yards. The two spy-glasses being pointed at the target, the observer at each spy-glass has nothing to do but to keep it thus pointed. Elsewhere in the ship another observer may stand at a tele- phone listening to a buzzing sound produced by an electrical device known as a circuit breaker, and simultaneously moving with one hand a pointer over a graduated scale. The instant the buzzing in the telephone stops he reads the range denoted by the pointer from the scale, and conveys the in- formation by a simple form of telegraph to the men at the guns. While Lieutenant Fiske’s invention finds its most immediate use for military purposes, it is not with- out peaceful adaptations. Many a ship has gone ashore, even in sight of land, through an error of judgment on the part of her navigator as to her distance from the coast. The range-finder will not only prevent such misjudgment, but even at night, when the friendly beacon seems to stand out like an isolated star in the midst of the black chaos of sky and water, the mariner may learn with cer- tainty his distance from the perilous shoal or reef. AN ELECTRIC PINNACE.——A wooden pinnace called the “Electric,” built for the Royal Engineers, to be propelled by electricity, has recently been launched in England. She is 38 feet 6 inches long over all, by 8 feet 9 inches beam. Her mean draught is 2 feet 3 inches, with all machinery in position and 40 persons on board. The hull is built of mahogany and is unpainted. The motive power is electrical, there being 70 accumulators, having 19 plates each. They have a discharging current of 1 to 40 amperes and 120 ampere hours. The power is transmitted from the accumulators to a motor discharging 82 amperes at full power, the propeller rotating at 800 revolutions. The propeller is 22 inches in diam- eter, and is of delta metal. The maximum break- horse power is 51/4, which is said to give a mean speed through the water of 81/4 miles per hour. The motor is a single magnet machine, designed especially for marine propulsion. The boat will run from 8 to 12 hours with one charge of the ac- cumulators. The total weight of all machinery is 2% tons, the displacement being 4% tons. There 633 are two masts, each carrying a balance lug-sail, there being also a stay-sail forward. The sail spread is about 350 square feet. With the effective lead ballast, given by the accumulators, the boat should perform well under canvass, especially in view of the small propeller that is characteristic of electrical vessels. ELECTRIC ALARM TIIEI-:IIoMETEE.—-A recent in- vention is the application of an electric alarm to a thermometer, causing the ther- mometer to sound an alarm when- ever the temperature rises above or falls below any required point. It is designed for use in offices, schools, hospitals, breweries, and all places where the maintenance of an equable temperature is de- sired. Its construction will be readily understood by reference to the accompanying illustration. The electrical alarm can be ar- ranged to sound at any distance from the thermometer, and the device can thus be used to sound an alarm in case of fire. ALTERXATING CURRENT FAN Mo- ToR.——Another interesting device is a fan motor for use with alter- nating currents. The motor is simple in design and light in weight, and will drive a 12-inch fan at 1,000 revolutions per min- ute with a current of about one Z; ampere. The whole apparatus,* motor and pedestal, as illustrated, weighs only about 15 pounds, thus rendering it very portable. The motor comprises an arc- ELECTRIC shaped laminated field magnet and a continuously wound drum armature, having a finely laminated core and a commutator, the field magnet and armature windings being connected in series relation. The motor is used on a 50-volt transformer circuit, and exhibits almost no spark- ing. The simplicity of the device is one of its chief recommendations, presenting many analogous points of construction to a direct current motor, except its fine lamination, which adapts it for al- ternating currents. There is very little heating of the iron when the motor is in operation. It is adapted to a number of commercial and domestic uses, in which but little power is required, such as the operating of fans, and the driving of sewing- machines. AN ELECTRIC Aw.IxENER.——-One of the latest elec- trical novelties consists of an ordinary alarm clock with an electrical attachment, which includes in circuit one of the rollers at the bottom of the legs of the bed. When the hour arrives at which the sleeper has set the alarm, his weight closes the cir- cuit and the bell rings, and continues to ring until the sleeper gets ofi‘ the bed. A spring is adjusta- ble to the weight of the person. ELECTRICITY IN l\IACHINE BELTII\'G:--—IIl a dry at- mosphere and between shafting practically insu- lated by wooden blocks, or other non-conducting means of support for the bearings, a troublesome development of electricity sometimes takes place with machine belts driven at a high velocity. The pulleys become veritable frictional electric ma- chines, excited by the rubbing of the belting. Herr Bacher, inspector of lighting at the Dresden Thea- ter, declares that very powerful eifects may be produced by this means. A Leyden jar has been charged in afew seconds, giving sparks -1 millime- I y~."_1 .18 i I| ‘A ALARM THERMOMETER. A ters long when discharged. It is probable that to 6% this cause may be attributed many disastrous fires, which are generally classified as spontaneous. Flour mills, factories in which the air is heavily charged with floating organic fibers of all kinds, are peculiarly subject to these mysterious confiagra- tions. All lines of shafting, therefore, should be metallically connected, through their bearings, with other masses of metal or the earth. ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICs.—The medical and surgi- cal relationships of electricity are so extensive that it is impracticable to give more than the brief- est mention in a work of this character. In the “International Medical Annual” for 1890, A. D. Rockwell, M. D., of New York, an acknowledged authority on this subject, asserts that electricity is a tonic of a very high order. It possesses varied influences of this kind, according to the method of its application, and therefore may be indicated in E I ‘. '. ‘ Q 1,.‘ 1/ I ,/I1 ‘ »L_ ‘\ " “' ' “' '4:-_ \ \ _ . "ll! '1 II ‘I I ""7::3Lfii3ll§i|.|l|. ll ‘ ' |LflL':"'!l, 1| ~'L. _—'_ ____--——____-______- _ ~' - --—:-"__._______---.. _ _ . ._ _ . - " . h . ' 4'-' ~ I ' 1: \ _ ’ - . ,’ ~ _ ELECTRICITY a multitude of symptoms, and for conditions appar- ently most diverse in their origin and character. Electricity may be said to be indicated whenever a constitutional tonic influence is called for. For the long period of convalescence following typhoid or typho-malarial fever, there is no remedy that is comparable with it; and in almost any condition where a constitutional tonic influence is indicated, electricity, in some one of its methods of applica- tions, is likely to be of more or less service. It gives passive exercise to the muscles; it promotes and renders more natural the processes of excre- tion and secretion; it corrects circulatory disturb- ances——in a word, it imparts tone and strength to both nerve and muscle. ‘ WVhile the consensus of opinion among those who have had any adequate experience in the use of electricity is that it is occupying a position of 7:“. H D . = *--=.;,;';.2% 1‘ ALTERNATING CURRENT FAN MOTOR. growing importance. there are yet differences of opinion in regard to its efflcacy. Dr. M. Allen Starr, in a paper on the “Physics and Physical Action of Electricity,” read at a meeting of the New York Academy of Medicine, March 21, 1889, stated: (1.) “Static electricity offered nothing more than the interrupted galvanic current, and failed to furnish those effects which were most de- sirable in the treatment of disease. (2.) The con- stant galvanic current could produce chemical changes which aided nutrition or destroyed tissue according to the strength employed. (3.) The con- stant galvanic current could transfer medicines into the body from without. (4.) The interrupted galvanic current or Faradic current could excite various organs to functional activity. (5.) It was questionable whether the pathological state caus- ing organic diseases could be in any way influenced by electricity. (6.) If functionahdiseases were benefited, it was in an uncertain manner, and the physiological indications for the agent were as yet uncertain. Dr. L. 0. Gray, in a paper on the effects of “Elec- tricity on Central Nervous Diseases,” claimed it to be an efficient remedy in relieving sub-acute mania, melancholia, the insanity of doubt, and functional insanities, but only in the period of convalescence, not in the acute stage. Of the gross cerebral dis- eases it might be said that it was useless to ad- minister electricity in brain tumors, meningitis of traumatic, epidemic, or aural origin, or in facial hemiatrophy. It was a useful adjuvant in intra- cranial syphilis, in the early stages of headache and insomnia. and sometimes in the later stages fol- lowing hemiple ia. Dr. W. R. Bir sall, in a paper on the “Effects of Electricity on Spinal-cord Diseases,” while ad- mitting that he had never seen a case of organic disease of the s inal cord cured by electricity, stated that he ha never seen such a case cured by any single therapeutic agent whatever. But for the relief of symptoms he had seen electricity serve amore useful purpose than any other. Electricity was essentially a stimulant, an exciter of living ELECTRICITY tissues. He believed, however, that the main benefit obtained from electricity in spinal-cord diseases was due to the peripheral impression. Dr.E. D. Fisher, in a paper on the “Effects of Electricity in Functional Nerve Affections,” con- sidered galvanism more important as a remedial agent in functional nervous diseases than was static or Faradic electricity; yet, in neurasthenic cases, static electricity had a stimulating and leasing effect. It was in functional diseases, gowever, with error in nutrition, and not organic troubles, that static electricity found its field of usefulness. Dr. A. D. Rockwell, in a paper on “Electricity in Peripheral Nerve Lesions,” declared that electric- ity sensibly hastened recovery in curable cases. While admitting that electricity possesses only a limited range of usefulness in severe lesions of either the central or peripheral nervous system, he thought it was one of the most efficient remedies we possess for the relief of the various symptoms associated with these lesions, while, for the re- moval of the finer nutritive disturbances that un- derlie many persistent neuralgias, the galvanic current was certainly a remedy of the greatest value. OURATIVE EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY.—-All interest- ing illustration of the curative effects of electricity is reported from Bangor, Me. A lady who, as it was supposed, had become a crippled paralytic for life, and had been advised by her physicians that she could not live more than three months, while waiting for death to set her free from her sufferings, was taken out for a ride on an electric street car. Although very exhaustive, the ride appeared to do her good, and each pleasant day thereafter the trip was repeated, the invalid clearly improving day by day. In about aweek her appetite showed a marked improvement, and her paralyzed limbs became more sensitive. In about two weeks a strange pricking sensation was felt in the hand and foot that were paralyzed, as if they were asleep. As both limbs had been without sensation for 12 years, this was deemed remarkable, and the rides were contin- ued with increased frequency. In five weeks she ex- changed her crutch for a cane, and in an other Week discarded the cane. All this time she had been taking no medicine, yet her strength steadily increased; and a few weeks later she was apparently entirely cured. One of Bangor’s leading physicians, who had been in attendance upon the lady, stated that her recovery was entirely due to the currents of electricity passing through the car. She was naturally sensitive, and what to most persons would have been too weak a current to have been felt, acted as a tonic to her, and coming when it did led to her recovery. ELECTRICITY AND HYGIENE.—-Not only is electric- ity a useful slave to the industrial world, doing the mechanical work and annihilating time and space—it also is an ally and helper of sanitary science, and is rapidly becoming one of the most beneficent of sanitary agents known. The use of electric lights in churches, public halls, theaters, and other places of public assembly has been of immense advantage to the purity of the air, hitherto vitiated by the combustion of gas, oil, and kindred agents that depend on atmospheric oxygen for their illuminating power. Within a very few years it has been discovered that a discharge of electric sparks through an at- mosphere laden with dust, has the effect of causing the dust to settle; and this discovery has been utilized in lead furnaces to free the air of the dele- terious fumes of volatilized lead. In flour mills, also, electricity is used to free the air from the im- 535 palpable dust which otherwise permeates the at- mosphere, and which is injurious to the health of the workmen, as well as greatly increasing the risk of fire, owing to its extreme inflammabil- 1 y. In the manufacture of alcohol from beet-sugar refuse as formerly carried on, the alcohol was lia- ble to be contaminated with the higher alcohols which rendered it both unpalatable and dangerous to health. An electrical apparatus has been de- vised by means of which a certain number of mole- cules of hydrogen are added to these noxious alco- hols, so that the distilled product is completely freed from their presence. Beverages prepared from the alcohol thus obtained are thus preserved from at least one deleterious admixture, and pub- lic health is so far the gainer. Many lives in mines have been saved by the use of electricity, not only as an illuminant, but also as a substitute for the fuse formerly employed in blasting. Scores of miners met their death because the fuse burned too quickly, not giving them time to reach a place of safety before the explosion; or if it burned too slowly, they often supposed it ha become extinguished, and on approaching to place another fuse in its place, were surprised by the de- layed discharge. Electricity induces the explosion at the precise moment desired, and if it fails the locality can be approached with perfect safety, as no discharge is possible until the electrical con- nection has been repaired. In electrotyping, the battery process has been substituted in place of the old gilding and silvering by the aid of mercury, which was highly injurious to the health of the workmen. Although it has been frequently asserted that the electric light affects the eyesight injuriously, no doubt much of the evil would be avoided if greater care were exercised in locating the lights. The fact that an incandescent lamp does not give out much heat and will - , not singe the hair or whiskers, is no reason why the lamp should be placed close to, or on a level with the eyes, where the light can shine directly in them. Incandescent lamps should be roperly placed and sha ed so as not to cast their rays directly on the eyes, and if these very sim- ple precautions are carried out, there will be no com- plaint of the injurious ef- fect of the electric light upon the eyesight. ' ELECTRICAL INJURIES.-~ The rapid introduction of electricity as a method of lighting, heating, motor CHICAGO CENTRAL ELECTRIC power and locomotion, to 0038 DESK LAMP- say nothing of its use in the telegraph and tel- ephone, has developed a new class of diseases and injuries, which must be taken into account in a general treatment of the subject of electric- ity. The means by which the electrical current does harm varies, naturally, with the form in Which it is used. The telegraph and telephone produce peculiar neuroses, due to the peculiar de- mand made upon the nervous system of the opera- tor, and not to the electrical current directly, and results in telegraphers’ cramp, aural and mental disorders, etc. Most of the observed cases of elec- trical injury come from the apparatus carrying electrical currents for lighting and power. Such in- 6 636 juries were formerly produced only by lightning, and were consequently rare. Electrical currents produce three kinds of severe accidents: (1) They kill at once; (2) they burn severely; or (3) they cause traumatic neuroses through mental and physical shock. Usually, if they burn severely they do not kill; hence, practi- cally the rule is, if contact with electrical wires does not kill, the victim gets only a burn or a harmless shock. In very rare cases the current seems to affect the nerves or nerve-centers, caus- ing paralysis. The minimum current safe to re- ceive is not definitely known. Probably 800 to 1,000 volts of continuous current, and a third less of alternating current, would not be fatal. The wires for lighting and for power carry the more danger- ous currents. PHOTOGRAPH on A LIGHTNING FLAsH——The accom- panying illustration is an exact copy of a photo- graph of a flash of lightning made by Joseph Gray, at Brixton, England, during a recent thunder storm. The flash presents a most striking and ec- centric appearance, gradually dying away at the right-hand side, apparently in the distance, until it becomes too faint to affect the sensitized plate. The zigzag and irregular form of most lightning flashes is a very peculiar circumstance, and is usually explained by supposing that the air in the direct path of the electric current becomes com- pressed and condensed by its passage, thus increas- ing its resistance to the current, which is obliged to change its direction, and pass through air of less density, according to the well-known law that an electric current always follows the path of least re- sistance. This is one of the most perfect and satisfac- tory photographs of a lightning flash yet obtained. AMUSING ELECTRICAL EXPERIMENT.——-Bodies charg- ed with unlike electricities attract each other, while similar electricities repel. This principle may be illustrated by a simple experiment, which, if successfully performed, is very amusing. Take two large books and place between their leaves a pane of glass so that it will form a bridge between the two books about an inch and a quarter above the surface of the table. Then out from tissue paper a number of small figures of men or animals, about three-fourths of an inch in height. Place them under the glass, and rub it briskly with a silk handkerchief. The figures will be attracted by the electrified plate; but, as soon as they reach the glass, they are repelled again to the table, thus per- orming a regular dance, which continues for some time after the rubbing of the glass is discontinued, and may be continued as long as desired by oc- casionally passing the handkerchief over the glass. To insure the success of the experiment, both glass and handkerchief must be dry and warm. ELECTRO—CHEMICAL ORDER OF THE ELE- MENTS. In the action of gases, liquids and sol- ids upon each other, as in the construction of galvanic batteries, it has been observed that certain elements are readily acted upon, and give rise to electric currents, whilst others are, under the same circumstances, comparatively passive. :' ELECTRO-CHEMICAL—ELEPHANT-SEAL This has led to the tabulation of the sim le sub- stances into a group, where the more readi y acted upon, or electro positive element, is placed at the one end of the series, and the less active, or electro- negative element, at the opposite end. The follow,- ing table will show the electric order of the major- ity of the elements: Electra-positive. Tin. Tungsten. Potassium. Bismuth. Molybdenum. Sodium. Copper. Vanadium. Lithium. Silver. Chromium. Barium. Mercury. Arsenic. Strontium, Palladium. Phosphorus. Calcium. Platinum. Iodine. Magnesmm. Gold. Bromine. Alummium. H drogen. Chlorine. Uranium. Si icon. Fluorine. Manganese. Titanium. Nitrogen. Nickel. Tellurium. Se1en1um. Cobalt. Antimony. Sulphur. Cadmium. Carbon. 0XYgen- Lead. Boron. Electra-negate'oe. ELECTROTYPIN G. See Bntannica,Vol. XXIII, p. 703. ELECTUARY, a form of medicinal preparation in which the remedy is enveloped or suspended in honey or syrup, so as to make a mixture of thick semi-fluid consistence. ELEGIT, ESTATE BY, the right in lands which is enjoyed by one who has acquired the land under writ of elegit. ELEGIT, WRIT or, a writ whereby a creditor in England can seize the lands of his debtor in satis- faction of his claim. A creditor who has seized the lands is not entitled to take the person of his debtor. ELEGY: in music, is a composition depicting feeling of mourning, sadness, longing, or ardent desire, and love. ELEMENTAL SPIRITS beings who, according to the popular belief of the Middle A es, presided over the four “elements,” living in an ruling them. The elemental spirits of fire were called Salaman- ders; those of water, Undines; those of the air, Sylphs; and those of the earth, Gnomes. ELEMENTS, in astronomy, are those numerical quantities, and those principles deduced from as- tronomical observations and calculations, which are employed in the construction of tables exhib- iting the planetary motions. They include the greatest, least, and mean distances of the Planets from the sun, the eccentricities of their orbits; their mean motions, daily and annual, with the motions of their aphelia ; and the inclinations of their orbits to the ecliptic; their masses and densities, etc. ELEPHANT, a geographical term of obvious origin, indicating various localities in Asia and Africa. ( 1.) Elephant Point, a promontory of Pegu, in Further India. It marks the west extremity of the mouth of the Rangoon, the most easterly arm of the Irrawaddy. It is in latitude, 16° 28’ N., and longitude 96° 25’ E. (2.) Elephant Bay, an inlet of the Atlantic, on the coast of Ben uela, Southwest Africa, in latitude 13° 14’ S., and ongitude 12° 33' E. (3.) Elephant Island, in Senegambia, about 100 miles up the Gambia. (4.) Elephant River, in the Cape Colony of South Africa. It enters the Atlan- tic after a course of 140 miles, about latitude 30%° S., and longitude 18° E. _ ELEPHANTINE, a small island of the Nile, ly- ing opposite Assouan, the ancient Syene, on the confines of Egypt and Nubia, in 24° 5' N. lat., and 32° 54’ E. long. The island was anciently called Abu, or the “ivory island,” from its having been the entrepot of the trade in that precious material. ELEPI-IANT—-SEAL (Mac'r'orh'1Inns leoninas or rojooseideus), also known as the sea elephant the argest of the seal family (Phocidae), and an inhab- itant of the seas of the Southern hemisphere (see *ELEPHA¢NT”s FOOT‘-ELIOT Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 444). It is sometimes 20 feet in length, with a circumference of about 18 feet at the thickest part, which is at the chest, im- mediately behind the fore-flippers or swimming- paws, the body tapering towards the tail. The color is grayish, bluish-gray, or more rarely black- ish-brown. The whole body is covered with very short hair, distributed in patches, giving it a spotted appearance somewhat like watered silk. The swimming-paws are large and powerful, and have five nails, the thumb-nail easily distin- guishable from the others; the hind-paws have not even the rudiments of nails, but are beautifully constructed, like the webbed foot of a bird. so as to expand, and increase the power of swimming. The true tail is very short, not more than six inches long. The head is larger in proportion than in many seals; the eyes are very large and prominent, with eyebrows of coarse hair; the whiskers are composed of very long and coarse spirally twisted hairs; there are no external ears; the canine teeth are remarkably large and massive, somewhat as- suming the character of tusks. The nose of the males is prolonged into a kind of proboscis. This animal becomes so fat that when crawling the whole body trembles as if it were a bag of jelly. The tongue is reckoned savory food; the skin is used extensively for carriage and horse harness. The oil yielded by this animal is clear, inodorous, and not liable to become rancid; one individual pro- duces as much as from 1,400 to 1,500 lbs. It is em- ployed chiefly in the manufacture of cloth. ELEPHANT’S FOOT, or Ho'r'rE1~i'ro'r’s BREAD (Testudinaria elephantipes), a plant of the natural order Dioscoreaceae, of which the root-stock forms a large fleshy mass, curiously truncate, or abruptly cut off at the end, so as somewhat to resemble an elephant’s foot, and covered with a soft, corky, rough and cracked bark. From this springs a climbing stem, which bears leaves and flowers. The root-stock is used as food by the Hottentots. ELEPHANT—SI-IREVV, a name applied to a num- ber of long-nosed, long-legged insectivora, forming the family Macroscelidse. They are natives of Africa, and are notable for their agile jumping over loose sand. They use their hind-legs somewhat like the kangaroo. There are two genera, llfacroscelides and Rh;/nchocyon, with fourteen species. See Britan- nica, Vol. XV, p. 402. ‘ ELEUSINE, a genus of grasses, chiefly natives of India and other warm climates, several of which are cultivated as grains. This is especially the case with E. corocana, an Indian species called Natclmee and Nagla Ragee, also Mand and Murwa, which has aggregated digitate spikes finally in- curved. The Thibetans make from this grain a weak sort of beer, much in use among themi E. sz‘r'i('ta is cultivated as a grain crop in the same parts of the world, and is, like the former, extremely pro- ductive. The grain called tocusso (E. tocusso) in Abyssinia is also a species of this genus. A decoction of E. Egg/ptiaca is used in Egypt for cleansin ulcers, and a drink made from the seeds is regar ed as useful in diseases of the kidneys and bladder. E. Indica, which has been naturalized in the Northern United States, is the common crab grass, also known as dog’s tail and wire grass. ELEUTI-IERIA BARK, a name not infrequently iven to the bark of the Croton Eleutlieria, also nown as Cascarilla Bark. It is called Eleutheria (or Eleuthera) Bark, because it is chiefly gathered on the island of Eleuthera. ELEVATED: wings turned upward are de- scribed in heraldry as elevated. ELEVATION: in architectural drawing, a repre- sentation of the flat side of a building, drawn with 637 mathematical accuracy, but without the slightest attention to effect. ELEVATION : in astronomy and geography, gen- erally the height above the horizon of an object on the sphere, measured by the arc of a vertical circle through it and the zenith. Thus, the elevation of the equator is the arc of a meridian intersected be- tween the equator and the horizon of the place. The elevation of the pole is the complement of that of the equator, and is always equal to the latitude of the place. The elevation of a star, or any other point, is similarly its height above the horizon, and is a maximum when the star is on the meridian. ELEVATOR. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 573. ELEVENTH, in music, is the interval of the oc- tave above the fourth. ELF ARROW—HEADS, ELFIN ARROWS, ELF BOLTS, ELF DARTS, ELF SHOT AND ELF STONES, names popularly given in the British Is- lands to the arrow-heads of flint which were in use at an early period among the barbarous tribes of Europe, as they are still in use among the Ameri- can Indians, the Esquimaux of the Arctic regions and the inhabitants of some of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. It was believed that elves or fairies, hovering in the air, shot these barbs of flint at cat- tle, and occasionally even at men. ELGIN, a city of Illinois, located in Kane county, on the Fox River, 36 miles northwest of Chicago. It is the center of a large dairy business, and has important manufactures, especially of watches, carriages, washing-machines, shoes, farming imple- ments, etc. The Elgin National IVatch Works em- ploy 3,000 skilled hands, and manufacture 1,800 watches daily. In addition to twelve public schools there is an academy, a Catholic seminary, a school of manual training, and a public library. The Northern Illinois Hospital for the Insane is located at Elgin. The growth of the city has been very rapid during the last decade. Population in 1880, 8,787 ; in 1890, 17,429. ELIAS, Mouxr ST., a mountain on the north west coast of America, in latitude 600 18' and in longitude 1400 30’ IV. It rises about 17,860 feet, or almost 3% miles above the sea, being visible to mariners at a distance of 50 leagues. ELIE. or ELY, a pretty little watering-place of Scotland, County of Fife, 23 miles northeast of Edinburgh (34 by rail). Population, 917. ELIOT, CHARLES 'W1LLI.4M, an American educa- tor, born in 1834. In 1854 he was appointed tutor in mathematics at Harvard; in 1858 became assistant professor in mathematics and chemistry; in 1861 taught chemistry in Lawrence Scientific School; from 1863 to 1865 studied chemistry in Europe; in 1865 became professor of analytical chemistry in the l\Iassachusetts Institute of Technology, and in 1869 was elected president of Harvard University. He is a member of many scientific and literary bodies, and is a popular public speaker. He has written various works on chemistry. ELIOT, GEORGE. See Cnoss, I\I.~iEIAN, in these Revisions and Additions. ELIOT, Jonx (1754-1813), an American clergy- man. He began to preach in 1776; was for a time chaplain of a Boston regiment, and from 1779 till his death was pastor of the New North Church of Boston. He published a Biograplmlcal Dictionary of Enfinmzt Clzaramrrs in New England. ELIOT, SAMUEL, an American author, born in 1821. From 1839 to 1841 he was in a Boston count- ing-house; spent four years in foreign travel; on his return taught private school; was professor of political science and history in Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., in 1856-64; its president, 1860-64; lecturer on constitutional law and political science, 638 1864-74 ; lectured at Harvard in 1870-73; was mas- ter of the Boston Girls’ High School in 1872-76; su- perintendent of the Boston public schools in 1878- 80; was an overseer of Harvard in 1866-72; and in 1868-72 was president of the American Social Sci- ence Association. He has published many works on historical and other subjects ELIXIR, a term in pharmacy which has come down from the days of alchemy, and is applied to various preparations, consisting mostly of solutions of aromatic and bitter vegetable substances in spirits of wine. The term tincture is now more common. ELIZABETH, MADAME (1764-94), a French prin- cess, sister of Louis XVI. ELIZABETH, a city of New Jersey, and county- seat of Union county (see Britannica, Vol. VIII, pp. 145—46). Although largely a place of residence for New York business men, Elizabeth has numer- ous manufactories, some of them of national im- portance. The Singer Manufacturing Company oc- cupies 32 acres, and employs 3,000 men in the man- ufacture of the Singer sewing-machines. The man- ufacture of cordage is another industry which has grown to large proportions. The city is supplied with excellent water, obtained from the Elizabeth River at its source at the base of the mountains 20 miles distant. The high school building, presented to the city by one of its citizens, Mr. Joseph Bat- tin, is one of the finest school buildings in the State. The city has a general hospital and dispen- sary, a home for aged women, and an orphan asy- lum. Library Hall has recently been completed at a cost of $50,000, and contains a large library. The public school system is divided into five branches of instruction: normal training for teachers, man- ual training, high school, grammar schools, and primary schools. In addition to these there are numerous private boarding and day schools, in- cluding a business college, with a preparatory col- Iege course. Population in 1880, 28,229; in 1890, 37,683. ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE, a term ap- plied to the mixed style which sprang up on the -decline of Gothic architecture. By some it is called the Tudor style, but that name belongs more correctly to the Perpendicular, or latest kind of Gothic. ELIZABETH CITY, the county-seat of Pasquo- tank county, N. C., on Pasquotank River. It has a deep, safe harbor, which can be entered by large vessels; has a park, State normal school, planing- mill, shingle factories, and cotton factories. It is 46 miles south of Norfolk, Va., with which it is con- nected by rail, and by the Dismal Swamp canal. ELIZABETH ISLANDS, the name given to 16 small islands off the coast of Massachusetts be- tween Buzzard’s bay and Vineyard sound. ELIZABETHTOWN, the county-seat of Essex county, N. Y., on Bouquet River, 125 miles north of Albany, situated in the vicinity of iron mines. ELIZABETHTOWN, a village and county-seat of Hardin county, Ill., on the Ohio River, situated in a lead-bearing region. ELIZABETHTOWN, a railroad junction and county-seat of Hardin county, Ky., 42 miles south- West of Louisville. ELIZABETIITOWN, a village of Lancaster county, Pa., 18 miles northwest of Lancaster city. It manufactures farming implements. EL-KHARGEH, capital of the Great Oasis, Upper Egypt, situated in latitude 250 28’ N., longi- tude 300 40’ E. In the vicinity of the town are nu- merous ruins, among which are those of a temple; there is also a remarkable necropolis. Population, Q 0 ELIXIR—-ELLET ELKHART, a city of Indiana, situated at the confluence of the St. Joseph and Elkhart Rivers, in, Elkhart county, in the northern part of the State. The town was settled in 1832, and incorporated as a city in 1875. The streets are well paved and lighted with gas and electricity. The principal manufactures are musical instruments,flour,starch,. paper, carriages; it has iron foundries and planing mills. The locomotive shops of the Lake Shore railroad are located here. Population in 1880, 6,953; in 1890, 11,370. ELKHORN, a railroad junction and county-seat of Walworth county, Wis. It is situated in a rich farming district. ELKHORN RIVER rises in the north-eastern part of Nebraska, flows southeast, and enters the Platte River. It is about 250 miles long. ELK POINT, a railroad junction and county- seat of Union county, South Dakota, on the Mis. souri river, 21 miles northwest of Sioux City. ELK RIVER, the county-seat of Sherburne county, Minn., situated 38 miles northwest of St. Paul, and on the Elk and Mississippi Rivers. It has many manufactories. and its principal business is lumber, stock and grain. ELK RIVER rises in Rich Mountains in West Virginia, flows westward for 150 miles and enters the Great Kanawha River at Charleston. ELKTON, the county-seat of Cecil county, Md., at the head of navigation on Elk River, 52 miles northeast of Baltimore. Flour. iron and paper are here manufactured. The place was settled by Swedes in 1694. ELL, a measure of length now little used. It was originally taken in some vague way from the arm, and hence has been used to denote very dif- ferent lengths. The English ell, as a measure of cloth, is equal to five-quarters of a yard. ELLAND, a town of England. in the West Rid- ing of Yorkshire, on the river Calder, three miles southeast of Halifax by rail. It has cloth-mills and there are valuable stone-quarries in the vicin- ity. Population, 8,278. ELLENRIEDER, MARIE, a female painter os very high excellence, born at Constance in 1791’ studied in Munich, and in 1820 went to Rome tr perfect her knowledge of art. On her return to Germany she painted a Martyrdom of St. Stephen as an altar-piece for the Roman Catholic Church at Karlsruhe. She was afterwards appointed court- painter at Munich, but subsequently fixed her residence at Constance, and devoted herself ex- clusively to her profession. Among her prinoipal, pieces are the Trans guratton of St. Bartholemy, Christ Blessing Little htldren, Mary and the Infant Jesus, Joseph and the Infant Jesus, St. Cecilia, Faith, Hope and Charitjz/, and a Madonna. ELLENVILLE, a thriving villa e of Ulster county, N. Y., 30 miles west of the Iudson River, situated at the foot of Shawangunk Mountains. It has fine public and private buildings, is a favorite summer resort, and the seat of Ulster Seminary. Glass, cutlery, leather, stoneware pottery, and boats are here manufactured. ELLERY, WILLIAM (1727-1820), a Signer of the Declaration of Independence. He began the prac- tice of law in 1770; became a member of the Conti- nental Congress in 1776, continuing in office till 1786, with the exception of the years 1780 and 1782; was commissioner of the Continental loan ofiice for Rhode Island in 1786; for a time was chief justice of the Rhode Island superior court; and from 1790 till his death was collector of Newport. ELLET, CHARLES (1810-62), an American civil engineer. After spending some time in engineer- . ing pursuits in the United States he completed his H ELLICOTT-—-ELLSWORTH education in Europe. He was connected for a time with various railroads in America, and was chief engineer of the James and Kanawha canal. In 1842 he built the wire suspension bridge across the Schuylkill River at Philadelphia, the first of its kind on the continent. In 1847 he planned and built the suspension bridge over the Niagara River, and later built a suspension bridge at Wheeling, Va. He afterwards engaged in numer- ous important engineering works, and in 1861 was commissioned colonel of engineers in the army. While on duty on the Mississippi River, off Mem- phis, he received a musket-ball wound above the knee, from the effects of which he died. EIJl~COTT, CHARLES J01-IN, bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, born at Whitwell, near Stamford, April 25, 1819. He graduated from Cambridge University in 1841, and was elected fellow of St. J ohn’s College. In 1848 he became rector of Pilton, Rutlandshire, and professor of divinity at King’s College, London, in 1858; Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1859, and Hulsean professor of divinity the year after. He was nominated dean of Exeter in 1861, and raised to the episcopal bench in 1863. Dr. Ellicott was chairman for eleven years of the New Testament Revision Committee, and he is well known as a commentator on the Epistles of the New Testament. ‘ ELLICOTT CITY, the county-seat of Howard county, Md., on the Patapsco River, 10 miles south- west of Baltimore. It has two cotton factories, a large fiouring mill, a barrel factory, machine shop, a foundry, and three colleges. ELLICOTTVILLE, a village of Cattaraugus county, N. Y., on Great Valley Creek, 44 miles southeast of Buffalo, on the Rochester and State line railroad. ELLIOT, JEAN (1727-1805), the author of The Flowers of the Forest, a touching lyric on the disaster of Flodden. The greater part of her life was spent in Edinburgh. ELLIOTT, ROBERT VVOODWARD BARNWELL (1840- 87), an American P. E. bishop. He entered the Confederate army at the beginning of the civil war, and attained the rank of major. In 1868 he took deacon’s orders; was ordained priest in 1871, and the same year became pastor of St. Philip’s church in Savannah, Ga. In 1874 he was consecrated mis- sionary bishop of western Texas. ELLIOTT, STEPHEN (1771-1830), an American naturalist. In 1793 he became a member of the legislature of South Carolina, and continued in office until 1812, when he became president of the bank of the State. He was one of the founders of the Literary and Philosophical Society of South Carolina; in 1825 was instrumental in the estab- lishment of the State Medical College, and was its rofessor of natural history and botany. He pub- ished a work on The Botany of South Carolina and Georgia. ELLIOTT, STEPHEN, JR. (1806-66), an Ameri- can P. E. bishop, son of the naturalist. He prac- ticed law from 1827 to 1833; was ordained deacon in 1835; was professor of sacred literature in South Carolina College; took priest’s orders in 1836; be- came first bishop of the diocese of Georgia in 1840; in 1841 was made rector of St. John’s church, Savannah, and in 1844 became provisional bishop of Florida. Subsequently he was rector of Christ’s church, Savannah, until his death. ELLIOTT, IVILLI.-iii, a lawyer, born in Beaufort, S. C., Sept. 3, 1838. He was educated at Beaufort College, Harvard University, and the University of Virginia; entered the profession of law in Charleston, S. C., in 1861, and served as an oflicer in the Confederate army during the war of the j 639 Rebellion. In politics he is a Democrat, and was elected a member of the State legislature and in- tendant of Beaufort in 1866; was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1876 and 1888, and a Democratic Presidential elector for the State at large in 1880. He was elected a Repre- sentative from the Seventh Congressional District of South Carolina to the 50th Congress; was de- clared elected to the 51st Congress, but was un- seated by the House of Representatives. He was elefggg from the same district to the 52d Congress in . ELLIPSIS, a term used in grammar and rhet- oric to signify the omission of a word necessary to complete the expression or sentence in its usual form._ The object of ellipsis is shortness and im- pressiveness. ELLIS, ALEXANDER JOHN (formerly Sharpe, the name having been changed in 1825), F. R. S., Eng- lish philologist, born at Hoxton, near London, June 14, 1814; studied at Shrewsbury and Eton, graduated with high honors at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1837 , and studied law in the Middle Temple. He has published The Alphabet of Na- ture (1845); Essentials of Phonetics (18-18);Early English Pronunciation (1869) ; Speech in Song (1878); Basis of Music; and has translated Ohm’s Spirit of Mathematical Analysis and Helmholtz’s Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of llfusic. ELLIS, Gnonen EDWARD, an American clergy- man, born in 1814. He was ordained in 1840 as pastor of the Harvard Unitarian church, Charles- town, Mass., remaining there until 1869; was pro- fessor of systematic theology in Harvard Divinity School in 1857-63; was at one time editor of the “ Christian Register,” and later of the “ Christian Examiner.” In 1887 he became president of the Massachusetts Historical Society. He is the author of many works, principally of a biographical or historical nature. ELLIS, Ronrxsox, an English classical scholar, born at Banning, Kent, Sept. 5, 1834, and educated at Walthamstow, at Rugby, and at Oxford. He was elected a fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, and there remained till 1870, when he became pro- fessor of Latin in University College, London. Six years later he returned to Oxford. He has con- tributed a number of philological articles to Eng- lish and American periodicals, and has published critical editions of the lhis of Ovid and of the text of Catullus. ELLISTON, Ronnnr IVILLIAM (1774-1831), an English actor, born in London in 1774, and edu- cated at Cambridge. In 1791 he ran away from home, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath, where his Romeo lifted him to public favor. In 1819 he became lessee and manager oi Drury Lane Theater, but in 1826 he retired bank- rupt. Elliston was an actor of wonderful versai tility, the first comedian, and one of the first tra- gedians of his day;but dissipation shattered his health, and apoplexy caused his death, July 8 1831. ELLORE, a town in the Godavari district, Mad- ras, India, on the J ammaler River, 225 miles north of Madras, with manufactories of woolen carpets and saltpeter. The heat is very oppressive, reach- ing 1100 F. in the shade. Population, 25,092. ELLSIVORTH, a town of Kansas, and county‘ seat of Ellsworth county. It has good water works, parks, schools, churches, and mills. Rock salt has recently been here discovered 730 feet below the surface of the ground. ELLSIVORTH, the county-seat of Pierce county, VVis., 40 miles southeast of St. Paul, Minn. It has a stave-mill and steam saw-mill. 640 ELLSWORTH, OLIVER (1745-1807), an American jurist. He was admitted to the Connecticut bar in 1771; at the outbreak of the Revolution was chosen to represent Windsor in the general assem- bly; in 1778 took his seat as a delegate to the Con- tinental Congress, and from 1780 to 1784 was a member of the governor’s council. In 1783 he was reélected to Congress, but declined to serve. He became 'udge of the Connecticut superior court in 1784, an in May, 1787, was made a member of the Federal convention at Philadelphia. In 1789 he was made a United States Senator; from 1796 to 1800 was chief justice of the United States Supreme Court; 1800-01 was at the head of a commission to negotiate with France; and in 1802 was again elected a member of the governor’s council. In 1807 he again became chief justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court. ELLIVANGEN, a town of Wiirtemberg on the Jagst River, 55 miles north of Ulm by rail. The old castle of I-lohen-Ellwangen has been used as an agricultural school since 1843. Population, 4,793. ‘ ELM, a village of Switzerland, at the head of a valley in the canton of Glarus. In 1881 the whole of the northern side of Tshingel Peak (10,230 feet) crashed down upon it, destroying a large part, and filling the valley with débris. ELMALU, a town of Asia Minor, in the province of Konieh, on the Lycian tableland, 45 miles west of Adalia. It has manufactories of red leather and dye-works. Population, 25,000, chiefly Greeks and Armenians. ELMENDORF, JOHN JAMES, an American edu- cator, born in 1827. In 1848 he became instructor of mathematics at Columbia College, and in 1868 professor of philosophy in Racine College, ‘Vie. Among his works are: Manual of Rites and Ritual; Ilistory of Philosophy; and Outlines of Logic. ELMIRA, a city of New York, and county-seat of Chemung county (see Britannica, Vol. VIII, p. 153). Six railroads center here: viz., New, York, Lake Erie and Western; the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western; Northern Central; Lehigh Valley; El- mira, Cortland and Northern; and the Tioga. The city contains 90 miles of streets, most of which are paved, lined with handsome shade trees, and well lighted with gas and electricity. The area of the city is 3,000 acres. A board of trade was organized in 1879. Manufacturing interests are numerous and extensive, giving employment to about 4,000 persons. The educational advantages of Elmira are excellent. The city has over $3,000,000 invested in school property. There are 9 public schools, 4 private select schools, 3 commercial colleges, and the Elmira Female College (Presbyterian), with an endowment of $100,000. Among the charitable insti- tutions are the Arnot-Ogden Memorial Hospital, Home for the Aged, Orphan’s Home, Industrial School, and the Anchorage. The city contains six parks, among them Eldridge Park, with an area of 89 acres; Riverside Park, 40 acres; and Grove Park, 10 acres. Population in 1880, 20,541; in 1890, 28,070. ELMORE, a village of Ottawa county, Ohio, on Portage River, 16 miles from Toledo and 20 miles from Lake Erie. ELMO’S FIRE, S'r., the name of an electric dis- play sometimes seen, during thunder storms, of a brush or star of light at the tops of masts, spires, or other pointed objects. See Britannica,Vol. XIV, D p. 6, 3. ELMSHORN, a town of Denmark, in the duchy of Holstein, 20 miles northwest of Hamburg, sit- uated on both banks of the Kruckau, a navigable stream, and feeder of the Elbe. It is well built, j ELLSWORTH—ELSTER has considerable manufactures, and an active trade in grain; it has a boat-building yard and tan- ' neries. ELMSLEY, PETER, classical scholar, born in 1773, educated at Oxford, where he graduated B. A. in 1794, and in 1823 was appointed principal of St. Albans Hall, and Camden professor of ancient history. He contributed to the Edinburgh and Quarterly reviews, but is now remembered only by his valuable critical work on Sophocles and Eu- ri ides. ELMWOOD, a village of Peoria county, Ill., 163 miles southwest of Chicago. ELOCUTION (Lat., for speaking out), the art of effective speaking, more especially of public speak- ing. It regards solely the utterance or delivery; while the wider art of oratory, of which elocution is a branch, takes account also of the matter spoken. ELOGE. When a member of the French Acad- emy dies, it is customary for his successor to deliv- er an oration setting forth his merits and services. This is called an éloge, and a considerable branch of French literature goes by the name. ELOHIM (Hebr., plural of Eloclh; Arab., lldh; Chald., Elélh; Syr., Al6h), might, power; in plur., intensified, collective, highest power——great beings, kings, angels, gods, Deity. As a pluralis excellentiz or majestatis, and joined to the singular verb, it de- notes, with very rare exceptions, the One true God. Joined to a plural verb, however, it usually means gods in general, whether including the One or not. EL PASO, a city of 'Woodford county, Ill., con- taining mills, grain elevators, agricultural imple- ment works, and a carriage manufactory. EL PASO, a city of Texas, and county-seat of El Paso county, situated on the left bank of the Rio Grande River, at one of the great gateways of travel between the United States and Mexico. In 1881 the first railroad reached the city; ten years later five great trunk lines centered here, having their main connections with the Pacific coast, the Mexican capital, and the great grazing and min- ing regions of the Rocky Mountains. The public schools are excellent. El Paso contains a court house costing $100,000, a jail costing $35,000, a handsome city hall, custom house, and a federal building costing $200,000. There is no city debt. The United States Government has established a military post in the vicinity, the citizens having donated 1,000 acres of land for that purpose. Pop- ulation in 1880, 730; in 1890, 10,836. ELPHIN, a bishop’s see in Roscommon, Ireland, united to Kilmore in 1833. ELSSLER, FANNY (1811-84), one of two celebra- ted dancers, sisters, natives of Vienna. Their first great triumph was at Berlin in 1830. In 1841 they visited America, where they excited unwonted enthusiasm. In 1851 they retired. Theresa be- came the wife of Prince Adelbert of Prussia, and was ennobled by the king of Prussia as Frau von Barnim. “ ELSTER, the name of two rivers of Germany, the White and the Black Elster. The White Elster rises at the foot of the Elster Mountains, on the northwestern boundary of Bohemia, flows in a northerly direction, and falls into the Saale three miles south of the town of Halle, in Prussia. Its chief affluent is the Pleisse from the right. Total length, 110 miles. The Black Elster rises in the kingdom of Saxony, within two miles of Elstra, flows northwest, enters Prussia, and joins the Elbe eight miles southeast of Wittenberg. Length, 105 m1 es. ELSTER, Knrsrmn, a Norwegian novelist, born March 4, 1841, died April 11, 1881. He was author ELSTRACKE—EMANCIPATION of Tom Trondal and Fwrlige Folk, both works of great merit. The latter had not yet appeared in print at the time of the author’s death. Some. short sketches of his were collected and published by Alexander Kjilland in a volume entitled Solskyer (1882). ELSTRACKE, RENCLD, a noted En glish‘ engraver, born probably in Belgium in the 16th century. His engravings, including portraits of the kings of England, of Mary Queen of Scots, and other nota- bilities, are much sought after, chiefly from their rarit . ELySWICK, a township on the outskirts of New- castle, England. The works of Sir W. G. Arm- strong, Mitchell & Co., are located here. The engi- neering section of these works dates from 1847, the ordnance works from 1857. The frontage on the river is about one mile, the entire area about 125 acres, and 14,000 people are employed. Population, 34,642. ELTON, a shallow, oval-shaped salt lake of Rus- sia, with an area of 62 square miles, in the govern- ment of Astrakhan, the center of it being in lat. 480 56’ N., and long. 460 40’ E. In spring the lake has a layer of almost pure salt crystals, from 2 to 4% inches thick. The annual yield is about 96,000 tons, or about one-seventh of the total production of Russia. ELTON, CHARLES Isaac, an eminent jurist and ethnologist, of Whitestaunton, Somerset, England, born in 1839. He was educated at Cheltenham and Balliol College, Oxford, became fellow of Queen’s College in 1862. Was called to the bar at 641 Lincoln’s Inn in 1865, and afterwards became Q. 0. He was returned to Parliament as a Conservative in 1884, was defeated in 1885, but again returned the year after. His books had already gained him reputation as a jurist, when he placed himself in the front rank of English ethnologists by his Origins of English History (1882). ELUTRIATION is the term applied to the pro- cess of separating, by means of water, the finer particles of earths and pigments from the heavier portions. This process is much employed in the manufacture of the materials used in pottery and in the preparation of pigments. ELWES, J OHN, M. P. (1714-89), a famous Eng- lish miser. He would walk miles in the rain to save the hire of a conveyance, or risk his life to save paying a penny at a turnpike. He died at Marcham, Berkshire, leaving property worth two and a half millions of dollars. ELYRIA, the county-seat of Lorain county, Ohio, finely situated at the junction of the east and west branches of the Black River, 7 miles south of Lake Erie. It contains a telegraph college, gas factory, has excellent water power, and manufac- tures cheese, building-stone, grindstones, tobacco, screws, and confectionery. ELZE, FREDERICK KARL, Shakespearian scholar, born at Dessau, May 22, 1821, died at Halle, Jan. 21, 1889. He studied at Leipzig and Berlin, devoting especial attention to English literature. In 187 5 he was appointed to the newly established chair of English language and literature at Halle. EMANCIPATION, OHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE or. For general article on the subject of Slavery, the Slave-trade, and Emancipation, see Britannica, V 01. XXII, pp. 129-144. The following chronologi- cal historic outline furnishes a convenient summary of facts, classified by countries, relating to the prevalence of slavery at difierent periods, and in- dicating the progress and success of the vigorous efforts put forth in behalf of universal emancipa- tion: The custom of selling men and women into bondage was introduced into Egypt, Arabia, and other countries of the East, from Chaldea. The Jews were permitted to make bondsmen of the cap- tives taken in war, and also to make slaves of insolvent debtors--the service to continue untIl the debt was paid, with the provision that all slaves should be given their par- don in the fiftieth, or “ Jubilee” year, and that those whose slavery was the result of debt should all be free at the close of a period of 7 years. In Greece, in the days of Homer, all prisoners were re- arded as slaves (1000 B. C.). In Attica alone there were 400.- 00 slaves (317 B. C.). When Alexander razed Thebes he sold the whole people for sl-aves (335 B. C.). In Rome many thousand prisoners were held as slaves, and in many cases were chained at the gallev ears in perpetual servitu e. It was a common habit to fin slaves chained to the gate of a rich man’s house to admit the invited guests (266 B. c.—250 A. 1).). C. Polio, the Roman. was accustomed to throw any offend- ing slaves into his ponds to fatten his lampreys (42 B. C.). The first Janissaries (an order of Turkish Infantry) were selected from among the Christian slaves seized in battle 1339 . In )England, under Saxon and Norman rule, the peasantry were commonly sold for slaves. Children were sold in the Bristol market the same as cattle, for home use or for ex- portation to Ireland, Scotland, and other countries, and slaves were entailed by bequest the same as other roperty. The English slave-trade was begun by Sir John awkins and other Englishmen. First expedition took place in 1562. England employed 130 ships In the slave-trade, and carried 42,000 slaves in 1786. _ In the time of the Stuarts several E}1°‘l1Sh slave-tradin companies were chartered by the Enghsh government an Charles II and James II were members of some of them, while James II was at the head or one (1660-80). The privilege of supplying slaves to the American Colonies was conferre by special grant to certain English companies, with which many persons of royal blood II ere connected (1681-1750). ' So great were the evils of slavery in England that severe laws relating to it were enacted in 1371--1381.’< THE MODERN SLA"E—TRADE. The slave-trade as a department of commerce began in this wise: In 1441 two ofiieers of an explonng party, under the leadership of Prince John (third son of King John I), of Portugal, seized some Moors and conveyed them to Portugal. A year later these Moors were allowed to ransom themselves, and among the goods given by them were 10 black slaves. The value of such persons in commerce II as thus suggested, and three years later a large company was organized to en- gage in the business. The claim of the managers was that the traders did not enslave the Africans, but merely trans- ferred them from one condition of servitude to another, which they regarded as less wretched. The first 4 sl-av es cap- tured by the Portuguese were in 1444. A large number of slave factories were opened in Africa, about 1445-1495. Generally prevalent in a belt of African country, extending about 900 miles on each side of the Equator, for ‘.250 years (1485-1795). Accredited authorities estimated that the slave-trade car- ried on by Europeans had involved a total of 90,000,000 of Africans up to 1784. The slaves taken from Africa in a single year numbered 104,000—-namely, in 1768. * A statute was enacted. by Edward VI, that a runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought be- fore two justices of the peace. and marked Y with a hot iron on the breast, and adjudged the slave of him who beughs him for two years. He was to take the slave and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating. chaining, or otherwise: and if, within that space, he abscnted himself fourteen days, he was to be marked on the forehead or check by a hot iron with an S, and be his master’s slave forever; second dcsertion was made felony. It was lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A child might be put apprentice, and, on running away, become a slave to his master (1547). Queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in the western counties to be made free at easy rates (1574). Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when tenures in capite, knight’s service, etc., were abolished. 3 642 When the S aniards conquered Mexico they found in 0 er- ation awell-_ efined “Aztec code” relating to slavery. his code recognized several classes of slaves: prisoners of war, which were generally reserved for sacrifice; criminals, ubhc debtors, and those who, in poverty or extreme peril, ad voluntanly_resigned their freedom; and children who were sold b their parents. Slavery in Mexico, however, was so regulate by_ the Aztec laws as to be much less severe than in most countries, except in case of prisoners taken in battle, or of those slaves who were refractory or vicious—these being held for sacrifice. Such was slavery in Mexico in 1521-91. Documents presented to the British government showed that since 1792, 3,500,000 native Africans had been taken from their homes, and had either erished on shipboard, or had gggn sold in the West Indies, uring the period ending with The slaves in the United States in 1800 numbered 697,897; 5191 1810, 1,191,364; in 1820, 2,009,831; in 1850, 3,204,313; 1860, 4,002,- O SUPPRESSION OF THE SLAVE—TRADE BY GREAT BRITAIN. The Society for the Suppression of the Slave-trade,” §0gIlIlded in England by Clarkson, Wilberforce, and Dillwyn, 7 . Slave-trade question debated in British Parliament £1787). The debate for its abolition continued two days, Apri , 1791. Mr. Wilberforce’s motion lost by a majority of 88 to 83, A r113, 1798. he trade abolished by British Parliament, March 25, 1807. £8 is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at Cuba in 18 . A treaty between Great Britain and the United States, for the abolition of the slave-trade, was signed April 7; ratified Ma 20, 1862. T e Spanish government denounced the slave-trade as piracy. l\ovember, 1865. Sir Samuel Baker headed an English expedition to put down slave-trading on the Nile, January, 1870; reported to be partially successful, June 80, 1873. He published Ismailia, a history of the expedition, 1874. The species of slave-trade arose about 1870 in the South Seas; the natives being enticed on board certain British ves- sels and shipped to Queensland, Australia, and the Fiji Isles; :il%i7i=>1 sgbject was brought before the British Parliament, -1 . The ship Carl (owner, Dr. James P. Murray; master, Joseph Armstrongé left Melbourne for South Sea Isles; it anchored off Maloko o, SOlOm0n’s, and Bougainville Isles, and kid- napped many natives as laborers for the Fiji Isles; while about twenty miles from land the risoners arose and at- tempted to set fire to the ship; were red on; about 50 killed and 20 wounded were cast into the sea. At Melbourne Mur- ray gave evidence, and Armstron was committed for trial, Au . 16; master and mate sentence to death, November, 1872. S r Bartle Frere went to Zanzibar on a mission to suppress the East African slave-trade (1872-73). An act of Parliament, for consolidatin with amendment the acts for carrying into effect treaties or the more effect- ual suppression of the slave-trade, assed Aug. 5, 1873. Several African kings and chic s, at Cape Coast Castle, agreed to give up slave- trade, at an interview with Governor Strahan, Nov 3, 1874. Slave-trade on the Gold Coast abolished by proclamation of Governor Strahan, Dec. 17, 1874. Convention with Egypt forbidding the slave-trafiic, Aug. 4, 1877. Col. Gordon’s efiorts to suppress it in the Soudan reported successful (1879). Splave-traffic prohibited at West African Conference, Jan. 7, 1 Slave-trade in East Africa checked by British cruisers n . En land and Germany proclaim the blockade of East coast of A rica, from Suakin to Zanzibar, for the suppression of the slave-trade Dec. 2, 1888. _ _ Slave-trade reported nearly extinct in Egypt (only afew slaves remaining), May, 1889. ABOLITION OF SLAVERY BY GREAT BRITAIN. Act for the abolition of ‘slavery throughout the British Col- onies, and for compensation to the ersons hitherto entitled to the services of such slaves by t e grant from Parliament- of £20,000,000 sterling, passed Aug. 28, 1833. Slaver terminate in the British possessions; 770,280 slaves became ree, Aug. 1, 1834. Slavery was abolished in the East Indies, Aug. 1, 1838. In 1853 John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed Septimus Di ges, a planter of Missouri, who attempted to arrest him an escaped to Canada. The American government claime him as a murderer. The Canadian jludges deciding that the law required his surrender, Mr. Ec win James, Q. C. (Jan. 15), obtained a writ of habeas corpus for his ap earance before the Queen’s Bench, and Anderson was disc arged on tech- nical grounds, February, 1861. English Government Commission, consisting of Chief Justice Cockburn and others, reported against permitting the return of slaves to their owners, June 13, 1876. EMANCIPATION New Admiralty instruction omers issued by En lish gov- ernment, directing that fugitive slaves be receive , but not %IVGD. up;_ that sea captains use their discretion, so that reach of international faith shall be avoided, Aug. 10, 1876. SUPPRESSION OF SLAVE—TRADE BY OTHER FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Slave-trade abolished by Austria in 1782. Frenc _convention declared against all slave-traflic (1794). The al ms at Vienna declared against it, February 1815. 29N1aép5oleon, in the Hundred Days, abolished the trade, March En lish treaty for its suppression with Spain, 1817; with the i etherlands, May, 1818; with Brazil, November, 1826. In June, 1857, the French government gave permission to M. Reg1s _to convey free negroes from Africa to Guadaloupe and Martinique, French colonies. This having led to abuses and consequent troubles,was eventually given up in January, EMANOIPATION OF SLAVES IN THE UNITED STATES. The Massachusetts Supreme Court decided that the “Bill of Rights,” declaring that “All men are born free and equal, ’ is a bar to slaveholding in that State (1783). Congress unanimously passed an ordinance “for the gov- ernment of the territory to the northwest of the Ohio,” con- taimng an “ unalterable ” provision forbidding slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory, Jul 13, 1787. Louisiana, in which slavery existed, was pure ased in 1803. The Missouri Com r0mz'se (drawn by Henry Clay, of Ken»- tucky), was assed y Con ress, permitting slavery in Mis- souri, but pro biting it in a 1 States thereafter to be created west of the Mississippi River and north of 36° 30' north lat- itude, March 3, 1820. California admitted as a State, but the “ Fugitive Slave Act ” passed, 1850. The “ Ka_nsa_s-Nebraska Bill ” assed, leaving the people of these Territories to decide whet er they shou dbe organized as slave States (1854). The ]l1d°'1IleIll3 in the Dred Scott case rendered by the U. S. Supreme I’Jo_urt. Dred Scott was claimed as a slave in a free State_; four Judges declared for his freedom, five against it, causing great dissatisfaction throughout the Free States, March, 1857. John Brown's failure at Harper’s Ferry) to destroy slavery by creating a slave revo ution, Oct. 16, 1859. 4 i}zl5o6r0aham Lincoln elected President of United States, Nov. South Carolina passed the ordinance of secession, 1860. Slavery abolished in District of Columbia, April 13, 1862. President Lincoln issued his proclamation declaring the abolition ofslavery in the Southern States, to take effect Jan. 1, 1863, provided that those States have not returned to the U1110I1,_ Sept. 22, 1862. President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of all slaves in the Southern States, except in parts held by the U. S. Army, J an. 1, 1863. Congressional action needed to give it effect, in the latter part of the year. Fugitive Slave act repealed by Congress, June 13, 1864. The Confederate Congress decreed the arming of the slaves. Feb. 22, 1865. 9 ?g161‘5l‘GI1de].‘ of the Confederate Army under Gen. Lee,.April , . Union flag replaced on Fort Sumter, April 14, 1865. President Lincoln assassinated, April 15, 1865. _Several Southern States pass an ordinance annulling seces- %10l1 fig? abolishing slavery, September, October, and Novem- er, . President Johnson vetoed the Freedmanis Bureau Bill, Feb. 1, 1866, and also the bill for securing to the colored gfople gévigfirsights equal in all respects to those of the whites, arch , 0 Congress passed the “Equal Rights Bill” over the Presi- dent’s veto, April 9, 1866. Bill giving to colored persons in the District of Columbia the ful right of suffrage, passed Dec. 13, 1866. ABOLITION OF SLAVERY IN OTHER COUNTRIES. Serfdom in Prussia abolished by Frederick I, in 1702. Serfdom in Denmark abolished by Christian VII, 1766. Serfdom in Germany abolished by Joseph II, 1789. Slave-trade abolished in Jamaica, May 1, 1807. All slaves in Jamaica emancipated, Aug. 1, 1834. Slavery abolished in Dutch West Indies, July 1, 1861. Decree issued in Brazil declaring that all children born hereafter to slaves shall be free, and that all slaves shall be free 20 years later, Sept. 27, 1871. Decree issued in Brazil declarin all slaves to be free by enlistin in the army, from Novem er, 1871. Porto ico issued decree abolishing slavery, March 23, 1873. Portugal issued decree suppressing slavery in the colonies of St. Thomas, etc., Februar , 1876. Spanish Senate voted gra ual emancipation, Dec. 24, 1879; same bill passed by Deputies, Jan. 21, and act promulgated, Feb. 18. 1880. Egypt issued decree abolishintg slavery, July 81, 1881. Russian decree abolishing ser dom in the imperial domain; issued by Nicholas 1, in 1842. . “EMANEEL~ ‘Imperial edict providingfor the entire abolition of serfdom in the ole Russian empire, proclaimed by Alexander 11, Marsh 3, 1861. The following numbers are from Marshall s tables: RUSSIAN SERFS EMANCIPATED IN 1861. Male. Female. Total. Crown serfs ............ .. 11,168,000 11,683,000 22,851,000 A. anage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 624 00 1,702,000 3,326,000 H%Yd by nobles . . . . . . . . . . 10,674,000 11,081,000 21,755,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,466,000 24,466,000 47,932,000 NOBLEMEN’S SERFS IN 1861. Nobles. Serfs. Average 28,100 18,575,000 802 36,150 2,520,000 70 43,800 660,000 15 103,050 21,755,000 211 COST OF REDEMPTION. Mortgages remitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $152,000,000 Government scrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101,150,000 Paid by serfs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52,350,000 Balance due . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,500,000 Indemnity award . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $325,000,000 The indemnity to the nobles was about $15 per serf. The lands were mortgaged to the state until 1912. The lands ceded to crown serfs were mortg ared. only till 1901. The above item of “ mort ages remitted ’ is the amount due by nobles to the Imperia Bank and canceled. LANDS HELD BY FREED SERFS IN 1879. Title. Holders. Acres. Aggggge Crown-gift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,117,000 84,200,000 14 Appange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,625,000 30,200,000 18 Purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,137,000 65,500,000 6? Beggar-lots ................... . . 1,840,000 0,440,000 32 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,719,000 186,340,000 9 In return for crown-gift the holders have to pa 50 per cent. extra poll-tax till’ 19 . Beggar-lots are lan s iven gratis by the nobles to the peasants, rather than sell farm- ots at $5 per acre to them. AUSTRIAN SERVITUDE (1840). Value. Labor (two days a week) ............... .. £35,000,000 Tithe of_ crops, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000,000 Male tnbute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,400,000 Female tribute, spun wool ............ .. 1,800,000 Fowl, eggs, butter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. £51,200,000 There were 7,000,000 serfs, whose tribute averaged more than $35 er head, which was, In fact, the rent of their farms. Some Bo emlan nobles had as many as 10,000 serfs. The re- dempt1on was effected by giving the nobles 5 per cent. government scrip, and land t en rose 50 per cent. in value. GERMAN SERFS. In 1848 the state took 60,000,000 acres from the nobles, leav- ing them st1ll2:_>,000,000 acres, and gave the former among the serfs. Indemmty as_ follows: 1. Government scrip, $900 for each serf family, to nobleman. 2. Land-tax, $15 per annum, transferred to peasant. 3. Interest, $35 per annum for 47 years, to be paid by peasant to the state, being 4 per cent. on cost of redemption. EMANCIPATION IN BRITISH COLONIES IN 1884. Colonies Number. Indemnity. Per Head. Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311,700 £6,152,000 $100 ~ Barbadoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83,000 1,721,000 105 Trinidad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,300 1,039,000 .250 Antigua, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172,083 3,421,000 100 Gu1aI_1a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84,900 4,297,000 265 Mauritius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68,600 2,113,000 155 Cape of Good Hope . . . . .. 38,400 1,247,000 165 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780,893 £20,000,000 $130 KEMBURY 64$ SLAVERY IN BRAZIL. Slave Ratic, Provinces. Slaves. Population. Per cent Minas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370.400 , 18 Rio J aneiro..- .. . . .. 341,600 1,057,700 32 Bahia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167,800 4,380,000 12 San Paulo . . . . . . . . . . 156,600 837,400 19 Pernambuco. .- . . . .. 89,100 500 11 Maranham. . . . . . . . . 74,900 359,100 21 Rio Grande-do-Sul. 67,800 434,800 16 Various . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,600 1,890,900 8 Total . . . . . . . . .. 1,510,800 9,930,400 15 There were 805,000 male and 706,000 female slaves held b 41,000 owners, averagmg 37 to each owner. In 1882 the tot number of slaves was 1,300,000, representing a. market value of $520,000,000. It is probable there will be no slaves remain- ing in 1900. ' EMANUEL, or IMMANUEL, the symbolical name of the child announced by Isaiah to Ah-az and the» nation, and applied by St. Matthew to the Messiah born of the Virgin. EMBA, a river of the Asiatic Russian govern- ment of Orenberg, in the Kirghiz territory, rising at the western base of the Mugadshar Mountains, flowing southwest, and entering the Caspian Sea after a course of about 450 miles. EMBATERION, a war song of the Spartans, which was accompanied by flutes, and which they sang marching in time, and rushing on the enemy. The origin of the embaterion is lost in antiquity. EMBATTLED, or IMBATTLED, one of the parti- tion lines in heraldry, traced in the form of the- battlements of a castle or tower. EMBLEM, a representation of an object intended to signify or indicate to the understanding some- thing else than that which it directly represents to the eye. The meaning of the emblem rests upon its secondary, not its primary signification. Emlilelm is often used in a sense synonymous with s m 0 . EMBLEMATA (Ga), the works of art with which gold and silver vessels were decorated by the an- cients. These sculptured figures were generally executed either in the precious metals or in amber. They were called crustae by the Romans, though. the Greek word was also used. EMBLIGA, a genus of plants of the natural or- der Euphorbiaceae, having a fleshy fruit. E. o_fiicz‘na- his is a tree found in most parts of India, with a crooked stem, thinly scattered spreading branches, long narrow leaves, minute greenish flowers, and a globular fruit, about the size of a gall-nut, which is a source of tannin. EMBOUGHURE (Fn.), that part of a wind in- strument to which the lips are applied to produce the sound. The term embouchure is also applied to the mouth of a river. EMBOIVED, the heraldic term for anything bent like a bow—as, for example, the arm of a man. EMBRAOERY: in the law of England, the offense of influencing jurors by corrupt means to deliver a partial verdict. Not only persons at- tempting to influence the jury, but also jurors themselves attempting unduly to bias the minds of their fellows, are guilty of embracery. The using of indirect means in order to be sworn as a juror is also embracery. EMBROGATION (Gr. en, into, and brecho, I wet), the same as liniment. EMBRYOTOMY, a division of the foetus into fragments; to extract it by piecemeal; when the narrowness of the pelvis or other faulty conforma- tion opposes delivery. EMBURY, PHILIP (1729-75), an Irish American preacher. He became a local preacher in 1758; in 1766 began to hold services in New York city, and‘ 644 he probably presided over the first Methodist con- gregations formed in the United States. The first Methodist church was built under his charge in 1768, and he afterwards preached there gratuitously. He went to Salem, N. Y., in 1769,where he preached on Sunday, and worked as a carpenter during the week. He organized the first Methodist society Within the bounds of what is now Troy conference. EMERITUS, a term applied originally to a Ro- man soldier who had served out his time, and been discharged on something equivalent to our half- pay. It is now employed to designate certain functionaries, such as professors, who have been honorably relieved from the duties of their office, on account of infirmity or long service, and who are usually granted a retiring allowance. EMERSION, the reappearance of one heavenly body from behind another, after an eclipse or occul- tation. Minutes or scruples of emersion are the arc of the moon’s orbit passed over by her center, from the time she begins to emerge from the earth’s shadow to the end of the eclipse. EMERSON, RALPH VVALDo, an American author, born in Boston, ll/Iass., in 1803, died in Concord in 1882. In 1826 he was approbated to preach, and in 1829 was ordained as colleague of Rev. Henry Ware, Jr., in the pastorate of the 2nd church, Boston, and succeeded Ware within eighteen months. He re- signed his pastorate in 1832, and went to Europe the following year for his health. VVhile on this journey he met several eminent writers, and formed with Thomas Carlyle one of the most inter- esting friendships in literary annals. He returned to the United States in 1834, and for the succeeding three years lectured in Boston. In 1835 he moved into a house on the old Lexington road, along which the British had retreated from Concord sixty years before; and this house he made his home for the remainder of his life. For several years he had been writing poetry, but he published little until after he settled on the Lexington road, when his career became distinctively that of a literary man. For a time he edited “The Dial,” a literary journal published from 1840 to 1844, and through its columns gave to the public more than forty of his own pieces, both prose and verse. From 1847 to 1849 he traveled in Europe, and delivered many lectures on topics of the day. During the civil war he took sides with the North, and delivered several forcible lectures favoring abolition. Besides con- tributing to numerous periodicals he published Nature (1886) ; a volume of essays (1841); another volume (1844) ; volume of poems (1846) ; Representa- tive Jilen (1850); English Traits (1856); Conduct of Life,a volume of essays (1860); volume of essays, entitled Society and Solitude (1870) ; and Letters and Social Aims (1875). EMINENCE, a title given to cardinals by Urban VIII. Up to the period of his pontificate they had been called Most Illustrious, and Most Reverend. EMINENCE, a town in Henry county, Ky., 26 miles west of Frankfort, in a fine blue-grass region, where farming and stock-raising are carried on. There is a valuable mineral spring here, two col- leges, and also woolen and flour-mills. EMINEN T DOMAIN denotes the universal right in the public over property, by virtue of which the supreme authority in a state may compel a proprietor to part with what is his own for the public use. / EMIN PASHA, whose native name is Eduard Schnitzer, was born in 1840 at Oppeln, Silesia, edu- cated at Neisse, and studied medicine at Breslau and Berlin. In 1864 he went to Turkey, where he quickly established a reputation as a physician. He accompanied Hakki Pasha on his official jour- EMERITUS-EMORY neys through Armenia, Syria, and Arabia. He went with Ismail, governor of Scutari, in his exile to Trebizond. He knew the Turkish and Arabic languages well, and had so completely adopted the habits and customs of the people that he read- ily passed for one of them. He adopted the name Emin, “the Faithful One,” and, upon the death of Ismail (who had been restored to royal favor) he married his widow. In 1876 he joined the Egyptian service and was ordered to Khartum, and thence as chief medical officer to the Equatorial Province, of which in 1878 he was appointed governor by General Gordon. Here he was isolated and shut ofi from the world, and harassed by the troops of the Mahdi and by revolts instigated in the interest of the slave-trade. In 1886 news was received in England that he was still holding his post in Cen- tral Africa, and an expedition under Stanley was sent to his relief. The expedition reached Emin in May, 1888. In August, while the expedition was looking for its rear-guard, he was imprisoned by the natives, but escaped in December, and in Feb- ruary, 1889, rejoined Stanley,with whom he reached Zanzibar in December. The patron’s medal of the Royal Geographical Society was awarded to him in 1890; in which year, also, he entered the German service and is now 1891 again in the center of Africa. EMLY, an ancient Irish sea, united to Cashel in 1568. EMMENAGOGUES, medicines intended to re- store, or bring on for the first time, the menstrual excretion in women. The emmenagogues chiefly in use are the preparations of aloes, iron, myrrh, and other stimulants, in connection with purga- tives; and also the local use of the warm bath, leeches, fomentation, etc. EIYIMETTSBURG, a railroad junction and county- seat of Palo Alto county, Iowa, on the Des Moines River, 55 miles northwest of Fort Dodge. Flour and lumber are produced here. EMF/IITTSBURG,avillage of Frederick county, Md., one mile from Mason and Dixon’s line. It was laid out by VVilliam Emmett in 1773, and con- tains Mount St. Mary’s College (Catholic), St. Joseph’s Academy, and the mother-house of the Sisters of Charity in the United States. Its edu- cational buildings are among the largest in Mary- land. EMMON S, N ATHANAEL (1745-1840), an American theologian, licensed to preach in 1769. From 1773 to 1827 he was pastor at Franklin, Mass., and dur- ing this long pastorate prepared fifty-seven young men for the ministry. He was a founder and the first president of the Massachusetts missionary society. He published many essays, sermons, and dissertations. EMOLLIENTS (from Lat. moZlis,soft), substances used to soften the textures to which they are ap- plied, as poultices, fermentations, etc., externally, and demulcents internally. EMORY, a village of Washington county, V a., 10 miles east of Abingdon. It is the seat of Emory and Henry College. EMORY, Jorm (1789-1835), an American M. E. bishop. In 1805 he began the practice of law, but in 1810 entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry. He was a delegate to the general conferences, with one exception, from 1816 to 1832. In 1820 he was sent to the British VVesleyan conference, and in 1832 was ordained a bishop. For a long time he managed the affairs of the Book Concern, and edited the “New York Christian Advocate.” He founded the “Methodist Quarterly Review,” and was active in the establishment of the University of New York, Wesleyan University and Dickinson EMORY COLLEGE—ENAREA College. Among his works are The Divinity of Christ Vindicated, and Defense of Our Fathers. EMORY COLLEGE. See CoLLEcEs, in these Revisions and Additions. EMPANEL, to write in a schedule or roll the names of such jurors as the sherifi returns to pass upon any trial. EMPECINADO, Dorr J UAN MARTIN Drxz, EL (1775-1825), one of the leaders of the Spanish revo- lution of 1820. He entered the Spanish army in 1792. At the head of about 6,000 men he carried on aguerilla warfare against the French during the Peninsular struggle, and acquired great distinction. In 1814 he was appointed colonel in the regular army, and the king himself created him field-mar- shal; but in consequence of petitioning Ferdinand, in 1815, to reinstitute the Cortes he was imprisoned and afterwards banished to Valladolid. On the out- break of the insurrection in 1820 he took a promi- nent part on the side of the Constitutionalists, and on several occasions exhibited great courage and circumspection. After the triumph of the Abso- lutists in 1825, he was arrested and finally executed. EMPEROR MOTH, a moth of the same family (Bombycidae) with the silk-worm moth, and of a enus to which the largest of lepidopterous insects %elong. Its expanse of wings is about three and a half inches. Each wing is ornamented with a large, eye-like, glassy and transparent spot, and such spots are exhibited by many of the genus. EMPIRE CITY, the county-seat of Coos county, Oregon, on Coos bay, 130 miles southwest of Salem. It exports excellent lignitic coal. EMPIRIC, originally meaning an experimental- ist or searcher after facts in Nature, came to be synonymous with vulgar ignorance. The empirics were a regular sect of ancient physicians in the time of Celsus and Galen, who give us some insight into their modes of thought and practice. They laid great stress on the unprejudiced observation of Nature, and thought that, by a careful collection of observed facts forming a history, the coincidence of many observations would lead to unalterable prescriptions for certain cases. By an empiric in medicine is now understood a man who, for want of theoretic knowledge, prescribes remedies by guess according to the name of the disease or to individual symptoms, without thinking of the con- stitution of the patient or other modifying circum- stances. EMPIRICAL FORMULA: in chemistry, a mode of expressing the results by elementary symbols. There are numerous compound substances, such as acetic acid, lactic acid, glucose, etc., which would all give the same result on analysis, and would be represented by the empirical formula CHZO, or one equivalent of carbon, two equivalents of hydrogen, and one equivalent of oxygen. The very different properties of these bodies, all composed of the same elements, must be due to a different order of com- bination, which, to a great extent, may be repre- sented by rational formula as distinguished from empirical. Acetic acid is the hydrated oxide of acetyl, or may be regarded as a molecule of water (H20), in which half the hydrogen is replaced by acetyl, CZHSO; and this expressed by the rational formula C211-%,O 10, but could not be implied by S the empirical mode, either in the form of CHZO, or 2 4 2~ EMPIRICAL LAWS are such as express relation- ships, which may be merely accidental, observed to tubsist among phenomena, or cause of the produc- tion of phenomena. They are usually tentative, and form stages in the progress of discovery of causal aws. 645 EMPIRICISM, the dependence for knowledge or skill on experience or experiment rather than on theory. Professor \Vard, in Dynamic Sociology, de- fines empiricism as the application of superficial truths, recognized in a loose, unsystematic way, to immediate and special needs. In medicine the term is used of the dependence upon mere experi- ence in the trial of remedies, without knowledge of the medical sciences or of the clinical observations and opinions of others. In metaphysics the theory which attributes the origin of all our ideas to sen- suous experience, denying the existence of innate or a priori conceptions, is called empiricism. Mr. Lewes, in Problems of Life and Mind, says that this term, although commonly employed by metaphy- sicians with contempt, may be accepted, since even the flavor of contempt only serves to emphasize the distinction. EMPORIA, a flourishing city and county-seat of Lyon county, Kan., situated in a fine agricultural region. It has a State normal school. the College of Emporia, a business college, conservatory of music, gas and electric lights, opera houses, water works, and produces various manufactures, among which are canned goods. EMPORIUM, a railroad junction and county- seat of Cameron county, Pa., situated 99 miles north- west of I/Villiamsport. It has a good lumber trade, and valuable salt wells are found in the vicinity. EMPORIUM: in Homer’s time, a person who sailed in a ship belonging to another, but later a wholesale merchant as opposed to a retailer. An emporium thus came to be applied to the recepta- cle in which wholesale merchants stowed their goods in seaports and elsewhere, and thus corre- sponded to our warehouses. EMPSON, SIR RICHARD, the unpopular agent of Henry VII. In 1491 he became Speaker of the House of Commons, and in 1504, now a knight, high steward of Cambridge University, and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Throughout Henry’s reign he was employed in exacting taxes and pen- alties due to the crown. His conduct was by the people regarded as infamous. and in the second year of Henry VIII’s reign he was convicted of trea- sgn(,) attainted, and beheaded on Tower Hill, Aug. 17, 1 l . Eh/IPYREAN, a word used by the old metaphys- ical natural philosophers to designate the highest region of light, where the purest and most rarefied elements of fire existed; and by medieeval and modern poets to indicate heaven, the source of light and the home of the blessed. EMPYREUMA, the burned smell and acrid taste which result when vegetable or animal substances are decomposed by a strong heat. The cause of the smell and taste resides in an oil called empyreu- matte, which does not exist naturally in the sub- stance, but is formed by its decomposition. EMS, a river in the northwestern part of Ger- many. It rises in \Vestphalia, at the southern base of the Teutoburger lVald, and flowing first in a northwestern, and then, through the Hanoverian territories, in a northern direction, empties itself into Dollart bay. In 1818 it was connected by a canal with the Lippe, and thus with the Rhine. EMULSION, the term applied to those prepara- tions in pharmacy where the product is a milky white opaque mixture, composed more or less of oily particles floating in mechanical suspension in mucilaginous liquid. ENAREA, a country of Africa south of Abyss- inia, situated within lat. 7 -90 N,, and long. 36°—38° E., but its limits have not yet been definitely as- certained. It is inhabited by a portion of the Gallas tribes, who, owing to the continued (‘on-mu- M6 nication which they keep up with Abyssinia, and also to the residence of many Mohammedan mer- chants among them, are much more civilized than the Gallas usually are. Their government is an hereditary and absolute monarchy. The principal rivers of Enarea are the Gibbs and the Dodesa. Its coffee plantations are extensive. It is remarkable for its manufactures of ornamented arms, and of cloths with embroidered borders. Besides these it exports slaves, gold, ivory, civet, and skins into Abyssinia. The king and a small portion of the population are Mohammedans, and it is said that native Christians have been found in Enarea. The capital is Saka, near the river Gibbe. ENARTHROSIS, the term used by anatomical Writers to express the kind of joint which admits of the most extensive range of motion. It occurs in the hip and shoulder joints, and is commonly called the ball-and-socket joint. ENCALADA, IVIANUEI. BLANCO, born in Buenos Ayres in 1790, died at Santiago, Sept. 5, 1876. He studied at Madrid and in the naval academy at Leon, deserted the Spanish ranks and joined the Chilian party. In 1819 he became rear-admiral, and in 1820 major-general of infantry, and in 1825 he was appointed head of the Army of Chili. He was for two months president of the Republic in 1826, governor of Valparaiso from 1847 to 1852, and min- ister to France from 1853 to 1858. ENCAMPMENT (Lat. campus, a plain), a lodg- ment or home for soldiers in the field. There are now four different kinds of these lodgments in use: namely, intrencheol camps, where an army is in- tended to be kept some time, protected against the enemy; flying camps, for brief occupation; camps of position, bearing relation to the strategy of the commander; and camps of instruction, to ha- bituate the troops to the duties and fatigues of war. EN CEINTE, in fortification, denotes generally the whole area of a fortified place. Properly, how- ever, it means a cincture or girdle, and in this sense the enceinte signifies the principal wall or rampart encircling the place. ENCEPHALOCELE,the term applied to a tu- mor projecting through the skull in one of the parts Where the bones are incomplete in infancy, and consisting of a protrusion of the membranes of the brain, containing a portion of the brain itself. The most common situation of such tumors is in the middle line and at the back of the head. ENCORE (“again”), a French expression, gen- erally used in England by the audience of a theater or concert-room, when requesting the repetition of the performance of a piece of music. It is not used by t e French themselves, who, in similar circum- stances, exclaim bis (twice). ENCRINAL, or ENCRINITAL LIMESTONE, a name given to some carboniferous limestones from the great abundance in them of the calcareous skele- tons of encrinites. ENCRINITES, fossil crinoids, often known as stone-lilies. ENCYCLICAL, a letter addressed by the Pope to all his bishops, condemning current errors, or advis- ing the Christian people how to act in regard to great ublic questions. It differs from a bull in that t e latter is usually more special in its desti- nation. END, a familiar word concerned in some im or- tant discussions, and especially in ethics. t is generally used in the sense of the thing aimed at, the object, purpose, or goal of human action; but not infrequently to mean the close, or death. EN DEMIC, a term applied to diseases which af- fect numbers of persons simultaneously,but so as to show a connection with localities as well as with ENARTHROSI&—ENFRANCHISE their inhabitants. Endemic diseases are usually spoken of as contrasted with epidemic and sporadic; the first term indicating that a disease infects habit- ually the population within certain geographical limits, and also that it is incapable of being trans- ferred or communicated beyond those limits; while, on the other hand, a disease is termed epi- demic if it is transmitted without reference to locality; and sporadic if it occurs in isolated instances only. The most marked type of an en- demic disease is ague, which has the habits mentioned above, and is to so marked a degree a denizen of particular tracts of country as to lead to their being in some instances almost depopulated. ENDICOTT, Jonn (1588-1665), a colonial gov- ernor of Massachusetts. In 1628 he took charge of the plantation at Naumkeag, now Salem, and con- tinued to exercise the chief authority until the arrival of John Winthrop, who took charge in 1630. In 1641-44 he was deputy-governor of Massachusetts, again in 1650 and in 1654, and was governor in 1644, 1649, 1650—53, and in 1655-65. In 1645 he be- came sergeant major-general of the colony, and in 1685 president of the colonial commissioners. ENDLICHLER, STEPHEN LADISLAS (1804-49), a systematic botanist, born in Hungary, June 24, 1804. He was designed for the priesthood, but in 1827 commenced botanical and linguistic studies, and in 1840 became professor of botany in Vienna. In 1848 he fell into melancholy, and in 1849 put an end to his life. ENDOGENOUS PLANTS, or Ermoenns, a name applied by Lindley to monocotyledons to express an erroneous view of the difference in their usual mode of stem-thickening from that of dicotyledons, and now wholly unused by botanists. ENDOMORPH, the name given to a mineral which is inclosed within another mineral, the latter being termed a perimor h. E DORSE: in hera dry, an ordinary contain- ing the fourth part of a pale. Endorsed, again, or indorsed, signifies that objects are placed on the shield back to back. ENDOSMOSE AND EXOSMOSE, terms applied to the transfusion that takes place when two liquids or two gases of difl’erent densities are sep- arated by an animal or a vegetable membrane. This action performs a very important part in liv- ing organisms, and explains many phenomena of the circulation of sap and the processes of nutrition, which were previously referred only to the won- derful action of vital energy. The term osmose, or osmotic action, is now preferred. ENEMA, a medicine or fluid substance, conveyed into the body by injection, usually through the rectum or lower owel. ENERGICO, an Italian term in music, meaning with energy and force; with strong articulation and accentuation, and a marked powerful delivery of the, single notes, without losing in distinctness of execution. ENFIELD, a village of Grafton county, N. H., 42 miles northwest 0 Concord. The place is a summer resort and a portion of the inhabitants are members of the United Society of Shakers; they manufacture pails, tubs, and brooms, and raise garden-seeds. There are also manufactories of furniture, leather, knit-goods, and carriages. ENFIELD, a villa e of Halifax county, N. C., 144 miles from I/Vi mington. It exports large quantities of cotton, lumber, staves, peaches, wine, shingles, and brick. There is a gol mine in the vicinity. ENFRANCHISE, ENFRANCHISEMENT, to make free; the admission to certain liberties or privileges. Thus, a person made a denizen of the county, Ill., 7 miles south of Chicago. ~ENe~ELB.EB.e,-ENTRE ~DOUR~O country, or receiving the freedom of a city or burgh, is said to be enfranchised. ENGELBERG, a_ village of Switzerland in the canton of Unterwalden, at the foot of Mount Titlis. It has a famous school library, valuable paintings, and an extensive cheese‘-cellar. . , - _ENGELI-IARDT, J OHANN GEORG VEIT, a learned German theologian, born at Neustadt, on the Alsch, Nov. 12, 1791, died Sept. 13, 1853. He studied at Erlangen, where in 1820 he was appointed ex- traordinary professor, and in 1822 ordinary pro- fessor in theology. In the course of his life he Wrote many learned dissertations in the Journal of Historical Theology. ENGELMANN, GEORGE (1809-84), an American botanist. He studied in Germany and, in France, and in 1832 emigrated to the United States. He settled in St. Louis, and soon became prominent as a physician. In 1836 he started “Das I/Vestland,” aGerman newspaper, which gained high reputa- tion in the United States and in Europe. About this time he became distinguished as a botanist, and contributed many articles to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and to the Govern- ment reports. He was a member of several scien- tific societies. . ENGLEWOOD, a railroad junction of Cook It contains a school for the training of school teachers. ENGLEWOOD, a village in Bergen county, N. J ., 14 miles north of New York city, and near the palisades of the Hudson River. ENGLAND. See GREAT BRITAIN, in these Re- Visions and Additions. - ENGLISH, Tnomas DUNN, a lawyer, born in Philadelphia, Pa., June 29, 1819. He was edu- cated at the University of Pennsylvania, graduat- ing with the degree of M. D. in 1839. He entered the profession of law in Philadelphia in 18%?’ , and received the degre .of LL.D. from William and Mary College in 187 . In politics he is a Demo- crat. He- was elected member of the New Jersey State legislature in 1863 and 1864. In 1890 he was elected a Representative from the Sixth Congres- sional district of New Jersey to the 52d Congress. ENGLISH RIVER, (1) an estuary in southeast Africa, on the west side of Delagoa bay; (2) an- other name for the Churchill River of Canada. ENGLISHRY. The Danish conquerors of Eng- land drew a legal distinction between the Danes and the English; and in this point the Normans followed their example. “ The Englishry,” like the “Jewry,” was a term of contempt. In cases of murder the hundred was punished unless it could make a “ presentment of Englishry,” showing that the person slain belonged to the conquered race. There are recorded cases in which the ‘hundred in- curred an additional penalty for declaring that a murdered “ Frenchman” was an Englishman. ENGRAILED: in heraldry, a line composed of a series of little semi-circular indents, with the points turned outwards and upwards. ENGROSSING A DEED, writing it out in full and regular form on parchment or paper for signa- ture. EN-GUICHE, a hunting horn, the rim around the mouth of which, being of different color from the horn itself, is said in heraldry to be enguiché, of the color in question. - ENNEMOSER, J osnrn, a medico-philosophic Writer, born at Hintersee, in the Tyrol, Nov. 15, 1787, died in 1854. He commenced his academic studies at Innsbruck in 1806. On the rising of the Tyrolese against the French in 1809 Ennemoser honorably distinguished himself in battle on several occasions. In 1816 he took the degree of \ {$4.7 Doctor of Medicine, and in 1819 was made pro-' fessor of medicine at the new University of Bonn. In 1841 he went to Munich, where he obtained a great reputation by the application of magnetism as a curative power. ENOCHS, VVILLIAM H., a lawyer, born in Noble county, Ohio, March 29,1842. He received a com- mon-school education; entered the Union army as a private at the outbreak of the war of the Rebel- lion, and was mustered out a brigadier-general He was three times severely wounded. He studied law and entered the profession in 1867 at Ironton. In politics he is a Republican, and has served as prosecuting attorney of Lawrence county, and as a member of the Ohio State legislature. In 1890 he was elected a Representative from the Twelfth Congressional District of Ohio to the 52nd Congress. ENSEMBLE (FR.), the general efl’ect produced by the whole figures or objects in a picture, the persons and plot of a drama, or the various parts of a musicalperformance. EN SILAGE. See SILO, Britannica,Vol. XXII, p. 67. ENTADA, a genus of leguminous climbing shrubslsub-order Mimosea) having pinnate or bi- pinnate leaves, and being remarkable for their great pods, in which the egg-sized seeds lie amid a gelatinous substance. These pods are sometimes fully five feet long, and six inches broad. ENTELLUS MONKEY, or Honuman (Semopithe- cus entellus), an East Indian species _of monkey, with yellowish fur, face of violet tinge, surrounded with projecting hairs, long limbs, and very long muscular and powerful—though not prehensile- tail. It is held in superstitious reverence by the Hindoos. EN TENTE CORDIALE, a term which originated, according to Littré, in the French chamber of deputies in 1840-41, and which has been used especially to denote the friendly relations and dis- position existing between France and Great Bri- tain. ENTERITIS. inflammation of the bowels, and especially of their muscular and serous coat, lead- ing to constipation and pain, with colic, and some- times ileus. Enteritis is distinguished from these last affections, indeed, only by the presence of in- fiammatory symptoms—that is, pain, tenderness. fever, etc., from a very early stage of the disease, and in so decided a form as to require special at- tention. The disease is one of great danger, and should never be incautiously treated with domestic remedies. It is closely allied to peritonitis, and often depends upon internal mechanical causes, or on external injury. ENTEROPNEUSTA, a class of worm-like ani- mals, including Balanoglossus and Cephalodiscus. It is of great zoological importance, because of the characters in which the members resemble verte- brates. ENTERPRISE, a winter resort, and county-seat of Volusia county, Fla., situated at the head of steamboat navigation on St. J ohn’s River, 80 miles south of St. Augustine. “Green Spring,” a noted sulphur spring, 80 feet in diameter and 100 feet deep, is located here. ENTOMOSTRACA, a general name for the lower orders of Crustacea, including Phyllopods, Ostra- cods, Copepods, and Cirripedes. , ENTOPHYTES, a term employed to denote those parasitic plants which grow on living ani- mals. ENTR’ACTE: in music, an instrumental piece, composed in the form of a little symphony or over- ture, to be performed between the acts of a play. ENTRE nouno E MINHO, a province in the extreme northwest of Portugal, consisting of three 648 districts—-Braga, Vianne, and Porto, with the town of Braga for the capital. ENTRE RIOS (Sp., between rivers), an Argentine State, which takes its name from its occupying the space between the Parana and the Uruguay, im- mediately above the point where they unite to form the Rio de la Plata. The area is estimated at 32,000 square miles. Population, about 160,000. The capital is Entre Rios, with a population of 16,000. ENTRESOL, a low story between two main sto- ries of a building, generally above the first story. Mezzanine is another name for the entresol. ENTROPIUM, or ENTROPION, inversion of the eyelashes, or even eyelid, consequent either on loss of substance, or on inflammatory swelling of the lid. ENTRY: in law, taking possession of lands or tenements by entering or setting foot upon them; also, the entering into a building unlawfully, as in housebreaking or burglary. ENTRY, RIGHT on. A person is said in law to have a right of entry who has been wrongfully dis- possessed or ousted of land and tenements by abatement, intrusion, or disseizin. See the several articles under these heads. EPACRIDACEE,a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of shrubs and small trees, which, both in appearance and in botanical character, much resemble the Ericaceae, or heath family. The most important distinguishing structural character is found in the simplicity of the anthers, which are one-celled, open longitudinally, and are destitute of appendages. The flowers of the Epacriclaceze have generally a tubular corolla dividing into five segments, which sometimes become separate pet- als. The calyx is persistent, often colored, has the same number of segments with the corolla, and is surrounded with small bracts. The stamens are fewer than in the Ericaceae, usually equal in num- ber to the segments of the corolla, and alternate with them. The fruit is sometimes a capsule, sometimes a berry, sometimes a drupe. The leaves are simple, generally alternate, often crowded; the flowers in spikes, in terminal racemes, or axillary and solitary. About 400 species of the Epacricla- ceae are known, all natives of the Indian archipel- ago, the South Sea Islands, and Australia. EPAULETTE. a shoulder-knot worn by commis- sioned officers in the naval profession, both as an ornament and a distinction. EPEIRA, a genus of spiders, the type of a family called Epeiriolw. They are of those spiders which have only a pair of pulmonary sacs and spiracles; construct webs with regular meshes, formed by concentric circles and straight radii; and are fur- nished with a pair of almost contiguous eyes on each side, other four eyes forming a quadrangle in the center. EPES, J AMES F., a lawyer, born in Nottoway county, Va., May 23, 1842. He was educated in the common schools and at the University of Virginia; was a cavalryman in the Confederate army during the war of the Rebellion; studied law in the Wash- ington and Lee University, and entered the profes- sion of law in 1867. In politics he is a Democrat, and was attorney for the Commonwealth from 1870 to 1882. In 1890 he was elected a Representative from the Fourth Congressional District of Virginia to the 52d Congress. EPHEMERA, a fever which lasts only a day, or part of a day, and is generally dependent on some slight local irritation. EPHEMERES, a name applied to almanacs from their containing notices of each day. It is mostly confined to astronomical tables giving the daily ENTRE RIOS--—EPISTOLZE places of the sun, moon, and planets, and other phenomena of the heavens. EPHOD, a vestment worn by the Jewish high- priest. It consisted of two shoulder-pieces, one covering the back, the other the breast and upper part of the body. Two onyx stones set in gold fastened it on the shoulders, and on each of the stones were engraved the names of six tribes, ac- cording to their order. A girdle or band, of one piece with the ephod, fastened it around the body. Just above this girdle, in the middle of the ephod, and joined to it by little gold chains, rings, and strings, rested the square oracular breastplate with the mysterious Urim and Thummim. EPI, or GIROUETTE, a species of light, ornamental finial of ironwork or terra-cotta with which pointed roofs or the tops of spires are sometimes sur- mounted. EPIDEMIC, a disease which attacks numbers of persons in one place, simultaneously or in succes- sion, and which in addition is observed to travel from place to place, often in the direction of the most frequented line of communication. EPICYCLOID, the name of a peculiar curve. When a circle moves upon a straight line, any point in its circumference describes a cycloid; but if the circle moves on the convex circumference of an- other circle, every point in the plane of the first circle describes an epicycloid. and if on the con- cave circumference a hypocycloid. The circle that moves is the generating circle; the other, the base. EPIGASTRIUM, the part of the abdomen which chiefly corresponds to the situation of the stomach, extending from the sternum towards the navel or umbilicus, and bounded on each side by the hypo- chondria. It is called, in popular language, the pit of the stomach. EPIGENE, a term applied to those geological agents of change which affect chiefly the superficial portions of the earth’s crust, as the atmosphere, water, plants, and animals. EPIGLOTTIS, a cartilaginous valve, which partly closes the aperture of the larynx. EPILOBIUM, agenusof plants of the natural order Onagraceze, having four deciduous calycine segments ; four petals ; a much elongated, four-sided, four-celled, four-valved, many-seeded capsule; and seeds tufted with hairs at one end. The species are herbaceous perennials, natives of temperate and cold countries, and very widely diffused both in the Northern and in the Southern hemispheres. EPISCOPAL CHURCH, PROTESTANT. See Bri- tannica, Vol. VIII, p. 943. See also RELIGIOUS DE- NOMINATIONS, in these Revisions and Additions. EPISTLE. The lesson in the church service called the Epistle derives its name from being most frequently taken from the Apostolic Epistles, al- though it is sometimes also taken from other parts of Scripture. EPISTLE SIDE OF THE ALTAR, the left side of the altar or communion table, looking from it, at which in the church service the epistle of the day is read. It is of lesser distinction than the right or Gospel side, and is occupied by the clergyman of lower ecclesiastical rank. EPISTOLJE OBSCURORUM VIRORUM, the title of a collection of satirical letters which ap- peared at the commencement of the 16th century, and professed to be the composition of certain ecclesiastics and professors in Cologne and other places in Rhenish Germany. They were directed against the scholastics and monks, and lashed with merciless severity their doctrines, writings, morals, modes of speech, manner of life, follies and extrav- agances, and thus helped in no small degree to bring about the Reformation. EPIZOA—EQUINOCTIAL GALE EPIZOA, animals that live on the bodies of other organism in various degrees of parasitism. EPIZOOTIC, or Errzotirv, any disease tempo- rarily prevalent amon the lower animals; es- ecially the influenza W en thus prevalent among horses or other domestic animals. Many of the epidemics of influenza,nearly one hundred of which have occurred since the beginning of the 16th cen- tury, have been accompanied by similar disorders among horses, cows and dogs. About 16,000 horses were attacked by it in New York during the preva- lence of the pestilence in 1872. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 73. EPODE, the last part of the chorus of the ancient Greeks, which they sung after the strophe and anti- strophe, when the singers had returned to their original place. The epode had its peculiar measure of syllables and number of verses. EPONYM, a mythical personage created to ac- count for the name of a tribe or people. E P R O U VE T T E, a machine for testing the strength of gunpowder. The ordinary eprouvette is an instrument shaped like a small pistol without a barrel, and having its breach chamber closed by a fiat plate connected with a strong spring. On the explosion of the powder against the plate, it is drawn back to a distance indexed according to the strength of the powder, and is retained at its extreme state of propulsion by a ratchet-wheel. EPWORTH, a town in the northwest of Lincoln- shire, England, 30 miles north-northwest of Lin- coln, distinguished as the birthplace of John IV es- ley, the founder of Methodism, as also of Kilham, founder of the Methodist New Connection. Pop- ulation, about 2.300. __~‘-\\ " “vi or cnmsm, H " D committee or 3 to 5 woflx 0'8 Wash; ' -Q3“ ' 1:’ TlI-ro1qu-ame§‘‘°fl 41! “tag ‘in mofl-‘§;f:; 1' "M uufihn 11* -\°$ > *~’§f,°~1”'“ '"°°S P“ “-$18 - :0 P“ “M ".'~7q' ’°HJ<> wm¢1“°° Q ""31!!! so inmfifl \ ~ _ \ ~_____rx_.- . t\\ J _.. _,r‘ EPWORTH LEAGUE, a young people's society connected with the Methodist Episcopal church. In April, 1891, it was the strongest denominational oung peop1e’s,societ in existence, and its rowth had been phenomena . In May, 1889, a con erence of all the general oung people’s societies of the M. E. church assemb ed in Cleveland, Ohio. Accred- ited delegates were present from the Young Peo- le’s Methodist Alliance, the Oxford League, the HIoun People’s Christian League, the Young Peo- le’s ethodist Union, and t e Youn People’s ethodist Alliance of the North Ohio onference. The result of this meeting was the merging of 649 these societies into one new organization, to be called the Epworth League, whose object is “to promote an earnest, intelligent, practical, and loyal spiritual life in the young people of the church, to aid them in constant growth in grace and in the attainment of purity of heart.” The success attending the organization has been extra- ordinary. In less than two years 5,000 local chap- ters have been enrolled, with a total membership of about 800,000. The general organization includes District, Annual Conference, and General Confer- ence District Leagues. The management rests with a board of control, five of whom are chosen by the bishops, five by the managers of the Tract So- ciety, five by the managers of the Sunday-school Union, and two are elected by each General Con- ference district. The plan of local organization is clearly represented by the accompanying diagram, known as the Epworth wheel. In this wheel is shown the president surrounded by his cabinet, each member of which is the chair- man or head of a department. Each cabinet ofiicer has associated with him in the conduct of his de- partment a committee of three or five, nominated by himself and confirmed by the League. The president must be a member of the M. E. church, and the remaining ofiicers are to be of good moral character, but all must be approved by the Quar- terly Conference. A pledge is provided, but its adoption by local chapters is made altogether vol- untary. The general headquarters of the League are at 150 Fifth Avenue, New York. EQUABLE MOTION, that by which equal spaces are passed over in equal time. EQUATOR, TERRESTRIAL, the great circle on the earth’s surface dividing the earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres, and being half way between the poles. EQUERRY: in the household of British sover- eigns, an ofiicial in the department of the Master of the Horse, whose duty it is .to accompany the sovereign when riding in state. The royal princes have also equerries. EQUESTRIAN ORDER, or Eourrns, a body Which originally formed the cavalry of the Roman army, and is said to have been instituted by Romu- lus, who selected from the three principal Roman tribes 300 equites. EQUESTRIAN STATUE, the representation of a man on horseback. Equestrian statues were awarded as a high honor to military commanders and persons of distinction in Rome, and latterly were chiefly restricted to the emperors, the most famous in existence; the only ancient equestrian statue in bronze being that of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, which now stands in the piazza of the capitol at Rome. ' EQUIANGULAR,havin equal angles. A figure is said to be equiangular w ose angles are all equal to one another, as a square or any regular polygon. Also triangles and other figures are said to be equi- angular one with another whose corresponding angles are equal. EQUILATERAL, having equal sides. A square is equilateral. The equilateral hyperbola is that whose axes and conjugate diameters are equal. EQUINOCTIAL, the same as the celestial Equa- tor. The equinoctial and the ecliptic intersect. Equinoctial time is time reckoned from the moment in each year when the sun passes the vernal equinox. This instant is selected as a convenient starting-point of a uniform reckoning of time for the purposes of astronomical observers. EQUINOCTIAL GALE, OR STORM. a gale or storm that happens at or near the time of the equinox, in any part of the world. It is a wide- 650 / spread belief that gales and storms are more fre- quent about the time of the spring and autumn equinoxes, but this belief is unsupported by the records of careful observations. EQUIPMENT, EQUIPAGE: in military matters, names given to certain of the necessaries for offi- cers and soldiers. ERASED AND ERADICATED, in heraldry, sig- nifies that an object is plucked or torn off, and showing a ragged edge. ERASURE, or RAZURE, the scraping or shaving of a deed or other formal writing. ERCKMANN-CHATRIAN, the compound name of two French romancists, whose stories of Alsa- tian peasant life are known the whole world over. Emile Erckmann was born May 20, 1822, and Alex- andre Chatrian Dec. 2,1826. Their literary part- nership dates from 1848. ERDMAN, AXEL JOACHIM, a Swedish geologist, born Aug. 12, 1814, died Dec. 1, 1869. He published Liirebok, Minemlogz'en (1853), Viigledmlng till bewar- ternos Kéinnedom (1855), and Bidmg till Kdnnedom om Sveriges qucrrtdra bildningar (1868). ERDMANN, Jormnn EDUARD, a German philos- opher, born at Wolmar in Livonia, Russia, in 1805, died in 1887. He studied at Dorpat and Berlin, and became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1839. He wrote several works on philosophy, psy- chology, logic and metaphysics. EREBUS, Monnr, an active volcano on Victoria Land, in 780 10’ south latitude, rising 12,367 feet above the sea. It was discovered in 1841 by Ross, in command of the Erebus and Terror, who named it after one of his vessels. ERGASTERIA, a mining town in the Greek monarchy of Attica and Boeotia, near Cape Co- lonna, with ancient lead and silver works, reopened in 1864. Population, 6,500. ERICACE./E, or HEATHS, a large, widely dis- tributed order of corallifloral dicotyledons, chicfly small shrubs, frequently evergreen and social in growth, covering large areas, especially in moun- tainous regions and on tablelands. ERICSSON, J onr.T (1803-89), a Swedish-Amer- ican engineer. At the age of 12 he became a lev- eler at the grand Swedish ship canal, and two years later was engaged in setting out the work of a section employing 600 soldier operatives. In 1820 he became an officer of engineers in the Swedish army, and soon after received the appointment on the survey of Northern Sweden. In 1827 he re- signed from the army, and spent the remainder of his life in experimenting and inventing. In 1839 he came to the United States. He made numer- ous valuable inventions in machinery; but he is best known to the public world as the designer and builder of the partially submerged war vessel, the Momltor, which defeated the Confederate iron- clad lllewimac, March 9, 1862. In 1883 he erected in New York a “sun motor,” having made many early experiments for developing power direct from the sun. Captain Ericsson died in New York city on March 5, 1889, and in compliance with his expressed wish his remains were carried to Sweden, a United States war vessel, the Baltimore, being detailed by the Government for the purpose, and interred at his birth-place, in Filipstad,Wermland. The burial took place Sept. 15, 1890. ERICSSON, NILS, a Swedish engineer, brother of John Ericsson, was born Jan. 31, 1802, died _at Stockholm’, Sept. 8. 1870. In 1832 he became ma]or in the engineering corps of the Swedish army; was afterwards head of the mechanical corps 1n the navy; and from 1855 to 1863 had charge of the construction of Swedish railroads. He was also engineer of the Saima canal in Finland, and of EQUIPMENT—ERMELAND the locks near Stockholm and at Trollhattan. In recognition of his services he was knighted in 1854, and in 1860 was made a baron. ERIE, a city and county-seat of N eosho county, Kansas. ERIE, a city of Pennsylvania, and county-seat of Erie county (see Britannica, Vol. VIII, p. 522). The city has an area of six square miles, with 150 miles of streets, wide, well paved and lighted. Many of the streets are paved with Medina stone and asphalt, and lined with elegant mansions, sur- rounded by beautiful gardens and shrubbery. On State street are handsome fountains, and a sol- diers’ monument, costing $10,000. An elaborate system of water works supplies the city with an abundance of pure water. The stand-pipe at the pumps is 251 feet high, said to be the highest water pipe in the world. The Government building, completed in 1889, is a notable structure, 114x72 feet, built of stone and granite. The city hall is 6-1x124 feet, 88 feet in height, and cost $300,000. The court-house is 6121132 feet, and cost $60,000. An ad- dition is now (1891) being constructed, at a cost of $50,000. Charitable institutions are: Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Home, Home for the Friendless, Hamot Hospital, and St. Vincent’s Hospital. An excel- lent system of public schools is maintained. The Central High School building is 270x120 feet, seats 1,500 pupils, and cost $100,000. Other educational institutions are: Clark’s Business College, the Erie Academy, the Erie Art School, and St. Bene- dictine (Roman Catholic) Academy. Erie is an important manufacturing center, and the market for a rich farming country. Population in 1880, 27,757 ; in 1890, 39,699. ERIE, CANAL. See Cmnron, DEWITT, Britan- nica, Vol. V1, p. 7. ERIE, LAKE. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 216-22; Vol. XVII, p. 451; Vol. XXI, pp. 179, 182. ERIES. See INDIANS, AMERICAN, in these Revi- sions and Additions. ERIGERON, a genus of plants of the natural or- der Composita’, sub-order 009*;/mbfleraz, having heads (flowers) of many florets, the florets of the ray numerous, in several rows,of a difierent color, from those of the disc. Erigeron Philadelphicum, anative of North America, with pale purple ray, and afoetid smell, is valued in the United States as a diuretic. ERIOCAULACEZE, a natural order of endogen- ous plants, nearly allied to Restiaceer, and contain- ing about 200 known species, many of which are aquatic or marsh plants. The Eriocaulaceaz are chiefly natives of the tropical parts of America and Australia. ERIODENDRON, a genus of trees of the natural order Sterculiaceaz, natives of tropical countries. Their thick woody capsules contain a kind of wool surrounding the seeds. They are sometimes called Woot-Tnnns, or silk-cotton trees. ERITH, a town of Kent, on the banks of the Thames, 15% miles by rail east of Charing Cross. It is a summer resort for Londoners, and the head- quarters of several yacht clubs. It has a much re- stored church, rich in brasses. At Erith the Grace de Dieu was built in 1515. Population of parish, about 10,000. ERMELAND, or ERMLAND, one of the eleven dis- tricts of the old province of Prussia, extending in- land from the Frisches Haff. In 1250 it was created one of the four bishoprics of the country of the Teutonic Knights. In 1354 the bishop of Ermeland, who had been subject to the archbishop of Riga, was made directly dependent upon the Pope, and elevated to the position of a prince of the empire. In 1466 West Prussia was transferred to Poland, and the bishop of Ermeland became a member of the ERMENONVILLE-—ESCHOLTZ BAY Since 1722 Ermeland and its bishop 1 Polish senate. have again been Prussian. ERMENONVILLE, a village in the southeast of the department of Oise, in France. It is celebrated for its beautiful and extensive parks, and as being the resting-place of Rousseau. It was also the res- idence of Gabrielle d’Estrées, the mistress of Henry IV, who inhabited a hunting-tower, part of which is still standing, and bears her name. Ermenonville was purchased by Stanislaus de Girardin, and is reserved for the lovers of art, of Nature, and of Eistorical monuments. ERNST, the name of several German princes. EROSION, the influence of a stream or river in hollowing out its channel. EROTIC POETRY, poetical pieces of which love is the predominating subject. EROTOMANIA, a species of mental alienation caused by love. ’ ERRATA, the list of errors, with their correc- tions, placed at the end of a book. ERRATICS, the name given to the water-worn blocks of stone that have been washed out of the bowlder-clay, or are still inclosed in it, because they have generally been derived from rocks at a dis- tance. ERRETT, Isaac (1820—88), an American clergy- man. He was a follower of Alexander Campbell, and in 1810 became a preacher. He was pastor in Pittsburgh, Pa., in New Lisbon, \Varren, and North Bloomfield, Ohio, in Detroit, Muir and Ionia, M.ich., and in Chicago. In 1866 he began the publication of “The Christian Standard,” in Cleveland, and in 1868 became the president of Alliance College, but soon resigned to establish the “Christian Stand- ard” in Cincinnati. He was corresponding secre- tary of the Ohio Christian Missionary Society in 1858-56, and its president in 1867-70; was corre- sponding secretary of the General Christian Mis- sionary Society in 1857-60, and president in 187-l—76, and was president of the foreign society in 1875-86. His principal literary works are: A Commentary on First and Second C'0'r'inthians; lVaZks About Zion, and A Search After the Landmarks of Ancient Chrz'stz'amlty. ERRHINES, medicines administered locally to produce sneezing and discharge from the nostrils, in catarrh, and in various disorders of the head and eyes. Common snufl, and various other vegetable ir- ritants in powder, have been used for this pur- ose. ERYNGO, a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferae, having simple umbels, which resemble the heads of composite flowers, a leafy involucre and leafy calyx, and obovate, scaly fruit destitute both of ridges and vitta-2. The species are numerous, mostly natives of the warmer temperate parts of the world, with alternate, simple or divided leaves, which have marginal spines. ERYSIMUl\I, a genus of plants of the natural order Cruciferze, tribe Sisymbrieze. The pod is four- sided. Erysimwn cheiram‘hoz'des, a branching an- nual about 18 inches high. with lanceolate, scarcely toothed leaves, and small yellow flowers, is found in North America and many parts of Europe. Some of the plants formerly referred to as Erysimum are now included in other genera, as »S'z'symZ>rium and Alliaria. ERYTHRONIUM, a genus of bulbous-rooted plants of the natural order Liliaceze, with drooping flowers and the segments of the perianth reflexed. Erythronium dens canis, the DOG-TOOTH VIOLET, so called from the resemblance of its little white bulbs to dog’s teeth, is well known. ERYTHROPHL./EUM, a genus of leguminous trees, sub-order Mimoseae. One species, a native of Guinea, contains a red juice used for poisoning ar- 651 rows, and also in ordeals. The tree sometimes at- tains a height of 100 feet. ERYTHROXYLACEZE, a natural order of ex- ogenous trees or shrubs, allied to Malpighiacew. Nearly 100 species are known, natives of warm countries, chiefly of tropical America. ESBJERG, a port of Denmark, 56 miles west of Fredricia by rail, with a large export trade in cat- tle, mostly to England. Its harbor, the only one of importance on the west coast of Jutland, was con- structed by the state at great expense in 1868-74. ESCALADE: in siege operations, a mode of gain- ing admission within the enemy’s works. It con- sists in advancing over the glacis and covert-way; descending, if necessary, into the ditch by the means of ladders. and ascending to the parapet of the cur- tain and bastions by the same ladders differently placed. The leaders of an escalade constitute a “forlorn hope.” ESCANABA, or ESCANAIVBA, a city, the county- seat of Delta county, Mich. It is at the north end of Green Bay, has a good harbor, and does a large shipping business,sending out annually 500,000 tons of Lake Superior iron ores. ESCAPE: in law, the evasion of legal restraint; departure from the custody of a sheriff or other ofificer, or transcending the limits of confinement without due process of law. The term is used also of the liability of a sheriff for suffering a prisoner to escape. ESCARP : in fortification, the side or slope of the ditch next the rampart, and of the parapet itself. lVhen the ditch of a fortress is dry the escarp is usually faced with mason-work to render it diffi- cult of ascent, and behind this facing there are often passages or casemates for defense. The es- carp is always made at as large an angle as the nature of the soil will allow. ESCARPMENT, a long line of clifl formed by the outcrop, of a relatively hard stratum of rock im- bedded among more yielding strata, the inclina- tion of which is generally gentle. This structure is the result of denudation; the hard rock projects because it has yielded less readily to the agents of erosion. ESCARS. large heaps of gravel, consisting chief- ly of carboniferous limestone, that were accumu- lated during the Pleistocene period. They occur in central Ireland, but are identical with the éisar of Sweden, and are known also under the name of kames in Scotland. The gravel is often heaped into narrow ridges, -10 to 80 feet high and from 1 to 20 miles long. ESCHAR, a slough or portion of dead or disor- ganized tissue. The name is commonly applied to artificial sloughs produced by the application of caustics. ESCHELLES, Lns, a village in Savoy,’ situated on the Guier, 12 miles southwest of Chambéry. The valley beyond this village, on the road to Cham- béry, is blocked up by a huge limestone rock 800 feet high, over which travelers formerly used to climb by means of ladders-—hence the name of the village. Through this mass of limestone a tunnel now ex- tends, which is 25 feet high, 25 feet wide, and 1,000 feet long. The tunnel was projected and com- menced by Napoleon I, and finished in 1817 by the king of Sardinia. ESCHOLTZ BAY, a portion of the Arctic Ocean in Alaska, forming the innermost part of Kotzebue Sound, the first great inlet to the northeast of Bering Strait. It is about long. 1610 \V., being barely on the outside of the Polar Circle. It is worthy of notice on account of its fossil remains, which, though common on the northern coast of Siberia, , are rare on that of the new continent. 652 ESCHSCHOLTZIA, a genus of plants of the nat- ural order Papcweraceee, of which E. Californica and other species, natives of California, have now be- come very common in our flower-gardens, making a very showy appearance with large, deep yellow flowers. The genus is remarkable for the calyx which separates from the dilated apex of the flower- stock, being thrown ofi by the expanding flower, and resembling in its form the extinguis er of a candle. ESCUDO DE VERAGUA, a river and an island on the Atlantic side of Central America—the island being at the mouth of the river. They are situated a little to the east of the boundary between New Granada and Costa Rica. The island is in lat. 9° N ., and long. 810 30’ VV. ESENBECKIA, a genus of trees of the natural order Diosmaceee. The bark of E. febrifuga is said to be equal in its effects to Peruvian Bark. It is a tree 40 feet high, a native of the south of Brazil. ESERIN, the alkaloid of the Calabar Bean. ESLA, a river of Spain, and an important afiiuent to the Douro. It rises in the province of Palencia, Old Castile, from the southern base of the Asturias Mountains, 10 miles northwest of the town of Valleburon. It flows southwest and joins the Douro 15 miles below the town of Zamora. It is 125 miles in length. Its waters are well stocked with fish. ESMARCH, Jornmnns FRIEDRICH Aucusr,a Ger- man surgeon, born at Tonning, in Schleswig-Hol- stein,J an. 9, 1823. He was educated in the gymnasia at Rendsburg and Flensburg, and studied medicine at Kiel and Gdttingen. During the Danish war of 1848 he served as assistant surgeon, later as adju- tant of Stromeyer, and in 1850 was promoted to be chief surgeon. He was appointed professor and director of the hospital at Kiel in 1857; became a member of the hospital commission at Berlin in 1866, and during the Franco-German war of 1870 was surgeon-general and consulting surgeon of the army. The latter position he resigned in 1871, and since his return to Kiel he has been constantly engaged in his work as professor and surgeon. He is known to the medical profession throughout the world by his great invention in surgery, the blood- less method of operating on the extremities. Dr. Esniarch has published many valuable professional wor s. ESOCIDJE, a family of malacopterous fishes, Which is now regarded as including only the pikes, but in which the flying fishes and others now" con- stituting the family Scmnberasocidee, of the order Pharyngognatlzs, were until recently included. ESPALIER, a term borrowed from the French, and signifying a railing on which fruit trees are trained, as on a wall. ESPARTERO, BALDOMERO (1793-1879), a Spanish soldier. He entered the army in 1809. In 1816 he was ordered to Peru, and promoted captain. He served with marked bravery in numerous impor- tant battles, and in 1825 was appointed chief of the general staff of the Army of Peru. In 1833 he be- came commander-in-chief of the province of Biscay, and later lieutenant-general. Subsequently he was appointed general-in-chief of the Army of the North, viceroy of Navarre, and captain -general of the Basque Provinces, and in 1839 was created a gfrandee of the first class, with the title of Duke of ictoria and Morella. In 1840 he was placed at the head of the ministry, and the following year was ap- ointed regent by the Cortes. He retired to Eng- and in 1843, but in 1854 returned to Spain and was laced at the head of the ministry. He resigned, owever, in 1856. In 1870 he was oifered the crown of Spain by several members of the Cortes, but de- clined it on the ground of great age. ESCHSCHOLTZIA-—-ESTOILE ESPLANADE, the open space intentionally left between the houses of a city and the glacis of its citadel. It requires to be at least 800 paces broad, that the enemy, in case of getting possession of the town, may not be able to assail the citadel under cover of the nearest houses. In old works on forti- fication the term is often applied to the glacis of the counter-scarp, or the slope of the parapet of the covered way towards the country. ESPRINGAL, or SPRING-AL, in the military engi- neering of the days before the introduction of unpowder into European warfare, was a machine or throwing missiles. These missiles were either large darts called muchettes, or arrows winged with brass and called oiretons, from their whirling mo- tion when shot forth. ‘ ESPRIT DIVA, an aromatic liquor made in Switz- erland, from a plant called Genipi. Like the Swiss tea, made from the same plant, it possesses sudorific properties. ESPY, JAMES POLLARD (1785-1860), an American meteorolo ist. In 1808 he became principal of the classical cademy in Cumberland, and later was admitted to the Ohio bar. In 1817 he became a professor in the classical department of the Frank- lin Institute, Philadelphia. Later he advanced the theory that every great atmospheric disturbance begins with the uprising of air that has been rare- fie by heat. In 1840 he visited Europe and pre- sented his views to foreign scientists for examin- ation. They reported favorably on them, but subsequent researches have led to important modifications of his views. In 1843 he received an appointment under the war department, and insti- tuted a service of daily bulletins on the condition of the weather in different localities, which has since developed into an important branch of the war de- partment. He published several ‘volumes of weather reports, besides Philoso hy of Storms. ESSAYS AND REV WS, the title of a remark- able volume published in 1860, containing the fol- lowing seven papers: (1) The Education of the World, by Dr. Temple; (2) Bunsen’s Biblical Re- searches, by Dr. Rowland Williams; (3) On the Study of the Evidences of Christianity, by Professor Baden Powell; (4) The National Church, by H. B. VVilson; (5) The Mosaic Cosmogony, by C. W‘. Goodwin; (6) Tendencies of Religious Thought in England, 1688-1750, by Mark Pattison;(7) The Interpretation of Script- ure, by Professor B. Jowett. All the writers, except Mr. Goodwin, were clergymen of the Church of England; and their work, which was censured for its heterodox views by nearly all the bishops, and formally condemned by convocation in 1864, caused much excitement and controversy. Dr. Williams and Mr. Wilson were sentenced by the ecclesias- tical courts to suspension for a year, but on appeal the sentence was reversed by the Privy Council; and Dr. Temple’s election to the see of Exeter in 1869 was also ineifectually opposed. ESSENCE DE PETIT GRAIN is obtained by dis. tillation from small unripe oranges, about the size of a cherry, and is used as a perfume in the same manner as orange-flower water. ESSEX, a manufacturing town of Middlesex county, Conn., on the Connecticut River. It pro- duces soap and carriages. ESTHERVILLE, the county-seat of Emmett coun- ty, Iowa, situated on the east branch of the Des Moines River. It has excellent educational advan- tages, grist and saw mills, and a machine shop. Thebusiness of the locality is farming and stock- raising. ESTOILE, or STAR, in heraldry, differs from the mullet by having six waved points; the mullet con- sisting of five plain points. ESTRAY--EUGANEAN HILLS ESTRAY : in law, a horse, sheep or other domestic animal found wandering, and the owner of which is supposed to be unknown. By the common law of England estrays belonged to the sovereign. By statute law an estray becomes the property of the person in whose inclosure it is found, if not claimed b the owner within a year and a day. In the Ul1ited States the law of estrays varies in the differ- ent States. ESTREAT: in English law, a true extract copy, or note of some original writing or record, and specially of fines or amercements, as entered in the rolls of a court, to be levied by bailiffs or other officers. , ESTREES, GABEIELLE DE (0. 1571-99), mistress of Henry IV of France, with whom she became ac- quainted in 1590. She was married to a gentleman of Picardy, named Liancourt, from whom she soon separated. The king was so fond of her that, in spite of the opposition of Sully, he was about to divorce his consort, Marguerite de Valois, that he might marry Mme. de Liancourt, when the latter Suddenly died at Paris, April 10, 1599. ETANG DE BERRE, a salt lake of France, in the south of the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, communicating with the sea by a narrow channel, called Port-de-Bouc. It is 11 miles long by 9 broad at its widest part. This lake contains great quanti- ties of eels and other fish. Salt works are in opera- tion on its banks. ETEX, ANTOINE, a French artist, born at Paris, March 20,1808. He early devoted himself to art, receiving instruction from Ingres and Duban, and in 1828 he secured the second prirc de Rome by his Hyacinth/as Slain by Apollo. His statue of Cain, exhibited at the salon of 1833, secured rhimacom- mission for two groups for the Arc de l’Etoile, and in 1841 his Tomb of G'e’ricaalt won the decoration of the Legion of Honor. Among his statues are Hero and Leander, at the museum of Caen; Blanche of Castile, at Versailles; Charlemagne, at the Lux- embourg; Shipwreoked, exhibited at the exposition of 1867; Susanna Surprisecl at the Bath. Among his paintings are: Romeo and Juliet; Dante and Beatrice; The Great Men of the United States (now in City Hall, New York); The Flight to Egypt. He exe- cuted designs for monuments and public works, and engraved a series of designs from the Greek tragic poets. He died in 1888. ETHELREDA, Sr, a daughter of the king of the East Angles, canonized in the 7th century for her saintly virtues. Her festival in the calendar is October 17. Her name was popularly abbreviated or corrupted into St. Audrey. ETHIOPS, or ./Ernrors, a term applied by the ancient chemists to certain oxides and sulphides of the metals which possessed a dull, dingy, or black appearance. ETHMOID BONE, one of the eight bones which collectively form the cavity of the cranium. It is of a somewhat cubical form, and is situated between the two orbits of the eye, at the root of the nose. Its upper surface is perforated by a number of small openings (whence its name), through which the filaments of the olfactory nerve pass down- wards from the interior of the skull to the seat of the sense of smell, in the upper part of the nose. It consists of a perpendicular central plate or lamella, which articulates with the vomer and with the central fibro-cartilage, and thus assists in forming the septum or partition between the two nostrils. ETHYLAMINE, a substance strongly resemb- ling ordinary ammonia and hartshorn in odor and other properties. It is found i11 coal tar, in the oil obtained during the destructive distillation of 653 bones, in the gases evolved during putrefaction, and may be produced by certain complicated chem- ical processes. Ethylamine is a mobile liquid of specific gravity 696 (water:1000), and boils at 660 F. It has an alkaline action with coloring matters, forms white fumes with strong acids, and in com- position is analogous to gaseous ammonia (N H3 or N H H H), with one of the atoms of hydrogen re- placed by ethyl (CZH5 or A3),H and is represented by the symbol CZH7 N or 1* H ETIQUETTE: originally, a little piece of paper aflfixed to a bag or other object to signify its con- tents. The word came probably to possess the secondary meaning which we now attach to it, of the forms observed in the intercourse of life, more particularly on state occasions, from its having been customary to deliver such tickets, instructing each person who was to take part in the ceremony as to the part which he was expected to play. Cards which are still delivered to mourners at funerals, and those on which the order of the dances is set forth at balls, are of this nature. ETIVE, a sea-loch in the north of Argyleshire, running inland from the Firth of Lorn, 20 miles east and northeast, with a width of from a quarter of a mile to three miles. It is bordered by granite in its upper part, and by trap in its lower. Near its mouth there is mica-slate on the north side, and Permian strata on the south. The loch abounds in seals, salmon, porpoises, and cod. At the south side of the mouth of Loch Etive, on a projecting conglomerate rock 10 to 30 feet high, are the ruins of Dunstaffnage Castle, the ancient stronghold of the MacDougals, a building in the Edwardian style, with walls 400 feet in circumfer- ence, 30 to 50 feet high, and 10 feet thick, and with three round towers. ETRETAT, a Norman watering-place, 18 miles northeast of Havre, in a country remarkable for picturesque rock-formations. Population, 2,000. ETRURIA, a village of Staifordshire, England, between Burslem and Hanley. Here, in 1769, Jo- siah Wedgwood and Thomas Bentley opened their ielsegbrate Etruria potteries. Population, about ,7 . ETTRICK, apastoral vale in the south of Sel- kirkshire, Scotland. In this vale at Tushielaw, dwelt the celebrated freebooter or king of the bor- der, Adam Scot, who was summarily executed by James V. Thomas Boston, a Scottish divine, and {;IIiIGS Hogg, the Scottish poet, also lived in Ettrick a e. ETUDE, a term used in music to designate com- positions intended either to train or to test the player’s technical skill. EUCHLORINE,a very explosive green-colored gas, possessing bleaching properties, and prepared by heating gentlya mixture of two parts hydro- chloric acid, two of water, and one of chlorate of pot- ash. It will explode if merely touched with a hot wire. EUDJEMON ISM, the doctrine that happiness is the chief good. EUFAULA, a city of Barbour county,Ala.,on the Chattahoochee River. It is a winter health resort, has a female college, water-works, bagging factory, fair ground, and is a great cotton-shipping point, over 50,000 bales being sent out annually, EUGANEAN HILLS. a range of well-wooded hills, with a north and south axis, lying southwest of Padua in Northern Italy. They owe their ori- gin to eruptions of trachyte during the Jurassic pgrligrigl. The highest point, Monte Venda, reaches 1, eet. 654 EUGENE CITY, the county-seat of Lane county, Oregon, 71 miles south of Salem, on the west bank of the lVillamette River. It is a business and edu- cational center, and contains the University of Ore- on, a flouring-mill, woolen, saw, and planing mills. EUGENIA, a genus of plants of the natural order Mg/rtaeeze,nearly allied to llfyrtus, and differing only in having a 4-parted instead of a 5-cleft calyx, four instead of five petals, and one or two-celled berry, with one seed in each cell. The species are trees and shrubs, natives chiefly of tropical and sub-tropical countries. EUGENIE-MARIE DE MONTIJO, empress of the French and wife of Napoleon III, born at Gran- ada, in Spain, May 5, 1826. She is descended on the father’s side from an old and noble Spanish family, and by her mother is connected with an ancient Scottish family, the Kirkpatricks of Close- burn. She was educated principally at Madrid, and spent a great portion of her youth in traveling with her mother. In 1851 she appeared in Paris, where her beauty and graceful demeanor won the admiration of the emperor of the French. The wedding was celebrated Jan. 30,1853, at the church of Notre Dame. One son, the fruit of this union, was born March 16, 1856. On the deposition of the emperor in September, 1870, and the declaration of a republic, Eugénie fled almost alone from France, and took refuge in England, where she was joined by the prince imperial, and in the following March by her husband. The ex-emperor died in 1873, and the prince was killed in the Zulu war, June 1, 1879. Eugénie’s residence in exile is at Chiselhurst, Kent. EUMOLP US: in mythology, the son of Poseidon and Chione. He was brought up in Ethiopia, went to Thrace, and afterwards marched into Attica at the head of a body of Thracians to assist the Eleu- sinians in their war against Erechtheus, king of Athens. He is said to have been slain in battle. He is spoken of as the founder of the Eleusinian mysteries. EUOMPHALUS, a large genus of fossil gaster- opodous shells, characterized by its depressed and -discoidal shell, with angled or coronated whorls, five-sided mouth, and very large umbilicus. The -operculum was shelly, round, and multi-spiral. The genus seems related to Trochus. It appears among the earliest tenants of the globe, and keeps its place till the Triassic period. Eighty species have been described. EUONYMIN, an extract from the bark of the Euonymus atropurpureus, the Spindle Tree, or Wahoo, a shrub indigenous to the United States. It is used in America as a tonic and diuretic, and in Britain for its stimulant action on the liver. EUPATORIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order Compositze, sub-order C0’/"ymbife'ree, having small flowers (heads of flowers) in corymbs, florets all tubular and hermaphrodite, club~shaped stigmas imbricated bracts, a naked receptacle, and a hairy pappus. The species are numerous and mostly American. Thorough-wort (E. perfoliatum), a species having the opposite leaves joined at the base, is used as a medicine. EUPHEMISM, a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive matter is designated in in- direct and milder terms. EUPI-ION, or Eurrronou, a musical instrument invented by Chladni in 1790. It is similar in tone to the harmonica, and, like it, the tone is produced from the sounding body by the finger direct, with- out mechanism, and is regulated in quality and effect by the taste and feelings of the performer. EUPHONIUM, abass Saxhom. The Euphonon, a variation of the harmonica, was invented by -Chladni in 1790. i EUGENE CITY——EUT,AW SPRINGS EUPHORBIA. See Britannica, V 01. VIII, p. 668. EUPHORBIA, OIL or, or OIL on CAPER SPURGE, an extremely acrid fixed oil, obtained by expres- sion, or by the aid of alcohol or ether from the seeds of the caper spurge. This oil much resem- bles croton oil, for which it is sometimes used as a substitute. EUPHORBIACEJE, a very extensive order of dicotyledons, containing upwards of 3,500 known species—trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants—of the most extraordinarily varied, often even cactus-like, habit. They abound in warm countries, and most in tropical America. The few species found in the colder parts of the world are all herbaceous. The Euphorbiaceze usually abound in an acrid and poisonous milky juice; although there are species whose juice is bland, or becomes so through the ap- plication of heat. Many of them are valued for their medicinal properties. EUPHROSYNE, one of the Graces. EUPODA, a family of coleopterous insects of the tetramerous section of the order, deriving their name (well-footed) from the great size of the hinder thighs of many of the species. The body is oblong, the antennas iiliform. Some of them are among the most beautiful of tropical insects. EURASIANS, a name applied to the offspring of European parents on the one side and Asiatics on the other side, and chiefly used in India of the chil- dren whose fathers are Europeans and whose moth- ers are Hindoos, and their descendants. The term Eurasian is also used in geography for facts true of Europe and Asia (Eurasia) taken as one conti- nent. EUREKA, a city and county-seat of Humboldt county, Cal., on Humboldt bay, seven miles from the ocean. It has a good harbor and is a shipping- point for redwood lumber. EUREKA, a village in Olio township, Woodford county, Ill., 19 miles east of Peoria. It contains Eureka College, with which is connected a normal school and a Biblical school under the direction of the Disciples of Christ. EUREKA. a city and county-seat of Greenwood county, Kan. EUREKA, the county-seat of Eureka county, Nev., midway between Salt Lake and San Francisco. Mining is the chief business, and large quantities of lead and silver ore are produced. This place is third in importance in the State. EUREKA SPRINGS, a city and county-seat of Carroll county, Ark., situated in the VVhite River Mountains. Its medicinal springs attract thou- sands of health-seekers. EURYALE, a genus of plants of the natural order Nymphaeaceze, or ‘Water-lilies, closely allied to Victoria, although of very different appearance. EUSTATIUS, Sr., one of the Dutch West India Islands. Area, 190 square miles. It is apyramidal rock of volcanic formation, showing two extinct craters, and is subject to earthquakes. Several hur- ricanes often occur. Along its entire circuit, of 29 miles, it has but one landing-place. The whole island is very fertile. Population, about 3,270. See Britannica, Vol. XXI, p. 168. EUSTIS, a village of Lake county, Fla., on Lake Eustis, in the center of the peninsula and of the lake region of the State. The surrounding country is engaged in raising oranges and vegetables. EUTAW, the county-seat of Green county, Ala., 35 miles southwest of Tuscaloosa. It contains two seminaries. EUTAW SPRINGS, a small affluent of the San- tee River, in South Carolina, near which the last serious battle in the American War of Independ' ence was fought, Sept. 8, 1781. EUTERPE--EWBANK EUTERPE, a genus of palms, having male and female flowers intermingled on the same spadix, the spadices springing from beneath the leaves; the spathe entire, membranaceous and deciduous. They are very elegant, with lofty, slender, smooth faintly fringed stems and pinnate leaves, forming a graceful feathery plume; the base of the leaf- stalk sheathing far down the stem, and so forming a thick column of several feet in length at its sum- mit. EUTHANASIA, an easy death, or a painless method of putting to death. EVANGELICAL, an adjective derived from the Gr. euanggelion, “good news,” or “ the Gospel,” and applied in general to anything which is marked by the spirit of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. EVANGELIST (a bringer of good tidings): in the New Testament, a person appointed by an apostle to itinerate among the heathen. The word evangelist is also used to denote the four writers of the life and Gospel of Jesus Christ. _ EVANS, FREDERICK WILLIAM, an American re- former, born in 1808. In 1830 he joined the Shakers at Mt. Lebanon, N. Y.; was appointed assistant elder in the “North Family” in 1838, and twenty years later became elder of the three “ families.” Besides contributing to seventy different publica- tions, he is the author of several works concerning his sect. EVANSTON, a post-village of Illinois, on Lake Michigan 12 miles north of Chicago by rail. It has many handsome residences, a ladies’ college, the Garrett Biblical Institute, and the Northwestern University (Methodist). EVANSTON, the county-seat of Uintah county, VVyo., on the Bear River, midway between Omaha and San Francisco. Coal and iron are found in the vicinity. The town has railroad machine shops, employing a large number of men. EVANSVILLE, a city of Indiana, and county- seat of V anderburg county (see Britannica,Vol. VIII, p. 727). Evansville has 10 lines of railway, and 8 steamboat lines. The city is built over two veins of soft coal, and within a radius of 30 miles 60 coal shafts are in operation. The public school system is excellent. There are 12 public school buildings, valued at $42°,207. High schools are provided for both colored and whites, the races being taught separately. There is a fine public library and art gallery. There were, in 1891,260 manufacturing establishments. The hard wood lumber trade is enormous, said to be the largest in the country. The production of flour reaches 680,000 barrels annually, and 15,000,000 brick are yearly manu- factured within the city limits. Evansville has grown rapidly during the last decade. Population in 1880, 29,280; in 1890, 50,674. EVANSVILLE, a village of Rock county, \Vis. It contains a seminary, a steam cabinet-manufac- tory, and a machine shop. EVART, a lumbering town of Osceola county, Mich., containing saw and shingle-mills, a machine shop, and a foundry. EVARTS, JEREMIAH (1781-1831), an American philanthropist. From 1806 to 1810 he practiced law in New Haven, Conn.; was editor of the “ Pan- oplist ” from 1810 to 1820, when he was made editor of the “ Missionary Herald” ; iI1 1812 became treas- urer of the American board of commissions for foreign missions. In 1821 he was chosen corre- sponding secretary of the board, and retained the position until his death. He published several essays and speeches. EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL, a United States ex-Senator, born in 1818. He studied in the Har- vard Law School, and was admitted to the bar in 655 New York in 1841; was chairman of the New York delegation in the National Republican convention of 1860; was Attorney-General of the United States from July 15, 1868, to March 3, 1869; received the degree of LL.D. from Union College in 1857, from Yale in 1865, and from Harvard in 1870; was counsel for President Johnson on his trial upon his impeachment in 1868; was counsel for the United States before the tribunal of arbitration on the Alabama claims at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1872; was counsel for President Hayes, in behalf of the Republican party, before the Electoral Commis- sion; was Secretary of State of the United States from 1877 to 1881; was elected to the United States Senate as a Republican from New York, in the place of Elbridge G. Lapham, Republican, and took his seat March 4, 1885. His term of service expired March 3, 1891. EVE, PAUL FITZSIMONS (1806-77), an American physician. He graduated at the medical depart- ment of the University of Pennsylvania in 1828; studied in London and Paris; served as an ambu- lance surgeon during the revolution of 1830, and as a regimental surgeon in the Polish war. In 1831 he returned to the United States, and in 1832 be- came professor of surgery in the Medical College of Georgia. In 1849 he was elected surgical pro- fessor in the University of Louisville; in 1850 in the University of Nashville; in 1868 in the University of Missouri, and later returned to Nashville as pro- fessor of operative and clinical surgery. In 1877 he became professor of the principles of surgery in the Medical College at Nashville. During the civil war he served with the Confederate army in Mississippi and Georgia. He published several works on surgery, besides contributing extensively to various medical journals. EVERETT, a city of Massachusetts, located in Middlesex county, in the extreme eastern portion of the State. It adjoins Boston, with which it is connected by the Eastern Railroad. It is supplied with water from the Mystic Water-works of Bos- ton. Prior to 1870 it formed a part of Malden. It has an excellent system of public schools. Popu- lation in 1880, 4,159; in 1890, 11,068. EVERETT. a borough of Bedford county, Pa., 9 miles east of Bedford. EVERETT, RoBER'r \V., a farmer, born near Hayneville, Ga., March 3, 1839. He was educated at Mercer University, Ga.. graduating in 1859, and becoming a teacher. He served in the Con- federate army during the war of the Rebellion. In politics a Democrat, he served two years as com- missioner of revenues, and twelve years as a mem- ber of the board of education, being its chairman four years. He was elected a member of the State House of Representatives in 1882, and served four years, being chairman of the committee on agricul- ture in 1884 and 1885. In 1890 he was elected a Rep- resentative from the Seventh Congressional Dis- trict of North Carolina to the 52d Congress. EVERGREENS. See Britannica, Vol. II, p. 319. EVERSLEY, a village of northeast Hampshire, England, 13 miles northeast of Basin gstoke. Charles Kingsley was rector of the parish from 1842 until his death in January, 1875, and is buried in the churchyard. EVICTION. Vol. XX, p. 403. EWBANK, THOMAS (1792-1870), an American sci- entist. From 1819 to 1836 he was employed in New York, first as a machinist, and then in the manu- facture of metallic tubing. He retired in 1836 to devote himself to literature and scientific pursuits. From 1849 to 1852 he was United States Commis- See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 275; 656 sioner of Patents. He published, among other works, many books on scientific subjects. El/VELL, RICHARD STODDEET (1817-72), an Amer- ican soldier. He served in the Mexican war, and against the Apaches in New Mexico in 1857. At the beginning of the civil war he entered the Con- federate army. and was actively engaged through- out the war. He several times won distinction and attained the rank of lieutenant-general. After the war he retired to private life. EWER, FERDINAND GARTWRIGHT (1826-83), an American clergyman. In 1857 he was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal church, and a year later became priest. He labored two years in Grace church, San Francisco, and then returned to the East, where he was appointed assistant min- ister in St. Ann’s church, New York city. From 1862 to 1871 he was rector of Christ church, and then for a time of St. Ignatius. In 1883, while preaching in St. John’s church, Montreal, he was stricken with paralysis, and died three days later. He was the author of several works on theology. EVVING, a village of Franklin county, Ill. It is the seat of Ewing College, and contains a large Woolen factory. EWING, J ULIANA HORATIA ORR, writer for chil- dren,born at Ecclesfield, Yorkshire, in 1842, died at Bath, May 13, 1885. She early began to compose nursery plays for her brothers and sisters, which they performed, her brother, Alfred Scott Gatty, acting as musical director. Mrs. Ewing was a graceful writer, and her studies of children and child-life were simple and natural. In 1867 she mar- ried Major Alexander Ewing. EWING, Tnorms (1789-1871), an American states- man. From 1816 to 1831 he practiced law in Lan- caster, Ohio, and from 1831 to 1837 served as United States Senator. In 1841 he became Secretary of the Treasury, and in 1849 Secretary of the Interior. In 1850 he was appointed United States Senator, but resigned the following year and resumed his law practice in Lancaster. In 1829 Mr. Ewing adopted IVilliam T. Sherman, then a boy of nine, into his family. EXCALIBUR, the famous mystic sword of King Arthur, which was given him, as Merlin promised, by the Lady of the Lake, and at his death was flung into the river and caught up by a hand which rose above the waters. EXCEMENTOSIS, a new word now used in den- tal literature as a substitute for exostosis, in de- scribing a morbid, bony growth on the surface of the teeth. See DENTISTRY, in these Revisions and Additions. EXCIPIEN T, an inert or slightly active sub- stance, introduced into a medical prescription as a vehicle, or medium of administration for the strictly medicinal ingredients. EXCITANTS, or STIMULANTS, those pharmaceuti- cal preparations which, acting through the nervous system, tend to increase the action of the heart and other organs. They all possess an acrid and pun- gent taste. and give a sensation of warmth when placed on a tender part of the skin. EXCLUSION BILL, a proposed measure for ex- cluding the Duke of York, afterwards James II, from succession to the throne, on account of his avowed Roman Catholicism. A bill to this effect assed the Commons in 1679, but was thrown out y the Upper House (see Britannica, Vol. VIII, p. 350). As the new Parliament summoned in 1681 seemed determined to revert to this measure, it was dissolved, and Charles ruled henceforth with- out control. EXCULPATION, LETTERS or: in the law of Scot- land, the warrants granted to the accused party, or 9 EWELL—EXOTIC PLANTS pahel as he is called, in a criminal prosecution, to enable him to cite and compel the attendance of such witnesses as he may judge necessary for his defense. EXECUTION: in criminal law, the infliction on criminals of the punishment of death in conformity with legal decree. EXECUTION: in law, the act of completion or carrying into effect. Thus a writ is executed by obeying the instructions contained in it; a deed when it is signed, sealed, and delivered; a power when it is exercised; a judgment of a court when it is enforced. EXECUTORY: in English law, a term applied to contracts, etc., which are not executed—that is, not completed with the forms required to make them legally operative. In American law, the term executory is used as in England. EXERCISE, a very important element of medi- cal regimen, both in the preservation of health and in the cure of disease. EXETER, one of the county-seats of Rocking- ham county, N. H., on the Squamscott River, 50 miles north of Boston. The well-known Phillips Academy is here, also Robinson Female Seminary. It has a cotton mill, railroad round-house, and manufactures castings, lumber and carriages. EXETER HALL, a large proprietary building, on the north side of the Strand, London. It was completed in 1831, and can contain upwards of 5,000 persons. It is let chiefly for religious assem- blies, and is in great demand during the “May Meetings” of the several religious societies. It has also been used for musical fétes. In 1880 it was purchased for £25,000 for the Young Men’s Chris- tian Association. EXHAUSTIONS, METHOD or, a mode of proving mathematical propositions regarding quantities by continually taking away parts of them. The method was frequently employed by the ancient geometers; its fundamental maxim, as stated by Euclid, being that those quantities are equal whose difference is less than any assignable quantity. EXMOOR FOREST, a moory. mostly unculti- vated waste, consisting of dark ranges of hills and lonely valleys, 14 square miles in area, in the west of Somersetshire and northeast of Devonshire, Eng- land. It is bordered by deep-wooded glens. The hills rise in Dunkery Beacon to 1,668 feet, in Chap- man Barrow to 1,540, and in Span Head to 1,510. Devonian slates, with some New Red Sandstone in the north, form the substratum. It is covered with heath, juniper, cranberry, and whortleberry, and has some meadow-land. Throughout this tract there is a native breed of ponies, known as Exmoor ponies, reputed stout and hardy. Iron is mined here. EXOGENOUS PLANTS, or Exoenns, a term ap- plied to dicotyledons by Lindley to express an erroneous view of the difference in the mode of stem-thickening from that of monocotyledons, and now wholly disused by botanists. EXOSTEMMA, a genus of American trees and shrubs of the natural order Oinchonacere, nearly al- lied to Cinchona. Several species yield febrifugal barks, which, however, do not contain the cinchona alkaloids. The most valued are Caribbee Bark and Saint Lucia Bark. EXOTIC PLANTS, or Exorrcs, cultivated plants originally derived from foreign countries. The term is generally applied to those whose native country differs so much in soil or climate from that into which they have been conveyed that their cul- tivation is attended with difficulty, requiring arti- ficial heat or other means unlike those requisite in the case of indigenous plants. EXPECTATION WEEK—-EXTRACT OF MEAT EXPECTATION WEEK, the name given to the period elapsing between Ascension Day and Whit- sunday, because during this time the Apostles con- tinued praying in earnest expectation of the Com- forter. EXPECTORANTS, medicines given to carry off the secretions of the air-tubes. EXPECTORATION, the mucus or other secre- tion discharged from the air-passages. EXPERIMENT, the means by which we extend and confirm our knowledge of Nature. An experi- ment is properly a proceeding by which the inquirer interferes with the usual course of a phenomenon, and makes the powers of Nature act under condi- tions that, without his interference, would never, perhaps, have presented themselves all together. EXPERT, a person of special practical experience or education in regard to a particular subject-a word commonly applied to medical or scientific witnesses in a court of justice, when selected on account of special qualifications, as in the case of an analysis of the contents of the stomach in suspected poisoning. It is also applied to one professionally skilled in handwriting, for detecting forgery of deeds and signatures. EXPLOSIVES, substances by whose decomposi- tion or combustion gas is generated with such rapidity that they can be used for blasting or in fire-arms (see Britannica, Vol. VIII, pp. 806-813). They may be classed generally as follows: Gunpowder. Nitro com ounds. Gun-c_otton. Picrlc ac1 . Fulmmates. ,- The nitro-compounds are nitro-cellulose, nitro- glucose, nitro-starch, and nitro-glycerine and its compounds. The fulminates are fulminating mer- cury, fulminating silver, chlorate of potassium and sulphide of antimony, sulphur and chlorate of potassium, and red phosphorus and chloride of potassium. The mixture of nitro-glycerine with dry pulverized absorbent substances has given rise to a variety of explosives, of which the name dyna- mite is perhaps generic. Among these mixtures are: Dualin. Jupiter powder. Giant owder. Lignose. Hercu es powder. Mica powder. Neptune powder. Titamte. Potentia powder. Titan powder. Rendrock. Vi¢orite. Sebastine. Vufican powder. Thunderbolt powder. The relative efficiency of the various modern ex- plosives is shown by the following table, which is the result of two years’ trial by the United States Board of Army Engineers. Ordinary dynamite is taken as the standard: Dualin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..11l. Hercules powder No. 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106. Dynamite, No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100. Rendrock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94. Gun-cotton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87. Dynamite, No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. S3. Hercules powder, No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. S3. Mica powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. S3. Vulcan powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. S2. Nitro-glycerine. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81. Blasting gunpowder, No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30. For a description of the various explosives, see their respective headings. .1 EXPONENT AND EXPONENTIAL. \Vhen want- ing to express the multiplication of unity for any number of successive times by the same number or quantity, e. g., 1x5x5, or lxaxaxa, it was found more convenient to write 1x52 lxas, or simply, 52 and a3, and the numbers, 2 and 3, indicating how often the 657 operation of multiplication is repeated, were called exponents. But the theory of exponents gradually received extensions not originally contemplated, and has now an extensive notation of its own. Thus a°:1, a1:a, a‘2:1—:-a2, ail,-IV a, a-,1,-_—fi’a, a-§-:1?/a2, or the cube root of the square of a. Also AX is the Xth power of A, X being any number integral or fractional; and, A continuing the same, X may be so chosen that AK shall be equal to any given number. In this case, X is called the loga- rithm of the number represented by AX. Consid- ered by itself, AX is an exponential. Generally, any quantity representing a power whose exponent is variable, is an exponential, as AX, HX, YX, etc. Exponential equations are those which involve ex- ponentials, such as AX:b, HX:c. EX POST FACTO LAW, any criminal or penal statute rendering an act punishable in a manner in which it was not punishable when it was com- mitted. Any law which would make an act crimi- nal which was not criminal when done, or which would increase the severity of the punishment of a previous act, or which would alter the rules of evi- dence or procedure so as to put one accused of a crime committed previous to the law in a worse position before the courts, is prohibited by the Con- stitution of the United States. EXPRESS, in the United States, specifically a system organized for the speedy transmission of parcels or merchandise of any kind, and their safe delivery in good condition. It originated in the trip made from Boston to New York by ‘William Frederick Harnden, the first “express package car- rier,” March 4, 1839. A feature of the American ex- press system is the “ collect on delivery” business, goods when sent to strange firms at a distance being marked C. O. D., with the amount to be collected on the outside of the package, and the payment being collected by the express company. The ex- press companies in America also, issue money orders which are payable at any of their ofiices. EXTENSION: in logic, a word put into contrast with another term, GOMPREHENSION, and the two mutually explain each other. A general notion is said to be extensive according to the extent of its application, or the number of objects included under it. EXTENT: in English law, a writ issuing out of the court of exchequer to compel payment of debts to the crown. EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES, those cir- cumstances, in connection either with the position of the prisoner or with the act alone which are taken into consideration by the court in mitiga- tion of the punishment. The previous good char- acter of the person convicted may always be proved as a circumstance giving him some claim to lieniency of punishment. Besides character, there are other circumstances which sometimes serve to mitigate the sentence. sometimes to take the act done out of the category of crime altogether. One is youth. Thus, no act done by any person under seven years of age is a crime. Defective mental power in the person convicted will always be con- sidered in determinin the severity of his sentence. Disease of mind, suc as prevents a man from knowing that the act he does is wrong, will excuse him from consequences of an act otherwise criminal. EXTORTION: in law, the offense or illegal act committed by a public ofiicer who, under color of his office, takes from any person any money or val- uable thing, which is not due from him at the time when it is taken. The act is a misdemeanor, and punishable as such. EXTRACT OF MEAT is obtained by acting upon chopped meat by cold water. and gradually heating, 4 658 when about one-eighth of the weight of the meat is extracted, leaving an almost tasteless insoluble fibrine. EXTRACTIVE MATTER, the term applied to certain organic matters resembling humine, which are found in soils during the decay of vegetable matter, and are precipitated during the concen- tration of water solutions. EXTRACTS: in a technical sense, medicinal preparations of vegetable principles, obtained either by putting the plants in a solvent or men- struum, and then evaporating the liquid down to about the consistency of honey, or by expressing the juice of the plants and evaporating; this last is properly inspissated juice. Extracts, therefore, con- tain only those vegetable principles that are either held in solution in the juices of the plants them- selves, or are soluble in the liquids employed in ex- tracting them, and at the same time are not so volatile as to be lost during evaporation. As many extractive matters are more or less volatile it makes a great diflerence whether the operation is conducted at a low or a high temperature. Ex- tracts are called watery or alcoholic according as the menstruum employed is water or spirits. Ether is sometimes used in extracting. EXTRAVASATION, the escape of any of the fluids of the living body from their proper vessels through a rupture or injury in their walls. Excre- mentitious matter thus sometimes escapes into the abdomen through a wound or ulceration of the bowels. But the term is oftenest used in speaking of the escape of blood from injured blood-vessels. Extravasation is distinguished from exudation by this, that in the latter the vessels remain entire, and the effusion takes place by filtration through their walls; only a part of the blood escapes, the blood globules being retained, while in extravasa- tion perfect blood is eifused. Many kinds of extra- vasation are immediately fatal, such as that of urine or gall into the abdomen, or of blood from the vessels of the brain in many cases of apoplexy. The dark color resulting from a bruise is owing to exltravasated blood from ruptured capillary ves- se s. EXUMAS, a part of the group of the Bahama Islands, comprising Great Exuma, Little Exuma and the Exuma Keys. They contain about 2,000 in- habitants, who are employed partly in agriculture, but chiefly in salt making. In 1851, the Exumas ex- ported 115,356 bushels of salt. Little Exuma is the second most important port of entry in the Ba- hamas. EXUVIJE, a term applied to organic remains, now seldom employed, but frequently used by the older geologists. YALET, next to a province, the largest and most important of the divisions of the Turkish Empire, which contains in all 36 eyalets. Each eyalet or general government is administered by a pasha, who is governor. The governors belong to the Dignities of the Sword, and are pashas of two tails; when they are raised to the rank of vizier, as is ireguently the case, they become pashas of three an s. EXTRACTIVE MATTER-‘-EYRIA PENINSULA EYAM, a village in North Derbyshire, England, five miles north of Bakewell, with a population of 1.038, chiefly engaged in lead mining. Here, in September, 1665, the plague, then raging in London, broke out in its most virulent form. William Monpesson, the rector of the parish, aided by Thomas Stanley, devoted himself to the care of the dying with the most heroic courage. The plague lingered 13 months and 260 out of a population of 350 parished. ‘ EYE, J01-IANN LUDOLF AUGUST voN, a German art historian, born at Fiirstanau, in Hanover, May 24, 1825, and educated at the gymnasium in Osnaburg, and at the University of G6ttingen. In 1853 he was appointed director of the collection of art and antiquities in the museum at Nuremberg, in 1874 accepted a professorship in Rio J aneiro, Brazil, but the following year returned to take charge of the art museum in Dresden. In 1881 he returned to Brazil. He has published Deutschland cor drew) hun- dert Jahren in Leben und Kunst (1857), Eine Men- schenseele, Spiegelbild aus dem 18 Jahrhundert (1863), Wesen and Werth des Daseins (1870), and Das Reich des Schiinen (1878). EYEBRIGHT (Euphrasia), a genus of plants of the natural order Scrophulariceae, having a tubular calyx, the upper lip of the corolla divided, the lower of three nearly equal lobes, the cells of the anthers spurred at the base, a two-celled cap- sule and striated seeds. Some of the species are root parasites. They are natives of Europe and Asia. The common eyebright (E. oflicinalis) is a little plant about six inches high, with ovate ser- rated leaves, and white or reddish flowers streaked with purple, appearing singly in the axils of the leaves. It is abundant in pastures and on moun- tains, and has been used as a medicine in diseases of the eyes, and catarrhal affections. It is a weak astringent. \ EYOT, a little island in a river, especially one overgrown with willows, as in the Thames. EYRE, a salt lake of South Australia, lying north of Spencer Gulf, at an altitude of 79 feet, and hav- ing an area of 3,706 square miles. Except in the rainy season, this lake is generally a mere salt marsh. If was discovered in 1840 by Eyre. EYRE, EDWARD JOHN, a British diplomatist, born in 1815. He served for sometime as governor of New Zealand, and in 1854 was appointed lieuten- ant-governor of the island of St. Vincent. In 1859- 60 he acted as the administrator of the Leeward Islands. In 1862 he was appointed to administer the government of Jamaica and its dependencies, and in 1864 was appointed captain-general, gover- nor and vice-admiral. He was afterwards re- called on charges of unnecessary severity in sup- pressing an insurrection; but the accusations were never substantiated. See Britannica, Vol. III, p. 105, and JAMAICA, Vol. XIII, p. 551. EYRIA PENINSULA, on the south coast of South Australia, triangular in shape, its base being formed by the Gawler Range, while its sides are washed on the southeast by Spencer Gulf, and on the southwest by the Great Australian Bight. It is a rich pastoral country. 659 El F—- FACTORY LEGISLATION F, in music, is the fourth note of the natural dia- tonic scale of C, and stands in proportion to C as 4 to 3, and is a perfect fourth above C as funda- mental note. F major, as a key, has one flat at its signature: namely, B flat. F minor has four flats, the same as A flat major, of which it is the relative minor. FAAM, or FAHAM. an orchid, native of Madagas- car, prized for the fragrance of its leaves, which is owing to the presence of Coumarin. In Mauritius an infusion of faam leaves is in great repute as a cure for pulmonary consumption. FABLIAUX, an appellation given in old French literature to a class of short metrical narratives, intended for recitation; the tales of the Trouveres. FABRICIUS, or Fxnmzm, Girolamo, a celebrated anatomist and surgeon, born near Orvieto in 1537, died at Padua, May 21, 1619. He studied anatomy and surgery at Padua, under Fallopi us. On the death of the latter in 1562 Fabricius was appointed to the vacant professorship, a position he held for nearly half a century. Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, was one of his pupils. Fabricius’s chief contribution to anatomy was the discovery of the valves of the veins in 1574. FABRONI, GIOVANNI, V. M. (17 52-1822), director of the physical cabinet of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. He constructed many important military bridges, and in 1815 became professor of natural science at Pisa University. FABVIER, CHARLES N. BARON (1782-1855), a French oflicer who became a peer of France in 1845, and a member of the legislative assembly in 1849. He served in Spain, Greece and France. FACADE, the exterior front or face of a building. This term, although frequently restricted to classic architecture, may be applied to the front elevation of a building in any style. It is generally used with reference to buildings of some magnitude and pretensions; thus, we speak of the front of a house, and the facade of a palace. The sides of a court or cortile are also called facades. FACET, a term employed to denote the plane surfaces of crystals, or those artificially cut upon precious stones. FACIAL NEURALGIA, pain in parts of the head and face rendered sensible by connection with the trigeminus nerve. It is caused by a morbid state of the nerve-center or other pathological condition. FACIAL PARALYSIS arises from a loss of the motor property of the nerve supplying the facial muscles, and results in a loss of expression on the affected side, and a drawing of the mouth and other features to the healthy one. FAC-SIMILE, an exact copy, as of handwriting. FACTOR: in mathematics, one of the quantities which, multiplied together, form the product. The numbers 6 and 4 multiplied together, make 24; hence 6 and 4 are called factors of the product 24. Most numbers are products of two or more factors: 12=3><4,or2><6, or2><2><3. FACTORY, a term contracted from manufactory, applied to a building, or collection of buildings, appropriated to the making of goods on an exten- sive scale. In the United States the factory sys- tem has had a rapid growth. At the close of the Revolutionary war factories were practically un- known in this country, while now the number of manufacturing establishments exceeds 300,000, and the value of the products is greater than that of any other country. For information concerning the number of factories of the various countries, hands employed, wages paid, value of products, etc., see MANUFACTURES, in these Additions and Re- visions. FACTORY LEGISLATION IN AMERICA. The British “ Factory and \Vorkshop act ” has no coun- terpart in the United States. A few of the States have adopted laws regulating the age at which children can be employed in factories, and pre- scrilloging the number of hours constituting a day’s wor . In New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts and New Jersey, no child under ten years of age can be employed in any factory. In Rhode Island the minimum a e is twelve, and in Pennsylvania, thir- teen. The actory legislation of Connecticut for- bids the employment of any child under 14 years of age, unless such child shall have attended school at least two months during the preceding year; and no child under 15 can be employed in any factory more than ten hours per day. In Maine no child under 12 years of age can be employed in any cotton or wool factory without having attended a public or private school at least four months during the year preceding such em- ployment. Between 12 and 15 years of age such child must have attended school at least three months during the previous year. In Maryland, no children under 16 years of age may be employed in factories for more than ten hours per day. Massachusetts has taken more advanced steps in factory laws, and provides inspectors for their enforcement. In this State no child under 14 may be employed, except during school vacations, un- less he has for 20 weeks during the preceding year attended school. No minor under 18 years and no wornan shall be employed more than 60 hours in a wee :. In New Hampshire no child under 12 years of age shall be employed in any factory unless he has attended the school of his district the whole time it was in session. Between 12 and 14 such child must have attended school six months. Be- tween 14 and 16 twelve weeks’ school attendance is required. No child under 15 years of age can be employed more than 10 hours per day, except by the written consent of parent or guardian. In New Jersey no minor may be required to work more than ten hours on any day. The New York act provides that no children un- der 14 years of age shall be employed during school hours, unless they attended school 14 weeks of the preceding year. In Ohio 14 is the age under which no child may be employed during school-hours unless he has at- tended school 12 weeks during the year preceding. In Pennsylvania no child between the ages of 13 and 16 shall be employed more than nine months; three consecutive months being allotted to school attendance. In Rhode Island no child between 12 and 15 years of age may be employed more than nine months 660 in any year; and then not unless he has devoted three months of the preceding year to school- mg. The factory act of Vermont provides that chil- dren between 10 and 15 years of age shall not be employed in factory or mill unless they have at- tended school at least three months during the preceding year, and are not to be employed more than ten hours per day. FACULE, in astronomy, are spots brighter than the rest of the surface, which are sometimes seen on the sun’s disc. They are assumed to be elevated portions of the photosphere. FACULTY, a name applied to certain powers of the mind, chiefly of the intellect. In discussing the intellect, whatever are considered its funda- mental functions are its faculties. According to the older metaphysicians, the leading intellectual faculties are perception, memory, reasoning and imagination; these, however, would not now be considered as giving the ultimate analysis of the intellect. Conscience, or the moral sense, has sometimes been called the moral faculty. FAED, J OIIN, a Scottish painter, born at Burley Mill, near Gatehouse-of-Fleet, Kirkcudbrightshire, in 1820. His love of art was early manifested, and when hardly in his teens he made tours through the villages of Galloway, painting miniatures. In 1841 he went to Edinburgh and in 1861 to London, where his talents won recognition. In 1880 he re- turned to Gatehouse-of-Fleet, and his recent pic- tures have been chiefly landscapes. FAED, THOMAS, R. A., brother of John Faed, born at Burley Mill, June 8, 1826, and in 1842 began his regular art studies in Edinburgh. At the Trustees Academy he took several prizes. In 1849 he was made an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy; in 1861 he was made A. R. A. and R. A. in 1864, and elected an honorary member of the Vienna Royal Academy in 1875. FAGGING, a usage in the great public schools of England, in virtue of which the senior boys are authorized to exact a variety of services from the junior boys. A lower form boy has certain duties to perform to all the upper form boys, as in stopping the balls for them when practicing cricket-and others which he owes to a special master. such as stoking his fire and carrying his messages of a more or less private kind. In American colleges the freedoms taken, under the narne of hazing, by sophomore and senior students with freshmen, is somewhat analogous. FAGOT—VOTES, votes manufactured chiefly for county elections, by the nominal sale of property, under mortgage or otherwise, so as to qualify the holder to vote. The term fagot described formerly a person who was hired to fill up another’s place at the muster of a regiment, or to conceal a deficiency in its strength. FAIDHERBE, Lours LI':oN CESAR, French gen- eral, statesman, and archaeologist, born at Lille, June 3, 1818, died in 1889. He studied at the Ecole Polytechnique and at Metz, afterwards serving as a military engineer in Algeria and the West Indies. Made governor of Senegal in 1854, he rendered the French dominion in Africa great service by his ac- curate knowledge of the country and its popula- tion. At the commencement of the war with Ger- many he had command of Bona in Algeria, and when the armies were reorganized in 1870 he was appointed general of division and commander-in- chief of the North. He commanded in the battle of Point-Noyelles, relieving Havre from siege, and also in that of Bayaume. Although his little prac- ticed forces were afterwards defeated by the Ger- mans, he proved himself a very able commander. FACULrE—FAIRBURY Joining the party of Gambetta, he was elected to the national assembly in 1871. He retired from public life when the government of Thiers came into power. He was sent on a scientific expedition to Egypt, and subsequently published several works on archaeological topics. He also published a book on the war, Campagne de l’Armée du Nord. Gen. Faidherbe was grand-chancellor of the Legion of Honor. FAIENCE, or FAYENCE, a general term for all sorts of glazed earthenware and porcelain. The origin of the name is disputed. Some delrive it from Fayence, a small town of Provence, others from Faenza, a city of Italy; while certain writers consider the Isle of Majorca the place where it was originally manufactured, as the Italians still call faience Majolica or Magolina. FAI—FO, a seaport of Anam in Cochin-China in the province of Quang-Nan situated on a river, near its mouth, communicating with Tooron, 15 miles to the north, by means of a canal. It exports sugar and cinnamon, its principal trade being with China. Population, 15,500. FAILLON, MICHEL E. (1799-1870). He was a priest of the Sulpician order, who came from Paris to Canada as visitor to Sulpician houses of the country, and wrote biographies and histories of the French in Canada. FAILLY, DE CHARLES ACHILLE, born in 1810, a French general, who introduced the Chassepot gun. He distinguished himself in the Crimean war, and at the battle of Solferino, but was unfortunate dur- ing the Franco-German war, and lost his command the day before the battle of Sedan. FAINEANTS ROIS (the “Do-nothing Kings”), the sarcastic designation of the later Merovingian sov- ereigns of France, under whom the famous mayors of the palace really governed the country. The first of the series was Thierry III, nominally monarch of Burgundy, Neustria, and Austriasia; the others were Clovis III, Childebert III, Dagobert III, Chilperic II, Thierry IV, and Childeric III. The last of these was dethroned in 730 by Pepin le Bref, mayor of the palace, who caused himself to be for- mally proclaimed king. Louis V, the last of the Carlovingians, and a descendant of Pepin le Bref also received the epithet of Fainéant. FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW M., theologian, principal since 1886 of Mansfield College, Oxford, was born in 1838 in Edinburgh, Scotland, and educated at the Universities of that place, of Glasgow and of Berlin. His first pastorate, in 1860, was at Bathgate, Linlithgow, Scotland. In 1877 he was principal of Airedale (Congregational) College at Bradford, England, and in 1883 was chairman of the Congre- gational Union of England and Wales. Dr. Fairbairn has written Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and History, Studies in the Life of Christ, and other works, and is an eloquent preacher. He visited America in 1890. FAIRBAIRN, PATRICK, D.D., born in Scotland in 1805, died in 1874. He was principal and professor of systematic theology and New Testament ex- egesis in the Free Church Theological College of Glasgow. He visited the United States in 1871. FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS (1792-1864), an American manufacturer. In 1824, with his brother Thaddeus, he began the manufacture of cast-iron plows and stove-castings, in St. J ohnsburg, Vt., and in 1831 they gave their entire attention to making plat- form scales. In 1836-38 Erastus was a member of the legislature, and in 1849 was president of the Passumsic Railroad company; in 1851 and again in 1860 was elected governor of Vermont. FAIRBURY, the county-seat of Jefferson county, N eb., on the Little Blue River. It has fine water- FAIRBURY--FALCON power, flowering-mills, soap factory, and tree- packing house of a large nursery. FAIRBURY, a town of Livingston county, Ill., situated in a fertile region where coal, limestone, sandstone, fire-clay, micaceous quartz and clay of nearly every color are found. The town has grain elevators, mills and factories. FAIRCHILD, JAMES HARRIS, an American divine and educator, born at Stockbridge, Mass., in 1817. He entered Oberlin College in 1833; became tutor in 1839; professor of languages in 1842; of mathe- matics in 1852; of theology in 1858, and was made president in 1866. He has edited Memoirs of Charles G. Finney (1876), and Finney’s Systematic Theology (1878), and is the author of Oberlin, the Colony and the College (1833); Moral Philosophy (1869), and Women’s Right to the Ballot (1870). FAIRCHILD, Looms, an American statesman, born in 1831. He was admitted to the Wisconsin bar in 1860. At the beginning of the civil war he entered the Federal army as captain in the 1st Wisconsin regiment, and three months later was commissioned a captain in the 16th regiment of the Regular Army, and about the same time a major in the 2d Wisconsin infantry. In 1863 he became a brigadier- eneral, and the same year was elected Secretary 0% State in Wisconsin. From 1865 to 1871 he was governor of the State; was United States consul at Liverpool from 1872 to 1878; was consul-general in Paris from 1878 to 1880, and United States minister to Spain in 1880-82. In 1886 he became commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic. FAIRFAX. a village of Franklin county, Vt. It has the New Hampton Theological and Literary Institution (Baptist), and manufactories of wool- ens, lumber and leather. FAIRFIELD, the county-seat of Wayne county, Ill.11 It contains a woolen factory, flour and saw- rm s. FAIRFIELD, a city and county-seat of Jefferson county, Iowa. It is the seat of Parsons College and a female seminary. FAIRFIELD, a village of Somerset county, Me., on the Kennebec River, 21 miles north of Augusta. It has canning factories, furniture factories, a tannery, foundry and a framing-mill, where build- ings are manufactured entire. FAIRFIELD, the county-seat of Freestone county, Texas. It has two colleges. FAIRFORD, a village of Gloucestershire, nine miles east of Cirencester, and 26 miles west south- West of Oxford. Its fine church, built in the 15th century, is famous for its series of 28 stained-glass windows. Keble was a native. Population of parish, 1,525. FAIRHAVEN, a manufacturing town of Ver- mont, about nine miles northeast of Whitehall, N. Y. It contains extensive quarries and manu- factories of marble and slate. FAIRHAVEN, a village of Bristol county, Mass., on the east side of New Bedford harbor, 60 miles south of Boston. The harbor is good and the town manufactures ships’ furnaces, tacks, metallic wares and castings, and it contains oil-refineries. FAIR HEAD, or BENMORE, a precipitous rom- ontory of the north coast of Antrim, Irelan , op- posite Rathlin Isle, four miles to the northwest. It rises 636 feet above the sea, and consists of car- boniferous strata, overlaid by greenstone columns, 20 to 30 feet thick, and 280 to 300 feet high. FAIR ISLE, a solitary island in the Atlantic, 25 miles from Shetland. It is four by two and one- half miles in extent, and rises 708 feet above the sea, with high rock cliffs and promontories. The population, chiefly shers, is 226. 1 661 FAIRMOUNT, the county-seat of Marion county, W. Va., situated at the head of navigation on the Monongahela River. It contains a State normal school, shops and mills, and there are coal mines in the vicinity. FAIR OAKS, near Chickahominy, Va., the scene of a battle fought May 31 and June 1, 1862, be- tween the Union forces under Gen. McClellan, and the Confederates under Gen. Johnston, in which the latter were forced to retreat with a loss of about 8,000, the Federal army having lost nearly 6,000. FAIRPLAY, the county-seat of Pike county, Col., at the head of South Park, 117 miles from Denver. It is at an altitude of 9,964 feet above sea- level, and is the point whence Mount Lincoln min- ing district derives its supplies. FAIRPOINT, a village of Monroe county, N. Y., 11 miles east of Rochester. It has manufactories of cream of tartar, baking-powder, flour, saleratus, barrels, staves, carriages, confectionery, canned goods, etc. FAIRVILLE, a village of St. John county, N. B., on St. John River, 2% miles from St. John. It con- tains the New Brunswick Lunatic Asylum. FAITH. See Britannica, Vol. III, pp. 532-35; also Vol. XXIII, p. 264. FAlTH—CURE, or FAITH-HEALING, the treat- ment of sickness by prayer, and the exercise of faith in God, without medical advice or appliances. Dorothea Trudel, at Miinnedorf, Switzerland, be- tween 1850 and 1860, wrought many cures by faith and prayer; but the recent movement in favor of faith-healing, which is conspicuous in Sweden and in the United States, is the outcome of the success of Pastor Blumhardt, at M1"1ttlingen in Wiirtemberg, and afterwards at Boll, near Giippingen. There are homes for faith-healing at various places in Great Britain and in the United States. FAITH, RULE or, that which faith adopts as its guide. The Bible, in Protestant churches, is ac- cepted as the sole rule of faith. In the Roman Catholic church the rule of faith is the body of revealed truth contained in the Scriptures and traditions. FAITHFULL, EMILY, an English philanthropist, born at Headley rectory, Surrey, in 1835, educated at Kensington, and in early life devoted herself to ameliorating the condition of working-women, and extending their sphere of labor. She learned the art of type-setting, and in 1860 established a print- ing-ofiice where only female compositors were em- ployed. The project was approved by Queen Vic- toria, and the business was styled the Victoria Press. The publication of a handsome book enti- tled Victoria Regia, and dedicated by permission to the queen, led to Miss Faithfull’s appointment as publisher in ordinary to Her Majesty. In 1863 the “ Victoria Magazine, a publication devoted to the rights of women, was commenced. Miss Faithfull has won a high reputation as a lecturer on her fa- vorite topic, not only in England, but in the United States, which she has twice visited. She is author of Change Upon Change (1868), A Reed Shaken With the Wind (1873), and a number of other works. In 1889 she was awarded a civil-list pension of fifty ounds. FAIZPUR, a town of Bombay presidency, about 200 miles east of Surat, with a reputation for its dark-blue and red dyes and cotton prints. Popula- tion, 9,640. FALCKENSTEIN, vox EDUARD V., born in Si- lesia in 1797, a Russian general who distinguished himself at the battles of Katzbach and Montmi- rail, when only 17, and afterwards served in the campaign of Holstein, and in the wars of 1866. FALCON. See Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 2-4. 662 FALCONER, THE Hon. Ion KEATH (1856-87), orientalist, missionary, and athlete, born in Edin- burgh, July 5, 1856. From Harrow he went to Cambridge, and there he began evangelistic work. In London he aided by personal effort in founding an assembly hall, to Which he contributed $10,000. A keen cyclist, he defeated in 1878 the fastest rider in the world, and rode from Land’s End to John O’Groat’s. He was author of the article “Short- hand,” in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. He had accepted the Lord Almoner’s professorship of Arabic at Cambridge, and was settled at Shaikh Othman, near Aden, as a missionary, when his promising career was cut short by fever, May 10, FALCONET, a name used in the 15th and 16th centuries for a small field-gun. The ball weighed from one to two pounds; and the gun from five to fifteen hundred weight. FALCONIDJE, a large family of birds of prey The muscular strength and power of fli ht; the habit of preying upon living animals, an that in daylight; the world-wide representation by over 300 species, are to be noted. The beak is rather short, but very strong, and highest at the root; the partition between the nostrils is complete; the upper margin of the eye-socket projects; the feet bear strong, sharp, rending claws and large sole- pads. The family includes the falcons par excel- lence; the eagles; the buzzards; the kites; the hawks; the harriers; and the caracaras. FALDSTOOL, a small desk in churches in Eng- land, at which the litany should be sung or said. ‘The name is also given to a folding stool used by Roman Catholic bishops and other prelates on certain occasions. FALEME, one of the most important tributaries of the Senegal. It rises in Futa-Jallon, flows north .and joins the main stream above Bakel. About 120 miles above its mouth the Falemé is inter- rupted by rapids and waterfalls. Up to that point it is navigable for small steamers during two months of the year. FALERNIAN IVINE, one of the favorite wines of the Romans. It is described by Horace as sur- passing all other wines then in repute; but in the time of Pliny Falernian wine had begun to decline in quality. FALK, PAUL LUDWIG ADALBERT, German jurist and statesman, born at Metschkau in Silesia, Aug. 10, 1827, and educated at the gymnasium and Uni- versity of Breslau. He began his legal career in 1847, and in 1862 became counselor of the court of appeals at Glogau, and on the formation of the North German Confederation in 1867 was elected representative of Glogau. In 1868 he was assigned as privy counselor to the ministry of justice, and was employed in the codification of the laws of the German Empire. Made a representative of Prus- sia in the imperial council, Dr. Falk was minister of public worship and instruction in 1872, when Prince Bismarck decided on curtailing the privi- leges of the Roman Catholic church, and it was he who brought forward the repressive measures (see Britannica, Vol. X, p. 513). It was through the ag- itation caused by the passage and attempt to en- force these laws that Dr. Falk’s name became widely known. When negotiations were begun for the restoration of harmony between church and state he retired from office. A peerage was offered to him, which he accepted for his son. In 1882 he was appointed to the presidency of the court at Hamm. FALKLAND ISLANDS, otherwise called Les Hes MaZouines,a British colony in the South At- lantic. For history and earlier statistics, see Britan- FALOONER-FALLOUX nica, Vol. IX, pp. 14-16. South Georgia, an island 800 miles east-southeast, has been annexed to the colony. Its area is 1,570 square miles, but it is snow-covered, sterile, and uninhabited. The pres- ent area of the Falklands is 8,070 square miles, with a total population of 1,890. The chief town is Stanley, with a population of 700. The govern- ment is administered by the governor, assisted by an executive council and a legislative council. There were in 1889 two government schools, with 142 pupils; one private school with 71 pupils, and one school at Darwin with 22 pupils. There are no naval or military forces. The total rev- enue for 1889 was £8,628; expenditures, £9,720; imports, £55,716; and exports, £116,102. Sheep- farming is the chief industry, 2,325,154 acres being devoted to sheep pasturage. In 1887 there were in tlfie colony 2,173 horses, 8,169 cattle, and 582,410 s eep. FALL, the name applied in theology to the change of state with respect to sin which befell Adam and Eve in Eden. The Fall was due to an external temptation ofiered by the devil, and sin and a corrupted nature are the inheritance through the first sinners of all their natural de- scendants. FALLACY, the incorrect performance of the process of reasoning so as to lead to error. The science of logic reduces sound reasoning to certain rules, and when any of these rules are violated a logical fallacy is the result. The time-honored di- vision was into two classes, according as the error lay in the form of the reasoning or in the matter; the formal were entitled in dictione, or those appear- ing in the expression; the material were entitled extra dictionem, implying that the fault could not be detected from the language, but must be sought in a consideration of the meaning or subject-mat- ter. Other classifications have been carried out, but owing to the variety and intricacy of inaccu- rate and confused modes of thought it is difficult to draw up a scheme at once complete and rig- orously scientific. FALL CITY, the county - seat of Richardson county, Neb., in the Great N emaha Valley, 9 miles west of the Missouri River. It contains flour mills, pork-packing house, a foundry, a broom factory, a windmill factory, and steam elevators. FALLING BODIES. All bodies, no matter how unequal in weight, fall in the same time in racuo, from any given height. It is the resistance of the atmosphere only which causes the difference of time in descent, the descent itself being caused by gravity. Experiment has proved that a body mov- ing freely through space falls 16.1 feet a second, and that, continuing its course, it would during the next second pass through a space of 32.2 feet, which is the measure of the accelerating force of gravity. FALLOUX, ALFRED PIERRE, Comte de, French statesman, born at Angers, May 7, 1811, died Jan. 7, 1886. He first became known by his Histoire de Louis XVI (1840), a Legitimist work; and Histoire de Pie V (1844). As a Legitimist he was elected to the chamber of deputies in 1846. He recognized the Republic in 1848, and became a member of the Con- stituent Assembly, and when Louis Napoleon was elected president, was made minister of public in- struction. He retired from public life in 1851, be- came one of the editors of the “ Correspondent” in 1855, was admitted to the French Academy in 1856. Among his later works are: Madame Swetchine, so Vic et ses (Eavres (1859) ; Dix Ans d’AgricuZture (1863) ; and Questions Monarchiques (1873). He also edited ?0gé16CtiO11 of the letters of Madame Swetchine 18 ). FALLOWS—FANNING FALLOWS, SAMUEL, an American Reformed Episcopal church bishop, born in 1835. In 1859 he became vice-president of Gainesville, Wis., Uni- versity, and in 1861 was ordained in the Methodist Episcopal church. He served in the civil war, and was brevetted brigadier-general. Later he was a pastor in Milwaukee, and in 1871 became State superintendent of public instruction for Wisconsin, twice receiving a reélection. In 1874 he became president of the Illinois Wesleyan University. In 1875 he was made rector of St. Paul’s Reformed Episcopal church, Chicago, and the following year became editor of the “Appeal,” the organ of the Reformed Episcopal church. In July of the same year he was chosen bishop. From 1864 to 1874 he was regent of the University of Wisconsin. FALL RIVER, a city of Massachusetts (see Bri- tannica, Vol. IX, p. 16). Fall River has now be- come the greatest cotton manufacturing center in America. In 1891 the number of cotton manufac- turing companies was 40, owning 65 mills, with an incorporated capital of $20,643,000, and a probable investment of $40,000,000. These mills contained 2,128,228 spindles, which is nearly one-sixth of all the spindles in the country, and about one-fifth of all in New England. The mills contain 49,586 looms, and manufacture three-fifths of all Ameri- can print cloths. The bleaching and dyeing of cotton goods is carried on extensively, as is also the printing of calicoes. The streets of the city are broad, well shaded and paved, and lighted with both gas and electricity. The United States Cus- tom-house and postoffice building is one of the finest Government buildings in the country. It is built of gray rock-faced ashlar, with trimmings of red and gray granite, and was completed in 1880. The city hall is also a fine building. The city is well supplied with excellent schools. The city an- nually appropriates $175,000 for the support of the high school, which has English, classical, and mixed courses. The Durfee High School building was donated to the city in 1887, and is a stately granite structure, thoroughly equipped, with as- tronomical observatory, and chemical and philo- sophical apparatus. A free public library contains 36,000 volumes. Population in 1880, 47,883; in 1890, 74,351. FALLS OF MONTMORENCY, a cataract of 250 feet, where the Montmorency River empties into the St. Lawrence, near Quebec, Can. Singular ice cones form here in winter. FALMOUTH, a seaside resort of Barnstable county, Mass., at the west end of Cape Cod, on Buzzard’s Bay and Vineyard Sound. FALSE BAY, an inlet of the Atlantic in Cape Colony, Africa, its west side being formed by the Cape of Good Hope. It is about 22 miles in length and breadth. It is a station of the Cape naval squadron. FALSETTO, a term in singing for the highest register of a man’s voice, which joins the natural or chest-voice, and which, by practice, may be so blended with the chest-voice as to make no per- ceivable break. FALSIFYING RECORDS. Injuring or falsify- ing any of the documents of a court of justice is, ‘by several statutes, made a serious offense. Any person obliterating, injuring, or destroying any record, writ, etc., or any original document belong- ing to any court of record or of equity, is guilty of felony, and is liable to be punished by two years’ imprisonment, with or without hard labor. FALUNS, a term given by the agriculturists of Touraine to shelly sand and marl, which they use as manure, and applied by geologists to the de- posits from which they are obtained. 663 FAMA, the goddess of rumor, a personification which appears in the works of the earliest poets. Sophocles makes her the child of Hope; Virgil, the youngest daughter of Terra, and sister of Encela- dus and Coeus. FAMA CLAMOSA: in the ecclesiastical law of Scotland, a widespread and prevailing report im- puting immoral conduct to a minister, probationer, or elder of the church. FAMILIAR, or FAMILIAR SPIRIT, a supernatural being in attendance upon a magician, wizard, or other professor of the black art. The word familiar is probably derived from the Latin famulus (a do- mestic, a slave). The belief in such spirits goes far back into the history of the race. We read of them in the time of Moses, who admonishes his countrymen to “regard not them that have familiar spirits” (Lev. xix, 31), which would imply the prevalence of the superstition among the Egyptians. FAMILY: in zoological classification, an alliance of nearly related genera. FAMINE PORT, an abortive settlement of Spain on the northern side of the Strait of Magellan. It owes its name to the death, by starvation, of the Spanish garrison. FANARIOTS, the general name given to the Greeks inhabiting the Fanar, or Fanal, in Con- stantinople. They first appear in history after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks. FANDANGO, an old Spanish national dance in %-time. It is danced most gracefully in the south country, usually to the accompaniment of a guitar, while the dancers beat time with castanets. It proceeds gradually from a slow and uniform to the liveliest motion, and expresses vividly all the radations of the passion of love. FANE U IL, PETER (1700-43), an American mer- chant. In 1842 he built at his own cost, as a gift to Boston, Mass., a public market-house. This building was destroyed by fire in 1761, but was rebuilt in 1763, and in 1775 was used as a theater. During the Revolutionary period it was the usual meeting- place of the patriots, and gained the name of “ the cradle of American Liberty.” FANFARE, the French name of a rshort and lively military call executed on brass instruments. It was first introduced by the Arabs. FANG: in the technical terminology of the law of Scotland, a thief taken with the fang is one appre- hended while carrying stolen goods on his person. The fangs of a dog or of a serpent are its teeth with which it catches or holds. FANINO FAVENTINO, a Protestant martyr of Italy, who, being arrested at Bagna Cavallo in 1548, was visited in prison by many distinguished Italians. Pope Julius III condemned him to the stake. He was strangled and his body burned in 1550. FANNER, a machine employed to winnow grain, driven by hand or machinery. In passing through the machine the grain is rapidly agitated in a sieve, and as it falls through a strong current of wind, created by a rotary fan, the chaff is blown out at one end, while the cleansed particles fall out an orifice beneath. FANNING, a coral island iII the Pacific, lying in 30 51’ N. lat. and 1590 22' VV. long. It has about 150 inhabitants, and was formally annexed by Britain in 1888, as lying in the path of a possible submarine cable between Canada and Australia. Fanning Island is also called American Island. The name of Fanning Islands is sometimes given to the group comprising Fanning. Christmas, New York or Vllashington, Jarvis, and Palmyra Is- l lands. 664 FAN PALM, a name common to all those palms which have fan-shaped (palmate) leaves, as the Chamwrops humilis, of Europe, the palmetto of the United States, and the talipot of Ceylon. FANNING ISLAND. See Pacific Island. FANTASIA, a title given to an instrumental composition whose form cannot be classified under any of the recognized species, but is a product of the individual fancy of the composer. In the music of the last two centuries it was applied to pieces containing imitative passages, similar to the vocal madrigal. The modern fantasia is usually a pot-pourri—a medley of favorite airs, with inter- mediate “ brilliant ” passages. FAN-TRACERY VAULTING, a kind of Late Gothic vaulting (15th and 16th centuries), so called from its resemblance to a fan. The ribs or veins spring from one point, the cap of the vault- ing shaft, and radiate with the same curvature, and at equal intervals, round the surface of an in- verted curved cone or polygon, till they reach the semi-circular or polygonal ribs which bound the upper part of the cone and divide the roof horizon- tally at the ridge level into diamond and other patterns. The spaces between the ribs are filled with foils and cusps, resembling the tracery of a Gothic window; hence the name fan-tracery. FARADIZATION: in medicine, the application of Faradic or inductive electricity to the animal frame. It is named after Faraday. \ FAREWELL, CAPE, the southern extremity of Greenland. It is generally beset with ice, which appears to come from the northeast, and sweep around into Davis Strait. It lies in latitude 59° 49’ north, and longitude 43° 54’ west. FARGO, a city and county-seat of Cass county, North Dakota, at the head of navigation on the Red River of the North, opposite Moorehead, Minn. It is a great wheat market, has the largest farm-machinery depot in the northwest, con- tains a Presbyterian seminary, Roman Catholic academy, Congregational College, and is furnished with water works, gas and electric lights, and a telephone system. FARIBAULT, a city and county-seat of Rice county, Minn., at the confluence of the Straight and Cannon Rivers. It contains a number of manufactories, a State asylum for the deaf, dumb, and blind, an Episcopal divinity college, and five seminaries. FARINA, a Latin term for meal or flour, which term has been adopted into other languages. and is frequently employed in scientific and popular works. The pollen of flowers gathered by bees is called farina, and many substances which agree with the meal of corn-plants or Cerealia in con- taining much starch. FARISAN ARCHIPELAGO, a group of islands in the southeast of the Red Sea, the chief of which are Farsan Kebeer, 31 miles long, and Farsan Seg- eer, 18 miles long. In latitude 16° 30' north, and ongitude 41° 45’ to 42° 10’ east. FARM, a tract of land, consisting usually of rass lands, meadow, pasture, tillage, and wood- and, devoted to agricultural pursuits, and under the management of the owner, or a tenant. In the United States, with a land area of 1,900,800,- 000 acres, in 1880 there were 4,008,907 farms, with a total farming area of 536,081,835 acres. Of this area 284,771,042 acres was improved land, and 251,- 310,773 unimproved, thus giving an average of 71 acres of improved, and 62 acres of unimproved land to each farm In 1880 the value of the total improved farming land of the United States was $10,197,096,776; the value of farming implements and machinery $406,520,055; and the value of farm ., \ FAN PALM-FARM products of 1879, $2,213,402,564. The census of 1880 showed the increase in the number of acres of im- proved land to be 52 per cent of the improved land of 1870; the increase in the value of farms to be 30.7 per cent; and the increase in the value of im- plements to be 52 per cent. AVERAGE YIELDS AND VALUES or FARM Cnors FOR TEN YEARS.—-AI1 examination of the report of the statistician of the U. S. Agricultural Department, bearing date June 16, 1890, shows a wide range in both yield and value per acre during the last dec- ade. Tobacco has the highest average, $61.51. That of potatoes is $38.34. Cotton, the third in order, drops to $15.69. Hay makes an average of $11.08. The cereals fall below $10 per acre, ex- cepting only barley, which is not grown in sufii- cient quantities to meet the requirements of con- sumption, and averages $12.76 per acre; 28 per cent more than the average of wheat for the same pe- riod. The average for corn is $9.47; that of rye, $8.27 ; of buckwheat, $8.24; and of oats, $8.16. The cost of cultivating and harvesting tobacco and potatoes is considerable, yet the opportumt for larger net returns for superintendency and use of land s greater in the case of lar e ross returns er acre. Consider the cost of pickin an gmning, as wel as the labor of cult vation, the value o cotton per acre is not greatly in excess of that of cereals. The value of cereals suggests an excess of breadth cultivated and a minimum of labor in cultivation, Wh1Ch account for the low yields and small net profits. It indicates the fact that the era of extensive culture awaits the scarcity and appre- ciating value of fresh lands. The extremes in value per acre of corn are $24.32 and $6.19. Eighteen States and Territories averaged above $15. Half of these are east of the Alleghanies and north of Delaware; the other half on the Pacific coast and in the Rocky Mountain region. In the former the cause is found in large yield and high prices, both the result of de- mand for consumption b a large pro ortion of the popula- tion engaged in non-agncultural in ustries. In the latter the climate is not so well suited to maize, and mining and manufacturing stimulate demand. Where prices are lowest there is either an excessive production or a very low rate of yield. It re uires nearly four acres in South Carohna to equal the va ue of one in New Ham shire, and it re u1res more than three acres in Nebraska, w ich makes the hi hest average rate of yield, to produce the value of one in the ran- ite State. These diverse results depend far more u on 1ne- qualities in distribution of population, and es ecial y in the ratio of consumers to producers, than upon c 1mate or soil. In wheat and other cereals, potatoes, hay, and all farm prod- ucts of general geographical distribution, similar differences are found to result from similar causes. The tabulation of rate of yield per acre makes. the following averages for 10 years, which are stated in connection with averages of value per acre: Yearly Productions. Value. Yield. Corn, bushels ............................. . . $9.47 24.1 Wheat, “ ............................. . . 9.95 12.0 Oats, “ ............................. . . 8.16 26.6 Rye “ ............................. .. 8.27 11.9 Barley, “ ............................. . . 12.76 21.7 Buckwheat “ ............................. . . 8.24 12.8 Potatoes, “ .............................. . . 38.34 76.2 Tobacco, pounds ............................. . . 61.51 727.1 Cotton, “ ............................. .. 15.69 168.1 Hay, tons .................... ... ...... .. 11.08 1 The past decade has been marked by several years of drought, which have reduced the rate of yield below the average of the preceding decade, aperiod comparatively exempt from dry seasons. The years of sutficient rainfall show no diminution of rate of yield. _ The tables following show the average yield and value per acre by States of the various farm crops for a period of 10 years, 1880 to 1890, inclusive. _ See AGRICULTURE, in these Revisions and Add!- , tions. Also see Britannica, Vol. I, pp. 219-416. FARM FARM CROPS. 665 States and Territories. Maine ....................... . . New Hampshire. ............ . . Vermont ....... . .. ........... . . Massachusetts . ........... . . Rhode Island ............... . . Connecticut.. . . . . . .......... .. New York . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. New Jersey .......... ..... .. Pennsylvania ........... . . . . . . Delaware .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . Maryland .................... . . Virginia ............... . . . . . . . . . North Carolina. ............. .. South Carolina .............. .. Georgia ..................... .. Florida ..................... . . A1abama..... ....... lMississippi.......... ........ .. Louisiana ................... . . Texas ........................ .. Arkansas ..... . . . ............ .. Tennessee . ................. . . . West Virginia ............... .. Kentucky . .................. . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indiana .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . Illinois Wisconsin. . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O D I I Q I I O O Q D I O C O I Q O I I I ... ‘Minnesota..... .... Iowa.... ...... . . . . . . . . .. Missouri...lIQQOQQIODOIIIQOIIOO Kansas UOOQOOIIOIOOIO I O C I I I‘ Nebraska................. California..................... Oregon......................... Nevada........................ Colorado...................... Arizona....... . . . . . . . . . . .. Dakota............. .......... .. M Corn (Maize). Wheat. Oats. Rye. Bar1ey. Average Avera e Average Aver e Average Aver“ e Average Aver e Average Aver e value yiel value yiel value yiel value yiel value yiel per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. $24.25 32.2 17.42 13.6 12.42 28.3 12.26 13.0 16.02 21.6 24.32 32.7 18.24 14.4 14.68 32.3 9.98 11.0 16.34 21.8 23.18 32.5 19.75 16.9 A 13.87 33.1 11.85 14.5 18.05 24.7 22.94 31.6 20.74 16.3 14.44 29.9 12.46 14.3 18.77 23.2 22.98 30.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.52 27.9 10.49 12.1 19.13 23.9 20.94 30.1 19.14 16.6 12.82 28.1 10.89 13.5 16.43 21.5 18.39 29.8 15.03 14.7 11.12 28.5 8.51 11.9 16.91 22.7 17.83 30.5 13.58 12.9 10.57 26.7 7.75 10.8 13.66 17.0 17.16 31.0 12.66 12.6 10.51 28.0 7.34 10.6 14.74 20.1 9 .05 19 .2 11.67 11.6 7.82 28.1 5.50 8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.88 24.1 19 .09 12.2 7 .29 20.1 7.13 10.3 20.47 25.5 8.46 16.8 8.05 8.2 4.73 11.9 4.71 6.9 12.01 16.1 7.15 12.2 6.42 6.0 4.56 9.5 4.82 5.8 9.65 11.0 6.19 9.4 6.73 . 5.7 6.18 10.3 5.09 4.6 14.88 14.2 6.81 10.5 7.01 6.0 5.85 9.8 6.07 5.5 13.57 14.2) 7.22 9.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.04 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7.69 12.7 6.60 6.0 6.36 10.8 6.28 5.5 11.38 10.4 8.47 14.3 6.35 5.7 6.40 11.0 7.29 6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.54 16.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.07 12.5 11.19 8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.52 18.0 9.25 10.0 9.98 23.4 8.51 9.7 10.79 15.9 10.07 19.7 7.23 7.5 7.68 16.9 6.57 7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.92 20.6 5.95 6.7 5.20 13.7 4.67 6.2 9.27 13.4 11.80 23.4 9.63 10.2 6.47 17.7 6.09 8.5 12.98 19.3 9.97 23.8 8.23 9.4 6.36 18.2 6.23 9.0 14.15 21.0 13.16 30.9 12.42 13.6 9.73 30.9 7.61 12.0 15.00 20.6 13.16 28.9 13.40 15.2 10.44 32.3 7.69 12.0 15.96 23.1 10.84 28.9 11.36 13.1 7.88 27.5 6.97 11.4 14.96 21.8 9.38 26.7 11.32 13.4 8.95 34.2 8.86 15.5 12.88 21.0 11.04 27.2 10.03 12.0 8.68 30.4 7.86 13.4 12.67 22.7 10.86 29.6 9.31 12.5 8.63 33.1 7.20 14.5 10.93 23.1 8.63 30.9 7.56 10.6 7.34 32.3 6.42 12.9 10.34 21.8 8.94 27.4 9.23 11.7 6.96 26.0 6.66 11.8 12.04 20.3 7.90 28.5 9.41 13.9 6.64 28.0 6-12 15-2 7-90 18-9 7.58 32.8 6.87 11.1 5.78 29.1 5.61 13-8 7-59 19.6 18.99 27.9 10.35 12.5 13.74 26.2 8.34 10.5 12.77 20.4 16.85 23.8 12.02 16.3 11.48 27.9 11.88 15.9 14.25 26.0 17.60 24.6 15.96 17.6 18.15 29.8 - - - . - - - - - ~ - . . - . . - . - . 18.29 22.2 17.77 26.7 16.22 19.5 14.97 31.2 12.78 17.1 17.43 24.5 16.73 20.9 12.73 13.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.03 19.2 8.67 25.4 7.52 11.9 7.29 27.7 7.21 14.9 9.02 21.3 666 FARM FARM CROPS (Continued). Corn (Maize). Wheat. Oats. Rye. Barley. States and Territories. Average Average Average Aver e Average Aver e Average Avera e Average Avera e value yield value yiel value yiel value yiel value yiel per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $18.28 23.2 $14.17 17.1 $15.09 J 30.9 $8.41 13.0 $18.06 27.2 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.12 26.2 14.48 17.6 15.24 32.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.03 27 .2 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.04 19.9 12.93 13.6 10.78 22.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.98 19.6 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.54 19.7 12.71 17.2 11.29 26.3 6.85 10.8 12.60 22.6 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.50 24.3 12.16 17 ...‘ L 15.08 36.0 11.17 15.1 16.54 29.1 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.87 18.0 13.78 29.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buckwheat. Potatoes. Tobacco. Cotton. Hay. States and Territories. Average Aver e Average Avera e Average Average Average Average Average Avera e value yiel value yiel value yield value yield value yiel§ per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre Bushels. Bushels. Pounds. Pounds. Tons. Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $10.14 18.1 $51.48 94.5 . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $11.31 .97 New Hampshire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.90 17.4 46.64 89.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.08 .93 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.88 18.2 47.06 97.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11.08 1.05 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.01 14.2 61.97 95.5 $204.28 1485.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.82 1.09 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8.25 10.4 62.55 91.8 . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16.19 .96 Connecticut ................. . . 8.49 12.1 53.60 80.6 196.58 1417.1 ................. . . 15.91 .99 New York ................... .. 8.22 13.4 37.79 78.0 159.56 1339.6 .................. .. 18.67 1.11 New Jersey .' ................. .. 8.34 11.9 47.26 77.6 ...................................... .. 16.79 1.09 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.42 13.0 37.59 73.0 143.22 1205.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.00 1.14 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.45 14.3 37.77 66.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.60 1.04 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.84 13.0 37.68 67.8 44.24 662.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.47 1.07 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.04 10.8 34.29 60.7 44.85 596.1 $13.96 158.9 13.64 1.10 North Carolina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.10 9.7 38.33 60.7 51.21 480.8 16.26 180.7 13.45 1.16 South Carolina ...... .. . ......................... .. 46.11 55 0 .................. .. 14.40 157.8 15.71 1.15 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.10 58.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.11 145.9 17.31 1223 Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65.65 68.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.16 106.4 16.37 .98 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.02 62.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.43 140.1 16.54 1.21 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53.01 62.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.21 194.4 16.16 1.28 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54.03 62.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.83 232.7 14.50 1.22 ‘Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.21 62.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16.92 199.1 12.20 1.26 Arkansas __, , , , _ _ , , _, ............................ . . 47.14 68.5 50.22 578.0 20.08 229.8 18.90 1.28 Tennessee ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, , _ 5.66 8.5 80.49 59.2 48.80 645.4 16.54 189.2 14.14 1.21 west Virginia _______________ __ 6.66 10.0 34.90 65.7 56.29 609.5 .................. .. 10.41 1.01 Kentucky ___________________ __ 6.88 9.5 80.90 61.3 58.63 755.2 .................. . . 12.70 1.16 Ohio _________________________ , I 8.24 11.0 88.54 68.7 67.28 912.8 .................. . . 12.71 1.21 Michigan,, . . . . , _ _ , , _ _ _ _ _ _ , , , _ 8.75 13.3 32.02 76.7 64.24 503.6 .................. . . 18.22 1.28 Indiana ______________________ _, 7.72 10.4 31.00 66.0 49.43 721.7 ........ .. . ....... .. 11.85 1.26 FARM—FARMERS-GENERAL 667 FARM CROPS (Continued). Buckwheat. Potatoes. Tobacco. Cotton. Hay. States and Territories. A.Y§1‘ii§"' Aiiéfkige Aiiiiiiie A§f§f.fe Ailifiiege Aiiéi "' Aiiffie Aiiéf e A€§1‘§i§e ’“’i§ff" per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. per acre. Bushels. Bushels. Pounds. Tons. Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $7.65 10.3 $35.24 71.9 348.18 651.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $10.26 1.29 Wisconsm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.75 10.3 35.96 81.9 101.45 967.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.21 1.17 Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.82 10.5 35.43 92.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.76 1.32 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.60 10.9 32.51 ‘ 79.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.39 1.22 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.81 11.4 32.37 70.3 63.27 802.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.38 1.20 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.72 11.1 40.07 66.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.55 1.28 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.25 10.2 30.68 74.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.82 1.31 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.69 20.8 56.61 86.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.02 1.39 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.23 14.2 47.75 100.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.45 1.39 Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76.25 91.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.95 1.24 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.12 89.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.76 1.25 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.65 63.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13.71 1.07 Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.80 11.3 35.17 83.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5.10 1.30 Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.62 101.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.26 1.19 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.03 107.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.58 1.15 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.27 78.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.52 1.08 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.89 90.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 1.28 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54.91 117.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10 1.31 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.91 95.5 ...................................... . . 11.41 1.17 FARMINGTON, a village of Hartford county, Conn., on Farmington River. manufactories, and a ladies’ seminary. It has important turned to California. about her experiences in the West. FARNHAM, Tnornas JEFFERSON (1804-48), an American author. She wrote several books FARMINGTON, the county-seat of Franklin county. Me. It contains a State normal school, other excellent schools, machine shops, saw, shingle and clapboard mills, a drum factory, a spool factory, and corn-canning establishments. FARMINGTON, a village of Dakota county, Minn., containing a flouring-mill, and shoe and car- riage manufactories. It has a large wheat eleva- tor and is located in a wheat-growing region. FARMINGTON, a village of Stafford county, N. H. It has a high school and manufactories of lumber, boots and shoes. FARM VILLE, the county-seat of Prince Edward county, Va., on the Appomattox River, 70 miles southwest of Richmond. The tobacco trade is the principal business and the place contains tobacco factories, and a female college. Hampden-Sydney College and the Union Theological Seminary are located seven miles distant. FARNHAM, ELIZA WoonsoN (1815-64), an Ameri- can philanthropist, wife of Thomas J eiferson Fam- ham. In 1844 she became matron of the New York State-prison at Sing Sing, and in 1848 be- came connected with the management of the insti- tution for the blind at Boston. From 1849 to 1856 she was in California, and in 1859 organized a so- ciety in New York to assist destitute women to find homes in the West. Subsequently she re- In 1839 he organized and took charge of a small expedition across the continent from Vermont. While in California he obtained the release of a large number of American and English citizens, who had been imprisoned by the Mexican government. He was the author of several works concerning his travels. FARO, or Pnano, a game at cards of the nature of hazard, played chiefly by gamblers. FARMERS-GENERAL ( r. fewniers générauzv), the name given to a privileged association in France, which flourished previous to the revolution of 1789. The members were granted the privilege of collecting the taxes on certain branches of the revenues of the nation. This system of tax-gath- ering became general in France from the year 1546, when Francis I let out the gabelle or salt-tax in this way. The privileges of the position were sold to the highest bidder; but they were largely in the hands of the king’s favorites. The powers, rights, and duties of the class were defined by special decrees; but, however severe may have been the fiscal laws against fraud and contraband, it is notorious that shortly before the revolution abuses of the most flagrant description had demor- alized the system and the men. During the revolu- tion most of these obnoxious tax-gatherers perished on the scaffold, the innocent among them being oc- 668 casionally confounded with the guilty. About thirty farmers-general were executed in 1794. Farmers of the revenue were also an institution of ancient Rome. Tolls on roads and duties of various kinds were at one time formed also in Great Britain. FARMERS’ ORGANIZATIONS. The earliest of the great farmers’ organizations was that of the Patrons of Industry, a secret order, with ritual and “degrees of work” suggested by those of the Ma- sonic and Odd Fellows fraternities. The scheme was devised and formulated and publicly an- nounced Aug. 5,1867, by VVilliam Saunders, then Superintendent of the United States Government Gardens and Conservatories in Washington, D. C. Associated with Mr. Saunders (who up to that date had not been connected with any secret society), were 0. H. Kelley, J. R. Thompson, and William H. Ireland, members of the Masonic fraternity; Rev. A. B. Grosh, an influential officer of the Odd Fel- lows ; and Rev. John Trimble, J r., all connected with the Government departments in Washington. A week later Mr. Saunders, having occasion to visit Western New York, Ohio, and other Western States, took with him the ritual and plan of “work” under the first degree which had been formulated in Washington, and interested five others in the work. Later in the autumn the work of the 2d, 3d, and 4th degrees was formulated, and the name Patrons of Industry given to the order. On Dec. 4, 1867, at the office of Mr. Saunders, in Washing- ton, D. C., nine persons who had taken the four de- grees met and organized the National Grange. with the following ofiicers: W. Saunders, Master; J . R. Thompson, Lecturer; A. Bartlett, Overseer; Will- iam Meier, Steward; A. S. Moss, Assistant Stew- ard; Rev. A. B. Grosh, Chaplain; W. M. Ireland, Treasurer; O. H. Kelley, Secretary, and E. P. Fer- ris, Gate—Keeper. The constitution provided for the admission of women to membership, and also for the election of four ladies as oflicers, to be designated Ceres, Pomona, Flora, and Lady Assist- ant Steward. A little later a subordinate lodge of 60 members was organized, and on January, 1868, the first circulars to prominent agriculturists were sent out in all directions. The chief objects were stated to be “the promotion of unity and co6pera- tion among the tillers of the soil and the diffusion of a higher measure of intelligence and culture.” The introduction of political and religious ques- tions into the discussions of the Grange was for- bidden. April 1, 1868, Secretary Kelley resigned his clerkship in the Postoifice Department, and on a salary of $2,000 began a tour for the establishment of subordinate granges. Seven years later there were reported about 22,000 granges, with a mem- bership reaching up into hundreds of thousands. During the year 1888 over 200 Granges were added, a year later the membership, including men and women, was reported at over half a million; and in 1890 the subordinate granges at about 26,000. The subordinate grange is composed of persons en- gaged in agriculture who are over fourteen years old, and of both sexes, women being recognized as the equal of man throughout the order. The mas- ters ’ and their wives) of the subordinate granges constitute the State Grange, at which the other members of the local bodies have the right to par- ticipate except in voting. The masters (and their wives) of the State Granges constitute the National Grange, at which all members may also be‘ heard. District or county (also called Pomona) granges may be formed by the union of neighboring clubs. The local body meets one to four times a month; the district grange monthly or quarterly; and the State and National bodies annually. The Grange thus brings the farmer and his family in FARMERS’ ORGANIZATIONS close communion with his contemporaries in town, county, State, and Nation, so that all may work to- gether when desired. The laws governing the or- der in essential matters originate in the National Grange, from which also emanate the charters of all local, county or State Granges. The income is from the initiation fees of $3 for men and $1 for women. The specific aims of the Grange are set forth in the “Declaration of Purposes,” as fol- ows: “To devote a better and higher manhood and womanhood among ourselves. To enhance the com- forts and attractions of our homes, and strengthen our attachments to our pursuits. To foster mutual understanding and coiiperation. To maintain in- violate our laws, and to emulate each other in labor, to hasten the good time coming. To reduce our expenses both individual and corporate. To buy less and produce more, in order to make our farms self-sustaining. To diversify our crops, and crop no more than we can cultivate. To condense the weight of our exports, selling less in the bushel and more on hoof and in fleece; less in lint, and more in warp and woof. To systematize our work, and calculate intelligently on probabilities. To dis- countenance the credit system, the mortgage sys- tem, the fashion system, and every other system tending to prodigality and bankruptcy. “We propose meeting together, talking together, working together, buying together, selling together and, in general, acting together for our mutual protection and advancement as occasion may re- quire. We shall avoid litigation as much as possi- ble by arbitration in the Grange. We shall con- stantly strive to secure entire harmony, good will, vital brotherhood among ourselves, and to make our order perpetual. We shall earnestly endeavor to suppress personal, local, sectional, and national prejudices, all unhealthy rivalry, all selfish ambi- tion. Faithful adherence to these principles will insure our mental, moral, social, and material ad- vancement.” The first Farmers’ Alliance was organized in Texas in 1873, for the purpose of coiiperation against cattle thieves; but as it increased in number! its scope was extended, and in 1880 it was chartered by the State of Texas as a benevolent institution In 1887 it had reached a membership of over 100.- 000, and then united with the Farmers’ Union of Louisiana, which reported a membership of 10,000; and these two bodies thus consolidated were incor \ porated under the laws of the District of Columbia as a national trades-union, in the name of “The National Farmers’ Alliance and Co6perative Union.” About the date of the Texas organization (1873), another Farmers’ Alliance was organized in the State of New York, and spread westward as a non-secret order, and became a strong body north of the Ohio River and west of Pennsylvania. The National Agricultural Wheel, a league, or guild, similar in scope and aims to those of the Grange, was founded in Prairie county, Arkansas, in 1880, and soon reported numerous branches and a large membership in the Southwest. Other important organizations are the Farmers’ Mutual Benefit Association, which claims to have a half million members, mostly in the Western States; the National Farmers’ League, mainly an Eastern association; the Patrons of Industry, with head- quarters in Michigan and membership in that and adjacent States; the National Colored Farmers’ Alliance and Co6perative Union, composed of negroes, and naturally strongest in the Southern States; the National Farmers’ Alliance, which was organized in Chicago in 1880, and is composed of State Alliances in fifteen States, with societies in FARMERS’ ORGANIZATIONS others, and is familiarly termed the “North-West- ern Alliance ;” and the National Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union. In some of the States these societies not only overlap each other, but also are heartily at work for a common object. The National Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union is the outcome of the union consummated in St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 1, 1889, between the National Farmers’ Alliance and Cobperative Union and the National Agricultural VVheel, and the new name was given to the united societies at the an- nual meeting held in that place on that date. The new society thus created was then credited with a total membership estimated at from 1,600,000 to 2,500,000. THE NATIONAL FARMERS’ POLITICAL LEAGUE is a non-secret, independent, non-partisan organization, in harmony with the Alliance, Farmers’ Union, Grange, and kindred associations, agricultural so- -cieties, farmers’ clubs, and similar organizations. But the League goes a step further. Its object to be “the farmers’ political welfare. The work of the League is directed toward securing a just rep- resentation and treatment of the agricultural in- terests in Congress and in the Legislatures, and due recognition of farmers in all public affairs, without conflicting with the best interests of the entire people.” It consists of a National League and of State leagues, with county and town leagues. The National League has general supervision of the affairs of the Farmers’ League and the work of organization, and attends specially to the farmers’ interests in Congress. The State leagues, as soon as organized, push the work of organization in their respective States, and attend to the farmers’ special interests in the Legislature. The County League attends to the farmers’ interests in county matters, and to affairs in Senatorial and Repre- sentative districts. The town leagues furnish the delegates who constitute the county leagues and attend to the farmers’ interests in local districts, and in each election precinct. The next annual meeting of the National Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union was held in Ocala, Ga., during the first week in December, 1890. It was composed of 136 delegates from 35 States and Territories. After extended discussion it adopted the following resolutions: First-We demand the abolition of national banks. We -demand that the Government shall establish sub-treasuries -or depositories in the several States which shall loan money direct to the people at a low rate of interest, not to exceed two per cent. per annum on non-perishable farm products, and also upon real estate with proper limitations upon the uantity of land and amount of money. We demand that t e amount of the circulating medium be speedily increased to not less than $50 per capita. Second—\/Ve demand that Congress shall pass such laws as shall effectually prevent the dealing In future on all agri- cultural and mechanical productions; preserving a stringent system of procedure in trials such as shall secure the rompt conviction and the imposition of such penalties as s all se- cure the most perfect compliance with the law. Third—We condemn the Silver bill recently passed by Con- gress, and demand in lieu thereof the free and unlimited coinage of silver. Fourth—We demand the passage of laws prohibiting alien ownership of land, and that Congress take prompt action to devise some plan to obtain all lands now owned by aliens and foreign syndicates, and that all lands now held by railroads and other corporations in excess of such as is a tually used and needed by them be reclaimed by the government and held for actual settlers only. Fifth—Believing in the doctrine of equal rights to all and special privileges to none, we demand that our national leg- islation shall be so framed in the future as not to build up one industry at the expense of another, and we further de- mand a removal of the existing heavy tariff tax from the necessaries of life that the poor of our land must have. We l 669 further demand a just and equitable system of graduated tax on incomes. We believe that the money of the country should be kept, as much as possible in the hands of the people; and hence,we demand that all National and State revenues shall be limited to the necessary expenses of ttzhe dGovernment economically and honestly adminis- ere . Sixth—-We demand the most rigid, honest, and just State and National governmental control and supervision of the means of pubhc communication and transportation; and if this control and supervision does not remove the abuses now existing, we demand Government ownership of such means of communication and transportation. The oflficers elected for the ensuing year were as follows: President, L. L. Polk, of North Carolina; Vice-President, B. F. Clover, of Kansas; Secretary, J. H. Turner, of Georgia; National Lecturer, J. S. Willetts, of Kansas; Chairman Executive Com- mittee, C. W. Macune, of Texas. At the annual meeting in Ocala, articles of union were adopted by which the Farmers’ Mutual Benefit Society, embracing a membership of about 500,000 members in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa and adjacent States, was to be merged in the National Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union. The Colored Farmers’ Alliance, claiming a member- ship of about 1,200,000, under the superintendency of Col. R. M. Humphrey,a white man, and formerly a preacher in Texas, was also represented at the Ocala meeting, and a basis of union with the National Farmers’ Alliance was agreed to, to go into effect a year hence. The agreement embraced the following provisions, which were to apply also to the Farmers’ Mutual Benefit Association: “We recommend the selection of five men from each na- tional body, two of whom shall be the president and secre- tary. who shall, with a similar committee from other labor organizations, form a supreme executive board, who shall meet as often as may be deemed necessary upon the joint call of a majority. The presidents of the bodies Joining this con- federation shall be empowered to do such things for the mutual benefit of the various orders as shall be deemed ex- pedient, and shall, when ofiicially promulgated through the national ofiicers. be binding upon such bodies until reversed by the action of the national assemblies themselves in mat- ters political, educational, and commercial; and we hereby pledge ourselves to stand faithfully by each other in the great battle for the enfranchisement of the laborer from the control of corporate and political rings. “ Each order is to bear its own members’ expenses to the Supreme Council, and be entitled to as many votes as it has legal voters. We commend and urge that equal facilities, educational, commercial. and political, be demanded for colored and white Alliance men alike. competency consid- ered, and that a free ballot and a fair count be insisted upon and had for colored and white alike by every true Alliance man in America. “ We further recommend that the plan of district alliances conforming to Congressional district lines he adopted by every order, and that the lecturers and oflicers of said districts and counties cot crate with each other in educa- tional, commercial, and po itical matters." One of the most remarkable features of the meeting at Ocala was the development of feeling in favor of an independent political party move- ment-a movement which would be likely to engage the attention and sympathy of all the vari- ous farmers’ organizations, and at the same time be sufficiently unrestricted in its membership to open its doors to such “ honest persons ” as are shut out from membership in most, if not all, the other farmers’ societies. There was already at hand an organization which seemed adapted to meet the want indicated. Nearly a year previous the Citi- zens’ Alliance was started in Kansas, and had already a large membership in that State, and in Nebraska and Iowa. A national organization was perfected at Ocala, and the following officers were chosen: President, J. D. Holden, of Kansas; sec- retary, Ralph Beaumont, of New York; treasurer, L. P. Wild, of Washington, D. C. The annual salaries of the ofiicers of the national organization are fixed by the statutory laws as fol- lows: President, $3,000, office and traveling expen- 670 ses, and $900 for stenographer; secretary, $2,000 and office expenses; treasurer, $500; lecturer, $2,000 and actual traveling expenses; members of the executive committee, $500 each and traveling ex- penses when in actual service, except that the chairman shall have $2,000. A per capita tax of five per cent. on members must be paid into the national treasury annually to defray expenses. The declaration of principles stated that “the organization is formed for the purpose of co6perat- ing with the Farmers’ Alliance, the Knights of Labor, and other orders, in the support of the St. Louis platform (which embraced largely the same items adopted at Ocala) ‘and to this end the or- ganization is political in its nature.’ ” The officers included those mentioned and an executive com- mittee of one from each State and Territory, with headquarters in Washington, D. C. Charters were to be furnished to subordinate bodies on applica- tion of five or more citizens. Local organizations were to judge of the qualification of their members. it was declared that the present national organiza- tion is temporary, and that as soon as the order is organized in a majority of the States, a national convention shall be held to revise it. Subsequently the following call was issued at Ocala: Whereas, In unity there is strength; therefore, it is desir- able that there should be a union of all the variously named organizations that stand on common ground. To this end the individuals from various States, whose names are hereto signed, make this call for a National Con- ference, to be com osed of delegates from the following or- ganizations, name y: The Inde endent Party, the People’s Party the Union Labor Party the ate Federal and Confederate soldiers, the Farm- ers’ Alliance, the Farmers’ Mutual Benefit Association, the Citizen’s Alliance, the Knights of Labor, the Colored Farm- ers’ Alliance, and all other industrial organizations that sup- port the principles of the St. Louis agreement of December, 1889. Each State organization to send one delegate from each Congress district, and two from the State at large; and each district organization to send not less than three delegates, and each county organization not less than one delegate to be chosen according to the custom of each respective organi- zation during the month of January, 1891; also that the editor of each newspaper is hereby invited as adelegate that has advocated the principles of the St. Louis agreement and su ported the candidates nominated thereon in 1890. he delegates to meet In the city of Cincinnati on Monday, Feb. 23, 1891 for the purpose of forming a National Union party, based upon the fundamental ideas of finance, trans- portation, labor, and land, and the transaction of other legiti- mate business.” This call was freely signed by delegates at Ocala. All the delegates to the Co ored Alliance convention except those from Georgia signed it. Nearly all the Farmers’ Alliance delegates from the West and Northwest signed it. A few from the Southern States subscribed, but not many. The signers represented these States: Alabama, Arkansas, Cali- fornia, Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Virginia, Louisiana, Michi- gan, Mississigpi, North Dakota, North Carolina, Pennsyl- Vania, South arolina, South Dakota, Texas and Tennessee. The call was sent out publicly from Topeka, December 15. The same day there was held a conference at Tallahassee of third arty men, Alliance leaders and Knights of Labor. Near y all shades of opinion were represented. Subsequently the meeting at Cincinnati was postponed until a later date, to be determined by the oflicers and the executive committee. FARQUIER WHITE SULPHUR SPRINGS, in Farquier county, Va., fifty-six miles southwest of Washington, D. C. The place is delightfully situ- ated, and the waters are of much value in certain chronic diseases. The buildings were mostly de- stroyed during the war. , FARR, WILLIAM, English medical statistician, born at Kenley, Shropshire, Nov. 30, 1807, died in 1883. He studied medicine at the Universities of Paris and London, graduating from University College in 1833, and devoted himself to the study of vital statistics. Through his efforts great im- provement was made in the collection of data for that department, the registration of all the deaths in England and their causes was begun, and Dr. FARQUIER-—FAST AND LOOSE Farr was given a position in the register’s oflice. He was assistant census commissioner of Great Britain from 1851 to 1881, in 1855 was elected Fel- low of the Royal Society, and in 1859 received from the University of Oxford the degree of D. C. L. He was a frequent contributor to the British An- nals of Medicine; and his paper on The Construction of Li e Tables (1859), his introduction to the Eng- lish ife Tables (1864), and Statistical Nosology are of great value. FARRAR, FREDERICK VVILLIAM. D. D., F. R. S., archdeacon of Westminster, born at Bombay, India, Aug. 7, 1831, and educated at Cambridge, where he graduated with the highest classical honors in 1854, and became a Fellow of Trinity College. In 1857 he received the degree of M. A., and was ordained. After some years spent as assistant master at Harrow, he became head mas- ter of Marlborough School. In 1873 he was made chaplain in ordinary to the queen, in 1876 canon of Westminster and rector of St. Margaret’s, and in 1883 archdeacon of Westminster and rural dean. Canon Farrar is an eloquent preacher and writer, his chief works being Life of Christ (1874), Life of St. Paul (1879), The Early Days of Christian- ity (1881), Every-Day Christian I/ife, or Sermons by the Way (1887), Lives of the Fathers (1888), Sketches of Church History (1889). He is also an earnest temperance reformer. He was appointed chaplain of the House of Commons in 1890. FARRAR, HENRY, an American artist, born in 1843. He first gained distinction for his water- color, and afterwards became noted as a landscape painter. He is a member of various art societies. FARWELL, CHARLES BENJAMIN, a U. S. Senator from Illinois, born in 1823. He held the office of county clerk of Cook county, Ill., in which county Chicago is situated, eight years, 1853-61; was elected to Congress in 1870 over John Wentworth, and was reelected in 1872 and 1874, after which he declined reélection; was a candidate again in 1880, and was elected, declined further election; was elected to the United States Senate in 1887, to fill a vacancy occasioned by the death of General John iA8.9Logan. His term of service expired March 3, 1. FASCES, bundles of rods, usually made of birch, but sometimes of elm, with an axe projecting from the middle of them, which were carried before the chief magistrates of ancient Rome as symbols of their power over life and limb. They were borne by lictors, at first before kings, in the time of the Republic before consuls and preetors, and after- wards before emperors. FASCIA: in anatomy, a tissue of strong fibrous character, spread out in a layer, which surrounds some muscle or any other special tissue or organ of the body and binds it in place. There are two kinds of fasciae, the superficial or subcutaneous and the deep. The superficial fasciee Is thin and light, and covers the body beneath the skin. The deep fasciee are composed of unyielding fibrous substance which invests the muscles. Fasciee are condensed iaylers of the general connective tissue of the o y. FASCINES, fagots for military purposes made of young branches of trees or brush wood. They are used in the construction of temporary works, for filling a ditch, and sometimes in a pile for setting fire to an obstruction. FAST AND LOOSE is the name of a game which was much practiced by the gypsies in the time of Shakespeare. The phrase is now often used to designate the conduct of those numerous sli pery characters whose code of ethics does not orbid them to say one thing and do another. FATALISM—FAWCETT FATALISM, the doctrine that all things are subject to fate, or that they take place by inevita- ble necessity. FATA MORGANA, a striking kind of mirage observed in the Strait of Messina. A spectator on the shore sees images of men, houses, ships, etc., sometimes in the water, sometimes in the air; the same object having frequently two images, one inverted. FATHER-LASHER ( Cottus bubalis), afish armed with very strong spines on the back of the head and gill-covers. When touched it distends its gill-covers, sets out its spine, and assumes a very threatening appearance. It is brown above, whit- ish beneath, curiously marbled and spotted. It is said to be a wholesome and agreeable food. In Scotland it is called the Lucky Proach. FATHOM, a measure of six feet, principally used in references to marine soundings and in mines. Originally a fathom was taken as the width to which the two outstretched arms extended. FATTY DEGENERATION: in pathology, a con- dition of the animal system, in which the minute structural elements of living organisms are gradu- ally replaced by fat-globules. FAUCIT, HELEN, an actress, born in 1816, who gained renown on the English stage as Julia, in The Hunchback. She was one of Macready’s com- pany in his revival of Shakespeare. FAUGERE, ARMAND PRos1>ER, a French littéra- teur, born at Bergerac, Dordogne, Feb. 10, 1810, died in 1888. He was for some time employed in the department of public instruction, and subse- quently became director of the archives,in the bureau of foreign affairs. He published Eloge de Blatse Pascal (1842) ; Pensées, Fragments et Lettres dc Blaise Pascal, restored to their original form (1844) ; Mémotres de Madame Roland (1864); and Fragments de Littérature Morale et Politique (1865). FAULKNER, CHARLES JAMES, a U. S. Senator from West Virginia, born in 1847. He accompanied his father, who was minister to France in 1859; attended noted schools in Paris and Switzerland, returned to the United States in 1861, and imme- diately went south; in 1862, at the age of fifteen, he entered the Virginia Military Institute at Lex- ington; served with the cadets in the battle of Newmarket; served as aid to Gen. J . C. Breckin- ridge, and afterwards to Gen. Henry A. Wise, surrendering with him at Appomattox. On his return to Boydville, his home in Martinsburgh, he studied under the direction of his father until October, 1866, when he entered the University of Virginia, graduating in 1868; was admitted to the bar in September of the same year; was made grand-master of the Masonic Grand Lodge in 1879; in 1880 was elected judge of the Thirteenth Judi- cial Circuit, composed of the counties of J efl’erson, Morgan and Berkeley; was elected to the United States Senate as a Democrat, to succeed Johnson N. Camden, in 1887. His term of service expired March 3, 1891. FAULKNER’S ISLAND, a small islet in Long Island Sound, ofl’ the entrance to the harbor of griiillford, Conn. It has a flashing light with a fog- e . FAUNA, a term employed to designate animals collectively, or those of a particular geological period, or those of a particular country, as the fauna of America. The term bears the same rela- tion to the animal kingdom that flora does to the vegetable. Its derivation is from the mytholo i- cal fauns regarded as the patrons of wild anima s. In the fauns of a country are included only those animals which are indigenous to it, and not those Which have been introduced. 671 FAURE, JEAN BAPTISTE, born in 1830, a French baritone of great excellence and reputation; he went on the stage in 1852, and in 1857 became professor at the Paris Conservatoire. FAUSSE-BRAYE: in fortification, a name given by French engineers to a small mound of earth cast about a rampart. This work has been mostly discarded by modern engineers. The fausse-braye had the advantage of giving an additional tier of guns for defensive purposes. FAUSTINUS I, Emperor of Hayti, born in St. Domingo in 1789, died in 1867. He was originally a negro of very humble circumstances. In the year 1844, when the Haytian Republic was dis- solved, a struggle for the supreme power ensued, in which Faustinus played an important part. In 1847 he was appointed president of the Repub- lic. On April 16, 1848, a dreadful massacre of the mulattoes in Port-au-Prince took place at his in- stigation. This and similar measures struck terror into the hearts of his opponents. In August, 1849, he had himself proclaimed Emperor of Hayti, a title which he enjoyed for about ten years; but a revolution having broken out in 1858, and a Repub- lic lggging been declared, he was forced to abdicate in 1 . FAUVETTE, a French name applied to the little song birds of the family Sylviadae, or Warblers, hav- ing straight slender bills slightly compressed in front, the ridge of the upper mandible curving a. little towards the tip, and the legs short. They mostly belong to the genus Curruca as the white- throat, or garden warbler, etc., and to the genus Salicarta. FAVIGN ANA, the chief of the .ZEgades, a group of islands in the Mediterranean, off the west coast of Sicily. It is six miles in length, and about two miles in breadth, and lies at a distance of six miles from the Sicilian shore. FAVOSITES, a genus of lamelliferous corals, found in Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous strata. They are corals, closely packed together, no space being left between the walls of the differ- ent corallites. As in the other Palaeozoic corals, the lamellae are developed in multiples of four, and the older portion of the stony base is parti- tioned ofl’ by horizontal tabulae. FAVRE,JULEs CLAUDE GABRIEL, a French states- man, born in Lyons, March 21, 1809, died at Ver- sailles, Jan. 20, 1880. He became a prominent lawyer and liberalist in Paris; was for a time secretary-general of the interior in the Republican ministry of 1848; strongly opposed Louis Napoleon during the presidency of the latter, and still more decidedly under the second empire opposed the measures which brought on the Franco-German war, but after its commencement supported the national cause. After the fall of Sedan he became vice-president and minister of foreign affairs in the new Republic, and took an important part in the negotiations preceding the treaty of peace with Germany. He retired from the ministry in July, 1871, and devoted himself to law and literature. In 1876 he was returned as Senator for the department of the Rhone. He was a brilliant orator, and the excellence of his literary productions won him a place in the Academy. He was author of Rome et la Republique Frangaise (1871), and Le Gouvernement du 4 Septern bre (1871-72). FAWCETT, HENRY, an English political econo- mist and author, born at Salisbury in 1833, died Nov. 5, 1884. He graduated with honors at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in 1856, and became a fellow of his hall. Although deprived of his sight by an ac- cident in 1858, he determined to pursue the course which he had previously chosen. In 1863 he became 6% professor of political economy in the University of Cambridge. Elected to Parliament for Brighton in 1865-74 he was in the latter year returned for Hackney, and in 1880 was made postmaster-general. He was an advanced liberal in politics, advocating election by ballot and woman suffrage. He was author of A Manual of Political Economy (1863); The Economic Position of the British Laborer (1865); Pauperism (1871); a volume of Speeches (1873), and Free Trade and Protection (1878). FAWCETT, PHILIPPA GARRETT, daughter of the late Prof. Fawcett, M. P., postmaster-general, born at Cambridge, England, in 1868. She was educated at Clapham High School, at University College, and in 1887 went to Newnham, Cambridge, with a scholarship. At her graduation in 1890 she was laced in the Tripos lists “ above the senior wrang- er,” thus achieving an extraordinary success The achievement was peculiarly appropriate to the daughter of Prof. Fawcett, who had so zealously advocated the higher education of women. FAY, JONAS, M. D.. born in Massachusetts, in 1737, died in 1818. He was a surgeon in the French ' and Indian war, and was with Ethan Allen at Ti- conderoga. He became a member of the State Council of Vermont after assisting to make it a separate State. He was also judge of the superior court, and agent otthe State in Congress. _ FAY, THEODORE SEDGWICK, an American author, born in 1807. In 1828 he became associate editor of the New York “Mirror.” From 1837 to 1853 he was secretary of the American legation in Berlin, Germany, and from} 1853 to 1861 was minister resident in Bern, Switzerland. He has since lived in retirement in Berlin. His works cover a wide range of topics. ' FAYE, HERVE AUGUSTE ETIENNE ALBANS, a French astronomer, born at St. Benoit, Indre, Oct. 5, 1814, studied astronomy with Arago, and in 1843 discovered the comet which bears his name. He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1847, became professor of geodesy at the Ecole Polytechnique in 1848, and in 1854 was made rector of the Academy at Nancy. In 1873 he became in- spector-general of scientific instruction, and in 1878 was appointed director of the Paris Observatory. He has published a number of astronomical treat- uses. FAYERWEATHER, DANIEL B. (1821-90), an American philanthropist. At an early age he learned the t'" .e of a shoemaker, and at thirty- four became member of a firm of leather dealers in New Yor _ city. That move was the beginning of his success, and at the time of his death he rep- resented the largest hide and leather business in New York, if not of the world. He left an estate estimated at $6,000,000, of which $2,195,000 were given to various institutions of learning and charity. FAYETTE, the county-seat of Howard county, Mo., 12 miles from the Missouri River. It contains a female seminary and Central College. FAYETTEVILLE, the county-seat of Washing- ton county, Ark., and a delightful summer resort in the Ozark Mountains. It has manufactories of evaporated fruit, flour, and wagons. It has good public schools, contains the Arkansas Industrial University, and is called the “ Athens of Arkansas.” FAYETTEVILLE, a village of Onondaga county, N. Y., 10 miles east of Syracuse. It has flour and paper mills, and manufactures pearl barley, hy- draulic cement, quick-lime, and land-plaster. FAYETTEVILLE, the county-seat of Lincoln county, Tenn. It has manufactories of woolen goods, broadcloths, cassimeres, carriages, and is a shipping point for corn, hogs, wheat, and cotton. 1 FAWCETT—FECHNER FAYRER, SIR J OSEPH, an English physician, born at Plymouth, Dec. 6, 1824. He received the degree of M. D. at Edinburgh and at the University of Rome, entered the East India Company’s service in 1850 and served in the Burmese war of 1852, and during the mutiny of 1857. In 1859 he was ap- pointed professor in the Calcutta Medical College, and in 1874 surgeon-general and president of the medical board of the India ofiice. Among his writ- ings are : Poisonous Snakes of India ; Tropical Diseases; Clinical Surgery in India; European Child-Life in Bengal, and a number of professional works relat- ing to questions of climate, etc. AZY, JEAN JAMES, Swiss statesman, born at Geneva, May 17, 1794, died there Nov. 6, 1878. He was educated at a Moravian school at Neuwied, studied law and settled in Paris. Here he took an active part in the opposition to the restoration, and when it became apparent‘ that a republic could not be established in France he returned to his native city, where he became a leader in the radical Republican party. In 1846, when the party secured a change of the constitution, Fazy became head of the government, and during the fifteen years that the party continued in power exerted great influence at Geneva. He retired from pub- lic life in 1865. FEATHERFOIL, WATER-FEATHER, or WATER- VIoLET, a species of Hottonia, so called from the finely divided leaves. The best known spe- cies are H. infiata of the United States and the European species H. palustris. They are curious primulaceous plants, which grow submerged in water, and thrust up long scapes above the surface to produce the blossoms. FEATHER-GRASS, a genus of grasses remark- able for the long awns which give a graceful ap- pearance to the species. It is a perennial plant and easy of cultivation; a native of the South of Europe. FEATHER RIVER, California, a feeder of the Sacramento. It rises in two forks in the Sierra Nevada, and has a southerly course of about 250 miles. It is navigable for steamboats to Marys- ville, and large quantities of gold have been found on its banks. FEBRICULA, a fever of short duration and mild character, having no distinct type or specific symptoms by which it can be distinguished or de- scribed. FEBRIFUGE, medicines calculated to dispel or cut short fever. FEBRONIANISM, a system of doctrine in Roman Catholic theology, antagonistic to the ad- mitted claims of the Roman pontiff, and asserting the independence of national churches and the diocesan rights of individual bishops in matters of local discipline and church government. FEBRUUS, the name of an old Italian divinity, whose worship was celebrated with lustrations dur- ing the month of February. The ceremonies insti- tuted in his honor were believed to have the effect of producing fertility in man and beast. He was supposed to be the god of the lower world, and was worshipped as such by the Romans, and identified with the Greek Pluto. FECHNER, GUSTAV THEODOR, a German natu- ralist, born at Gross-Séirchen in Lower Lusatia, April 19,1801, died Nov. 18,1887. After studying at Leipsic University, he became professor of phys- ics there in 1834, but was obliged to resign the position five years later on account of a disease of the eyes. He subsequently turned his attention to aesthetics and anthropology. His writings include Ueber olas htichste Gut (1842), Elemente oler Psycho- physik (1860), Ueber die Seelenfrage (1861), and Vor- . schule der ./Esthetilc (1876). FECHTER—FEHMGERICHTE FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT (1824-79), an actor, born in London and educated in France. He made his débat in 1840 at the Salle Moliere, Paris, in a piece called Le M an‘ de la Veaoe. Later he appeared in the principal cities of Italy, Ger- many and England. In 1869 he came to the United States, and after a tour through the States re- turned to Europe, but again visited the United States in 1872, where he remained until his death, Which occurred at his farm in Pennsylvania in 1879. FECILA, or FECULA, a term applied to a starch obtained from various sources, but in France the term is generally restricted to the starch of the otato. P FEDERALIST, a collected series of articles, originally published in “The Independent Jour- nal,” 17 87 -88, written by Alexander Hamilton,James Madison and John Jay, for the purpose of leading the States at large, especially New York, to see the advantages of the proposed Constitution and the insufliciency of the existing confederacy. The basis of its argument is utility; and it shows clearly not only the ideas of the framers of the Constitution, but also the cardinal difl’erences of the parties which have contended in American politics. FEDERALSBURG, a village of Caroline county, Md., on Nanticoke River in the center of the great Peach Peninsula. Fruit-raising and the making of fruit-baskets are the chief occupations. 9 FEDERALLST PARTY. See POLITICAL PAR-' TIES, in these Revisions and Additions. FEE-FUND: in Scotland, the fund arising from the payment of dues of court on the tabling of summonses, the extracting of decrees, etc. Out of this fund the clerks and other inferior officers of the court are paid. FEIA, a large lake of Brazil, 130 miles northeast of Rio J aneiro, near the Atlantic, with which it com- municates by an artificial canal called Furado. FEINT: in naval or military matters, a mock as- sault or attack, usually made to throw an enemy off his guard against some real design upon.his position. FEITH, Rnrmvrs, a Dutch poet, born Feb. 7, 1753, at Zwolle, in Overyssel, died Feb. 8, 1824. He studied law, and in 1780 became mayor of his na- tive place. Feith tried almost all kinds of poetry. In 1792 appeared Het Graf (“the Tomb”), a didactic though sentimental poem; in 1802, De Oaderdom (“ Old Age”); in 1796-1810 four volumes of lyrical pieces, marked by a high enthusiasm and warmth of feeling. Of his tragedies the best known are Thirza, Johanna Gray, and Inez de Castro. FELANICHE, or FELANITX, a town on the island of Majorca. On a neighboring hill is an ancient Moorish castle, with subterranean vaults. Popu- lation, 5,918. FELDMANN, Lnoromo, a German writer of com- edies, born at Munich in 1803. He was appren- ticed to a cobbler in 1815, and soon giving evidence of his determination to be a poet, his master sent him back to school, where in 1817 he wrote a play, Der falsche Eid (The False Oath), which was pro- duced on the sta e. After a few years of business he devoted himse f entirely to literature. His first comedy, Der Sohn anf Reisen (The Son on His Travels), was acted at Munich with applause. His Works are numerous, and reckoned among the best specimens of modern German comedy. In 1852 he published a collection of his comedies in six vol- umes. FELDSPAR, or FELSPAR, a family of minerals Which crystallize in several systems, and enter largely into the composition of all granitic and 673 many metamorphic rocks, and in decomposition are the source of clay. FELICITAS, SAINT, a Roman matron martyred with her seven sons 164 A.D. under Marcus Aure- lius. A woman of the same name suffered death with Saint Perpetua, A. D. 211, for refusing to offer sacrifices to idols. FELIXIANS, a Spanish sect of the latter part 0% Itfhe elighth century, so called from Felix, Bishop 0 rge . FELLOWES, ROBERT, born in England in 1770, died in 1847. He was a man of high character and great benevolence. He entered the English church, but left it in consequence of peculiar religious views; he was one of the founders of the London University, and for a time edited the “London Critical Review.” FELLOWSHIP: in a college, a foundation which usually entitles the holder to be a member of the college, to share in its revenues and government, and, in Oxford and Cambridge, to have rooms in college, with other privileges. Celibacy was usu- ally insisted on in old days, and life fellowships were usual. Commonly now fellowships are for a term of years, or while the fellow continues to per- form specified work. In some universities, such as those of Scotland, the fellowship is a university prize for one or more years, bestowed after exami- nation upon graduates. FELTON, CHARLES N ., a United States Senator, Republican, from California; a business man, born in Erie county, N. Y., in 1832; received a common- school and academical education, and served six years as assistant treasurer and treasurer of the United States mint at San Francisco; was elected to the 49th and 50th Congresses. In 1891 he was elected by the California legislature to the United States Senate to succeed George Hearst, deceased. FELTON, CORNELIUS C., LL. D., born in Massa- chusetts in 1807, died in Pennsylvania in 1862, a famous Greek and Latin scholar, who in 1860 was president of Harvard University. He was regent of Smithsonian Institution, and author of numer- ous publications. FELUCCA, a vessel used in the Mediterranean. It is propelled by oars, from 16 to 24, and is rigged with two lateen sails. It has frequently a rudder at each end, to be applied as occasion demands. During the French war feluccas were armed with a heavy gun or two, and sent out as gun-boats against the English ships. FEIWIE COVERTE (faemina viro cooperta) : in the law of England, a married woman; a woman under cover, authority or protection. FEMERN, or FEHMARN, an island in the Baltic belonging to the Prussian province of Sleswick- Holstein. It has an area of 71 square miles; is flat, fertile, and well cultivated, but has an un- healthful climate. Agriculture, fishing and stock- ing-weaving form the principal employments of the inhabitants, Population. 9.800. FEHMGERICHTE, spoken of as the Holy Feme (or Fehme), and also known as the Westphalian or Secret Tribunals, were among the most remark- able phenomena of the Middle Ages, and supplied the place of the regular administration of justice, then in a deplorable condition. The origin of these courts has been ascribed to Charlemagne. In the general confusion which prevailed in Ger- many, when all laws. both civil and ecclesiastical, had lost their authority, the Fehmgerichte were or- ganized for the purpose of arresting and control- ing the incipient anarchy that threatened to bring chaos back again, and of inspiring with salutary terror, through the agency of their mysterious powers and solemn judgments, all rapacious and 6% lawless persons who, on account of the impotence of the ordinary legal checks, committed crime with impunity. The members of the Feme were called Wissende, “ the knowing one,” or the initi- ated. It was necessary that they should be born inwedlock, and be of the Christian religion. The sittings of the tribunal were either open or secret. The persons convicted, as well as those who re- fused to obey the summons, were given over to the Freischiiifen. The first Freischiiffe who met him was bound to hang him on a tree, or, if he made any resistance, to put him otherwise to death. A knife was left beside the corpse to show that it - was not a murder, but a punishment inflicted by -one of the Freischtiffen. FENCES, LAW on. At one time landowners were by common law under no obligation to fence in their property; trespass was to be prevented by a duty imposed upon each owner of animals to keep them within his own estate, and a liability- for all damages they might inflict upon his neighbor. At present, however, the matter of fence-building is regulated to some extent by statute. The duties imposed upon railroad companies to maintain fences along the line of their routes are particu- larly minute and exacting. FENCIBLE, a word meaning defensive, and for- merly applied to regiments raised for local defense, or at and only for a special crisis. FENELON FALLS, a village in Victoria county, Ontario, between Cameron and Sturgeon Lakes, 16 miles north of Lindsay. It has a waterfall 20 feet high, 300 feet wide, and large lumber mills. FENESTELLA, or FENESTRELLA, a genus of poly- ~zoa, resembling the “lace coral,” very common in Palseozoic rocks, ranging from the Lower Silurian to the Permian. Thirty species have been de- scribed. FENN EC, or ZERDA, a species of Canida, native of Africa, resembling foxes in general form and in the bushy tail. The species are small, and have re- markably large ears and blue eyes. FENTON,a village of Genesee county, Mich., 50 miles northwest of Detroit. It contains a flour mill, foundry, woolen factory, a cooperage, Baptist seminary, and Episcopal high school. FENTON, REUBEN EATON (1819-85), an Ameri- can statesman. He began the practice of law in Jamestown, N. Y., in 1841, and in 1843-51 was supervisomof the town of Carroll. In 1852 he was elected to Congress as a Democrat, but was de- feated two years later. In 1856 he was elected again, however, and served from 1857 to 1864, when he resigned to become governor of his State. He received a gubernatorial reelection, and from 1869 to 1875 was a U. S. Senator. FENWICK’S ISLAND, off the east coast of Worcester county, Md., 20 miles south of Cape Henlopen, in lat. 380 27' 1" N., long. 75O 2’ 59" W. It has a light-house 86 feet high. FENYES, ELEK, a Hungarian geographer and statistical author, born in Csokaj, in the county of Bihar in 1807. He traveled over the country, and thoroughly acquainted himself with the state of the Hungarian kingdom, of which there had never before been an authentic survey. The first fruits of his enterprise appeared in 1840, under the title Iiungary and Its Annexed Parts, Geographically and Statistically Considered. He was awarded the great prize of 200 ducats by the Hungarian Academy. All of his works are written in the Magyar tongue; some of them have been translated into German, and repeatedly published. FERE: in the Linneean system of zoiilogy, an order of Mammalia, nearly corresponding to the Carnaria of Cuvier. FENCES—FERNANDINA FERJE NATURZE, the term given in Roman law to those animals which flee the dominion of man, whether beast, bird, or fish, and retain their natural freedom. They were the property of any one who might catch them. ' ,, FER DE LANCE, the lance-headed or yellow viper, Craspedocephalus Zanceolatus, a very venomous serpent of the West Indies and South America. It is from five to eight feet long, is capable of mak- ing considerable springs, and gives no warning of its attack. Its bite is very often fatal, and it is dreaded alike by man and beast. FERGUS FALLS, a city and county-seat of Otter Tail county, Minn., on Red River of the North. ‘ It has good water-power, flour and paper mills. FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL, poet and Celtic scholar, born at Belfast, Ireland, in 1810, died in 1886. He was educated at Trinity College, Dub- lin, called to the bar in 1838, and in 1859 was made queen’s counsel. He gave much attention to Irish antiquities, and as president of the Royal Irish Academy gave a powerful impetus to the scientific study of early Irish art. His contribu- tions to the magazines began to attract attention about 1832. He published Lays of the Western Gael (1865) ; Congal, a Poem in Five Books (1872) ; Poems (1880); and The Forging of the Anchor (1883). He was knighted in 1878. FERGUSSON, JAMES, D. C. L., F. R. S., a Scot- tish architect, born at Ayr in 1808, died Jan. 9, 4 1886. He was educated at the high school of Edin- burgh, and after spending some years as an indigo-planter in Bengal engaged in extensive explorations of India, sketching and studying the rock-temples. In 1859 he was appointed a mem- ber of a royal commission on the defenses of Great Britain. His later works include The Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored (1851), .Hand-book of Architecture (1855), Tree and Serpent Worship (1869), History of Rude Stone Monuments (1872). The chief features of his earlier works were embodied in Care Temples of India (1880). FERLAND, JEAN ANTON BAPTISTE (1805-65), a Canadian clergyman. He was ordained priest in 1828, and the same year named vicar of Quebec. In 1841 he became professor in the seminary of Nicolet, and seven years later was elected superior. In 1850 he became a member of the arch-bishop’s privy council. In 1855 he was made chaplain of the military hospitals of Quebec, and the same year professor of Laval University. In 1864 he was elected dean of the faculty of arts in that university. He was the author of several books re- lating to Canada. FERMATA: in music, the name given to a pause or resting-point, generally marked by the sign m. The notes over which this sign is placed are pro- longed beyond their true length. It is frequently found near the end of a part of a composition, which affords an opportunity for the singer or player to introduce an extempore embellishment. FERN, MALE, Aspidium (Nephrodium) filix-mas, a name given by old herbalists in contrast to the Lady Fern, Asplenium (Lastraea) filix-faemina, which, from the aspect of their foliage and common association in woods, are imagined to repre- sent the two sexes. The large subterranean rhi- zome contains a volatile oil, to which the long-es- tablished medicinal value as a vermifuge (particu- larly in tapeworm) is due. FERNANDINA, a port of entry in northern Florida, and county-seat of Nassau county, on the west side of Amelia’s Island, between Prince Wil- liam and Nassau Sounds, Amelia River and the Atlantic. It affords good anchorage, has a light- house, large foreign and coast trade in cotton and FERNS—FESSLER naval stores, has manufactories for creosoting lum- ber and piling, and for making superior plastering fiber from raw palmetto. The city has a steam- boat line to New York. FERNS. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 100. FERN, SWEET, a shrub of the natural order Amentaceee, sub-order Myricez, a native of the mountain woods of North America, forming a small bush with linear pinnatifid, fern-like leaves. Its leaves have a powerful aromatic fragrance when rubbed. It is tonic and astringent, and much used in the United States as a domestic remedy for diarrhoea. FER OLIGISTE: in mineralogy, a term applied to a variety of anhydrous red oxide of iron, other- wise called Specular Iron Ore. The famous Swed- ish, Russian, and Elba iron are in greater part prepared from this iron ore. Specular iron ore is found mostly confined to crystalline or metamor- phic rocks. FERONIA, an Italian goddess, especially hon- ored among the Sabines. Little is known concern- ing the myth, and she has been variously regarded by commentators as oddess of commerce, of lib- erty, and as the go dess who presided over the woods and groves. FEROZABAD, or FIROZABAD, a town of British India, 24 miles east of Agra. It is surrounded by a wall, outside of which are many mounds and in- teresting ruins. Population, 16,023. FEROZESHAHR, a village within the district of Ferozepore. It claims notice mainly as the scene of the second in order of the four great bat- tles of the first Sikh war. See Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 112. FERRANDINA, a town in the south of Italy, in the province of Basilicata, on a height on the right bank of the Basento, 35 miles southeast of Potenza. It produces an excellent wine. Population, 7,086. FERRARA, COUNGIL OF, convened in 1438, in opposition to the council of Basle, discussed the differences between the Eastern and IVestern churches, and was presided over by Pope Eugenius IV, the Byzantine Emperor John Palaaologus, and the patriarchs of the Greek church. FERRATES, combinations of ferric acid, a weak unstable compound of iron and oxygen, with - bases. FERRID—CYANOGEN, a compound organic rad- ical, which has not been isolated, but which forms with potassium a well-known compound, used in the arts. called the ferrid-cyanide of potassium, or red prussiate of potash. FER RIER, DAVID, a Scotch physician, was born in Aberdeen in 1843. He was educated in Aber- deen and studied medicine in Heidelberg and Edinburgh. In 1872 he became professor of fo- rensic medicine at King’s College, London. His Functions of the Brain was published in 1876, and Localization of Cerebral Disease in 1878. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, and of the Royal Col- lege of Physicians. He is a prominent advocate of vivisection. FERROTYPE, a term applied to designate some photographic processes in which salts of iron play an important part. The term is also applied by photographers to a cheap and instantaneous method by which a positive picture is fixed, by the collodion process, on thin sheets of iron. FERRUGINOUS, a term employed in chemistry to denote the presence of iron in natural waters, minerals, etc. It is synonymous with the term chalybeate. FERRY. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 111. FERRY, J ULES, an eminent French statesman, born at Saint-Dié in 1832. He was admitted to the 675 Paris bar in 1854, and identified himself with the opponents of the Empire. He was condemned as one of the “ thirteen” in 1864. In 1869 he was elected to the Corps Legislatif. He voted against the war with Prussia, but during the siege he was a prominent member of the Government of Nation- al Defense. After the war he was minister at Ath- ens, and in 1879 he became minister of public in- struction. He introduced a bill directed against the Jesuits, which was passed by the deputies, but twice thrown out in the Senate. The expulsion of the Jesuits was effected by decree founded upon disused laws, and the ministry was dissolved in 1880. He then formed a cabinet and embarked on a policy of “colonial expansion.” His cabinet re- signed in 1881 on the question of the expedition to Tunis. He became Prime minister again in 1883, but his ministry was overthrown in 1884 by an ad- verse vote relative to the war with China. FERRYLAND, a port of entry and capital of Fer- ryland district, Newfoundland. It has a good harbor, light-house, jail, and court-house. In 1623 Lord Baltimore settled it, and ave the peninsula the name of Avalon. French disturbances caused its desertion, and ruins of old batteries yet remain. FESA, or FASA, a town of Persia, in the province of Fars, 80 miles southeast of Shiraz, is situated in amountain defile, and is of considerable size. It has manufactories of silken, woolen, and cotton fabrics and some trade in a kind of tobacco. Pop- ulation, 18,000. FERTILIZERS, a name given to substanc% which, when applied to the soil, supply it with the elements required to make it fruitful and product- ive. See MANURE, Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 505-12. FESCENNINE VERSES were a sort of dialogues in rude extempore verses, generally in saturnine measure, in which the parties rallied and ridiculed one another, and which formed a favorite amuse- ment of the country people on festive occasions. The amusement often degenerated into licentious- ness that at last required the curb of law. The style originated at Fescennia, and became popular at Rome. FESCUE (Festuca),a large and widely diffused genus of grasses, very nearly allied to brome grass, and including many of the most valuable pasture and fodder grasses. FESS. The fess in heraldry consists of lines drawn horizontally across a shield, and containing the third of it between the honor point and the nombril. It is one of the honorable ordinaries, and is supposed to represent the waist belt or girdle of honor, which was one of the insignia of knighthood. A shield, or charge in a shield, is said to be party per fess when it is horizontally divided through the middle, or. as the French say, simply coupé. Fess- wise is said of a charge placed in fess-—-that is to say, horizontally across the shield. FESSENDEN, IVILLIAM PITT (1806-69), a United States Senator. He was admitted to the Maine bar in 1827. In 1832, and again in 1840, he was elected to the State legislature. In 1840 he became a member of Congress, and in 184546 was once more in the legislature, and also in 1853 and 1854. He took his seat in the United States Senate in 1854, and was reelected in 1859. In 1864 he was called to the head of the Treasury, but resigned the following year to return to the Senate, to which he had been elected for the third time. During his service in the Senate Mr. Fessenden was the ac- knowledged leader of_ the Republican party. FESSLER, J osnrn. an Austrian prelate born at Lochau, Tyrol, Dec. 2, 1813, died April 25, 1872. He studied iheology at Brixen, was ordained in 1837, j in 1841 became professor of church history and 6% canon law at Brixen, and in 1852 professor of church history in the University of Vienna. He was made bishop of St. Polten in 1865, and was general secre- tary of the Vatican Council in 1869. He published Institutiones Patrologicze (1850-52), and Sammlung Vermischter Schriften (1869). FESTOON : in architecture, a sculptured wreath of flowers or fruit, frequently used as an ornament in Roman and in Renaissance buildings. Like many of the other ornaments of classic architect- ure, it owes its origin to one of the sacrificial em- blems, namely, the flowers with which the heads of the animals, the altars, etc., used to be decorated. The festoon occurs along with bull’s heads on the frieze of the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. FETID LIMESTONE, a variety of limestone which gives out, on being violently rubbed or struck with a hammer, a smell like that of sulphureted hydro- gen gas. It has a dark color, produced, very prob- ably, from the perishable portions of the animals whose hard skeletons compose the rock. FEU-DE—JOIE, or RUNNING FIRE, a discharge of musketry into the air, made in honor of a victory or other occasion. It commences with the right hand man of the line, who discharges his rifle, and is followed successively at scarcely perceptible in- tervals by the man on his left until the extreme left of the line is reached. The effect much depends on the regularity with which the slight interval between the discharge is preserved. FEUILLANS, CONGREGATION OF, a reform of the Cistercian order, remarkable as forming part of the great religious movement in the Roman Catholic church during the 16th century. contemporary with and probably stimulated by the progress of the Reformation. The author of this reform was Jean de la Barriere, abbot of the Cistercian monastery at Feuillans in Languedoc, who laid down for him- self a new and much more austere course of life, in which he soon found many associates among the brethren of his order. The rule thus reformed was approved by Pope Sixtus V. The name was adopted by a French revolutionary club which held its meetings in the convent of the order in the Rue St. Honoré in Paris. FEUILLET, OCTAVE, a French novelist, born at Saint L0, in La Manche, Aug. 11, 1812, died Dec. 29, 1890, and educated at the college of Louis le Grand, Paris. He was for some time a literary assistant of Dumas, and began his own career with Le Fruit Defendu in the “ Revue N ouvelle.” In 1848 he pub- lished in the “ Revue des Deux Mondes ” a series of proverbs, comedies, tales, and romances which were collected in Scenes et Proverbs and Scenes et Comedies (5 vols., 1853-56). In 1862 he was elected to the French Academy, and was afterwards libra- rian to the emperor. His most noted novel, Le Ro- man d’un Jeune Homme Pauvre (1858), gained great popularity throughout Europe, and Histoire ole Sibylle (1862) was also very successful. These were followed by M. de Camors (1867); Julia de Trécoeur (1872) ; Un Mariage clans le Monde (1875); Les Amours de Philippe (1877); Le Journal d’un Femme (1878) ; Histoire d’un Parisienne (1881), and La Morte (1886). He also wrote many successful comedies. FEVEDA, an island of British Columbia, situated in the Gulf of Georgia, between Vancouver Island and the continent. It possesses a snug harbor. Its formation is understood to be wholly of lime- stone. FEVER BUSH, the Lindera Benzoin, alauraceous shrub common in the Northern States. It has an agreeable aromatic odor, and decoctions of its bark and leaves are used as a remedy for low fevers and other complaints. It is also called spice bush and Benjamin tree. FESTOON—FIELD FEVERFEW, a perennial plant botanically allied to Camomile, and much resembling it in its proper- ties, but differing in appearance, the segments of its leaves being flat and comparatively broad and its flowers smaller. Its habit of growing is erect, its stem is branched, and from one to two feet high. It has a strong and somewhat aromatic smell. The double varieties are common in gardens. It has been much cultivated for medicinal purposes, and is used in the cure of fevers. FEVERS. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 125. FEVERWORT, a perennial plant of the natural order Caprifoliaceee having an erect, round, hairy, fistular stem, from one to four feet high, opposite ovate-lanceolate entire leaves, axillary whorls of flowers, with tubular 5-lobed corolla and leathery three-seeded berries. It is found in North Amer- ica, where it is dried and the roasted berries have been occasionally used as a substitute for coffee. It is chiefly valued for its medicinal properties. FIASCO, a failure in a musical or dramatic per- formance. It is .a term borrowed from the Italian theater, and now naturalized in France and Ger- many. In Italy it is not uncommon to hear an audience cry: Old, old fiasco, even when the singer has made only one false note. FIBRE. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 131. FINDLAY, a city of Ohio, and county-seat of Hancock county, located in the northwestern part of the State, about 45 miles south of Toledo. In 1884 there were in Findlay three public school buildings, and in 1890 there were 12. During the same period the churches increased in number from 13 to 20. An elaborate system of water works has been constructed at a cost of $350,000, and a court house erected costing $320,000. The city is an im- portant manufacturing center, there being in 1891 no less than 120 manufactories. Natural gas is the prinzcipal fuel. Population in 1880, 4,633; in 1890, 8,6 4. FICHET, GUILLAUME, born early in the 15th cen- tury, was rector of the University of Paris in 1467, and afterwards held ofiice under Pope Sixtus IV. Through his influence the printing press was brought from Germany to the Sorbonne. FID, a large, pointed pin with an eye at the thick end. It is made of iron or lignum vitae, and is used by sailors in separating and interlacing the strands of which the rope is composed. A mast-fid is a bolt inserted through the bottom of a ship’s top-mast, with ends resting on the trestle-trees sustained by the head of the lower-mast or top- mast. Unless the mast-fid be withdrawn, the sup- ported mast cannot be lowered. FIDDMIN, a villa e of the Fayoom, inhabited by Mussulmans and opts. It is remarkable for a large olive popularly supposed to be the original one planted in Egypt, and yielding annually 268. pounds of olives. FIELD: in heraldry, the whole surface or conti- nent of the escutcheon or shield. It is so called, according to some, because it represents the field: of battle on which the achievements or charges. represented on it are supposed to have been gained. In blazoning, the tincture or metal of the field: must be the first thing mentioned. FIELD, CYRUs Wnsr, whose name is identified with submarine telegraphs, was born in Stock- bridge, Mass., in 1819, and became a merchant in New York city. In 1853 the project of a submarine cable interested him, and he organized the New York, Newfoundland, and London Telegraphic- Company in 1854, and the Atlantic Telegraph Com- pany in 1856. In 1858 the first trans-Atlantic tele- graph was completed, but soon ceased to work, A and Mr. Field was driven to renewed exertions” FIELD-FIFTEENTH until in 1865-66 another cable was laid by the Great ‘ Eastern, and communication established. He has been largely interested in the New York elevated railway system of rapid transit. FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (1781—1867), an American clergyman, was licensed to preach in 1803. He was ordained in 1804, and till 1818 was minister in the Congregational church in Haddam, Conn. From 1819 to 1837 he was pastor of the church at Stockbridge, Mass., and from the latter year until 1844 was again in Haddam. From 1844 to 1851 he had charge of the church in Higganum, when he retired, and returned to Stockbridge, where he passed his remaining days. He wrote considerably on historical topics. FIELD, DAvrn DUDLEY, an American lawyer, son of the preceding, born in 1805. He was admitted to the New York bar in 1828, and continued in the active practice of his profession until 1885. In 1847 he was appointed commissioner on practice and pleadings, and as such took part in the preparation of the code of procedure. The commission sub- mitted the completed Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure to the legislature in 1850, and they have been enacted into law. In 1857 he was appointed by New York State head of a commission to pre- pare a political code, a penal code and a civil code, and they were completed in 1865. In 1873 Mr. Field presented to the Social Science Congress his Outlines of an International Code, which has been translated into French, Italian, and Chinese. As a result an association was formed for the reform and codifi- cation of the laws of nations, and Mr. Field was chosen its first president. This association also had for its object the substitution of arbitration for war in the settlement of disputes between na- tions. Besides numerous contributions to current literature on political topics, Mr. Field has pub- lished Speeches, Arguments, and Miscellaneous Papers (New York, 1886). FIELD, HENRY MARTYN, an American clergy- man, born in Stockbridge, Mass., April 3, 1822. He graduated at Williams College, studied theology, and from 1842 to 1847 was pastor of a Presbyterian church in St. Louis, Mo. During 1847-48 he trav- eled in Europe, and on his return to the United States published an account Of his experiences and observations abroad. In 1855 he became one of the editors of “The Evangelist,” New York, subse- quently becoming its proprietor. He is the author of The Irish Confederates (1850); Summer Pictures from Copenhagen to Venice (1859); Llistory of the At lantic Telegraph (1866); From the Lakes of Killarney to the Golden Horn (1876); From Egypt to Japan (1878); On the Desert (1883); Among the Holy Hills (1883); The Greek Islands and Turkey After the l/Var (1885); Blood Thicker than Water, and A Few Days Among Our Southern Brethren. FIELD, KATE, an American lecturer, born in 1840. After completing her studies in the United States she made long visits to Europe, and became correspondent for the “New York Tribune,” the “Chicago Tribune,” and the “ Philadelphia Press.” In 1874 she appeared in Peg Woflington at Booth’s Theater, New York, and for a time followed the stage with some success. Of late years she has been engaged in lecturing on the topics of the day. ELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON, an American jurist, son of David Dudley Field. Sr., born in 1816. In 1837 he began the study of law with his brother, David Dudley, and after his admission to the bar became a partner in the firm. In 1849 he went to San Francisco, and became a member of the first legislature held after the admission of California into the Union. In 1857 he was elected judge of the Supreme Court of California, and in 1863 was 677 appointed to the supreme bench of the United States. In 1869 he was appointed professor of law in the University of California. FIELD—ALLOVVANCE,a daily allowance granted to officers of the British army in consideration of extra expense entailed upon them in consequence of military operations. FIELD-GLASS, the lens usually interposed be- tween the object-glass and eye-glass of a micro- scope, which, receiving the diverging rays from the former before they form an image, contracts the dimensions of the image and increases its bright- ness, so as to render it of a proper size and degree of distinctness for being viewed by means of the eye-glass. FIELDING, ANTHONY VANDYKE COPLEY (1787- 1855), an English water-color painter. He received his early instruction at home before being placed under John Varley. He worked in the house of Dr. Monro, and in 1810 began to exhibit with the Water-color Society, succeeding Cristall as presi- dent in 1831. His early works show breadth, free- dom of treatment, and a fine sense of atmosphere, but in later life the quality of his art deteriorated greatly. FIELD—MOUSE, or MEA1)OW- MOUSE, a name popularly given to several species both of mouse and vole. FIELD—OFFICERS: in the army, officers—viz., majors,lieutenant-colonelsandcolonels—competent to command whole battalions, in contradistinction to those merely intrusted with company duties, as captains, lieutenants and ensigns. FIELD OF VIEW, the whole space within which objects can be seen through an optical instrument; more strictly, the space within which the image of an object may be seen by whole pencils. That part of the image which is seen by partial pencils of the light from the object-speculum or lens is called the ragged edge, and usually a diaphragm is employed to cut it ofl’ from the view of the Ob- server altogether. FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-81), an Ameri- can poet, essayist, lecturer and publisher. From 1838 to 1870 he was a member of the firm of Tick- nor, Reed & Fields, of Boston, and from 1862 to 1870 edited the “Atlantic Monthly.” His contribu- tions to letters were of a high order, and he exert- ed an important influence on American literature. FIELD—TRAIN, a department of artillery, con- sisting of commissaries and conductors of stores, whose duty it is to attend to the formation of proper depots of shot, etc., between the front and base of operations, and to keep a due proportion constantly at the service of each gun during an engagement; they are also responsible for the safe custody of the ammunition. FIELD-IVORKS, intrenchments and other tem- porary fortifications, thrown up by an army in the field either as a protection from the onslaught of a hostile force or to cover an attack upon some stronghold. FIERDING—COURT, a district court of the an- cient Gothic nations. This court was established for the purpose of rendering speedy justice in small matters. There were four of these courts in every superior district, each presided over by a separate judge. FIFE—NESS, a promontory of Scotland, in the county of Fife. On the north, in the sea, are the dan- gerous Carr Books, with an iron beacon 35 feet high, which required six years to construct. FIFTEEN TH: in music, the interval of a double octave; also an organ-stop whose pipes are tuned two octaves above the regular pitch as represented on the keyboard. 678 FIFTH: in music, an interval comprising five de- grees of the scale. A perfect fifth is‘the equal to three diatonic steps and a half; a fifth a half-step shorter is termed dz'mz'nished or minor, and one a half-step longer is termed augmented or superfluous. FIGHTING-FISH, a small fresh-water fish of the family Anubantidw. It is a native of Asia and particularly of Siam, where it is kept in glass globes on account of its pugnacity. When two of these creatures are brought together they rush immediately to combat. Fish fights are a favorite amusement of the Siamese, and an extra- ordinary amount of gambling takes place in con- nection with them, not merely money and property, but children and liberty being sometimes staked. When the fish is quiet its colors are dull, but when it is excited the colors glow with metallic splendor, the projecting gill membrane waving like a black frill about the throat. FIGUEIRA, a watering-place in the Portuguese province of Beira, at the mouth of the Mondego, 23 miles west by south of Goimbra. Its harbor is excellent, but difficult of access. Population, 4,470. FIGUIER, GUILLAUME LOUIS, a French scientific writer, born at Montpellier, Feb. 15, 1819. He studied chemistry there, and in 1841 received the degree of M.D. He was appointed professor at the Montpellier school of pharmacy in 1846, and seven years later removed to Paris to occupy a similar post there. He has published: Exposition et His- toire des Princigaales Decouvertes Scientzfiques M odernes (1851), L’AZchimie et les Alchimistes (1854), Histoire du Merueilleux dans les Temps Modernes (1859-60). A number of his popular presentations of science and natural history have been translated into En lish. Among these are: The Vegetable World; The cean World; The Wonders of Science, and The Wonders of Industry. FIGURANTES, the term applied in the ballet to dancers who do not come forward alone, but dance in troops, and also serve to fill up the scene and form a background for the solo dancers. FIGURE : in general, the outline or surface of a body determining its form or shape. In arithmetic figure denotes a numerical character. In geom- etry it denotes a surface or space inclosed on all sides, and is superficial when inclosed by lines, solid when inclosed by surfaces. FIGUBED, or FIGURATE: in music, opposed to simple, characterized by the use of passing notes. The term was formerly used in ecclesiastical music to distin uish chants which had been varied, and rendere more ornamental and expressive, from the ori inal Gregorian chants which were exceed- ingly p ain. The term was afterwards applied to elaborate pieces in distinction from those of “ strict” style. FIGURED BASS: in music, a base part with fig- ures placed over the notes, which indicate the har- mony to be played to each note, and serve as a guide to the accompanist. FIGWOBT, a genus of plants of the natural order Serophulariaceae. They are mostly herbaceous and natives of temperate regions. The roots of some are purgative and emetic. FIJI, or FEEJEE, an island group and British crown colony in the South Pacific. For the history and earlier statistics of the Fiji Islands, see Britan- nica, Vol. IX, pp. 155-158. Fiji was ceded to the Queen of England by the native chiefs and people, and the British flag hoisted by Sir Hercules Robin- son, Oct. 10, 1874. The government is administered by a governor appointed by the crown, assisted by an executive council, consisting of the colonial secretary, the attorney-general, the receiver-gen- eral. and the commissioner of lands. Laws are FIF'I‘H—FILE passed by a legislative council, of which the gov- ernor is president. It comprises six official mem- bers and six unofiicial members nominated by the crown. For the purposes of native gov- ernment, the colony is divided into 16 prov- inces, in 14 of which a superior native chief exercises, under the title of Rolco-Tut of his prov- ince, a form of rule which recognizes to a large de- gree the customs and the system of administration by which the people governed themselves prior to the establishment among them of a European form of government. In two of the provinces there are resident European ofiicers as commissioners. The island of Botumah was added to the colony of Fiji in 1881. ‘ The present total area of the Fiji Islands is about 7,740 square miles. In 1889 the population of the colony was as follows: Europeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,988 Half castes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 858 Indian immigrant laborers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,311 Polynesian immigrant laborers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,350 Fijians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110,871 Natives of Rotumah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,299 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 124,919 Two public schools receive state aid to the ex- tent of about $1,200 a year each, one in Suva and one in Levuka. The number of scholars attending these two schools in 1889 was 157. The education of the native Fijians is almost entirely conducted by the Wesleyan Mission, in whose schools 40,667 children were taught in 1889. A number of schools are also conducted by the Roman Catholic mission, the number of scholars being 2,586. There is also an industrial and technical school carried on by the government, in which 62 native youths are being trained in the elementary branches of read- ing, writing, and arithmetic, in boat-building, house-building, and cattle-tending. The estimated revenue for 1890 was £64,000, and the expenditure, £59,284. The public debt of the colony was, Jan. 1, 1890, £251,089. In 1889 there were, under cultivation by Euro- pean settlers: bananas, 2,460 acres; cofiee, 27 acres; cocoanuts, 18,939 acres; maize, 334 acres; sugar-cane, 12,626 acres; yams, 168 acres; tobacco, 25 acres; pine-apples, 127 acres; other products, 648 acres. There were, in the colony in 1886, 695 horses and mules, 8,768 cattle, 6,838 sheep, and 4,502 Angora goats. The value of the total foreign trade during the ffiifie years from 1885 to 1889 inclusive was as o ows: Year. To’l For’gn Trade. Imports. Exports. £ £ £ 1885 627,780 301,030 326,750 1886 514,125 230,629 283,496 1887 469,151 188,071 281,080 1888 560,200 183,222 376,978 1889 553,674 189,393 364,281 The principal imports durin 1889 were hard- Ware, drapery, meats, rice, brea stufl’s and biscuits, bags and sugar mats, and timber; and the ex orts, sugar, copra, green fruit (consisting chie y of bananas), distilled spirits, desiccate cocoanuts, peanuts, and tea. FILE: in a military sense, a row of men arranged one behind the other forming a line from front to rear. A battalion stands two deep, or in two ranks, front and rear, wherefore a file consists of two men. Sometimes the battalion may be formed much more solidly, as in a square, when FILIOQUE—FINLAND the file comprises a far larger number. The num- ber of files in a company describes its width, as the number of ranks does its depth. FILIOQUE, a Latin term interpolated in the Nicene Creed, and held to teach the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. The Greek church denying and the Latin church re- taining this formula, it has given rise to many con- troversies, and has been the chief point which for so man ages has kept the two churches apart. FILIPO D’ARGIRO, SAN, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, situated on the right bank of the Traina. A considerable quantity of saffron is grown in the vicinity. Population, 7,500. FILLET: in heraldry, an ordinary which con- tains the fourth art of the chief. FILUM AQUEI, an imaginary line dividing the soil underneath a river into two equal portions. In all navigable streams above where the tide rises and falls, and in all not navigable, it designates the boundary of ownership along the river. In public rivers, or where there is a flow of tide- water, the soil underneath does not belong to land- owners, but to the sovereign or state. FINAL CAUSES, those which are not also effects. Physical science has nothing to do with them, and while it is not its province to determine them, neither is it its right to determine their non-existence. FINALE, the name given to that part of a musical composition which finishes the act of an opera; also to the last movement of an instru- mental composition, as in the symphony, quartet, sonata, etc. The character of the finale, in purely in- strumental works, is always lively. In the opera it depends on the subject, while in some operas the finale consists of an aria alone, as in Mozart’s Ft- garo, instead of the usual full concerted music for solo and chorus. FINANCE, AMERICAN. See UNITED STATEs, in these Additions and Revisions. FINANCIAL FAILURES IN THE UNITED STATES. The number of such failures as reported by Brad- street, together with the “actual assets” and liabilities for the years 1889 and 1890, were as follbwsz Years. Failures. Assets. Liabilities. 1889 11,719 $70,599,769 $140,359,490 1890 10,673 92,775,625 75,032,836 The number of failures in the city of New York in 1890 was 548, with actual assets of $21,040,983, and liabilities of $36,708,413. FIN—BACK, a species of whale with a prominent dorsal fin not found in other species; their disposi- tion is fierce, and their oil, though excellent, is scanty. FINCH. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 191. FINDS, a term which has been lately applied by archaeologists to deposits of objects connected with human life, often associated with human re- mains, but of prehistoric origin. FINGER-BOARD, that part of a stringed musi- cal instrument which is made of ebony and glued on the neck of the instrument, and shaped some- what round on the top to suit the position in which the strings lie on the nut and the bridge. It is also the keyboard in the organ and pianoforte. FINISTERRE, CAPE, or LAND’s END, the name iven to a promontory at the north-western extrem- Ity of Spain, in latitude 42° 54' north, and longi- tude about 9° 20' west. It is the Promontortum Nertum of the ancients. 679 FINLAND. For the history and earlier statistics of the Grand Duchy of Finland, see Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 216-220. The constitution of Fin- land, dating from the year 1772, reformed in 1789, and slightly modified in 1869 and 1882, provides for a national parliament, consisting of four estates- the nobles, the clergy, the burghers, and the peas- ants—convoked by the “ Grand Duke,” Emperor of Russia, for four months. They discuss the schemes of laws proposed by the emperor, who has the right of veto. The unanimous assent of all four cham- bers is necessary for making changes in the con- stitution and for levying new taxes. The national representatives have been regularly convoked, since 1861, every four or five years; the last time they met was in 1888. The schemes of laws are elaborated by the “Committee for the Affairs of Finland,” which sits at St. Petersburg, and consists of the state secretary and four members, nomi- nated by the crown (two of them being proposed by the Senate). The Senate, which sits at Helsing- fors under the presidency of the governor-general, is nominated by the crown. It is the superior ad- ministrative power in Finland. and consists of two departments, justice and finance, which have un- der them the administration of posts, railways, canals, custom-houses, hygiene and the tribunals. The military department is under the Russian ministry of war, and the foreign affairs under the Russian chancellor. Finland has its own money and system of custom-houses. Recent laws have, however, altered this to some extent. According to a law of Aug. 14, 1890, the circulation of Russian rubles and silver money has been rendered ob- ligatory. The penal code, elaborated by the Sen- ate, which was to have been promulgated on Jan. 1, 1891, was suspended by the Russian government till further notice. The present area of Finland is 144,255 square miles; population (1888), 2,305,916. The following table shows the area of the several provinces, with the population for 1887: >. 0' Q S . T-'-A *6 a Provmce. Area. Populat’n. *3 9- _ Q 8‘ Abo-Bjorn_eborg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,335 380,501 40 Kuopio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,499 277,635 16 Nyland .......................... . . 4,586 227,388 49 St. Michel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,819 175,110 19 Taxastehus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,334 245,690 29 Uleaborg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63,971 234,015 3 Viborg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,627 330.823 19 Vasa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,084 398,750 24 The gradual increase of the population is seen from the following table: Years. In towns. In country. Total. 1830 76,489 1,295,588 1,372,077 1870 131.603 1,637,166 1,768.769 1880 173,401 1,887,381 2,060,782 1885 199,484 2,003,874 2,203,358 1886 204,998 2,027,380 2,232,378 1887 211,589 2,059 .323 2,270,912 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,305,916 Of the total population there were, in 1888, 2,261,- 741 Lutherans; 41,896 Greek Orthodox and Raskol- niks; 2,279 Roman Catholics. The chief towns, with the population (1888), are: Helsingfors, 58,417; Abo, 27,996; Tammerfors, 6% 18,097; Wiborg, 17,494; Uleaborg, 12,183; Bjorne- borg, 9,632 ; Nikolaistad (WaSa), 8,454; Kuopio, 8,141. The immigration in 1888 was 45,163, and the emi- gration 44,914. In 1889 Finland had one university, with 1,703 Students; one polytechnic, 132 students; 16 lyceums (12 state), 3,218 pupils; 16 progymnasiums, 1,402 pupils; 27 real-schools, 1,051 pupils; 52 girls’ schools, 4,057 pupils; 971 primary schools and kindergar- tens, with 62,893 pupils; 4 normal schools, with 563 pupils. There are besides 7 navigation schools, with 113 pupils; 6 commercial schools, with 162 male and 135 female pupils ; 32 Sunday professional schools, with 2,111 pupils; 2 agricultural institutes, 9 agricultural and 14 dairy schools, with 257 male an i%48 female pupils; 18 trade schools, with 1,220 pup s. The estimated revenue for 1890 was 54,158.331 marks (16,091,000 marks being left from previous budgets), and expenditures the same (17,543,562 marks being left for the next year). The public debt on Jan. 1, 1890, amounted to 85,130,944 marks, of which 7,851,700 marks internal. The crop of 1887 was, in bushels: Wheat, 146,760 ; rye, 12,397,700; barley, 5,829,620; oats, 13,549,400; sar- razin, 46,130; peas, 385,270; potatoes, 15,110,720 ; flax, 1,717 tons; hemp, 983 tons. Of domestic animals Finland had: horses, 258,666; horned cattle, 952,- 640; sheep, 1,042,790; swine, 184.755; reindeer, 64,- 898; goats, 18,700; poultry, 258,642. The chief articles of export are timber, butter, paper and card-board, iron, corn, cotton,leather, ides, tar, and pitch; of import, corn and flour, coffee, iron, woolen cloth, sugar, raw cotton, chemi- calls, leather-ware, machinery, tobacco, colors and 01 s. FINLEY, JAMES BRADLEY (1781-1856), an Ameri- can clergyman. In 1809 he entered the Methodist Ohio Conference, and in 1816-21 was a residing elder. In 1821-27 he was a missionary to the Vyandot Indians, and from 1829 to 1845 was an itinerant minister. From 1845 to 1849 he was chaplain of the Ohio penitentiary, and then acted as conference missionary and pastor in Southern Ohio till his death. His principal publications are reminis- cences of his experiences. FINLEY, SAMUEL (1715-1766), an American edu- tater, born in Ireland, came to the United States in 1734. He studied for the ministry, was licensed to preach in 1740, and ordained two years later. He was pastor in different places until 1761, when he was chosen president of Princeton College, Princeton, N. J. He held this position until his death. FINMARK, a province of Norway, lying between 68° 30’ and 71° north latitude, and 17° and 31’ east longitude, and constituting Norwegian Lapland. It has an area of about 20,000 square miles. The interior is intersected by a range of snow-covered FINLEY—TTRE DEPARTMENT ' mountains, reaching an elevation of 4,000 feet. Agriculture is impracticable above an elevation of 100 feet; fish and game constitute almost the sole food of the inhabitants. The principal sources of wealth are the reindeer in the north, and the cod- fisheries in the south. Population, 24,071. FINNEY, CHARLES GRANDIsoN (1792-1875), an American Presbyterian clergyman, licensed to preach in 1824. He became an evangelist and labored with great success in Utica, Troy, Phila- delphia, Boston and New York. From 1835 until his death he was professor of theology at Oberlin College, Ohio, and in 1851-66 was its president. He spent three years in England as a revivalist. FINSTERAARHORN, the highest peak (14,026 feet) of the Bernese Alps. FINSTERWALDE, a small town of Prussia. in the province of Brandenburg, situated on an afflu- ent of the Black Elster, 40 miles north of Dresden. It has manufactories of cloth and machinery; spinning and weaving are also carried on. Popula- tion, 7,371. FIORD, or FJoRD, the Scandinavian name for a narrow arm of the sea penetrating deeply into the land and bounded by more or less precipitous slopes or cliffs on each side. The coast of Norway, of Iceland and Greenland abound with examples of fiords. FIR. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 222. FIRE—ARMOR, appliances fitted for use in burn- ing buildings to facilitate escape or the use of fire- extinguishing apparatus, and for work in mines filled with choke-or fire-damp. It is of two kinds. In one the wearer breathes from a supply of com- pressed air carried in a suitable reservoir; in the other the air is filtered through some porous sub- stance, moistened and interposed between the wearer and the atmosphere. The efficacy of each has been proved beyond dispute. The latest in- vention is that of George Crofutt, 1873-74, termed the “eye and lung protector,” a species of mask held over the face by an elastic band passing around the head. It weighs but a few ounces, and may be instantaneously fitted into place. Thewearer breathes through a moist sponge contained in a porous cotton bag, which not only cools the air passing through it, but also eliminates dust, nox- ious gases, foul odors, etc. The eyes are protected by plates of transparent mica inserted in a duplex steel shell, so covered and edged with rubber as to exclude smoke and dirt. FIREARMS, weapons, of whatever form, from which missiles, such as shot, shell or bullets, are propelled to a distance by the combustion of gun- powder or other similar explosive. See GUNS AND GUNNERY, in these Revisions and Additions. FIREBOTE: according to English law, the right of a tenant to cut wood on the estate for the pur- pose of fuel. FIRE DEPARTMENT AND APPARATUS, RE- CENT IMPROVEMENTS IN.-One improvement has fol- lowed another so rapidly, in the past few years, that even the apparatus of a decade ago seems an- tiquated. The steam engines of later years vary materi- ally in construction. In one type the boiler has inch tubes depending from its roof,like Stalac- tites, down into the fire; thus, the water in them gets the full benefit of the heat; in another, small groups of tubes are hung like tiny steam radiators to the roof of the fire-box, and connected with the side of the box as well, so that the _water circu- lates up through a nest of small tubes; a third I type has a coil of water-pipe running around the fire, and down into the side of the fire-box. Each type has its advocates. A feature, not generally known by the specta- tor, is the water-tank for supplying the boiler. It is generally located under the driver's seat, and is used only when the engine is pumping salt or foul water. The most powerful land engines have two steam cylinders, capable of throwing solid water through a two inch nozzle two hundred feet over level ground. The hose is usually carried on a reel or spool supported on two or four- wheeled vehicles. A FIRE DEPARTMENT very late invention is a simple four-wheeled truck, with a bed or box, in which the hose is laid flat. It is rapidly becoming popular; for in practice it is found that it can be stretched for work more quickly, and when the fire is out can be loaded more readily. \ ll . 1: .. \‘ /-§¥:v r! ':’’:l " D ' ~ \ I/'~"**~ ' 1-- "~1fE‘\7~"‘ ' - s,: /'-’-" I \ y; _ A WATER TOWER consists of an iron tube so pivoted over one end of a truck that its top may be raised to a height of 60 feet above the street pavement. The upper end of the pipe ends in a nozzle controlled by a man on the truck. Two, three, or four engines may be coupled at the base, and their united streams forced through the pipe and out at the nozzle. They send a solid two and a quarter inch stream through the top windows of a six-story building with ease. The earliest towers were Put in position by man-power; the later ones are raised by carbonic acid gas, gene- rated in a retort suspended near the rear axle of the truck, and acting upon the piston rods of two cylinders very like steam engine cylinders. The gas is quickly generated and in sufiicient quan- tity to exert a pressure in the cylinder of over 100 pounds to the square inch. A derrick is raised over the forward wheels of the truck, and with the aid of this derrick the pipe is rapidly brought into a perpendicular position by means 0 a metal rope, working over pulleys, and a hand winch. LADDERS.-—The trucks usually carry ten lad- ders, varying in length from ten to 75 feet. Some are 92 feet long. These longest are permanently fixed to turn tables on the trucks that carry them, and are raised by cranks, screws, and pulleys. By their use, persons on the tops of buildings, or in the upper stories, can be quickly and readily swung over onto the roofs of adjoining buildings, or across the street to a place of safety. SCALING Lrmnnns are unique contrivances, and consist of a single rod, with rungs passing through, oribound to it, and a hook with reach enough to grasp any wall over the window sill. Scaling lad- ers are of the greatest benefit in securing an en- trance to a building through the windows, and in 681 rescuing lives. The fireman raises the ladder, drives the hook through the window of the first story, and catches it over the sill; climbs up, throws his leg over the sill, and lifts the ladder to the next story. If he discovers that the window immediately above is so full of flame that he cannot use it, he reaches with his ladder for one on either side, then swings loose, vibrating like a pendulum. He goes in this way to the proper height, when he lowers a cord to the ground, to which a life line is attached, and people who could not otherwise es- cape, are safely lowered. THROWING A LINE IVITH A RIFLE is a novel de- vice for quickly reaching the top of a building. A smooth bore Remington rifle with a ten-inch wound barrel is used. The projectile is a long, pear-shaped cap that fits over the muzzle with the end of a light line fixed fast to a ring in its base. A blank cartridge does the work. The line goes upward a distance of 200 feet, and when it falls is caught, and used to draw up the heavier line. THE NET.—If the fire be such that the life-line would be burned, and thereby be rendered worth- less, there is provided a wheel- shaped net, made of slender ropes, and of 10 feet diameter. It is held by as many determined men as can get hold of it. When ready they call upon the victim to jump; and the frightened one, imprisoned by smoke and flame, and with no prospect but death if he stays, rarely disobeys the command. ‘While not every one escapes unhurt, there are instances where men weighing 200 pounds have safely jumped a distance of 100 feet. IRON PIPES fixed to buildings are of the greatest benefit by reason of being constantly in place. They are put both on the outside and the inside of buildings, according to the taste of the owner, and extend from the street or sidewalk above the roof, also to the cellars and sub-cellars, where they are especially valuable. On the inside short branches project from the main pipe, and to these are usually attached the necessary length of hose for protecting that story. Where buildings are thus provided for, it is only necessary to attach the engine hose to the iron pipe built on or into the house, and the fireman goes within to find every- thing ready for immediate use. Such pipes are of the greatest use when fires are smouldering In a cellar. The minutes lost in carrying hose through doorways, or breaking openings through sidewalks, have resulted in the loss of many buildings. THE AIR-WASHER is a device for washing the smoke out of the air iii any room, but is especially intended for use in cellars. It is a short section of pipe fitted with a sprinkler after the manner of a lawn sprinkler. In its use a hole is cut through the floor; if no other way is found the washer is 6% passed through, the water turned on, and showers are thrown in all directions. FLOATING ENGINES, or FIRE BOATS, the best of Which are built of steel, are about 125 feet in length; 25 to 27 feet wide, and draw about 9 feet of water. They are provided with monster boilers, and triple expansion engines. There are two pro- peller wheels, one being connected with the rud- der and the wheel shaft in such a way that it swings with the rudder, and aids the boat in turn- ing almost upon her center. The pumps are in four sets of two each. From them the water is forced into an airchamber, thence through four standing pipes which rise through the deck-house—two forward and two aft. The nozzles at the ends of the pipes are so attached that they control every possible direction in which it may be desired to turn them. The floating en- gines are kept with fires partially banked, but steam up. At a signal the fires are raked, the lines thrown off, the throttle thrown open, and the conflagration headed for. At a rate of nearly 20 sea-miles an hour she rushes along, dodging the sea-craft with remarkable ease by reason of the rudder-propeller attachment, and if the fire be at the water’s edge, as on a pier or steamer, can run .1.‘-Ell|:|.ll.l'|l.' L . ‘"1", 0 .| 1 ,. u- . - - ' I‘ 0 ‘~'‘' 0 1; ..~ FTRE DEPARTMENT so close that the flames envelop her stem. The whole power of the boilers is quickly turned upon the pumps with no loss of time, for there is no hose to lay. The force of the water driven through the five-inch nozzle is such that it carries all wood- work before it, tears off roofs, and even bursts through brick walls, thus obviating the use of axes On these floating engines there are always screens for protecting the men who would otherwise be exposed to the fury of the flames. The screens are made of steel plate, and are double, having an air- space between. Each section is six feet ong, and four and a half feet above the rail arching over the deck. Peep-holes to look through, and. other holes. large enough to direct a small stream through are also provided. If the decks or any other part of the water engine become too hot for safety or comfort, the captain, instead of backing the boat out to cool off, turns the water on from skillfully: arranged sprinklers, thus protecting the workers While they attend to the greater fire. A FIRE-PROOF SUIT.-—The Imperial German gov- ernment has introduced a fire-proof suit of such efliciency that a fireman may approach a confla- gration, either in a building or on board ship, with .1 "_ . " '. \ . __ J 3. .'.!,_:H___ l . Z -' ‘I V. _‘ ‘" ‘. \ '1“ ..";-_.:-1 I\ ‘u - ".:\“|\' '| __ .. 4‘ '>:>:'.j -. ’ _‘:'\_' °° :- .‘ . Y. I P‘ 8 . lllli ,p ' r , I 0 1, - . ; “I \ .1 G :1 ‘ ; :'l - '_ by I I I | . —— r n , ' I1 " _ ‘ | I 1 ' 1‘ STEAM FIRE ENGINE. comparative freedom from danger. It consists of a helmet, jacket, trousers, boots, and mittens. The helmet is constructed of light wicker work, cov- ered with a composition making it perfectly air and water tight. In the front part of the helmet is a glass window, which closes hermetically, but which may be opened and closed by the wearer as may be required. Connected with the helmet is the jacket and hose or trousers made of water-pro,of double material. The trousers are supported by leather suspenders. The jacket falls over the trousers at the waist, and is fastened by a belt. The sleeves of the jacket are connected with water- proof gloves. Passing through the back of the helmet is a tube for the conveyance of air, which is distributed by means of smaller tubes through- out the interior around the head of the wearer, thereby keeping the head constantly surrounded with fresh air, and also preventing the accumula- tions of moisture-cloudiness on the glass, thereby enabling the wearer to see and breathe freely. The fireman thus encased is further provided with a water-tube, by means of which he is en- abled to send a spray of water over himself as an additional protection against fire or heat. By a special tube he can convey water into the helmet like a douche. Thus protected he can approach a fire with impunity, is enabled to make his investi- gations. and more successfully combat the danger, whether in dense smoke or fierce flame. The new costume has been adopted by all the fire brigades in Berlin, and by those of other continental cities, and has also been provided for all the vessels of the German navy. ECONOMY or TIME.—-In no department of human industry is the value of time more clearly recog- nized than in the modern fire department. The fraction of a minute saved in the first attack upon afire often means the saving of hundreds of thou- sands of dollars, while not infrequently a human life may depend upon the celerity with which the brave firemen reach the scene of a conflagration with their ladders, life-lines, nets, and other life-sav- ing appliances. Every agency known to science for economizing time is utilized. The alarm is sounded by electricity (q. r.). The same current of elec- tricity which sounds the note of warning in the engine-house releases the fastening of the horses in their stalls. These sagacious animals, thoroughly trained in the performance of their duties, instant-. ly spring to their places in front of the en ine. The harness, suspended from hooks overhead, rope FIRE DEPARTMENT upon their backs, where it is quickly fastened with clasps, the doors of the engine-house fly open, and the horses dash into the street and away to the locality from whence came the alarm—barely eight seconds having elapsed between the sounding of the alarm and the exit of the engine from the engine-house. The sitting-room of the firemen is on the second floor, directly over the engine. Stairs which are provided as a means of reaching this room from below, require too much time to descend; hence large holes are made in the floor, in the center of each of which is a brass rod, reaching to the main floor, down which the firemen slide in order to save an extra second or two of time. The fireman who should use the stairway, descending it as 683 quickly as he might, would find, when he reached the ground floor, that the horses were harnessed, the fires lighted, and the engine half a block away. In order to make steam quickly, the water in the boiler of the engine is kept hot at all times, a stationary boiler in the engine-house keeping the water at a proper temperature when the engine is “ at rest.” One of the important adjuncts of the fire depart- ment of a great city is a school for horses, where these animals undergo a thorough and systematic course of education. After months of patient training only the more intelligent and sagacious horses are assigned to active duty, it being im- possible to educate a large percentage of the . _' 3,\\_-I; 1 -1‘ S\ "’\ :._:; -.:-‘~:'L->y—-‘r’-*3‘ . r *-..».--'-e \ _;l HOSE CARRIAGE. animals to the requirements of a well-ordered fire department. FIRE EXTINGUISHERS.-—Of these there is a large variety, each with its advocates. As the apparatus occupies but little space, is extremely portable, and can be made available at a moment’s warning, these extinguishers have been extensively intro- duced for the purpose of subduing small fires, and thereby preventing larger ones. Ordinarily the water is charged with carbonic acid, but other substances are also used. The fire extinguisher, commonly so termed, is a metal cylinder with a capacity of about a quarter of abarrel. Straps are fastened on either side for the insertion of the arms. It is carried on the back, the straps passing over the shoulders and under the arms. A short hose is attached, with a nozzle throwing a small stream. In some varieties, there are two vessels, one con- taining a bicarbonate, the other a strong acid, sometimes oil of vitriol. These are contained Within a larger cylinder containing water. \Vhen wanted for use the contents of the two smaller vessels are thrown into the water, carbonic acid gas is set free, and is absorbed by or dissolved in the water, and the whole is immediately ready for use. In some machines other agencies are used. By opening a suitable valve in the hose or outlet, the confined gas forces out the liquid in a strong jet while yet heavily charged with carbonic acid gas, 684 Which being non-combustible materially assists the action of the water as an extinguisher. Another, the “Babcock,” has its cylinder filled with a solution of bicarbonate of soda, with a vessel of acid suspended in its upper part. This smaller vessel has a stopper, which, being with- drawn, causes the vessel to tilt over, and the escap- ing acid min ling with the solution discharges the carbonic aci. under heavy pressure. _ _ The transition from the small extinguisher to one large enough to necessitate carriage by wheels and drawn by horses, was easy and natural. In FIRE DEPARTMENT order to provide against the contingency of ex- haustion of a cylinder and the apparatus becom- ing thereby temporarily worthless, as at large fires, an additional cylinder was added, so that while one is in use the other may be resupplied with the necessary chemicals. Grenades or bombs are small glass spheres readily fitted to convenient places in halls, rooms, offices, etc., and are intended to be thrown by hand against the portions of the structure on fire, thus breaking the glass and liberating the contents for extinguishing the flames. 11/‘ _‘7‘-_‘ -__ .._ I _"' ,"a\ ‘ f 1. 1\|‘u““ ‘- ‘ 1 L Y’-1‘-lnmnh &.o:*» .. Hf. F;iy“,'. . -‘ wen‘.-.~'~§','.'1-J. -' ‘D16 .- I ' 7-’-\s.?:i" Wu-' /‘~:e~"=..i.\r,,=".,. ~.~»./A -P _‘ ,.,._er_./_._'_== =1-D’ ‘_."~.'~\‘:-— I . ."~- I‘ A \ ,3 *2 ii I" l -~.+'.'~ ., I ‘ I - l E _ ' . ; . - 5 I ‘ . I , . I 2 _ J \ - -— '-— -- ~. -___. ‘I. _l I . n,'b~f"--r~0_'‘ I . - . f ... - ‘ .‘ '_I . . .- . I . ~ \I.\_ -_- I _\ . '71 I ,1,’ VX.~‘= \ s ' fir‘ \ Q. / ' '\ __ _. , \'.';_~/‘A 4' . \. H_,<\_ ~_ I I \ i’ ' I ; -1-, I : ' X3‘ 1 _ - -—u w . -I‘-1* -:~Y‘~;?=-'--‘ '- . - I’ " , ‘,_' , Jiél-1* ‘'3' K" ' Rd‘! ;"-;;‘- ' -— _;-.‘ .1-___‘--—* CHEMICAL FIRE ENGINE. S'roRY or A FIRE.-It is of record that within a very few months of this writing afire occurred in the basement floor ofafurniture factory where the building was filled with well-seasoned lumber in small pieces, and with furniture in various stages of completion. The floors were littered with shav- ings and wood dust. Oil and varnish, with other inflammable material, were in abundance. A bus- iness man, on his way home at seven o’clock in the evening, discovered smoke issuing from a side-walk rating. He notified a policeman on the corner. T e policeman hurried to the building, , then ran to a red box fixed on a red lamp post, twisted the handle, ave the inside hook a pull, then went and stoog by the nearest hydrant in order that the driver of the coming engine might see the more readily where to reign up his team. He scarcely had taken his place when the heav rattling of wheels over the stony pavement indi- cated the coming at terrific speed of a two or three horse team. A roll of smoke above and trail- mg coals below showed a steamer rolling on as fast as eager horseflesh could run. A tender with a reel of hose was close behind. From an- FIRE-HOLE RIVER—FISCHER other street dashed up a truck piled high with ladders. Other engines were also coming from other directions. Chemical apparatus dashed into the midst. A water pipe mounted on wheels took its place directly in front of the building. In three minutes the adjustments had been made, and a dozen 5- and 6-inch streams of water were being hurled with a force that tore the walls down. So rapidly had the flames spread that the building was a monster furnace. Thirty-two minutes later, or thirty-five minutes from the ringing in of the first alarm, not a spark of fire was left. FIRE—-HOLE RIVER, or main fork of Madison River. It flows from Madison Lake northwest through Fire-hole Basin, one of the most remark- able regions of the National Park, in the State of Wyomin . FIRE %SLAND, a small island in Great South Bay, L. I., belonging to Suffolk county, N. Y. It is a favorite summer resort. Fire Island Beach, 30 miles long, with a fine light-house, separates Great South Bay from the Atlantic. Here incoming European vessels are sighted and the news tele- graphed to New York city. , FIRELESS ENGINE, a successor to Dr. Emile Lamm’s ammoniacal gas engine. The ammonia engine was successfully used in propelling street- cars in New Orleans in 1871, but was superseded by the incidental discovery, by Dr. Lamm, of a con- venient method of using detached steam for the same purpose. The fireless engines, each towing one car, are charged with detached steam from stationary boilers, and run 5% miles in a half hour, working the pressure from 135 pounds to 60. They are very easily managed. The fireless engine now in use in New Orleans was patented in 187 . Similar locomotives are used in the suburbs of Paris, and at other points in France under the name of Lamm and Francq System. FIRELOCK, the name applied on its introduc- tion, in 1690, to the old musket which roduced fire by the concussion of flint and steel. riters of the early part of the 18th century called firelocks ’asnaphans, a word obviously corrupted from the Dutch snaphaan. The weapon was superseded about 1830 by the percussion musket, which, in its turn, has yielded to the rifle. FIRE—PROOFING, the treatment of combustible materials which renders them fire-proof. Attempts to render cotton, linen, and other textile fabrics, timber, etc., incombustible have to the present time been but partially successful. All that can be done to protect them is the prevention of con- flagration; no process yet known can prevent smouldering. The best protection of textile fabrics is saturation with various salts, such as leave their crystals in the substance of the fabric. The most eificient protection to wood is silicate of soda. If planks of moderate thickness be brushed over several times on each side with a strong solution they will burn only on being subjected to intense heat. The protection is owing to the fusion of the silicate, which forms a glass enveloping the sur- face, thus sealing it from the oxygen of the air. FIRE—SHIP, a vessel, usually an old one, filled with combustibles, sent in among the hostile squadron, and there fired, in the hope of destroy- ing some of the ships, or at least producing great confusion. FIRE—WEED, the popular name of several plants: the Erechtites hieracifolia of North Amer- ica, often four or five feet high, very troublesome in and around spots where brushwood has been burned; the Epilobium angustifolium or spioatum, commonly called the great willow-herb, a tall perennial, bearing a spike of showy rose-purple 685 flowers; the Erigeron Canadensis, or common horse- weed, a troublesome weed, native to the United States, but widely naturalized in other countries; and the Plantago media, the English hoary plan- tain, or lamb’s tongue, whose broad, low leaves stifle growing crops. FIRKIN, a measure of capacity, generally the fourth part of a barrel. It is also a small wooden cask or barrel, used chiefly for butter, suet, tallow, etc. FIRKOWITSCH, ABRAHAM, a Jewish archaeolo- gist, born at Lutzk, in the Crimea, Sept. 27, 1786, died at Tshufut-Kale, in the Crimea, June 7, 1874. He was a Karaite, and devoted himself to collect- ing manuscripts and works in support of the teach- ings of the Karaites. He published accounts of his work in Massa-u-Meriba (1838) and in Abne-Lilc- karon (1872). His large collection of manuscripts was purchased for the imperial library at St. Petersburg. FIRLOT, an old Scotch dry measure, of which there were four in a boll; though differing in value for different substances and places, its relation to the boll remained invariable. FIRMAMENT, a word formerly used to signify the vault of heaven. It was regarded as a solid crystal sphere to which the stars were fixed, and which was constantly revolving, carrying them with it. In the progress of astronomical ob- servation it was found that many of the heavenly bodies had independent motions, inconsistent with the notion of their being fixed to one sphere or fir- mament. Then the number of crystalline spheres was increased, each body that was independent of the rest having one assigned to it. This intro- duced a complex system, fully understood only by the philosophers who formed the theory. FIRMAN, a word of Persian origin, signifying an order, and used by the Turks to denote any ofiicial decree emanating from the Ottoman Porte. The right of signing any firman relating to affairs con- nected with his special department is exercised by every minister and member of the divan; but the office of placing at the head of the firman the tho- grai, a cipher which contains the name of the sul- tan in interlaced letters, and which alone gives effect to the decree, is committed to the hands of a special minister who is called nichorzdji-ef;”endi. A written permission to trade is called in India a firman. FIRST—BORN (Heb., bekor; Gr., prototokos; Lat., primogenitus) : in Scriptural use, the first male Off- spring,whether of man or of other animals, due to the Creator, by the Mosaic law, as a recognition of his supreme dominion. The first-born male child being devoted from the time of birth to God, was to be re- deemed within one month after birth by an offer- ing not exceeding in value five sheckels of silver (Exod. xiii, 13). The headship of the family was vested in the first-born son by the Mosaic law, and he had a double portion of the inheritance. FIRST-FRUITS, that portion of the fruits of the earth which, by the use of the Jews and other ancient nations, was offered to God as an acknowl- edgment of His supreme dominion, and as a thanksgiving for his bounty. FIRVVOOL, a fibrous substance prepared to some extent from the leaves of various species of the genera Pinus and Abies, and made into cloth which is believed to be useful in the treatment of skin diseases. Fir-wool extract and fir-wool oil are prepared from leaves of the same species of fir. FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD, a German philosopher, born in the Silesian village of Sande- walde, July 23, 1824, and educated at Posen, Leip- sic, and Halle, taking his degree of Ph. D. at the latter place in 1847. In 1850 he established him- 686 self as a privatdocent of philosophy atHeidelberg, where he became exceedingly popular. Suddenly, however, in 1853, presumably because of private charges of pantheism made against the first vol- ume of his History of Modern Philosophy, the Baden government, without explanation, deprived him of his position. In 1856 he received a call to the chair of philosophy at Jena, where he remained until 1872, in which year, Zeller having succeeded Trendelenburg at Berlin, he obtained Zeller’s post at Heidelberg. Fischer’s chief work is his great history of modern philosophy, Gesehichte der Neuern Philosophie (1852-77). His other great philosoph- ical achievement is his System der Logih und Meta- physik (1852; new ed., 1865). Of his smaller works the most noteworthy is a Critique of Kant, which, like Descartes and His School, has been translated into English. FISH. See Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 630-695. FISH COMMISSION, a bureau of the United States government, which was established in 1871, for the purpose of promoting the fishing industries of the country by the propagation and distribution of useful fishes and by investi ations with regard to their habits, fitness for foo , etc. The Commis- sion is carefully subdivided and has experts to take charge of the many different subjects sub- mitted to them and make painstaking scientific research the basis of all practical work. Their efforts are greatly aided by State fish commissions which are established throughout the country. FISH CULTURE. See Britannica, PISCICULTURE, Vol. XIX, pp. 126-129; also in these Revisions and Additions. FISHERIES QUESTION, THE. Before the war of 1812 complaints had been made by British fish- ermen that the best places for drying and curin fish on the Canada coasts were occupied by United States fishermen, who were protected by the treaty of 1783. Article III of that treaty stipu- lated that fishermen of the United States should have the “ right” to fish on the banks of Newfound- land and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the “liberty” to take fish on all the coasts of British North America; also they were “to have the lib- erty to dry and cure fish in any of the unsettled bays, harbors and creeks of Nova Scotia, Magdalen Islands and Labrador.” This treaty, the British government maintained, had been abrogated by the war of 1812; while the United States regarded it as a convention of separation dividing between the two countries property formerly held by them in common, to which their claim was at least equally strong, as the fisheries had been wrested from France and developed mainly by the colonists. The British government also contended that while the treaty of 1783 recognized the “right” to fish on the high seas it granted Americans onl the “lib- erty” to fish on the coasts, and to dry an cure their fish in British waters. In 1818 a treaty was negoti- ated by which the United States “renounced for- ever” the liberty “to take, dry, or cure fish on or Within three marine miles of” certain “coasts, bays, creeks, or harbors,” while in other designated places they should enjoy that “liberty” “forever.” The term “renounce” was insisted upon by the American negotiators, Albert Gallatin and Richard Rush, for three reasons: “To exclude the implica- tion of the fisheries secured to us being a new grant; to place the rights secured and renounced on the same footing of permanence; that it might expressly appear that our renunciation was limited to three miles from the coast.” It was also pro- vided, with regard to the bays and harbors re- nounced, that “American fishermen shall be ad- mitted to enter such bays or harbors for the FISH-—FISHERIES QUESTION purpose of shelter, and of repairing damages therein, of purchasing wood and of obtaining water, and for no other purpose whatever. But they shall be under such restrictions as shall be necessary to prevent their taking, drying, or curing fish therein, or in any other manner abusing the privileges hereby reserved to them.” Even this. treaty, however, did not prevent trouble, and fish- ing vessels were frequently seized, and some were condemned, for infringing the three-mile limit. The Nova Scotians held that this three-mile mea- sure should be taken from headland to headland and that American fishing vessels should not enter bays or harbors unless in actual distress. The- “hovering act” was passed by the Nova Scotia legislature in 1836, and since by the Dominion of Canada, which forbade foreign vessels to linger within three marine miles of the coast; and strained relations existed between the nations until 1854, when a reciprocity treaty was conclud- ed with the Dominion, under which peace and security came to the American fishermen, and the inshore fisheries were again thrown open to them. This treaty terminated in 1866, and a satisfactory system of licensing American fishing vessels was then instituted by the Canadian government. In 1870, however, foreign fishermen were again excluded from Canadian waters, and immediately the old controversies as to headlands and trespass- were renewed, until the treaty of Washington, concluded in 1871, provided in its fishery clauses for a free market in the United States for Canadian fish and for free fishing in Canadian waters for- United States fishermen, and amicable relations were once more restored. Salmon and shad fish- eries, and all other in the mouths of rivers, were reserved for British subjects, and certain “places. reserved from the common right of fishing ” in the treaty of 1854 were excepted from the operation of the treaty of Washington, and a commission was appointed to decide what, if any, compensation should be made to the Canadians for the privileges secured by the treaty to the American fishermen. This commission sat at Halifax in 1877, and decided that the advantages to the United States were of greater value than those conceded to the Cana- dians, and the sum of $5,500,000 was awarded to- the British government. This treaty of Washington was terminable after- eleven years by either party giving two years’ notice, and such notice was given in 1883 by the United States Government, in accordance with a. resolution to that effect adopted by Congress. A modus oioendi was negotiated between the British minister and Secretary Bayard, by which the in- shore fishing privileges were continued to the American fishermen until the end of the season of 1885, in consideration of the President’s suggesting in his message to Congress the creation of a com- mission “to consider the general question of our rights in the fisheries and the means of opening up to our citizens, under just and endurmg conditions, the richly stocked fishing waters and sealing grounds of British North America.” The terms. used were thought to point toward the adoption of reciprocity; and Mr. Maybury, of Michigan, intro- duced a proposal in the House of Representatives. requesting that the President open negotiations for a renewal of the treaty of 1854, but no action was taken. The President’s recommendation was rejected by the Senate, on the ground that the treaty of 1818 was all that was required. But dis- putes were constantly arising as to the construc- tion of the terms of this treaty. Canada claimed under it that any American fishing vessel found in Canadian waters for any purpose but repairs, shel- FISH—FISSIROSTRES ter, food or water was forfeited. This claim was denied by the United States, and a considerable party there were in favor of retaliation for annoy- ances caused by this view of the treaty. A “ re- sponsive” measure was suggested, authorizing the President at his discretion to close our ports to Canadian vessels, and prohibit the importation of Canadian merchandise. Eventually a conference was arranged, to be held at Washington, at which all vexed questions should be discussed, and if possible some amicable and lasting conclusion arrived at with regard to outlines and boundaries, modes of preventing unjust seizure and detention of vessels, the question of obtaining bait and supplies, and also the question of payment of damages re- sulting from wrongful acts of ofiicials. The mem- bers of this conference were Sir Charles Tupper, Canadian plenipotentiary, the Right Honorable Joseph Chamberlain, M. P., British commissioner, and Sir Lionel West, representing British views, and with Secretary Bayard, Messrs. William L. Putnam, of Maine, and President James B. Angell, of Michigan University, were associated to guard American interests. The conference was opened in Washington in November, 1887, and on February 15, 1888, a treaty was signed, subject to ratification or rejection by the United States Senate within two years. It was rejected by that body on Aug. 21, 1888. For an account of the Bering Sea fisheries ques- tion, see SEALS AND SEAL FISHERIES, in these Revi- sions and Additions. FISH: in naval terms, an apparatus of pulleys employed in dragging the flukes of the anchor towards the bow after it has been hoisted to the cat-head. Fish-front is a long piece of oak, or fir, convex without, concave within, securely fastened on the injured portion of a sprung mast or yard, to which it imparts rigidity. FISH CULTURE. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 126. FISHERMAN’S RING (Annulus piscatorius), a seal-ring bearing the device of St. Peter fishing, and worn by the popes as St. Peter’s successors. It has been employed since the 13th century, and is used to seal certain briefs. The origin of the custom is not known. FISH-HAWK. See OSPREY, Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 56. FISH, HAMILTON, an American statesman, born in 1808. He was admitted to the bar in 1830, and for several years was a commissioner of deeds. In 1842 he was chosen a representative in Con- gress. In 1847 he was elected lieutenan t-governor of New York, and in 1848 beca1ne governor. In 1851 he was chosen United States Senator, and in 1869 was appointed Secretary of State by President Grant. In 1873 he was reappointed, serving through Grant’s administration. FISH, NICHOLAS (1758-1833), an American soldier. In 1776 became aid-de-camp to Gen. Scott; the same year major of brigade, and then major of the 2d New York regiment. At the close of the war he was a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1786 be- came adjutant-general of New York State, hold- ing the ofiice for many years. In 1794 he was supervisor of revenue under Washington, and in 1806-17 was a New York alderman. FISHER, Gnonen JACKSON,&I1 American physi- cian, born in 1825. He began practice in 1849, and in 1853-54 was physician and surgeon to the New York State-prison at Sing Sing. For twenty years he was United States examining surgeon, and in 1874 was president of the State Medical Society. He wrote many works on anatomy, surgery, and medicine. 687 FISHER, GEORGE PARK, an Amencan theolo- gian, born in 1827. He studied theology in the United States and Germany, was called to the pro- fessorship of divinity in Yale, and from 1854 to 1861 was pastor of the college church. In the latter year he was chosen professor of ecclesiastical history in Yale Divinity School. In 1866 he be- came one of the editors of the “New Englander.” He is the author of numerous works on ecclesias- tical topics. FISHES, ROYAL. The sturgeon or whale, when thrown on the shore or caught near the coast, are, in British law, the property of the crown. See Bri- tannica, Vol. IX, p. 268. FISH—LOUSE, a name applied to any of the Copepod crustaceans which occur as external parasites both on fresh-water and marine fishes. Some have also been found on amphibians. To the zoiilogist they have a special interest on account of the degeneration which they often exhibit, when contrasted with their free-living relatives, or even with their own young stages. FISK, or Frso, a term found in Scottish law books. It is derived from the Latin fiscus; liter- ally, awicker basket, which came ultimately to signify the private purse of the emperor, and dis- tinguished from the public treasury, which was called serarium. In Scotland it usually signifies the crown’s revenues, to which the movable estate of a person denounced a rebel was formerly for- feited. FISK, CLINTON BOWEN, an American general, born at York, N. Y., in 1828, died in 1890. In 1830 he was taken to Michigan, where his father founded the town of Clinton. He was educated at Albion and Ann Arbor, and afterwards settled in business at Coldwater. He entered the army in 1861, and rose rapidly to the rank of brevet major- general. After the war he was a commissioner the Freedman’s Bureau, and founder of Fisk University. From 1874 until his death he was president of the Indian Commission. He was prominently connected with many educational and religious institutions. In 1888 he was the can- didate of the Prohibition party for President of the United States. FISK. \VILBUR (1792-1839), an American clergy- man and educator. He was licensed to preach in the Methodist Episcopal church in 1818; in 1822 was ordained deacon, and from 1823 to 1827 was presiding elder of that part of Vermont east of the Green Mountains. In 1826 he was chaplain of the Vermont legislature, and from 1826 to 1881 was principal of the VVesleyan Academy in Wilbraham, Mass. In 1830 he was elected the first president of VVesleyan University. In 1886 he was in England and represented the M. E. church at the Wesleyan conference, and in 1839 he became a member of the board of education of Connecticut. His publi- cations are principally theological and educational works. FISKE, J OHN, an American author, born in 1842. In 1864 he was admitted to the Connecticut bar, but never practiced. From 1869 to 1871 he was lecturer on philosophy at Harvard; was instructor in history in 1870. and from 1872 to 1879 was assistant librarian. In 1879, and again in 1885, he was chosen a member of the board of overseers. Since 1884 he has been professor of history 111 lVashington University, St. Louis, Mo. His works are principally on history, and on the doctrine of evolution. FISSIROSTRES, one of the classes of birds into which the great order Insessorcs is divided. It is characterized by peculiar width of gape, and the bill is depressed or horizontally flattened, short, 688 and often furnished with strong bristles at the angles. The birds of this tribe are insectivorous, and generally subsist by catching insects on the wing, to which their structure of bill is beautifully adapted. Their powers of flight are generally great, but their legs are short and weak. Swallows, goat- suckers, etc., are examples of this order. FISTULINA, a genus of fungi, allied to Boletus, common on old oak and various other trees. Its color is red, its substance fibrous and fleshy, much resembling beet-root. This fungus is much es- teemed in some parts of Europe and America, as an esculent; it is wholesome and nutritious. FITCH, Asn (1809-1879), an American nat- uralist. For a time he practiced medicine, but from 1838 devoted himself entirely to scientific agriculture and the study of natural history. In 1854 he was made New York State entomologist. ~ FITCHBURG, a city of Massachusetts, and county-seat of I/Vorcester county (see Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 270). The growth of the city during the last decade has been considerable. Awell-equipped fire department has been established, with 60 tel- egraphic fire-alarm stations. There were in 1890 12 churches and 24 school buildings, the latter being valued at $275,000. A public library and art gallery building, costing $90,000, has been donated to the city by one of its public spirited citizens, and another has given $450,000 for the establish- ment and endowment of a public hospital. The library contains 22,310 volumes. Manufacturing is -carried on extensively, the principal establishments being paper mills, machine shops, iron foundries, saw factories, cotton, woolen, and flour mills, shoe factories, wood-turning establishments, and shirt factories. Population in 1880, 12,429; in 1890, 22,- 037. FITCHY. Crosses are said to be fitchy in her- aldry when the lower branch ends in a sharp point. Crosses are supposed to have been so sharpened to enable the primitive Christians to stick them into the ground for devotional purposes. FITZ, an old Norman word signifying “ son,” like the Scotch Mac, the Irish 0’, and the Oriental Ben. It is prefixed to proper names to signify descent; as in the Norman names Fitzwilliam. Fitzwalter, etc. A later application of it has been to denote the natural sons of royalty, as in Fitzroy, Fitz- james, etc. The Russian termination witch is a dis- guised form of the same word. FIVE FORKS, a locality in Dinwiddie county, Va., where an important battle was fought April 1, 1865, between Confederate troops and the army under Gen. Sheridan. The Union forces were vic- torious. FIVE ISLANDS, a village of Colchester county, N. S., on the Basin of Minas. It possesses much xnineral wealth ; a remarkable cataract 90 feet high; manufactures baryta paint, and builds ships. FIVE POINTS, a locality in New York city, which, up to 1850, was considered the most morally corrupt place in America. Rev. Lewis M. Pease in that year was the first missionary to effect visible reform in the neighborhood, and through his ef- forts, seconded by other philanthropic people, the locality was reclaimed. A mission and a house of industry were organized, and through the work of these institutions the poor and degraded are helped to employment and respectability. FIXED BODIES, a term applied in chemistry to those substances which remain fixed, and are not Volatilized at moderately high temperatures. FLACOURTIACEZE, a natural order of exogen- ous plants, allied to Passion Flowers, and con- sisting of shrubs and small trees, almost exclu- sively confined to the tropical regions. Many of FISTULINA-FLAGG the species produce pleasant, sweet, or subacid fruits. Arnotto is produced by a tree of this order. FLAG, THE AMERICAN. Prior to the separation of the American colonies from England, the flags used were generally those of the mother country; but in 1774 Captain Markoe, of the Philadelphia ' Light Horse, used a flag with a canton of 13 stripes. In the latter part of 1775 Dr. Franklin and Messrs. Lynch and Harrison were appointed to consider the subject of a National flag. The result of this conference was a flag like that of the East India Company and the Sandwich Islands—the King’s colors or Union Jack, representing the yet recog- nized sovereignty of England, with a field of 13 stripes, alternate red and white, emblematic of the union of the 13 colonies. The new flag was hoisted for the first time, Jan. 2, 1776, over the camp at Cambridge. When Independence was determined on, the British Jack was dropped, and thirteen stars substituted, representing a new constellation. Nothing further of importance was done on the question of a National flag until April 4, 1817, when Congress enacted: (1) That from and after the 4th of July, 1818, the flag of the United States be 13 horizontal stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be 20 stars, white in ablue field. (2) That on the admission of every new State in the Union, one star be added to the union of the fiag; and that such addition shall take effect on the 4th day of July then next succeeding such admission. The first flag unfurled under the new law was hoisted over the United States House of Repre- sentatives, April 14, 1818. The law of 1817 remains unchanged to the present day, and hence the national flag is now composed of 13 horizontal stripes, alternate red and white, and a cluster of 44 white stars on a blue background. FLAG, a genus of plants. See Britannica,Vol. IX, pp. 279-80. FLAG-CAPTAIN, in the navy, the captain of the admiral’s ship in any squadron, and ordinarily his nominee. FLAG-LIEUTENANT, an ofiicer who, in the navy, performs such duties for an admiral as would devolve upon an aid-de-camp in the army. He communicates the admiral’s orders to the various ships, either personally or by signal. FLAGEOLET-TONES, a name given to the har- monic notes of the violin, violoncello, and other stringed instruments, which notes are produced by the finger lightly touching the string on the exact part which generates the harmony. The string vibrates on both sides of the finger, the long side dividing itself into parts of the same length as the short side. FLAGET, Bnnnnrcr Josnrn (1763—1850), a French- American R. C. bishop. He was ordained priest in 1788, and in 1792 came to the United States. He was at once sent as chaplain to Vincennes, Ind., then a military post in the Northwest. From 1795 to 1798 he was a professor at Georgetown College, and for the next three years was in Havana as a tutor to the sons of a wealthy Cuban. From 1801 to 1808 he was engaged in duties at Georgetown College and in missionary labors, and in the latter year was appointed bishop of Bardstown, Ky. During his life he erected numerous colleges and convents, some of which were built at his own ex- ense. P FLAGG, GEORGE WHITING, an American artist, born in 1816. He studied in the United States, then spent several years in Europe, and subse- quently settled in New York city. His productions comprise historical and genre pictures, and some portraits, all of which ave been favorably re- celve . FLAGG——FLAGS I FLAGG, JARED BEADLEY, an American artist, brother of George Whiting Flagg, born in 1820. He Settled in New York city, and pursued the study 'S.—A national standard is usually the result of circumstances or the embodi- ment of ideas that arouse the enthusiasm of those to whom it belongs, so that they will perform deeds of valor, imperiling life itself in its defense and in defense of the principles it represents. This has been shown in the history of nearly every country and every people in the world, but not every one can sympathize with the fanaticism said to be ex- cited by the exhibition of the standard of Mos- lemism, the “flag of the prophet,” to his followers when it is thought they require such excitement at the beginning of or during a war. lVith the progress of improvements in the art of war, and in making weapons and ornaments, the extension of civilization, and the tendency to settle interna- tional diificulties by arbitration before instead of after hostilities, the use of flags as war signals bids fair soon to become matter of history. Still this has been one of their chief uses in the past, and is one of the causes of the veneration or dislike, as the case may be, with which they are regarded. The heraldic devices borne on some of them, gro- tesque as they seem at the first glance, convey a history of triumph to some and to others a record of defeat and subjugation. In other cases the combination of armorial bearings shows where amicable alliances have been made, while others bear no device, as that of Morocco, which is a plain red flag; and “the flag of the prophet,” to which allusion has been made, is black, and was originally the curtain of a tent. One of the most striking of national ensigns is the British, on which the arms of England, Scotland, and Ireland are quartered. On the flags of those countries where Mohammedanism prevails, a crescent is displayed, as those of Christian nations show a cross. The national flag of Mexico shows an eagle with a snake in his beak. The national emblem of China, the dragon, is shown blue on a yellow flag. Flags of this nation vary according to fancy, but always have fringed or scolloped edges. The lion appears on the Persian standard, in front of the rising sun; the elephant on that of Siam, and eagles, armed and unarmed, double and single-headed, crowned and uncrowned. with globes and crosses and other insignia inherited from past ages, appear on those of Russia and Germany. Such ensigns fly over the residences, temporary or permanent. of reign- ing sovereigns or of members of the royal families, afloat or ashore. Changes in governments, if radical, cause changes in the national emblems, the bees having disappeared from the French as the Bourbons from French politics, and the keys of St. Peter from the Italian with the unification of Italy, and the 690 disappearance from the political map of the States of the church. I11 our own flag it is provided by law that an additional star be added for each State admitted to the Union—the number of stripes remaining unchanged to show from what it has grown. In the years 1889-90 six States were admitted, making 44 the number of stars required in the national flag of the United States. SIGNAL-SERVICE FLAes.—The meteorological de- partment of the signal service has a suit of flags for each of its three divisions: cautionary, storm, and weather signals. These are displayed at necessary or appropriate stations on the sea-board or in the agricultural districts, and form avery useful and popular branch of the service. A Weather Bureau was created in the Department of Agriculture by act of Congress in 1890, and the meteorological duties formerly devolving upon the United States Signal Service were transferred to it in 1891 from the War Department, of which it had since its adoption in 1870 been an adjunct. FLAG-SHIP, the ship in a fleet which bears the admiral’s flag, and therefore forms a sort of center to which all other vessels must look for or- ders. It is usually the largest vessel in the fleet. FLAGSTONE, a rock which splits into tabular masses, or flags of various size and thickness, in the original planes of stratiflcation. Flagstones are generally sandstones combined with more or less argillaceous or calcareous matter; some, how- ever, are indurated clays, and others thin-bedded limestone. FLAMBOROUGH HEAD, a promontory of the Yorkshire coast, forming the northern boundary of Bridlington Bay. It terminates a range of white perpendicular chalk cliffs 6 miles long, containing fossil sponges, crinoids, etc. On the head is a light-house 214 ft. high. FLAMIN GO. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 286. FLAMINIAN VVAY (Via Flaminia), the great northern road of ancient Italy, leading from Rome to Ariminum (Rimini) on the Adriatic. It was con- structed by C. Flaminius during his censorship (220 B. (3.), in order to secure a free communication with the recently conquered Gaulish territory. When Augustus (27 B. o.) appointed persons of consular dignity road-surveyors for the other highways of his dominions he reserved the care of the Flaminian Way for himself, and renewed it throughout its whole length. FLAMMARION, CAMILLE,a French astronomer, born at Montigny-le-Roi, Feb. 25, 1842; entered the Paris Observatory in 1858, and became a popular lecturer on astronomy. Retiring in 1865, he de- voted himself to the popularization of science in periodicals and ‘books. His principal publications are: The Plurality of Inhabited Worlds (1862; 30th ed. 1884); Imaginary Worlds and Real Worlds (1864; 19th ed. 1884); God in Nature (1866; 18th ed. 1882); Celestial Marvels (1865); Studies and Lectures on Astronomy (1866-81; 9 vols.); History of the Heavens (1872); The Atmosphere (1872); The tars and the Curiosities of the Heavens (1881); and The Lands of the Heavens (8th ed. 1882). Flammarion made many balloon ascensions for the study of aérial phenomena, and published a work entitled Travels in the Air (Eng. translation, 1871). FLANCHES: in heraldry, arched lines drawn from the upper angles of the escutcheon to the base points. The arches of the flanches almost meet in the center of the shield. FLANDERS, HENRY, an American lawyer, born in 1826. He studied law with his father, Charles Flanders, and in 1850 settled in'Philadelphia, where he has since resided. He is the author of several well-known treatises on various kinds of law. FLAG-SHIP--FLEMINGTON FLANGE, a rim or projection upon a tube or cylinder of metal or other material, to serve as a bearing or afford means of fixing it; for example, the projecting rim on the tires of the wheels of railway-cars is called a flange. FLAT, a musical character, which, when placed before a note, lowers that note half a tone. When placed at the beginning of a piece of music it denotes that all the notes on the line or space on which it is placed, with their octaves above and below, are to be played flat. FLATHEADS. See INDIANs, AMERIcAN, in these Revisions and Additions. FLATTERY, CAPE, a promontory on the east coast of Australia, in latitude 140 52’ south, and longitude 1540 20' east. It is about thirty miles to the north of Endeavor Bay. FLAVO—PURPURINE, a coal-tar color, very im- portant as a dyestufi for cotton. It is used in the manufacture of artificial alizarin. FLAX. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 293. FLEA. See Britannica, Vol.IX, p. 300. FLEABANE, a genus of plants of the natural order Compositw, sub-order Corymbiferee, having hemispherical imbricated involucres and yellow flowers, the whole plant emitting a peculiar aro- matic smell, sometimes compared to that of soap, which is said to be efficacious in driving away fleas. It has considerable reputation for medicinal purposes. FLEAWORT, the Plantago Psyllium, a kind of plantain of Europe and Barbary. The seeds, Semen psyllii, are mucilaginous, and are sometimes used for the same purposes as flax-seed. FLECHE, LA, a town of France, in the department of Sarthe, on the Loire. On an island in the Loire, which separates the town from its suburbs, are the remains of an ancient castle. It has manu- factories of leather, paper, gloves, linen and ho- siery. Population, 7,468. FLEET, a collection of ships, whether of war or of commerce, for one object or for one destination. The diminutives of fleet are division and squad- ron. FLEET-MARRIAGE, a clandestine marriage performed at the Fleet Prison. The first notice of a fleet-marriage is in 1613, and the first entry in a register is in 1674. During the time that this iniquitous traffic was at its height every species of enormity was practiced. Young ladies were compelled to marry against their will, young men were decoyed into a union with the most infamous characters, and persons in shoals were united in bonds which they had no intention should bind them. At length the nuisance having become intol- erable, an act was passed by Parliament in 1753 which struck at the root of the matter by declaring that all marriages, except in Scotland, solemnized otherwise than in a church or public chapel, where banns have been published, unless by special license, should be utterly void. FLEET PRISON, a celebrated London jail, which was the king’s prison as far back as the 12th cen- tury. In the 16th century it acquired a high his- torical interest as the prison of the religious mar- tyrs of the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth. The vic- tims of the Star Chamber were also confined here in the reign of Charles I, and numbers of Puri- tans in that of his son. The buildings were demol- ished in 1845-46, and part of the site is now occu- pied by the Congregational Memorial Hall. FLEMINGSBURG, the county-seat of Fleming county, Ky. It has a colle e, distilleries, Masonic and Odd Fellows’ Hall, an an artesian well. FLEMINGTON, a railroad junction of New Jer- sey, and county-seat of Hunterdon county, situated 1 FLEMINGTON—FLOATING WAREHOUSES in a rich agricultural district 50 miles southwest of New York city. FLEMINGTON, a village of Taylor county, in the northeastern part of West Virginia. Here is the West Virginia College (Free-will Baptist). FLESH—FLY (Musca uomitoria), an insect of the same genus as the house-fly, which it much exceeds in size. The forehead is rust colored, the thorax grayish, the abdomen blue with three black bands; the expanse of wings nearly one inch. It deposits its eggs on flesh; the maggots are of very frequent occurrence on meat in summer, notwithstanding -all care that can be taken. There are several allied species. FLETCHER, ALFRED, an English journalist, born at Long Sutton in 1841, and educated at Man- chester and Edinburgh. He edited the “ Cyclopaedia of Education,” and has been connected as corre- spondent with several prominent periodicals. In 1878 he joined the staff of the London “Daily Chronicle,” and in 1890 became its editor. FLETA, the title of an early treatise on the law of England, presumably written about 1290 by a judge who was confined in the Fleet Prison. FLETCHER, JOHN, originally De la Fléchiere, born at Nyon, Switzerland, Sept. 12, 1729, died Aug. 14, 1785. He was educated at the University of Geneva, and at the age of 23 went to London to perfect his kfiowledge of the English language. He was ordained a minister of the Established Church in 1757, and became an able coadjutor of the Wesleys. In 1760 he settled as vicar of Made- ley, and in 1771 the Countess of Huntington ap- pointed him president of her theological school at Trevecca, Wales. The latter position Mr. Fletcher resigned upon being required to disavow Wesley’s views, and published his well-known Checks to Anti- nomianism. After three years spent in Switzer- land in pursuit of health, he returned to England and devoted himself to his work until his death. He was one of the founders of Methodism, and a man of great industry and piety. His writings are published in this country in four volumes. FLEURUS, a small town of Belgium in the prov- ince of Hainault, situated north of the left bank of the Sambre, and 15 miles west of Namur. It has been the scene of several contests. Population, 2,300. FLEURY, FLOWRY, FLEURETTE, ETC., in heraldry, signifies that the object is adorned with fleurs-de-lis. A cross-fleury, for example, is a cross whose ends are in the form of fleurs-de-lis. FLEURY, EMILE FELIX, a French general, born in Paris, Dec. 23, 1815, died Dec. 12, 1884. He was educated at the College Rollin, entered the army in 1837, served in eleven campaigns in Algeria, and by his gallantry obtained rapid promotion. Re- turning to France in 1848, he served the Bonapart- ist cause, became an officer of the Legion of Honor in 1849 and grand officer in 1859, and was sum- moned to the French Senate in 1865. In 1866 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to Italy, and in 1869 became ambassador at St. Petersburg. On the downfall of Napoleon III in 1870, he retired to Switzerland. He was placed on the retired list of the army in 1879. FLEXURE, or FLEXION, the bending or curving of a line or figure. A curve is said to have a point of contrary flexure at the point where it changes its character of concavity or convexity towards a given line. FLINDERSIA, a genus of trees of the natural order Cedrelaceae, an Australian species. Yields timber which is little inferior to mahogany. FLINT, a city of Michigan, and county-seat of Genesee county, 60 miles northwest of Detroit. It 691 has a State institution for the deaf, dumb and blind, and several steam saw mills where 50,000,- 000 feet of lumber are sawed annually. FLINT, Aus'rIN (1812-86), an American physician. His professional career began in 1833; he practiced in Boston, Mass., and then in Buffalo, N. Y. In 1844-45 he was a professor at the Rush Medical College in Chicago, Ill., and from 1847, for six years, in the Buffalo Medical College. From 1852 to 1856 he was a professor in the Louisville Univer- sity; in 1856 in the Buffalo Medical College; in 1858 in the New Orleans School of Medicine; in 1861 in the Long Island College Hospital, and from 1868 until his death was professor of the principles and practice of medicine in the Bellevue Hospital Medical College. He was consulting physician to various hospitals, and from 1872 to 1885 was presi- dent of the New York Academy of Medicine. He was a member of many medical and scientific bod- ies both in America and Europe, and was present at several important medical congresses as a delegate. His contributions to medical literature were nu- merous. FLINT, AUSTIN, an American physician, son of the preceding, born in 1836. He began to practice medicine in Buffalo in 1857, and in the following year became an attending surgeon in the Buffalo city hos- pital, and a professor in the Medical College. In 1859 he was chosen professor of physiology in the New York Medical College, and in 1860 to a similar chair in the New Orleans School of Medicine. In 1861 he became professor of physiology and micro- scopic anatomy in the Bellevue Hospital Medical College, and for eight years lectured in the Long Island College Hospital. In 1874 he became sur- geon-general of New York State. several works on physiological topics. FLINT RIVER, in Michigan, rises in Lapeer county, flows west and northwest and unites with the Shiawassee to form the Saginaw River. It is about 100 miles in length. FLINT RIVER rises in Clayton county, Ga., and flows by an irregular course to the southwest cor- ner of the State, where it unites with the Chattahoo- chee to form the Appalachicola River. It is about 300 miles in length, and is navigable by light- draught steamers as far as Albany, nearly 150 miles from its mouth. FLOATING-BATTERY, a hulk heavily armed and made as invulnerable as possible, formerly used in defending harbors, or in attacks on marine fortresses. Floating batteries are interesting as a1 sézage in the development of the modern iron- c a . FLOATING—ISLANDS, the formations caused either by the aggregation of driftwood in the creeks and bays of tropical rivers and the deposition there- on of soil and vegetable matter, or by the detach- ment of portions of a river-bank or lake-shore, on which the interlacing roots of plants constitute a foundation sufficiently stron to support soil whereon herbage, and occasiona ly even trees, are able to grow. Floating islands are sometimes seen 50 or 100 miles distant from the mouth of the large rivers of America, Asia, and Africa. FLOATING WAREHOUSES, places of storage constructed, chiefly in French ports, for the recep- tion of gunpowder, nitro-glycerine, petroleum, and other dangerous wares, and anchored where they are not liable to be fired and in case of explosion can do little damage to other property. Each ware- house consists essentially of 100 hollow iron cylin- ders, arranged in four rows of twenty-five each, firmly lashed or strapped together to form a kind of raft. Each cylin er, sixteen feet long by six or seven in diameter, has a man-hole at one end by He has written ' 3 692 means of which it is filled. They are placed up- right when in position. FLOATSTON E, a variety of quartz, consisting of fibers—delicate crystals—aggregated so that the whole mass is sponge-like, and so light, owing to the air confined in the interstices, that it floats for a while on water. It is found in a limestone of the chalk formation near Paris, in imbedded masses, or incrusting flint nodules. FLOBECQ, a small town of Belgium, in the prov- ince of Hainault, 20 miles northeast of Tournai. It has extensive manufactories of linens, has brewer- ies, salt works, oil and flour mills. Population, 6,250. FLOGGING, a mode of corporal punishment, which, in deference to public opinion, was abolished in 1881, and which had existed from time immemo- rial in the British army and navy. It was often in- flicted upon slight occasion, and with barbarous severity. FLOQUET, CHARLES, a French statesman, born in the Lower Pyrenees in 1828, and called to the Paris bar in 1851. After the fall of the empire he was deputy mayor and member of the National as- sembly, but having resigned during the commune, he was suspected of disloyalty and interned at Pau until 1872. He subsequently held various of- fices; was twice vice-president of the Chamber, and Was president of the Brisson cabinet. He formed a ministry on the resignation of the Tirard cabinet, and was president of the council and minister of the interior. He wounded General Boulanger in a duel fought in 1888. Having introduced a bill for the revision of the French Senate, the ensuing de- bate resulted in the defeat of his ministry, and he resigned in 1889. FLORA. See Britannica, Vol. VII, pp. 286-90. FLOREAL (the “ flowery ”), the eighth month of the year in the calendar of the first French Re- public, which, from Nov. 24,1793, to Sept. 9, 1805, was used in place of the Gregorian. It commenced April 20th and ended May 20th. FLORENCE, the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Ala.. situated at the head of navigation on the Tennessee River. Here is a State normal school, female college, and in the vicinity several cotton factories. FLORENCE, a city of Marion county, Kan., sit- uated at the confluence of the Cottonwood River and Doyle Creek. ' FLORENCE, a village of Hampshire county, Mass., 3 miles northwest of Northampton. It has establishments where sewing-machines, silk, cotton, and woolen goods are manufactured. FLORENCE, a railroad junction of Darlington county, S. C. It has railroad shops, machine shops, and carries on an extensive cotton trade. FLORENCE, the county-seat of Florence county, Wis., located in the vicinity of iron-ore mines. The lumber trade and iron business are the sources of prosperity in the town. FLORENTINE WVORK, or PIETRA DURA, a kind of ornamental work composed of black or white marble inlaid with hard stones, such as agates and jaspers. Although Florence is the most famous seat of this art, the Russians produce finer work than the Italians. FLORET, a term applied to the flowers of any small and closely crowded inflorescence which re- sembles at first sight a single flower. FLORICULTURE. While floriculture has been carried on as a business in the United States for more than one hundred years, its extent was not of large proportions until during the last score of ears. It was not made a subject of oflicial census mvestigation until 1890. According to the Govern- ment report, bearing date at the Census Office FLOATSTONE—FLORIDA April 21, 1891, the recent growth of the business has been very remarkable. Floral establishments were found in every State except Idaho, Nevada, Indian Territory, and Ok- lahoma. In the United States there were 4,659 flo- ral establishments, 312 of which were owned and conducted by women. Of the total number of es- tablishments 2,795 were started between 1870 and 1890, and of these 1,797 between 1880 and 1890. These 4,659 establishments had in use in the cen- sus year 38,823,247 square feet of glass, covering a space of more than 891 acres of ground. The estab- lishments, including fixtures and heating appa- ratus, were valued at $38,355,722.43; tools and im- plements, $1,587,693.93, and gave employment to 16,847 men and 1,958 women, who earned in the year $8,483,657. Fuel for heating cost $1,160,152.66. The products for the year were 49,056,253 rose bushes, 38,380,872 hardy plants and shrubs, while all other plants amounted to 152,835,292, reaching a total value of $12,036,477.76 for plants. Cut flowers brought an additional income of $14,175,328.0l. From the census report it appears that the largest number of square feet of glass in one estab- lishment in the United States is in the District of Columbia; the oldest establishment was started in New York; the largest number of roses propa- gated were, respectively, in Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio; the largest number of hardy plants propagated were, respectively, in Illinois, New York, and Kansas; the largest total value of plant sales were, respectively, in New York, Pennsyl- vania, and California, and the largest total value of cut-flower sales were, respectively, in New York, Illinois and Pennsylvania. In addition to the Society of American Florists, 965 State and local floral societies and clubs and 358 horticultural societies, aided by the agricul- tural and horticultural press helped to develop this industry to its present large proportions. The table on page 693 shows, by States, the num- ber of fiorists’ establishments, number owned by women, largest and smallest green house in each State, total square feet of glass, area of land culti- vated, value of tools and implements, and total value of establishments. New Jersey, situated as it is between the New York and Philadelphia city markets, makes the largest showing of any State in the Union in proportion to its size. The statistics given were obtained direct from the fiorists themselves in answer to questions sent them on special schedules, by personal visitation, and by the combined efforts of some of the florists’ clubs. The California State Floral Society went so far as to aid in the good work by appointing a special committee and making a careful canvass of the whole State, and the Census Oflilce investigations fully corroborate the thoroughness of their work. FLORIDA, STATE or (see Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 338-41). Florida extends the farthest south of all the Southern States, and has more sea-coast (over 1,200 miles) than any other State in the Union. The larger part of the State is a peninsula 350 miles long, and about 100 miles wide, forming one of the principal outlying barriers of the Gulf of Mexico. Near the coast the surface rises only from 10 to 100 feet, but the interior is higher, and somewhat more undulating. Owing to its prox- imity to the tropics, and the presence of the sea on all sides, extremes of temperature are unknown, and the State has long been the favorite winter resort of Northern pleasure seekers and invalids. The hot, moist climate admirably adapts it to agri- culture, stock-raising and fruit-growing. The Ever- glades, a vast, marshy lagoon in the southern part of the State, comprise an area of about 4,000 square FLORICULTURE 693 Owned Lar est num- Smallesl’ Divisions and States. 1;1i‘S:)§€}_%' maaiiladged bifd o%1ies<§1.=It§.ift I:i1i€‘I]3:111€;§etga£ll13tI‘l £33-,t%lSg ;‘§'§§n Jlxlrggdof VZ,11;1<§iO1]f[,I;G10e?1s T8; a,1;s‘1I;:j)l%e ment-,s_ Wolgneni 11S(11l:3II19%I11;?S;1.n- under State. c11(3?é¥gst?_(1 ments used. lishments. glass. Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 ........ . . 10,000 1,410 211,050 108 $4,707.00 $183,613.50 New Hampshire . . . . . . .. 42 1 12,000 250 182,952 52 7,997.22 162,827_23 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2 15,000 800 126,692 77 4_2(53_00 1()3,955_12 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . 407 25 40,000 400 2,717,946 467 104,090.25 2,663,587_o8 Rhodc Island . . . . . . . . . . .. 102 . . . . . . . . .. 25,000 500 549,984 178 14,280.00 52(5,5()7_68 Connecticut ........... . . 120 5 100.000 60 1,060,920 2.55 24019.20 986,655.60 New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 793 50 90,000 200 6,947,298 2,159 311,900.34 9,254,873.03 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 366 8 90,000 700 3,703,554 741 155,1()7_11 3,566,513,115 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . 544 19 100,000 300 6,066,144 1,448 255,282.88 5,641,513.92 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 7 60,000 400 872,304 359 22,~2$5,98 753,904,213 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 . . . . . . . . . 12,000 360 120,243 76 16,625_()() 99,750_()() District of Columbia... 35 3 150,000 1,440 649,310 61 20.295.00 571,392.80 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 7 28,000 150 281,904 86 10 049.83 236,707.84 West Virginia . . . . . . . . .. 19 1 8,800 350 88,255 31 1,045_00 72,369_1() North Carolina . . . . . . . . .. 16 6 5,000 150 28,000 112 697.50 22,123.00 South Carolina. . . . . . . .. 20 2 7,000 350 60,000 1 60 740.00 49,800.00 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 5 15,000 750 99,918 106 5,720.00 81,932.76 Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ........ . . 10,000 200 19,200 12 1,010.50 11,592_00 Ohio ................... . . 393 21 05,000 60 2,785,192 918 111,251.90 2,590,228.56 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 13 80,000 500 899 ,5-19 535 11,029.56 782607.63 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 20 70,000 160 3,236,750 990 220,515.90 2,945,442.50 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 15 100,000 450 1,293,443 583 50,121.71 1,165,484.65 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 6 23,500 300 464,520 367 46,893.00 450,584.40 Minnesota. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5 92,000 200 408,612 115 28,051.00 388,181.40 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 9 95,000 100 476,583 207 17,383.86 424,158.87 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 10 65,000 500 1,240,095 287 23,152.21 1,078,882.65 North Dakota . . . . .... . .. 4 . . . . . . . . .. 2,500 500 7,000 2 175,00 8,4-10,00 South Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . 4,000 300 8,500 3 350.00 7,700.00 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38 4 20,000 200 401,464 65 7,942.00 349,273.68 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 12 38,000 185 183,324 87 4,844 .00 174,372.36 Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 6 120,000 830 1,163,241 497 24,457.14 918,960.39 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2 25,000 200 411,840 224 17,920.00 313,198.40 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2 18,000 1,000 56,700 28 7,700.00 46,494.00 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3 2,000 150 13,950 61 945.00 7,672.50 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2 50,000 500 742,050 100 5,530.00 549,117.00 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 5 3,500 78 29,232 18 2,000.00 21,339.36 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1 15 ,000 1,000 47,200 20 2,062.50 30,800.00 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 200 22,000 12 1,500.00 21,120.00 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . 6,030 300 7,100 3 750.00 6,319.00 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 8 45,000 100 345,543 150 5,948.25 321,354.99 N. Mexico and Arizona. 3 . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 200 2,200 7 145.00 950.00 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 600 24,425 7 700.00 13,678.00 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 4,500 700 37,350 28 2,450.00 29,506.50 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3 15,000 330 119,088 36 4,520.00 102,415.68 Cahfornia .. . . . . . . ..... .. 150 18 14,000 150 610,622 423 26,210.00 506,816.26 Total in U. S ....... .. 4,659 312 38,823,247 12,161 $1,587,693.93 $8,355,722.43 694 miles, two-thirds of which are regarded as irre- claimable, uninhabitable and almost impenetrable. By an extensive drainage system projected by the Atlantic and Gulf Coast Canal and Okeechobee Land Company, a considerable section bordering the extreme northern Everglades, comprising the Lake Okeechobee region, is becoming subjected to the uses of agriculture. Lake Okeechobee, cover- ing an area of 1,000 square miles, was found to have an elevation of about 20 feet above high tide, and by cutting a canal to connect the lake with the Caloosahatchee River its level has been materially lowered, thus reclaiming hundreds of thousands of acres of choice land. Cotton, rice and sugar-cane are grown consider- ably, but the most characteristic industry is the cultivation of oranges, lemons and other tropical fruits. Along the St. J ohn’s River and throughout the lake region of Central Florida, orange-groves abound on every hand. The principal manufac- tures are lumber (pine), ship timber, naval stores, leather (made from alligator skins), salt, cotton- seed oil and cigars. The collection and preparation of sponges, large deposits of which occur in the waters of the coast, also furnish occupation to a considerable portion of the population. In 1886 Florida adopted a new constitution, which went into effect Jan. 1, 1887. Under it the executive department consists of a governor, attor- ney-general, comptroller, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction and commissioner of agricul- ture, each of whose term of oifice is four years. The governor is ineligible to reelection for the next succeeding term. The governor has the appoint- ment of an adjutant-general, with the rank of major-general, who is chief of the governor’s staff. The legislative department consists of a senate and house of representatives, the former having 68, and the latter 32 members. Senators are elected for four years, and representatives for two years. The legislature meets biennially, and each session is limited to 60 days. The judicial department consists of a supreme court, with three supreme judges, each holding office six years, and elected by the people, one every two years; circuit courts, with seven circuit judges, one for each judicial circuit, appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate, the term of ofiice being six years; county courts, one county judge being elected in each county, and holding office four years; and justices’ courts, two or more justices of the peace being elected in each county for a term of four years. Govnnzvons OF FLORIDA. Andrew Jackson. 1821-22 John Milton . . . . . . . . .. 1861-65 William P. Duval.. . .. 1822-34 William Marvin . . . . .. 1865-66 John H. Eaton .. . .. 1834-36 David S. Walker . . . . .. 1866-68 Richard K. Call 1836-39. Harrison Reed . . . . . . .. 1868-72 Robert R. Reid .. . . . 1839-41 0. B. Hart. . . . . . . . . .. 1872-74 Richard K. Call . . . . .. 1841-44 M. L. Stearns . . . . . . .. 1874-77 JohnBranch . . . . . . . .. 1844-45 Geor eF. Drew. 1877-81 W. D. Moseley . . . . . . .. 1845-49 Wm. . Bloxham..... 1881-85 Thomas Brown . . . . . .. 1849-53 E. A. Perry. . . . . . . . .. 1885-89 James E. Broome. 1853-57 Francis P.Fleming... 1889-93 Madison S. Perry... .. 1857-61 The governor, secretary of State, attorney-gen- eral, State treasurer and superintendent of public instruction, comprise the State board of education. The public schools are well sustained, and the cities and larger towns contain numerous excellent graded and high schools. There is a State Agri- cultural College at Lake City; DeLand College at DeLand; East Florida Seminary at Gainesville; West Florida Seminary at Tallahassee; Rollins College at Winter Park; State Normal College for FLORIDA--FLORIN whites at DeFuniak Springs; a State Normal Col- lege for colored teachers at Tallahassee; State In- sane Asylum at Chattahoochee; and a State Acad- emy for the Blind, Deaf and Dumb, at St. Augus- tine. The area of the State is 58,680 square miles and the population in 1880, 269,493; in 1890, 391,422. The following table gives the population by counties in 1880 and 1890: Counties. 1890 1880 Alachua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,934 16,462 Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,333 2,303 Bradford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,516 6,112 Brevard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,401 1,478 Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,681 1,580 Citrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,394 . .. lay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,154 2,838 Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.877 9,589 Dade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 861 257 De Soto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,944 . . . Duval _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,800 19,431 Escambla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,188 12,156 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,308 1,791 Gadsden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,894 12,169 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,507 6,790 Hernando . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,476 4,248 Hillsborough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,941 5,814 Holmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,336 2,170 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,544 14,372 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,757 16,065 La Fayette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,686 2,441 ake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,034 . . . . . . . ._ Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,414 . . . . . . . Leon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,752 19,662 Levy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,586 5,767 L1be_rty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,452 1,362 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,316 14,798 Manatee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,895 3,544 Manon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,796 13,046 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,786 10,940 Nassau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,294 6,635 Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,584 6,618 Osceola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,133 - Pasco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,249 Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,905 3,181 Putnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,186 6,261 Saint John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,712 4,535 Santa Rosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7.961 6,645 Sumter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,363 4,686 Suwannee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,524 7,161 Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,122 2,279 Volusia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,467 3,294 Wakulla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,117 2,723 Walton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,816 4,201 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,426 4,089 The principal agricultural crops are Indian corn, oats, potatoes and cotton. In 1888 there were de- voted to the cultivation of Indian corn 463,392 acres, producing 4,541,000 bushels,valued at $2,951,- 650; oats, 53,021 acres, producing 599,000 bushels, valued at $365,390; potatoes, 2,306 acres, producing 155,000 bushels, valued at $142,142; cotton, 259,990 acres, producing 30,158,840 pounds, valued at $2,533,343. January 1, 1890, there were in Florida 34,737 horses, 13,000 mules, 54,951 milch cows, 565,201 oxen and other cattle, 110,351 sheep, 358,021 hogs. FLORIDIA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Noto, 7 miles W. N. W. from Syracuse. It stands in a wide plain, surrounded by vineyards, olive- groves, and corn-fields. Population, 8,492. FLORIN (It-Lfiorino), a silver coin so called either in allusion to Florence, where it was first struck, in the 12th century, or because it was stamped with a lily. The florin ‘Was issued in gold at Florence in 1252. The name was subsequently given to different coins in different countries. England struck a gold florin in 1343, and the silver coin, worth two shillings, or about 48 cents, current since 1849, bears the official name of florin; the florin of the Netherlands is worth about 40 cents, and that of Austria about 36 cents. FLORINIANS--FLYING SQUIRREL FLORINIANS, a Gnostic sect of the second century, so called from a Roman priest, Florinus, a pupil of Polycarp. FLOTANT, used in heraldry to express that the object is flying in the air, as a banner-flotant. FLOTOW, FRIEDRICH voN, BARCN, a German composer, born at Teutendorf in Mecklenburg, April 27, 1812, died at Wiesbaden, Jan. 24, 1883. At the age of sixteen he went to Paris and began to study under Reicha. His reputation was made by his earliest operas, Le Naujrage de la Méduse (1839) ; Stradella (1844); and Martha (1847). In 1856 he was appointed intendant of the theater at Schwerin. In 1863 he resigned this position and returned to Paris. Of Flotow’s later operas three attained marked success—Indra (1853) ; La Veuve Grapin (1859); and L’Ombre (1869). FLOUR, MANUFACTURE on. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 343-47. FLOUR, ST., a small town of France in the de- partment of Cantal, finely situated on a steep basaltic plateau at an elevation of 3,000 feet, 34 miles northeast of Aurillac. It is entirely built of lava and basalt. It has manufactures of hollow iron- ware, cloth, and table linen. Population, 6,046. FLOWER POTS, pots in which plants may be grown. They are usually made of burnt clay, un- glazed, tapering a little toward the bottom, and having the bottom perforated with one or more holes, for drainage. FLOVVERS: in chemistry, a term originally given by the alchemists to the sublimates which rose, or appeared to grow, from certain bodies capable of undergoing volatilization when sub- jected to heat. As flowers of arsenic. flowers of benja- min or benzoin, flowers of sulphwr,flowers of zinc. FLOWER, WILLIAM HENRY, an English zo6lo- gist, born at Stratford-on-Avon in 1831, served as assistant surgeon in the Crimea, and afterwards became demonstrator of anatomy at the Middlesex hospital. In 1861 he was appointed conservator of the Hunterian Museum, in 1869 Hunterian pro- fessor of comparative anatomy and physiology, and in 1884 director of the natural history depart- ment of the British Museum. In 1889 he presided over the meeting of the British Association at New- castle. He is a fellow of the Royal Society, LL.D. of Edinburgh and Dublin, and has written numerous scientific papers and several volumes, chiefly on mammals. FLOX JERIS, a term applied to the suboxide or red oxide of copper. FLOYD, J OHN BUCHANAN (1807-63‘), an American statesman. He was in the Virginia legislature in 1847-49 and 1853, and was governor in 1850-53. He was Secretary of War from 1857 to 1860. In 1861 he was appointed brigadier-general in the Confed- erate army. FLOYD, WILLIAM (1734-1821), a Signer of the Declaration of Independence. In 1774 he was a delegate to the Philadelphia Congress, and in 1775 was chosen a delegate to the first Continental Con- gress. He was a member of every Continental Con- gress up to 1782, and at the same time, from 1777 to 1783, was State Senator. He held the same oflice from 1784 to 1788. In 1792, 1800, and in 1804 he was a Presidential elector, and in 1801 he sat for Suffolk county in the convention of that year. FLUKE, the pointed triangular termination to each arm of an anchor. FLUME, THE, a cleft in two walls of rock in the Franconian Mountains of the White Mountain re- gion. A small stream flows through this cleft and falls in a cascade 600 feet. This is one of the finest summer resorts of New Hampshire, and is located in Grafton county. »-350). 695 FLUSH—DECK. Decks of vessels are said to be flush when extending without break on one level from the bow to the stern. FLUSHING,a city of New York, on the north shore of Long Island (see Britannica,Vol. IX, p. The city is largely populated by New York business men, and has all city improvements, such as good schools, churches, street railways, gas and electric lights, free postal delivery, banks, building and loan associations, excellent water works, police force, fire department, and a handsome park. Population in 1880, 6,682; in 1890, FLUSTRA, a genus of zo'c'>phytes, of the family Flustridae. The name is derived from the Saxon flustrian. to weave, because of the mat-like struc- ture of the polypidoms, which in this genus are ex- tremely plant-like, and are often regarded as be- longing to the vegetable and not to the animal kingdom. In some species the polypidom assumes the appearance of a branching frond, with polype cells on either side. The polypes have the power of moving either the whole head at once or the tentacles separately, and show no little activity, so that a living flustra seen through a magnifying glass is a most beautiful and interesting object. A sirilgle square inch has been found to contain 1,800= ce s. FLUTE-WORK, a name applied to a particular class of stops in organ building, in contradistinction to reed-work. There are also numerous stops in or- gans specially designated with the names of flutes of different kinds, of eight feet and four feet pitch. FLY-POWDER, the name applied to any powder used to kill flies. It is generally a compound of metallic arsenic and arsenious acid, obtained by the partial oxidation of the metal on exposure to air. FLYING DRAGON, or FLYING LIZARD, a genus of saurian reptiles, allied to iguanas, but remarka- bly distinguished from them and from all other reptiles now existing, by lateral membranes which support them in a parachute-like manner in the air, and enable them to pass from tree to tree. These membranes are supported on the first six false ribs, which instead of encircling the abdomen stand out at right angles from the body for this purpose, and when not in use they are folded close to the body. There is an inflatable pouch under the chin, sustained partly by the hyoid bone and partly by two small bones. The tongue is extensile, the scales are small and imbricated, and the tail is very long. All the species are of small size and are native of the East Indies. They live among the branches of trees and feed on insects. FLYING—PHALANGER. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p, 727-29. FLYII G SQUID, a genus of cephalopodous mol- lusks allied to the Calamaries, but differing from them in having the eyes exposed and not covered with skin. The tail is large, and the power of loco- motion great; they not only pass rapidly through the water, but leap out of it high enough sometimes to fall on decks of ships. FLYING SQUIRREL, a species of the squirrel family (Sciu"rida’), which have a fold of skin like a. parachute along the sides of the body, by which means they are enabled to take extraordinary leaps, gliding for a great distance through the air. Their habits correspond with those of the real squirrel. The North American species, abundant from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada, is six or seven inches long, without the tail; has large black eyes, extremely soft fur, and is very rapid in motion They are also found in the North of Europe, Asia, and the Indian Archipelago. 6% FOCUS: in optics, a point in which several rays meet and are collected after being reflected or re- fracted, while a virtual focus is a point from which rays tend after reflection and refraction. The principal focus is the focus of parallel rays after re- flection or refraction. FO, or Fon, the Chinese name for Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, which was introduced into China about A. D. 67. FOG, or Mrszr, the visible watery vapor some- times hanging near the surface of the earth, and caused, as clouds are, by the precipitation of the moisture of the atmosphere. This takes place when a stratum of atmosphere comes in contact with a colder stratum or with a portion of the earth’s surface, as a hill by which it is cooled, so that it can no longer hold in solution as much moist- ure as before. It takes place also when a cold stratum of atmosphere comes above a moist, warm portion of the earth’s surface, the exhalations from which are precipitated and become visible as they ascend into it. FOGARASY, JANOS, a Hungarian philologist and jurisconsult, born in 1801 at Kasmark, in the county of Abanj. He studied law and philosophy at the Calvinistic college of Sarospatak, was called to the bar in 1829, and was elected fellow of the Hungarian Academy in 1838. His several publica- tions in the fields of jurisprudence and philology are reckoned to be standard works, bearing the stamp of deep original research, and of great sys- tematic powers. FO—HI, a half mythical character of Chinese his- tory, generally regarded as the founder and first emperor of China. He introduced social order, marriage, writing, and music, and was the reputed author of the Yih-Kz'ng, a venerable Chinese clas- sic, still extant, but now unreadable. FOLIA MALABATHRI, the dried leaves of Cin- namomum nitidum, and partly of Cinnamomum Ta- mala, species of cinnamon, small Indian trees or shrubs. It was formerly much in repute as a med- icine, and used as an aromatic tonic. FOLIATION, a term applied to the alternating layers or plates of different mineralogical nature, of which gneiss and some other metamorphic schists are composed. FOLKNOTE, the term applied by the Saxons to district meetings generally, or to the general meet- ing which was afterwards converted into the Witenagem6te, or meeting of the councilors or representatives of the nation. FOLLY ISLAND, in Charleston county, S. C., is bounded on the southeast by the Atlantic, and on the landward side by Folly Island River, and extends from Lighthouse Inlet on the northeast to Stone River on the southwest. It is in part heavily timbered. FOCUS—FOOD FOMENTATION, an application of warmth and moisture to a part, by means of cloths wrung out in hot water, sometimes medicated with veg- etable infusions of substances calculated to relieve pain or stimulate the surface. FOMITES (Lat. plu. of fomes, “fuel”), a term employed in medicine to denote porous substances, such as bedding, furniture, clothing, etc., capable of retaining infection, and by means of which dis- ease may be propagated. FONDA, the county-seat of Montgomery county, N. Y., situated on the Mohawk River. FOND DU LAC, a city of Wisconsin, county- seat of Fond du Lac county (see Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 361). Although the population of the city has decreased somewhat during the last decade, it is an important business center, situated in the midst of a fine farming region. It has good water communications, excellent railroad connections, and large manufactories of lumber, sashes, doors and blinds, and agricultural implements. Its princi- pal public buildings are a court-house, opera-house, and high school. It is noted for the number and ex- cellence of its artesian wells. has extensive water- works, and is lighted by gas and electricity. Popu- lation in 1880, 13,094; in 1890, 11,942. FONTANA, FELICE (1730-1805), a celebrated physiologist, born at Pomarolo, in the Italian Tyrol, in 1730. After an elaborate course of study he was presented to the chair of philosophy in the Uni- versity of Pisa by Francis I, Grand Duke of Tus- cany. Leopold, on succeeding his father appointed Fontana court physiologist, and charged him with the organization of a museum of natural history and physiology, which is still one of the scientific marvels of Florence. His chief writings consist of scientific considerations on the various phenomena of physical irritability. FONTANEL, a soft spot on the head of a young infant, due to incompleteness of the process of ossi- fication. The fontanels are ordinarily from four to six in number, the principal one being at the crossing of the coronal and sagittal sutures. Fon- tanel is also a small issue or artificial ulcer made by a surgeon to create a discharge of us. P FONTANELLE, a post-hamlet of Washington county, Neb., on the Elkhorn River, 10 miles north- east of Fremont. It is the seat of a Congregational college. FONTINALIS, a genus of mosses allied to Hyp- num, but having the fruit in the bosom of the leaves almost without stalk. It grows upon rocks and roots of trees in brooks and ponds, and is re- markable for the difliculty with which it burns, even when completely dry. It is used in some parts of the North of Europe for lining chimneys, to protect the adjacent woodwork from fire. FOOD. Food is whatever feeds the body, and hence includes air and water, but as generally understood the term is used as referring to such food as requires digestion in the body. Food ought to embrace all the elements found in the body. These, as given by chemists, number 15. Accord- ing to Prof. Atwater’s table the following are the chemical constituents of the body of a man weigh- in g 148 pounds. Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92.4 pounds. Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . .. 14 6 “ 5 GASES ....... .. Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426 “ Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.12 “ Fluorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.02 “ ’ Carbon . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .. 33.30 pounds. 3 Ml‘/TALLOIDS.. Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.40 “ Sulphur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.24 “ Calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.80 ‘ ‘ Potassium . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.34 “ Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.12 “ 7 METALS . . . . .. Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.04 “ fion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.02 “ anganese . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Traces‘ While the body is composed of the 15 elements named above, and in the proportions there stated, it would be impossible to nourish it with them in their elementary condition. FOOD 697 The amount of food required daily Huxley estimated thus: Lean beef-steak. 5,000 grains; milk, 7,000 grains; bread, 6,000 rains; potatoes, 3,000 grams; butter, 600 grams; water, about 6 Younds--taken as both food and drink, to supply the daily oss to the system. The water required for the system comes ‘ following tables : argely from the food, as is snown by Prof. Atwater in the COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL FOODS. Flesh, ete., Freed from Bone, Shell, and Other Refuse. Nutrients. 8' A vi KINDS OF FOOD MATERIALS. 5) mg +3 '21 =*”<"> ;: (Italics indicate European analysis; the *3 85. 3’. rest are American.) R, Z gzg -3 *3 E .5 '3 ,5 2 3 E5 E. 5 $3. Meats (Fresh). Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct Per ct. Beef, side, well fattened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54.6 45.4 17.2 27.2 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.0 Beef. lean, nearly free from fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76.0 24.0 21.8 0.9 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.3 Beef, round, rather lean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66.7 33.3 23.0 9.0 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.3 Beef, sirloin, rather fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60.0 40.0 20.0 19.0 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.0 Beef, neck, “second cut” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64.5 35.5 19.9 14.5 . . . . . . . . . .. 1.1 Beef, liver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69.5 30.5 20.1 5.4 3.5 1.5 Beef, tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63.5 36.0 17.4 18.0 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.1 Beef, heart,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56.5 43.5 16.3 26.2 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.0 Veal, lean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78.8 21.2 19.9 0.8 . . . . . . . . . .. 0.5 Veal, rather fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72.3 27.7 18.9 7.5 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.3 Mutton, side, well fattened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45.9 54.1 14.7 38.7 . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.7 Mutton, leg ................................................. .. 61.8 38.2 18.3 19.0 . . . . . . . . . . . 0.9 Mutton, shoulder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58.6 41.4 18.1 22.4 . . . . . . . . . . .. 6.9 Mutton, loin (chop) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49.3 50.7 15.0 35.0 . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.7 Meats (Prepared). Dried beef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41.4 30.3 4.4 . . . . . . . . . . .. 6.7 Corned beef, rather lean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58.6 41.9 13.3 26.6 . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.0 Smoked ham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58.1 58.5 16.7 39.1 . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.7 Pork, bacon, salted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41.5 90.0 3.0 80.5 . . . . . . . . . . .. 6.5 Fowl. no Chicken, rather lean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72.2 27.8 24.4 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.4 Turkey, medium fatness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66.2 33 8 23.8 8.7 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.3 Goose, fat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.0 62.0 15.9 45.6 . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.5 Dairy Products, Eggs, etc. C'0w’s milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87.4 12.6 3.4 3.8 4.8 0.7 C'ow’s milk, skimmed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90.7 9.3 3.1 0.7 4.8 0.7 Cow’s milk. buttermvllk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90.3 9.7 4.1 0.9 4.0 0.7 Cow’s milk, whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93.2 6.8 0.9 0.2 5.0 0.7 Cheese, whole milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31.2 68.8 27.1 35.4 2.4 3.9 Cheese, skimmed milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41.3 58.7 38.3 6.8 9.0 4.6 Butter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.0 91.0 1.0 87.5 0.5 2.0 Henls Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73.1 26.9 13.4 11.8 0.7 1.0 Nutrients. Kmns or FOOD MATERIALS. 3.5 g} :15 3 .2 8’ (Italics indicate European analysis; the ‘E 5 3 Q rest are American.) *5 SH >. _ Z 0) 8 51 3 ._. 8°55 . O is 8 88 it 1% 8? E E-1 2 it 0 <1 Fight etc» Per ct Per ct Per ct Per ct Per ct Per ct. Flounder, whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84.2 15,3 13,3 ()_7 _ _ _ _ _ __ 1_3 Haddock, dressed.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81,4 18,5 17_1 ()_3 _ , . , _ _ , H 1 _2 Bluefish, dressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7&5 21,5 19_() 13 _ _ , _ _ _ _ __ 13 God, dressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .............. .. 82,6 17,4 153 0,; _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 1_2 Whitefish, whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. .. 69,8 30,2 221 55 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ 1,5 Shad. whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70,8 294 13_5 g_5 , , _ , _ _ __ 1_4 Mackerel, average, whole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... .. 71,6 23,4 1&8 82 _ _ _ , _ _ __ 1_4 Salmon, whole ............................................ .. 63.6 36.4 21 6 13,4 _ _ . . , _ _ __ 1,4 Salt. Salt cod ................................................... .. 53.8 \ 26.1 21.7 0.3 ....... .. 20.1 4.1 Smoked herring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34.5 53.8 36.4 15.8 . . . . . . .. 11.7 1.6 Salt mackerel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.2 47.2 22.1 22.6 . . . . . . . .. 10.0 2.5 Oysters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87.2 12.8 6.0 1.2 3.6 2.0 \ 698 FOOD VEGETABLE FOODS. Nutrients. A m’ %’ 8 ss 3 4: ,5 KINDS or FOODS. 8.5 E. .3 S . 93 8 5 Rs 8 35 - 86 9 $8 8 £5 E st 8 52 3 z‘’ in 0 ‘S 2 Per Per Per Per Per Per Foods- cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. Wheat-flour, average* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11.6 11.1 1.1 75.4 0.2 0.6 Wheat-flour, maximum* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13. 13.5 2.0 78.5 1.2 1.5 Wheat-flour, minimum"< . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .3 8.6 0.6 68.3 0.1 0.3 Graham-flour (wheat) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13.0 11.7 1.7 69.9 1.9 1.8 Cracked wheat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10.4 11.9 1.7 74.6 1.4 Rve-flour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 6.7 0.8 78.3 0.4 0.7 Pearled barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11.8 8.4 0.7 77.8 0.3 1.0 Buckwheat flour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13.5 6.5 1.3 77.3 0.3 1.1 Buckwheat “farina" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11.2 3.3 0.3 84.7 0.1 0.4 Buckwheat “ greats ” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10.6 4.8 0.6 83.1 0.3 0.6 Oatmeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7.7 15.1 7.1 67.2 0.9 2.0 Maize-meal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 9.1 3.8 69.2 0.8 1.6 Hominy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13.5 8.3 0.4 77.1 1.3 0.4 Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 7.4 0.4 79.2 0.2 0.4 Beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 13.2 2.1 53.7 3.7 3.6 Peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.0 22.9 1.8 52.4 5.4 2.5 Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.5 2.0 0.2 20.7 0.8 1.0 Sweet potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75.8 1.5 0.4 20.0 1.1 1.2 Turnips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.2 1.0 0.2 6.0 0.9 0.7 Carrots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87.9 1.0 0.2 8.9 1.2 0.8 Cabba e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90.0 1.9 0.2 4.9 1.8 1.2 Cauli ower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90.4 2.5 0.4 5.0 0.9 0.8 Melons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95.2 1.1 0.6 1.4 1.1 0.6 Pumpkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90.0 0.7 0.1 7.3 1.3 0.6 Apples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84.8 0.4 0.0 12.8 1.5 0.5 Pears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.0 0.4 0.0 12.0 4.3 0.3 Starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 1.2 0.0 83.3 0.0 0.4 Cane Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 0.3 0.0 96.7 0.0 0.8 Wheat-bread-r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32.7 8.9 1.9 53 5 1.0 Graham-bread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.2 9.5 1.4 53.3 1.6 Rye-bread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.0 8.4 0.5 59.7 1.4 Soda crackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8.0 10.3 9.4 70.5 1.8 “Boston” crackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8.3 10.7 9.9 68.7 2.4 “Oyster” crackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3.9 12.3 4.8 76.5 2.5 Oatmeal crackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.9 10.4 13.7 69.6 1.4 Pilot (bread) crackers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7.9 12.4 4.4 74.2 1.1 Macaroni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 9.0 0.3 76.8 0.8 *Of analysis of American flours. -l-From flour of about average composition. AFrench statistician asserts that aman living for fift years eats during that time 79,000 (pounds of bread, 16,000 0 meat. 4,000 of vegetables, eggs an fish, and requires 7,000,000 gal- lons of water; for fift -nine per cent. of the entire body is composed of water, w ich must, therefore, be introduced into the system in about that roportion in our foods, to keep the organism in proper wor ing order, not only kee ing the tissues moist and succulent, but by washing out e ete matters as well. Water, as the most important of the inorganic foods, also deserves our careful attention, not only because it composes the bulk of our bodies, but also because it is the agent by which many of their ills are induced. Long a o the human body was defined as forty-five pounds of $1011 matter, dif- fused through five and a half pails of water. This is not ab- solutely exact, but the annexed table shows that water is iound In all of the tissues, though in widely varying propor- Ions: PARTS IN A THOUSAND or WATER AND SOLIDS. (BESANEZ.) Parts. Water. Solids. Enamel of the teeth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 998 Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 900 Bones - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 220 780 Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 299 701 Elastic tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 496 504 Cartilage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 450 Liver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 693 307 S inal cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 667 333 S in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 720 280 PARTS IN A THOUSAND or WATER AND SOLIDS. (BESANEZ.) Parts. Water. Solids. Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 750 250 Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 243 Spleen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 758 242 herves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 780 220 Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 791 209 Cellular tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796 204 Kidneys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827 173 Bile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 864 136 Milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 891 109 Chyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 928 72 Mucus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 934 66 Lymph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 983 17 Spinal fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988 12 Saliva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 995 5 Sweat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 998 2 It IS known that a man loses on the average about two quarts of water per day. About a quar- ter of this amount passes by the lungs, and the remainder by the skin and kidneys. DIGESTING Foon.—The first stage in the pro- cess of digestion is that of mastication, in which solid foods are ground fine and mixed thoroughly with the fluids of the mouth. These fluids are sup- plied by the mucous and salivary glands. Together FOOD they secrete about a quart of liquid, which is con- tinually being poured through the ducts leading from these glands. The ducts of the sublingual and submaxillary glands, near together, open into the month just beneath the tongue, while the ducts of the parotids pour their saliva into the mouth through openings nearly opposite the second of the molars of the upper jaw. With the tip of the tongue the saliva can be continually felt trickling out of these apertures, and greatly increased in quantity while dining, or when the mouth “waters ” for something good to eat. The purpose of the saliva is two-fold: first, to lubricate the food so thoroughly that swallow- ing may be easy; and, second, to effect in the starch of the food a chemical change which transforms it into a variety of sugar (glucose) that can be util- ized in the body. If for any reason this is not accomplished, either because the food is not finely enough ground by the teeth or because the saliva is deficient in quantity or quality, starchy indiges- tion results, and hence for many dyspeptics bread is the most difficult thing to digest. Young infants have little or no saliva, and hence are unable prop- erly to digest starchy food. Although small quan- tities may be disposed of lower down in the aliment- ary canal. the bulk of these starchy foods remains undigested, and causes innumerable infantile col- ics and not a few deaths. The majority of patent infant foods are starchy in their nature, and hence evil in their effects. Milk, properly prepared, is the best food for babies for the reason that it con- tains all the necessary elements of food, namely: inorganic salts, albuminoids (casein or curd), and hydrocarbons in the cream and sugar of the milk. Let us, then, briefly consider in detail the diges- tion of a mouthful of milk, since it contains all the ingredients necessary for the nourishment of the body, and all the essential varieties of food that can be found on any table. Undigested milk is poison, but properly digested it forms bone, muscle, sinew, by the aid of germinal matter. ‘ Each kind of germinal matter needs its appropriate nourish- ment, all of which can be gathered from the curd, cream, and salts of milk. First, as to the curd. which corresponds to the nitrogenous foods of the adult. \Vith the latter the nitrogenous food requires to be reduced to small fragments by the teeth before it descends the oesophagus. Liquids escape this process, and im- mediately find their way down into the stomach, whose acid juices immediately clot it. If these clots are too large, or firm, they cause distress; but if the milk is properly acted on it forms soft, fine curds, which are more digestible than the orig- inal milk, for they contain their nitrogenous mat- ter in a form readily to be acted upon by the gas- tric juice, which is an acid fluid constantly se- creted by glands located in the membrane lining the inside of the stomach. The duty of these glands, known as the “ peptic glands,” is to prepare the gastric juice, or fluid, which is a colorless, watery, acid liquid containing from three to four parts in a thousand of pepsin, an animal ferment, which has the remarkable property of transform- ing albuminoids into peptones. A solution of pep- tone looks very like a solution of albumen, from which it differs mainly in the fact that albumen is unable to pass through the animal membranes, while peptone readily does so. The peptonized albuminoids pass directly through the coats of the stomach into the lacteals there located. But all our food is not albuminoid, and hence is not digested in the stomach. Portions which are not peptonized, and which, therefore, cannot enter into the lacteals, pass in the circulation as chyme 699 through the pylorus into the smaller intestines, where the digestion is completed. In the intes- tines the chyme is mixed with bile and other fer- ments. The following table, showing not only their names, but their uses, is taken from Roberts: NAME. FUNCTION. 1. Pt;/alin, or salivary dias- 1. Changes starch into dex- tase. contained in the trine and glucose. va. 2. Pepsin, contained in gas 2. In acid fluids changes al- tric juice. buminoids into pep- tones. 3. Curdlin ferment, con- 3. Coagulates casein. taine in gastric juice. 4. Tr’;/psin,contained in pan- 4. In alkaline solutions creatic juice. transforms proteids into peptones. 5. Curdlingferment,found in 5. Coagulates milk casein. pancreatic juice. 6. Pancreatic diastase, found 6. Changes starch into dex- in pancreatic juice. trine and glucose. 7. Emulsiue ferment,found in 7. Emulsifies fats. pancreatic juice. 8. Bile, poured Into duode- 8. Assists in emulsifying num. fats. 9. Inuertin, found in intesti- 9. Converts cane sugar into nal juice. inverted sugar. 10. Cu rdling ferment, found in 10. Coagulates casein. intestinal juice. TIME REQUIRED 1-eon DIGESTING FooD.—The fol- lowing figures have been tabulated as the result of repeated and careful experiments: Food. How Cooked. H. M. Apples, sour, mellow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Raw . . . . . . . . .. 2 00 Apples, sour, hard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Raw . . . . . . . . .. 2 50 Apples, sweet, mellow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Raw . . . . . . . .. 1 30 Bass, striged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Broiled. . . . . .. 3 00 Beans, po .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . .. 2 30 Beans and green corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3 45 Beef. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fried . . . . . . . . .. 4 00 Beefsteak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Broiled . . . . .. 3 00 Beef, fresh, lean, dry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted . . . . . .. 3 30 Beef, fresh, lean, rare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted . . . . .. 3.00 Beets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled. . . . . . .. 3 45 Brains, animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3.45 Bread, corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Baked... 3 15 Bread, wheat, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Baked . . . . . . .. 1.3 Cabbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Raw . . . . . . . . .. 2.30 Cabbage, with vinegar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Raw . . . . . . . .. 2.00 Cabbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled. . . . . . .. 4.30 Carrot, orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3.13 Catfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fried . . . . . . . . .. 3 30 Cheese, old strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Raw . . . . . . . . . .. 3.30 Chieken,ful1 grown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fricasse.ed.. . 2.45 Codfish, cured dry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Boiled . . . . . . .. 2.00 Custard.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Baked . . . . . . . .. 2 45 Duck, tame . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. Roasted . . . . . .. 4.00 Duck, wild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Roasted . . . . .. 4.30 Eggs, fresh . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Raw 2.00 Eggs, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Whipped 1.30 Eggs, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted. 2.15 Eggs, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Soft boiled.. .. 3.00 Eggs, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Hard boiled.. 3 30 Eggs, fresh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fried. . . . . . .. 3.30 Fowls, domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted . . . . . .. 4.00 Fowls, domestic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . .. . 4 00 Gelatine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled. 2 30 Goose, wild. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. Roasted. 2 30 Hashed meat and vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . .. Warmed 2 30 Heart, animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fried. . . 4 00 Lamb, fresh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Broiled . . . . .. 2 30 Liver, beeve’s, fresh...‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Broiled . . . . .. 2 00 Milk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled. 2.00 Milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Raw .. . 2 15 Mutton, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Broiled 3 00 Mutton, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3 00 Mutton, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted . . . . . .. 3 15 Oysters, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. aw . 2.55 Oysters, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted. . . 3 15 Oysters, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Stewed 3 30 Parsnips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boiled 2.30 Pig, sucking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Roasted 2 30 Pigs’ feet, soused.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled 1 00 Pork steak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Broiled . 3 15 Pork, fat and lean.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Roasted . . 5 15 Pork, recently salted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Stew ed . .. . 3 00 Pork, recently salted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Broiled 3 15 Pork. recently salted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Fried. 4 15 Pork. recently salted. . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled. 4 30 W0 TIME REQUIRED FOR DIGESTING FooD.—Contz'nued. Food. How Cooked. H.M. Potatoes, Irish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted . . . . . .. 2.30 ' Potatoes, Irish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Baked . . . . . . . .. 2.30 Potatoes, Irish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . .. 3.30 Salmon, salted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . .. 4.00 Sausages,fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Broiled . . . . . .. 3.20 Soup, barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 1.30 Soup, bean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3.00 Soup, chicken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3.00 Soup, mutton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3.30 Soup, oyster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3.00 Soup, beef, vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 4.00 Soup, marrow bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 4.15 Tripe, soused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 1.00 Trout, salmon, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 1.30 Trout, salmon, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fried . . . . . . . . .. 1.30 Turkey, wild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted . . . . . .. 2.18 Turkey, domesticated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Roasted . . . . . .. 2.30 Turkey, domesticated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 2.25 Turnips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 3.30 Veal, resh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boiled . . . . . . . .. 4.00 Veal, fresh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fried . . . . . . . . .. 4.30 Venison steak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Broiled . . . . . .. 1.35 ' Oooxme l\4[EATs.—-For all ordinary food, all the nutritious constituents should be retained either in the meat itself or in its liquid surrounding. The albumen, gelatine, and fibrine of the meat must be retained in a state of semi-solidity. To do this both cold and boiling water should be avoided. Cold water takes out the albumen. This will be shown by immersing minced meat (the mincing increas- ing the amount of surface to the water) in cold wa- ter for a few hours; on removing and straining such minced meat it will be found to have lost its color, and if it be now cooked it is insipid, and even nau- seous if eaten in any quantity; if given to dogs, cats, and pigs, they will soon turn from it, and if limited to this juiceless food, will speedily languish and die. “Although the meats from which the juices have been extracted are nearly worthless alone, and those from which the juices are nearly extracted are nearly worthless alone, either of them becomes valuable when eaten with the j uices.”* Boiling water hardens the albumen of meat to a leathery appearance. This may be shown experi- mentally by subjecting an ordinary beefsteak to the action of boiling water for about half an hour. It will come out in what VVilliams calls “ the abom- inable condition too often obtained by English cooks.” The water, instead of boiling (2120) should be at the temperature at which albumen just be- gins to coagulate; that is, about 1340, or between that and 1600 as the extreme. This is not the con- dition of “simmering,” for that is about the same as boiling ; namely, 212°. It is said that the French cook escapes the “simmering delusion” by her use of the bain marie, or “ water bath,” as the chemist calls it in the laboratory. It is simply a vessel im- mersed in an outer vessel of water; the water in the outer vessel may “simmer” or boil, while that in the inner vessel cannot because of the less heat. Some persons use a“milk-scalder” for the pur-' pose. One of the incidental advantages of the bain maria is that the stewing may be performed in earthen- ware or even glass vessels, seeing that they are not directly exposed to the fire. Other forms of such double vessels are obtainable at the best house-fur- nishing stores. A very neat apparatus of this kind is “ Dolby’s Extractor,” which consists of an earth- *W. Mattieu Williams, awell-known chemical authority. In the preparation of this article the editor has drawn freely from the facts resented by Prof. Williams in an admirable > series of art-ic es furnished for“Knowledge,” England, and subsequenty reproduced in America. FOOD enware vessel that rests on a ledge, and thus hangs in an outer tin-plate vessel; but, instead of water. there is an air-space surrounding the earthenware pot. A top screws over this, and the whole stands in an ordinary saucepan of water. The heat is thus very slowly and steadily communicated through an air-bath, and it makes excellent beef-tea; but,' being closed, the evaporation does not keep down the temperature sufficiently to fulfill the above- named conditions for perfect stewing. At temper- atures below the boiling-point evaporation pr-oceeds superficially, and the rate of evaporation at a given temperature is proportionate to the surface ex- posed, irrespective of the total quantity of water; therefore, the shallower the inner vessel of the bain maria, and the greater its upper outspread, the lower will be the temperature of its liquid contents when its sides and bottom are heated by boiling water. The water in abasin-shaped inner vessel will have a lower temperature than that in a vessel of similar depth, with upright sides, and exposing an equal water surface. A good water-bath for stew- ing may be extemporized by using a common pud- ding-basin (one with projecting rim, as used for tying down the pudding-cloth), and selecting a saucepan just big enough for this to drop into, and rest upon its rim. Put the meat, etc., to be stewed into the basin, pour hot water over them, and hot water into the saucepan, so that the basin shall be in a water-bath; then let this outer water simmer very gently, so as not to jump the basin with its steam; Stew thus for about double the time usu- ally prescribed in cookery-books, and compare the result with similar materials stewed in boiling or “simmering” water. I/Ve quote again from Williams : “ I may, however, mention an experiment that I have made lately. I killed a superannuated hen—more than six years old, but otherwise in very good condition. Cooked in the ordinary way she would have beenuneatably tough. I cannot guarantee the maintenance of the theoretical temperature, having suspicion‘ of some simmering. After this she was left in the water until it cooled, and on the following day was roasted in the usual manner; that is, in a roastin oven. The result was excellent; as tender as a ful -grown chicken roasted in the ordinary way, and of quite equal flavor, in spite of the very good broth obtained by the preliminary stewing. This surprised me. I anticipated the softening of the tendons and liga- ments, but supposed that the extraction of the juices would have spoiled the flavor. It must have di- luted it, and that so much remained was probably due to the fact that an old fowl is more fully flavored than a young chicken. The usual farm-house meth- od of cooking old hens is to stew them simply; the rule in the midlands being one hour in the pot for every year of age. The feature of the above exper- iment was the supplementary roasting. ‘As the laying season comes to an end, old hens will be a drug in the market, and those among my readers who have not a hen roost of their own will oblige their poulterers by ordering a hen that is warranted to be four years old or upward. If he deals fairly he will supply a specimen upon which they may re- peat my experiment very cheaply. It offers the double economy of utilizing a nearly waste product and obtaining chicken-broth and roast fowl simul- taneously.” “One of the great advantages of stewing is that it affords a means of obtaining a savory and very wholesome dish at a minimum of cost. A small piece of meat may be stewed with a large quantity of vegetables, the juice of the meat savoring the whole. Besides this it costs far less fuel than roasting.” FOOD “ The wife of the French or Swiss landed proprie- tor, that is, the peasant, cooks the family dinner with less than a tenth of the expenditure of fuel used in England for the preparation of an in- ferior meal. A little charcoal under her bain marie does it all. The economy of time corresponds to the economy of fuel; for, the mixture of viands required for. the stew once put into the pot, it is left to itself until dinner-time, or at most an occasional stirring of fresh charcoal into the embers is all that is demanded.” ' RELATIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL Foon.——lVilliams, in his article in “Knowledge,” well says: “At the outset it is necessary to brush aside certain false issues that are commonly raised in discussing this subject. The question is not whether we are hervivorous or carnivorous animals. It is perfectly certain that we are neither. The car- nivora feed on flesh alone, and eat that flesh raw. Nobody proposes that we should do this. The herbivora eat raw grass. Nobody suggests that we should follow their example. It is perfectly clear . that man cannot be classed either with the carniv- orous animals or the herbivorous animals, nor with the graminivorous animals. His teeth are not con- structed for munching and grinding raw grain, nor his digestive organs for assimilating such grain in this condition. He is not even to be classed with the omnivorous animals. He stands apart from all as “The Cooking Animal.” All human beings be- came cooks as soon as they learned how to make a fire, and have continued to be cooks ever since. The composition of the mother’s milk throws much light upon this “ vege_table-animal” contro- versy. The milk prepared for the young of differ- ent food-supplying and non-food supplying animals in the laboratory or kitchen of Nature must be regarded as directly adapted to their structure as regards natural food requirements. VVe find, ready to hand, in Dr. Miller’s Chemistry, Vol. III, a comparative statement of the mean of several analyses of the milk of woman, cow, goat, and sheep, from which we quote the following: Y _ Composition. ggn Cow. Goat. Sheep. Dog. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88.6 87.4 82.0 85.6 66.3 at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.6 4.0 4.5 4.5 14.8 Sugar and soluble salts . . . . .. 4.9 5.0 4.5 4.2 2.9 Nitrogenous compounds and insoluble salts . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3.9 3.6 9.0 5.7 16.0 It is quite evident from the above table that Na- ture regards our food requirements as approaching much nearer to the herbivora than to the carniv- ora, and has provided for us accordingly. The food which Nature provides for the human infant differs from that provided for the carnivorous animal in the same way that cooked vegetables and fruit within easy reach of man differ from flesh food. In practice there are distinctive flesh-eaters among us—~none who avail themselves of the high- er proportion of albuminoids and fat. All prac- tically admit in eating their ordinary dinner that an excess of nitrogenous matter and fat is bad. They do so by mixing the meat with potatoes, the latter containing an excess of starch (carbo-hydrate) and a small amount of albuminoids and fat. slice of meat mixed with the lump of potato brings the whole down to the average composition of a fair- ly arranged vegetarian meal. By a vegetarian re- past is not meant mere cabbage and potatoes, but properly selected, well-cooked, nutritious vegeta- The ‘ 701 ble food. As an example, take equal weights of beef and potatoes composing the meal, without bread, and we have the following analysis accord- ing to the table given by Pavy: Mixed dinner. Water. 1:12;‘ Starch. Sugr.' Fat. Salts. Lean beef . . . . . . . .. 72.00 19.30 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 60 5.10 Potatoes ........ .. 75.00 2.10 18.80 3.20 0.20 0.70 147.00 21.40 18.80 3.20 I 3.80 5.80 Mean composit’n. 73.50 10.70 9.40 1.00 I 1.90 2.90 Compare with the above the meal furnished to the poor in Munich by Count Rumford’s soup (with- out bread—afterward added), No. 1 composed of equal measures and weights of peas and pearl-bar- ley, or barley meal. Their percentage of composi- tion was as follows: Rumford’s soup. Water. ‘galgib Starch. Sugr. Fat. Salts Peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15.00 23.00 55.40 2.00 2.10 2.50 Barley-meal . . . . . .. 15.00 6.30 69.40 -1.90 2.40 2.00 30.00 29.30 134.80 6.90 -1.50 4.50 Mean composition OI mixture . . . . .. 15.00 14.65 62 40 3 45 2.25 225 Here, then, in one hundred parts of the material of Rumford’s half-penny dinner, as compared with the “mixed diet,” we have forty per cent. more of nitrogenous food, more than six and a half times as much carbo-hydrate in the form of starch, more than double the quantity of sugar. about seventeen per cent. more of fat, and only a little less of salts (supplied by the salt which Rumford added). The great German scientific hilanthropist states that he found that less than ve ounces of solids was sufficient for each man’s dinner. He was sup- plying far more nutritious material than beef and potatoes, and therefore his five ounces were more satisfactory than a pound of beef and potatoes, three-fourths of which is water, for which water the buyer pays a good round price per pound when he buys his prime steak. Count Rumford added the- water at pump cost, and, by long boiling claimed to have caused some of it to unite with the solid materials (by the hydration), and then served the combination in the form of porridge, raising each portion to 19% ounces. lVilliams adds one more example for comparison, namely, the Highlander’s porridge. The following is the composition of oat meal taken also from Pavy’s table: Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.00 Albumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12.60 Starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58.-l0 Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5.40 Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5.00 Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3.00 If this be compared with the beef and potatoes above, it will be seen that it is superior in every item except the water; this deficiency being readily supplied at the pump. These figures solve a prob- lem that may have suggested itself to some; namely, the smallness of the quantity of dry oat meal that is used in making a large porridge. If we could in like manner see our portion of beef or mutton and potatoes reduced to dryness, the small- ness of the quantity of actually solid food required for a meal would be similarly manifest. lVilliams 7% continues: “My own experiments on myself, and the multitude of other experiments that I am daily witnessing among men of all occupations, who have cast aside flesh-food after many years of mixed diet, prove incontestably that flesh-food is really unnecessary. On economical grounds, however, the difference is enormous. * * * If all were vegetarians in any country the land would be one . of gardens and orchards instead of largely being a grazing ground as at present. Every acre of land would require three or four times as much labor, and feed five or six times as many people. Dr. B. W. Richardson, F. R. S., a leading and ac- credited authority on the subject of hygiene, says in his book on Food'Thmft: “ We have also to learn, as a first truth, that the oftener we go to the vegetable world for our food the oftener we also go to the first, and, therefore, to the cheapest source of supply. The commonly accepted notion that when we eat animal flesh we are eatinor food at its prime source cannot be too speedily dissipated or too speedily re laced by the knowledge that there is no primitive form of foo —albuminous, starchy, osseous—in the animal world itself, and that all the pro- cesses of catching an inferior animal, of breeding it, rearing it, keeping it, killing it, dressing it, and selling it, means no more nor no less than entirely additional expenditure, throughout, for bringing into what we have been taught to consider an acceptable orm of food the veritable food which the animal itself found, without any such preparation, in the vegetable world. With the light of these natural facts fill- ing the national mind, the tendencies of all advanced scholars in thrift should unquestionably be to find out plans for feed- ing all the community, as far as is possible, direct from the lap of earth; to endeavor to discover how the fruits of the earth may be immediately utilized as food; and to impress science into our service, so that she, in her laboratories, may repare the choicest viands, minus the necessity of making a ower animal the living laboratory for the sake of what is just a little higher than cannibal propensities.” CHEAP Dmnnns FOR SoHooL GHILDREN.—-During the 1351- few years, experiments have been made on an extensive scale in different countries in Eu- rope, in order to test the cost, healthfulness, and popular approval of a system of cheap dinners for the benefit of the national and board schools. The editor of these supplementary volumes is indebted to Mr. George Herbert Sargent, of Birmingham, England, one of the founders and chief promoters of the system, for numerous documents setting forth the results of such experiments in various parts of Great Britain and on the Continent. The limits prescribed for this article permit the insertion of only a few of the many tables reported. In the Kendal District cheap dinners were started for the supply of two country schools about one mile apart. The managers provided the following plant: 100 soup plates; 100 small spoons; one eight-gallon iron pan; one five-gallon can; 20 basins; one pair of scales; two ladles and one bucket. The dinners were served in a vacant cottage, free of rent in each case, near the school, by a woman who was paid 25 cents per day. Fuel cost 35 cents per week. The menu was the following: On Mondays, Tuesdays, and Thursdays, soup and hash- Soup. Hash. 5 lbs, peas, 5 stone potatoes, 3 lbs.,-barley, 1% lbs. onions, 2 lbs. bones, _ Q 8 oz. salt, 14 lb. beef dripping, 3,5 oz. pepper, 1/2 lb. onions, 3 bs. meat. 6 oz. salt, 1/2 oz. pepper. On Wednesdays and Fridays, hash and pudding-— Ha . Pudding. ' 312 stone potatoes, 1% stone flour, 1/ lbs. meat, '1 lb. lard, 1 b. onions, ' 2 baking powders, 6 oz. salt, 4 lbs. treacle or preserve, 1/2 oz. pepper. Salt. The quantities given were sufficient for 80 chil- dren; the average number present, 72. The pupils FOOD who were able to pay were charged one English penny for a single dinner, or fourpence per week, the dinner being served on the five school days. In case of deficiency caused by free dinners, the lack was supplied from private sources. Mr. A. F. Hills, of the Thames Ironworks, Black- wall, describes in the “ Times ” the success of some penny dinners established in that neighborhood upon vegetarian principles. From November to March the experiment was first tried, and, in spite of the diificulties inherent in the organization of a new scheme, proved so popular that the small deficit of some $15 for the first season, upon 6,500 dinners, was no deterrent to starting them again in the October of the next year. Twelve per cent. of the dinners were gratuitous.. The children have varied from seven to boys of 14, and the average attendance has been about 100 per diem. This has been so regular as to prove, not only that the chil- dren find the food palatable, but that the parents are quite satisfied with the nutritive and healthful properties of the new diet. The nutritive value of the cereals and pulses (wheat, barley, oats, beans, peas, and lentils) is as three to one when compared with meat; its economy as 18 to one. In a subsequent letter to the London “Times,” Mr. Hills gives, as a result of thorough experiment, the following recipe for the penny meal: “ To make one gallon, take 12 lb. whole wheat meal and 1 lb. of lentils and boil for two ours, then add 1 lb. of potatoes (mashed) and 1 lb. of mixed vegetables (turnips, carrots, parsnips, etc.). Both potatoes and vegetables should be chopped or grated as fine as possible, and, to make the best soup, should be boiled separately from the grains. Add the vegetables to the grains, and boil for another hour and stir well. Flavor to taste with butter, sweet herbs, and spices. The soup can be varied from day to day by the introduction of other grains-—i. e., oats, barley, rice, peas, beans, and maize; and where economy is the first consideration the butter can be substituted by the best cotton-seed oil, or be omitted altogether. When properly made this soup cannot be distinguished from ordinary stock soup, and contains a far higher value of nutritious food.” Mr. G. H- Sargent had reported from the city of Birmingham in a period of five months a total of about 300,000 school dinners, of which the following were from the kitchen under his own charge: _ Costing. 9,8331? at a halfpenny_€ aid for), costing about . . . . .. 102 4,7094 at a halfpenny ree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3 381 at a farthmg (paid for) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. 155 104,097 at a farthing ( ree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 540 17,210 at 30 for 1s. (free) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 120 166,231 966 His experience is thus summarized: “In making out a recipe I have much more regard to the sol- ids as a medium for resenting hot water in a wholesome and palatable form than have to the hot water as a medium for rendering the solids digestible. It is no new theory that the value of a food-stuff should be measured by the quantit of water it will solidify or jellify. This property is possesse in a singular degree by legumes, and by the other ingredients which I chiefly use, viz., ground Scotch barlev and Indian meal; to oatmeal, unfortunately, there is an a most uncon- querable aversion amongst the English poor. The water ab- sorbed by the farinaceous foods is presented to the digestive organs in a manner differing totally from that of water taken as a liquid, and it cannot be too constantl borne in mind that the nutritive value of a food depends ar more on the suitability of its form for digestion and assimilation than on its chemical composition. Of the results obtained by the practical working out of the theory sketched above the value as been proved by careful observation. It has been found that two or three of our dinners a week iven throughout the winter to half-starved children, in ad ition to what they could get before, change them from a pinched to a fairly well-fed condition, fill them with life and spirits instead of dullness and misery. The popularity of the son s is tested in the simplest way; no compulsion whatever is aid on the children to finish what is given them. They are not pressed -or even encouraged-to eat more than they feel an inclina- tion for; yet we rarely find, as we often did when the din- ners were far more costly, that any is left. The very cheapest FOOD 703 dinners are by far the most popular. Peas and lentils_ meet another distinct want. It has been noticed that the children prefer something moderately solid. This legumes Just su ply; they retam enough hardness when cooked to want bi ing, but not enough to make them indigestlble. They have further these enormous advantages: when one has once learned where to buy and how to cook them, they are very cheap and give very little trouble.” CCMPARATIVE VALUE or CHEEsE.—Casein, the substantial basis of cheese, is the consolidated curd of milk, and is one of the most important constituents of animal food, although it is not con- tained in beef, mutton, poultry, fish or game. It exists in the soluble form in milk, and the insolu- ble in cheese. It contains more nutritious mate- rial than any other food that is ordinarily obtain- able, and all that is needed to render it invaluable is the right way of cooking it. When compared with animal food (excluding bone) the following figures are given, the best parts of the meat being taken in each case: Beef contains, on an average, 72% per cent. of water; mutton, 73%; veal, 74%; pork, .693/4; fowl, 733/L; while Cheshire cheese contains only 30%, and other cheeses about the same. Thus, at starting, we have in every pound of cheese rather more than twice as much solid food as in a pound of the best meat; or, comparing with the average of the whole carcass, including bone, tendons, etc., the cheese has an advantage of three to one. The following results of Mulder’s_ analysis of casein, when compared with those (by the same chemist) of albumen, gelatine, and fibrin, show that there is but little difference in the ultimate chemical composition of these, so far as the con- stituents there named are concerned: Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53.83 Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15 5 trogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15.65 Casein. xygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..,_ Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. l 23")‘ Constituents. Albumen. Gelatine. Fibrin. Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.5 53.40 52.7 Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 6.64 6.9 Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 18.34 15.4 Oxy en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22.0 24.62 23.5 Sulp ur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.6 24.62 1.2 Phosphorus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4 24.62 0.3 We may therefore conclude that, regarding these from the point of view of nitrogenous or flesh-form- ing and carbonaceous or heat-giving constituents, these chief materials of flesh and of cheese are about equal. The same is the case as regards the fat. The quantity in the carcass of oxen, calves, sheep, lambs, and pigs varies, according to Dr. Edward Smith,from 16 per cent. to 31.3 per cent. in moder- ately fatted animals, while in whole-milk cheeses it varies from 21.68 per cent. to 32.31 per cent., coming down in skim-milk cheeses as low . as 6.3. Dr. Smith includes Neufclni-tel cheese, containing 18.74 per cent. among the whole-milk cheeses. He does not seem to be aware that the cheese sold under that name is ricotta, or crude. curd of skim-milk cheese. Its just value is about six cents per pound. In Italy, where it forms the basis of some delicious dishes (such as budtno dz‘ ricotta), it is sold for about twopence per pound or less. In comparing the nutritive value of cheese with that of flesh, the retention of phosphate of lime nearly corresponds with the retention of the juices ~of the meat, among which are the phosphates of the flesh; These phosphates of lime are the bone- making material of food, and have something to do in building up the brain and nervous matter, though not to the extent that is supposed by those who imagine that there is a special connection be- tween phosphorus and the brain, or phosphores- cence and spirituality. Bone contains about 11 per cent. of phosphorus, brain less than 1 per cent. The value of food in reference to its phosphate of lime is not merely a matter of percentage, as this salt may exist in a state of solution, as in milk, or as a solid very diflicult of assimilation, as in bones. That retained in cheese is probably in an intermediate condition—not actually in solution, but so finely divided as to be readily dissolved by the acid of the gastric juice. It may be mentioned, in reference to this, that, when a child or other young animal takes its natural food in the form of milk, the milk is converted into unpressed cheese, or curd, prior to its digestion. ' Supposing that, on an average, cheese contains only one-half of the six per cent. of phosphate of lime found in the casein, and taking into consider- ation the water contained in flesh, the bone, etc.. we may conclude, generally, that one pound of average cheese contains as much nutriment as three pounds of the average material of the car- cass of an ox or sheep as prepared for sale by the butcher; or, otherwise stated, a cheese of twenty pounds weight contains as much food as a sheep vgeighing sixty pounds as it hangs in the butcher’s s op. Now comes the practical question: Can we as- similate or convert into our own substance the cheese-food as easily as we may the flesh-food? To this question Mr. lVilliams answers: “ I reply that we certainly cannot if the cheese is eaten raw; but have no doubt that we may if it be suitably cooked. Hence the paramount importance of this part of my subject. A Swiss or Scandinavian mountaineer can and does digest and assimilate raw cheese as a staple article of food, and proves its nutritive value by the result; but feebler bipeds of the lains and towns cannot do the like. “ n the fatherland of my randfather, Louis Gabriel Mat- tieu, one of the commonest ishes of the easant who tills his own freehold and grows his own foo is a ‘ fondevin.’ This is a mixture of cheese and eggs, the cheese grated and beaten into the eg as in making omelets, with a small addi- tion of new milk or butter. It is placed in a little pan like a flower-pot saucer, cooked gently, served as it comes off the fire, and eaten from the vessel in which it is cooked. I have made many ahearty dinner on one of these, has a lump of black bread and a small bottle of genuine but t in wine; the cost of the whole banquet at a little auberge being usually less than sixgence. The cheese is in a pasty condition. and partly dissolve in the milk or butter. I have tested the sustain- ing power of such a meal by doing some very stiff mountain- climbing and lo g-fasting after It. It is rather too good- over-nutritious— or a man only doing sedentary work. “A diluted and delicate modification of this may be made by taking slides of bread, or bread and butter, soaking them in a. batter made of eggs or milk—without flour—then pla- cing the slices of soaked bread in a pie-dish, covering each With a thick coating of grated cheese. and thus building up a stratified deposit to fil the dish. The surglus batter may be poured over the top; or, if time is allows for saturation, the trouble of reliminary soaking may be saved by simply pouring all the atter thus. This, when gently baked, sup- plies a delicious and highly nutritious dish. We call it cheese-pudding at home, but my own experience convinces me that we ma 'e a mistake in using it to supplement the joint. It is far too nutritious for this; its savorv character tempts one to eat it so freely that it would be far wiser to use It as the Swiss peasant uses his jondevz'n—that is, as the one and only dish 0 a good. wholesome dinner. “I have tested its digestibility by eating it heartily for supper. No nightmare has followed. If I sup on a corre- spongfinlgn quantity of raw cheese, my sleep is miserably even u . USE or SALT IN Foon.-—The value of salt in con- nection with our food is much greater than is gen- erally understood among the common people. Common salt is the most widely distributed sub- stance in the body; it exists in every fluid and in every solid; and not only is it everywhere present, but in almost every part it constitutes the largest cians) of pot-ash salts. 704 portion of the ash when any tissue is burned. In particular, it is a constant constituent of the blood, and it maintains in it a proportion that is almost wholly independent of the quantity that is con- sumed with the fobd. The blood will take up so much and no more, however much we may take with our food; and, on the other hand, if none be given, the blood parts with its natural quantity slowly and unwillingly. Under ordinary circumstances, a healthy man loses daily about 12 grains by one channel or the other, and, if he is to maintain his health, that quantity must be introduced. Common salt is of immense importance in the processes ministering to the nutrition of the body, for not only is it the chief salt in the gastric juice, and essential for the formation of bile, and may hence be reasonably regarded as of high value in digestion, but it is an important agent in promot- ing the processes of diffusion, and therefore of ab- sorption. Says the London “Lancet” : “ Direct experiment has shown that salt promotes the de- composition of albumen in the body, acting, probably, by in- creasing the activity of the transmission of fluids from cell to cell. Nothing can demonstrate its value better than the fact that, if albumen without salt is introduced into the in- testine of an animal no portion of it is absorbed, while it all quickly disappears if salt be added. If any further evidence were required, it would be found in the owerful instinct which impels animals to obtain salt. Bu aloes will travel for miles to reach a “salt-lick”; and the value of salt in im- proving the nutrition and the aspect of horses and cattle is well known to every farmer. The popular notion that the use of salt prevents the development of worms in the intes- tine has a foundation in fact, for salt is fatal to the small thread worms, and prevents their reproduction by improv- ing the general tone and the character of the secretions of the alimentary canal. The conclusion, therefore, is obvious that salt, being wholesome, and indeed necessary, should be taken in moderate quantities, and that abstention from it is likely to be injurious.” - DIET FOR THE GoU'rY.——Extended- and carefully noted . experience seems to show that persons troubled with what is called lithic acid diathesis may receive invaluable benefit by the use (under the direction of competent and conscientious physi- Lithic acid (stony acid) combines with potash, forming a solid salt, which is safely excreted. Otherwise it is deposited in some part of the system, producing rheumatism, stone, gravel, gout, and other chronic and exceed- ingly troublesome diseases. The potash required for the purpose exists in several conditions: First, in its uncombined state as caustic potash. This is poison, for the simple reason that it combines so vigorously with organic matter that it would de- compose the digestive organs themselves if pre- sented to them. The lower carbonate is less caus- tic, the bicarbonate nearly, but not quite, neutral. Even this, however, should not be taken as food, be- cause it is capable of combining with the acid con- stituents of the gastric juice. The proper compounds to be used are those which correspond to the salts existing in the juices of vegetables and flesh, namely: compounds of pot- ash with organic acids, such as tartaric acid, which forms the potash salt of the grape; such as citric acid, with which potash is combined in lemons and oranges; malic acid, with which it is combined in apples and many other fruits; the natural acids of vegetables generally; lactic acid in milk, etc. All these acids and many others of similar origin, are composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, held together with such feeble affinity that they are easily dissociated or decomposed by heat. This may be shown by heating some cream of tartar or tartaric acid on a strip of metal or glass. It will become carbonized to a cinder, like other organic matter. If the heat is raised sufficiently,_this cin- der will all burn away to carbonic acid, and water soon in the case of pure acid, or will leave carbonate of potash in the case of cream of tartar or other pot- ash salt. This represents violently what occurs gradually and mildly in the human body, which is in a con- tinuous state of slow combustion so long as it is alive. The organic acids of the potash salts suffer slow combustion, give off their excess of carbonic acid and water to be breathed out, evaporated, and ejected, leaving behind their potash, which com- bines with the otherwise stony lithic acid tormen- ter just when and where he comes into separate existence by the organic actions which effect the above-described slow combustion. If potash be taken in combination with a mineral acid, such as the sulphuric, nitric, or hydrochloric no such decomposition is possible; the bonds uniting the elements of the mineral acid are too strong to be sundered by the mild chemistry of the living body, and the mineral acid, if separated from its potash base, would be most mischievous, as it precipitates the lithic acid in its worst form. For this reason all free mineral acids are poisons to those who have a lithic acid diathesis; they may even create it where it did not previously exist. Hence the iniquity of cheapening the manufacture of lemonade, ginger-beer, etc., by using dilute sul- phuric or hydrochloric acid as a substitute for citric or tartaric acid. ' Speaking generally, it is not to the laboratory of the chemist that we should go for our potash salts, but to the laboratory of Nature, and more especi- ally to that of the vegetable kingdom. They exist in the green parts of all vegetables. This is illus- trated by the manufacture of commercial potash from the ashes of the twigs and leaves of timber trees. The more succulent the vegetable the greater the quantity of potash it contains, though there are some minor exceptions to this. We ex- tract and waste a considerable portion of these salts when we boil vegetables and throw away the potage, which our wiser and more thrifty neighbors add to their every-day menu. When we eat raw vegetables, as in salads, we obtain all their potash. Fruits generally contain important quantities of potash salts, and it is upon these especially that the possible victims of lithic acid should rely. Lemons and grapes contain them most abundantly. Those who cannot afford to buy these as articles of daily food may use cream of tartar, which, when genuine, is the natural salt of the grape. -. Intimately connected with this subject is another vegetable prin,ciple——vegetable jelly, or pectin; the jelly of fruits, of turnips, carrots, parsnips, etc. Fremy has named it pectose. It is so little changed by cookery that an acid may be separated from it which has been named “pectic acid,” the properties and artificial compounds of which appear to sug- gest the theory that the natural jelly of fruits largely consists of pectites of potash or soda or lime. VVe all know the appearance and flavor of current jelly, apple jelly, etc., which are composed of natural vegetable jelly plus sugar. The separation of these jellies is an operation of cookery, and one that deserves more attention than it receives. IV. l\/Iattieu Williams says: “ I shall never forget the rahat lakonm which I once had the privilege of eating in the kitchen of the seraglio of Stamboul, in the absence at the summer palace of the sultana and the other ladies for whom it was prepared. Its basis was thepure pectose of many fruits, the irispissated juices of grapes, _ peaches, pineapples, and I know not what others. The sher- bet was similar, but liquid.” Mr. Gladstone’s advocacy of the extension of fruit culture should be remembered. We shame- FOOLS—FORAGE fully neglect the best of all food in eating and drinking so little fruit. As regards cooked fruit, “jam for the million, jelly for the luxurious, and juice for all.” With these in abundance, the aboli- tion'of alcohol will follow as a necessary result of natural nausea. WASTE or THE Bonv.——Seguin inclosed himself in a bag of glazed taffeta which was tied over him, no other opening than a hole corresponding to his mouth, the edges of which were glued to his lips. He carefully weighed himself before and after his inclosure. He found that the largest quantity of insensible exhalations from the lungs and skin to- gether amounted to three and a half ounces per hour, or five and a quarter pounds per day; the smallest quantity was one pound fourteen ounces; and the mean, three pounds and eleven ounces. Three-fourths of this was cutaneous. Valentin found that his hourly loss by cutane- ous exhalation, while sitting, amounted to 32.8 grams, or rather less than one and a quarter ounce. On taking exercise, with an empty stomach in the sun, the hourly loss increased to 89.3 grams, or nearly three times as much. After a meal followed by violent exercise, with the tem- perature of the air at 720 Fahrenheit, it amounted to 132.7 grams, or nearly four and a half times as much as during repose. A robust man, taking violent exercise in hot weather, may give off as much as five pounds in an hour. The third excretion from the skin, the epithelial or superficial scales of the epidermis, is small in weight, but it is solid, and of similar composition to gelatin. It should be understood that this in- creases largely with exercise. STRENGTH, 0R VVORK FoRcE, OBTAINED FRoM Foon. —A practical dietary or menu seems to be demanded, say, for athletes in full work, another for sedentary people doing little work of any kind. According to the results from the experiments by Joule and Frankland, the best possible food for the first class is fat, butter being superior to lean beef in the proportion of 14.421 to 2.829 (Smith), beef-fat having nearly eight times the value of lean beef. Ten grains of rice give 7.454 foot pounds of working power, while the same quantity of lean beef gives only 2.829; according to which one pound of rice should supply as much support to hard workers as two and a half pounds of beef- steak. THE POSSIBLE Foon SUP1>LY.—The productive agri— -cultural area of the world is 46,000,000 square miles, of which 28,000,000 are fertile enough to produce 25 bushels of wheat per acre. The estimated popula- tion of the world is 1,468,000,000. The known produc- tive area of the world would feed nearly 6,000,000,000, -or nearly four times the present population, with- -out any increase in the present inferior product, which, if doubled by good cultivation, would be sufiicient for a population of 12,000,000,000, or more than eight times the present number of the human race. A distinguished gentleman in a recent ad- dress before the British Association, after express- ing his acceptance of the above estimates as reli- able, argued that there is no room at present for the fear that population will overtake the produc- tion of food, and that farmers will enjoy the privi- lege of putting their own price upon their products. -On the contrary, he thinks that production will, for .a long time to come, be actually in advance of the ‘requirements of the population. OOLS, FESTIVAL or, a medieeval Christian feast, -simulating the saturnalia, celebrated in many countries of Europe, but particularly in France. It fell chiefly on the 1st of January in each year, ibut more or less occupied the whole period be- T05 tween Christmas and Epiphany. In its observance, the chief performers were of the lower clerical orders, and the professed aim was to interest the young and the ignorant in the Advent,but it became a mere travesty of all the more sacred rites of Christianity, and was condemned by prelates and councils. FOOL’S PARSLEY, an umbelliferous plant, a common poisonous weed in gardens and fields in most parts of Europe. It resembles parsley in its foliage and general appearance, so that serious ac- cidents have occurred from its being mistaken for that herb. FOOT: in music, a term used in the same way as in poetry, denoting a sort of melodic figure of notes with only one accent. Foot is also used in speaking of the pitch of sounds. The Germans have always used the word Fusston in representing the pitch of the different stops of an organ. As a unison stop is called an eight-foot stop, because in this case the pipe is about eight feet long, an octave stop is called a four-foot stop, a double or suboctave stop a 16-foot stop, etc. FOOTE, ANDREW HULL (1806-63), a U. S. naval officer. He entered the navy as midshipman in 1822, became lieutenant in 1830, and in 1849 was made captain. At the beginning of the civil war he was put in command of the Western flotilla. In 1862 he received a vote of thanks from Congress for services rendered, and was made rear-admiral. In the following year he was chosen to succeed Rear-Admiral Dupont; but while on his way to assume command of the fleet, which was off Charles- ton, he died of a wound received a year pre- vious. FOOTE, HENRY STUART (1800-80), a U. S. Sena- tor. He was admitted to the bar in 1822; ac- quired an extensive practice in Jackson, Miss, and in 1844 was a Presidential elector. From 1847 to 1852 he was a U. S. Senator, and then served as governor of his State till 1854. He was subse- quently a member of the Confederate Congress. After the civil war Gen. Grant made him superin- tendent of the U. S. Mint at New Orleans. He held this position till shortly before his death. FOOTE, SAMUEL AUGUSTUS (1780-1846), a U. S. Senator. He served in the Connecticut legisla- ture for several years, and in 1819-21, and again in 1823-25, was a member of Congress. In 1827- 33 he occupied a seat in the U. S. Senate. He, was again in Congress in 1833-34, and then was gover- nor of Connecticut for one term. In 1844 he was a Presidential elector. FOOTE, IVILLIAM HENRY (1794-1869), an Ameri- can Presbyterian clergyman. He was licensed to preach in 1818, and in 1824 was ordained pastor of the church at Romney, IV. V a. In 1838 he became agent of the central board of foreign missions of the Presbyterian church. From 1845 to 1861 he was again pastor at Romney, and superintendent of the academy. In the latter year he was chosen agent for Hampden-Sidney College. FOOT—WASHING (see MAUNDY Tnunsn.-nr, Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 635-36). The washing of feet, as a religious ceremony; is regularly prac- ticed by the Dunkers and the Winebrennarians or Church of God, to commemorate Christ’s wash- ing of the feet of his disciples as recorded in John 13:4-17. - 'FORAGE, hay, straw, and oats, supplied to horses of officers and soldiers in the army. Where troops are together the provisions of forage de- volves on the commissariat. Ofiicers of the staff, etc., who are entitled to horses, but whose duties are at stations where bodies of horses are not col- lected, receive a money allowance, in lieu of forage 2-8 - 706 in kind, varying according to the place and price of provender. _ ~ FORAGE CROPS. See GRASSES, in these Revi- sions and Additions. FORAKER, J osnrn BENsoN, ex-governor of Ohio, born in 1846. He entered the army when sixteen years of age, and served to the end of the war. He attained the brevet rank of captain, and when his regiment was mustered out he was aid on Gen. H. W. Slocum’s staff. In 1869 he was admitted to the bar, and from 1879 to 1882 was judge of the Cincinnati superior court. He was governor of Ohio from 1886 to 1890. FORAMEN: in anatomy, any natural opening through a bone, especially‘ a nerve-passage. FORBES, ARCHIRALD, an eminent journalist, born in Morayshire, Scotland, in 1838, and educated at Aberdeen. He served some years in the Royal Dragoons. He was correspondent of the “Daily News” through the _Franco-Prussian war; during the Prince of Wales’s Indian tour, and in the Russo- Turkish and South African campaigns. In 1879 he rode 110 miles in 15 hours to report the victory of Ulundi. He has published a number of books de- tailing his experiences, and has lectured in Great Britain, America, and Australia. FORCE, PETER (1790-1868), an American histo- rian. For a time he was foreman of a printing office in Bloomingdale, N. J ., and in 1812 was pres- ident of the New York Typographical Society. In 1815 he removed to ~Washington, D. C. Here he was engaged in the publishing business, and from 1823 to 1830 edited and published the “National Journal.” In 1833 he was authorized by Congress to compile a vast work, to be called the American Archives, a Documentary History of the English Col- onies in North America, covering a period from the discovery of America to the final ratification of the Constitution of the United States. About one- fourth of Mr. Force’s work was completed when it was discontinued by Secretary Marcy. His collection of material was sold to Congress for $100,000. He published other works of historical importance. In 1836-40 he was mayor of Washington. FORCENE, said, in heraldry, of a horse when rearing, or standing on his hind legs. . FORCING: in gardening, the artificial applica- tion of heat to accelerate vegetation. Many of the fruits and vegetables which grow well in the open air are very commonly forced in order that they may be procured at seasons when they could not be without artificial means. FORD, FoRDINe. When a river or rivulet is crossed without the aid of either a bridge or ferry it is said to be forded, and an established place for this crossing is called a ford. To the military en- gineer and the traveler in wild countries, the selection of the safest place for fording a river is a matter of some practical importance. The widest part of the river should be chosen, as, wherever a certain quantity of water is flowing, the wider its bed, the rapidity of the flow being the same, the more shallow it must be. FORD, MELRoURNE H., a lawyer, born in Saline, Mich., June 30, 1849. He was educated at the Michigan Agricultural College and the United States Naval Academy; served in the United States Navy during the latter part of the civil war; en- tered the profession of law in 1878, and was for several years official stenographer of different Michigan courts. In politics a Democrat, he was elected a member of the State legislature in 1885 and 1886. He was elected a representative from the Fifth Congressional District of Michigan to the 50th, and in 1890 was elected from the same Dis- trict to the 52d Congress. FORAGE CROPS--FORESTRY FORDHAM, 10 miles from Grand Central Depot, New York, was in 1874 annexed to that city. It contains St. John’s College, a Roman Catholic theological school, academy for ladies, female deaf-mute asylum, and other educational institu- tions. FORE, a term applied to the front or foremost part of a ship. The forecastle is that portion of the upper deck extending from the foremast to the bow. The forehold is that part of the hold inter- vening between the cutwater and the foremast. Foremast is the first of the three masts. The fore- braces are ropes passing from the extremities of the foreyard into the maintop, whence they descend through pulleys to the deck, where they serve, when necessary, to alter the direction presented by the foresail to the wind. FOREKNOWLEDGE, knowledge that precedes the occurrence of the thing known; the absolute knowledge, or the omniscience of God. FORELAND, NORTH and SoUTH, two promon- tories of England, on the east coast of Kent, be- tween which are the Downs and Goodwin Sands. North Foreland, in lat. 51° 22' N. and long. 1° 26' E., consists of chalky cliffs, nearly 200 feet high, upon which is erected a light-house 85 feet high. South Foreland, 16 miles south of North Foreland, in lat. 51° 8' N., 1° 22' E., also has a light-house. FOREST—FLY, or I-IORSE-FLY, a dipterous insect, parasitic on horses, oxen, ‘etc., frequent in forests. It is a small insect, about four lines long, of a shining brown color, with some yellow. The insect passes the larval stage and becomes a pupa within the mother. FOREST MARBLE, a member of the Lower Oiilite. The principal bed is a fissile limestone, containing large numbers of dark-colored shells, and capable of sustaining a fine polish. On this account it is used to some extent as “marble.” It is interstratified with blue marls and shales, and fine oolitic sandstones. The whole thickness of the group seldom exceeds forty feet. FOREST OAK, a name sometimes given in com- merce to the timber of Casuarina torulosa, and other species of Casuarina, Australian trees. This timber, which is a light yellowish-brown, and prettily marked with short red veins, is used for ornamental work. FORESTRY. On Jan. 1, 1891, the forest area in the United States was, according to a\careful esti- mate made by the chief of the Forestry Division, United States Department of Agriculture, 481,764,- 599 acres. The present annual requirements for consumption of forest products in the United States are, approximately, over 20,000,000,000 cubic feet, made up of the following items: Lumber market and manufactures, 2,500,000,000 cubic feet; railroad construction, 500,000,000 cubic feet; charcoal, 250,- 000,000 cubic feet; fences, 500,000,000 cubic feet; fuel, 17,500,000,000 cubic feet; mining timber, 150,- 000,000 cubic feet. In addition to these items of consumption, forest fires annually destroy the prod- ucts ofhundreds of thousands of acres of forest. At the present rate of destruction, therefore, the remainder of forest land in the United States can- not long meet the enormous demands on its re- sources. Some of the most important timbers for building purposes are already practically extinct, such as the merchantable white pine of the North- west and of New England, while of the long-leaf pine of the South only about 1,500,000,000 cubic feet remam. . Various measures have been adopted for the preservation of the forests. In 1885 the State of New York instituted a Forest Commission, with extensive powers. California, Colorado, and New FORESTRY Hampshire have also created Forest Commissions, while Ohio, Kansas, and Pennsylvania have For- estry Bureaus. For several years a national organ- ization, known as the American Forestry Associa- tion, composed of delegates from each of the States, has met annually, the ninth annual meeting having been held at Washington, D. C., in December, 1890. In order to encourage forest planting on the tree- less prairies of the West, the Timber Culture act, of the United States provides that a citizen, or one who has declared his intention to become such, if the head of a family, or a single person over twenty- one years of age, may acquire title to 160 acres of the public domain, on cultivating 10 acres of trees thereon for eight years. That this enactment has not been barren of results will appear from the fol- lowing statement of the number of acres entered annually under the Timber Culture act, from July 1, 1872 to J une 30, 1890, inclusive: Year ending June 30. Acres. Year ending June 30. Acres. 1873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50, 2,546,686 1874 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851,226 1883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,110,930 1875 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473,694 1884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-1,084,464 1876 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599,918 1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,755,006 1877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524,552 1886 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,391, 9 1878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,902,038 1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,224,397 1879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,775,503 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,735,305 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,169,484 1889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,551,069 1881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,763,799 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,787,403 In 1874 the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture recommended that the second Wednesday of April in each year be designated as a day to be dedicated to the planting of trees. The suggestion was adopted, and since then no less than 37 of the States and Territories have, by legislative enact- ment or otherwise, set apart a day to be annually devoted to tree-planting, known as Arbor Day. Latterly the interest in this annual observance has been greatly augmented by inducing the pupils of the public schools to take part in its celebra- tion. INFLUENCE OF Fonnsrs ON WATER SUPPLY.—-That forests increase the rainfall of a region isnow gen- erally conceded. In the annual report of the Sec- retary of Agriculture for the year 1889, the Chief of the Forestry Division says that the water capital of the earth consists of fixed capital and circulating capital. The first is represented not only in the waters on the earth, but also by that amount of water which remains suspended in the atmosphere, being part of the original atmospheric water masses which, after the rest had fallen to the cooled earth, remained suspended and is never precipitated. The circulating water capital is that part which is evaporated from water surfaces, from the soil, from vegetation, and which, after having temporarily been held by the atmosphere in quan- tities locally varying according to the variations in temperature, is returned again to the earth by precipitation in rain, snow and dew. ‘There it is ~ evaporated again, either immediately or after hav- ing percolated through the soil and been retained for a shorter or longer time before being returned to the surface; or, without such percolation, it runs through open channels to the rivers and seas, con- tinually returning in part into the atmosphere by evaporation. Practically, then, the total amount of Water capital remains constant; only one part of it -—the circulating capital—changes in varying quan- tities its location, and is of interest more with reference to its local distribution, and the channels by which it becomes available for human use and vegetation, than with reference to its practically unchanged total quantity. ' As to the amount of this circulating water capi- tal we have no knowledge; hardly an approximate estimate of the amount circulating in any given 10- 707 cality is possible with our present means of meas- urement; for it appears that so unevenly is the pre- cipitation distributed that two rain-gauges almost side by side will indicate varying amounts, and much of the moisture which is condensed and pre- cipitated in dews escapes observation or at least measurements entirely. Thus it occurs that while the amount of water calculated to be discharged an- nually by the River Rhone into the sea appears to correspond to a rain-fall of 4-1 inches, the records give only a precipitation over its water-shed of 27.6 inches. . The distribution of the circulating water capital is influenced by various agencies. The main factor which sets the capital afloat is the sun, which, by its heat and the air currents caused by it, and by the rotation of the earth, produces the evaporation which fills the atmosphere with vapor. Anything, therefore, that influences the intensity of insolation, the action of the sun, or obstructs the passage of winds, must influence the local distribution of the water capital. The great cosmic influences which produce the variability of all climatic conditions, and therefore also of the circulating water capital, are the positions of the earth’s axis to the sun, by which the angle and therefore the heat value of the sun’s rays vary in different parts of the earth and at different times of the year; the distribution of land and water areas, which produces a difference of insolation because the water has less heat ca- pacity than the land, and which also influences the direction of air and sea currents; and the configur- ation of the earth, by which the density of the at- mosphere is made unequal, and in consequence of which differences of insolation and of air tempera- ture are induced. Thus we have not only climatic-. zones, but also continental climates and mountain climates, in opposition to coast climates and plains or valley climates. Among the factors which modify the cosmic climate and help to produce a. local climate differing from other local climates, the soil-cover, especially the presence of forest areas, is one that, under certain conditions, is po- tent. In the discussions which have prevailed hitherto it has been overlooked that the idea of what con- stitutes a forest is not only an exceedingly variable one, but that without a definite understanding of what constitutes the forest we cannot discuss its in- fluence. It is clear that the influence of the forest, if any, will be due mainly to its action as a cover protecting soil and air against insolation and against winds. That the nature of a cover, its density, thickness, and its proper position, has everything to do with the amount of protection it. affords will readily be admitted. A mosquito net is a cover, so is a linen sheet or a woolen blanket, yet the protection they afford is different in de-- gree and may become practically none. It will also be conceded that it makes a great difference whether the cover be placed before or behind the wind. Just so with the influence of the forest; it makes all the difference whether we have to do with a deciduous or a coniferous, a dense or an open, a young low or an old high growth, and what position it occupies with reference to other climatic elements, especially to prevailing winds and water surfaces. In this discussion, unless differently stated, when the word forest is used a dense growth of timber is meant. The question of forest influence on water sup- plies can be considered under three heads, namely, influence upon precipitation or distribution of at- mospheric water; influence upon conservation of available water supplies, and influence upon the distribution or “ run-off ” of these supplies. 4 708 INFLUENCE Urorr PRECIPITATION: New evidence is constantly accumulating which shows that under certain conditions forest areas obtain larger precip- itations than open grounds—that is, they increase at least the amount of precipitation over their own immediate and near-lying areas. Of the prominent meteorologists who believe in such an influence, is the well known Russian, Dr. A. VVoeikoff, from whose latest publication, Climates of the Earth, pub- lished in the Russian language, we quote: It would appear as if in winter the difference in the amount of rainfall within and without the woods cannot be reat, as the absolute amount of va or is small and the dif- erence between the relative humi ity within and without the woods is insignificant. This is, however, not the case, for two reasons: First, the clouds fioat in winter at a lower level than in summer, hence the mechanical resistance pre- sented by the woods is more effective in winter, as it can more easily reach the strata of the atmosphere in which the clouds are moving. This resistance causes the air to rise and thus favor the formation of precipitation. Secondly, in winter the prevailing winds are generally charged with moisture and precipitation is of longer duration, so that the above-named causes act for a longer time. In the spring and beginning of winter the woods contrib- ute more or less to the increase ofprecipitation. At this time of the year evaporation is very actively goin on outside the ' woods on the surface of the meadows and fie ds. During the winter the soil has been well stocked with moisture, which is now evaporated by the action of the processes of vegetable life and the direct access of the sun. It is probable that during this period both the possible and the actual evapora- tion are greater without than within the forest, evaporation being here understood as the sum of all water evaporated both by the soil and the plants from a given area. In the middle of summer or toward the beginning of au- tumn the soil outside the woods begins partly to dry up, and cannot any more yield as much moisture for the evaporation of the plants as in the beginning of summer; on the other hand, the vegetable processes following upon the blooming (the ripening of the seeds) require less moisture. But in the leaved woods evaporation continues in full force to the end of the summer, and in coniferous woods the evaporating sur- face remains approximately the same in the course of the whole year; at t e same time the moisture preserved in the soil through shade and protection from wind continues to furnish sufficient material for eva oration. Consequently, just at the time when meadows an fields begin to evaporate ess, it goes on as before in the forests. This gives rise to a great difference between the amount of moisture contained in the air within and near the woods, and outside the woods in open places. Moist air more easily reaches the point of saturation and condensation than dry air. The following point is also to be noticed. Forests, especi- ally pine woods, must condense a great deal of moisture in winter when air nearly saturated with vapor passes over them; this gives rise to copious formations of hoar frost, which will fall to the ground and increase the mass of snow in the woods. This phenomenon has never been accurately ob- served and measured; but careful observation will convince anybody that wherever the temperature for several consecu- tive mont-hs remains below zero (as is the case in Northern Europe), a considerable amount of hoar frost is in this way collected, since the air is highly charged with moisture, and besides, the average forceo the wind is ‘greater in winter than in any other season. In hot and moist climates, where the absolute amount of vapor in the air is great (for instance in many tropical countries), the enormous surface presented by the leaves of forest trees condenses a great quantity of water on ever clear and calm night, so that this water cannot be retaine on the leaves and falls to the ground; the observer gets the impression of a heavy rainfall. This was specially pointed out by the celebrated Boussingault, who observed it in South America. Thus ,.a certain part of the} moisture evapo- rated by the leaves during the day returns at night, and the dew is so copious as to moisten the soil under the trees. Dr. Woeikoif then goes on to show that in tropical and sub-tropical countries the presence of woods has a far greater influence in mitigating the tem- perature during the hot and dry months of April and May than the proximity of th”e sea. Without further discussing the influence of the forest upon quantity and distribution of rainfall, it may be said that many observations and the philosophy of meteorological forces lend counte- nance to the following statements: (1) During the time of vegetation large quanti- ties of vapor are transpired and evaporated by a forest, by which the absolute humidity of the air Ibove the forest is increased; and since, on ac- FORESTRY count of the cooler temperature which prevails over and within a forest, the relative humidity is also greater, the tendency to condensation is in- creased. (2) This moister and cooler air stratum commu- nicated to the neighboring locality must increase the dew, at least, over the neighboring field. (3) This relatively moister air stratum,carried away by air currents, has the tendency to induce precipitation at such places, especially where the additional influence favorable to precipitation—- namely, increased altitude-——exists; therefore, (4) While the forest may not everywhere increase precipitation over its own area, yet a large system of forests over an extensive area will influence the quantity of precipitation over and within this area. (5) It must never be overlooked that there are certain rain conditions prevailing in climatic zones (rainy or rain-poor localities, with periodical, sea- sonal, or irregular rains) which are due to cosmic influences and cannot be altered, but may be locally modified by forest cover. Hence, experiences in one climatic zone cannot be utilized for deduc- tions in another. - DISPOSAL OF VVATER SUPPLIES: Given a certain amount of precipitation in rain or snow over a cer- tain area, the disposal of the water after it has fallen and the influence of the forest cover on its disposal require our attention. For the sake of convenience the elements which need consideration may be divided into elements of dissipation, ele- ments of conservation, and elements of distribu- tion. The difference in effect between the first two classes of elements will give an idea of the amount of available water supply or run-off re- sulting from precipitation; while the third class bears upon the methods of distributing the avail- able water supply. Elements of dissipation are those which diminish the available water supplies; they are represented in the quantity of water which is prevented by in- terception from reaching the ground, in ‘the quan- tity dissipated by evaporation, in the quantity used by plants in their growth, and in transpira- tion during the process of growing. The amount of rainfall and snow which is prevented by a for- est growth from reaching the soil varies consider- ably according to the nature of the precipitation and to the kind of trees which form the forest, as well as to the density and age of the growth. A light drizzling rain of short duration may be al- most entirely intercepted by the foliage and at once returned to the atmosphere by evaporation; if, however, the rain continues, although fine, the water will run off at last from the foliage and along the trunks. This amount, of which the rain- gauge takes no account, represents, according to measurements of the Austrian stations, from 8 to 14 per cent.; thus reducing considerably the loss to the soil. While the careful measurements at the Swiss stations in a 12 years’ average show the intercep- tion in a larch forest as 15 per cent., in a spruce forest 23 per cent., in a beech growth 10 per cent.; the figures for the Prussian stations are, for beech growth, 24 per cent., and for spruce at various sta- tions 22 per cent., 27 per cent., and 34 er cent., re- spectively. Altogether, for the rainfal conditions ofthe countries cited, a dense forest growth will, on the average, intercept 23 per cent. of the precip- itation; but if allowance be made for the water running down the trunks, this loss is reduced to not more than 12 per cent. The amount of interception in the open growths Which characterize many of our western forest areas would be considerably smaller, especially as FORESTRY the rains usually fall with great force, and much of the precipitation is in the form of snow. Al- though branches and foliage catch a goodly amount of this, the winds usually shake it down, and conse- quently but very little snow is lost to the ground by interception of the foliage. There is also a certain amount of water inter- cepted by the soil cover and held back by the soil itself, which must be saturated before any of it can run off or drain away. This amount, which is eventually dissipated by evaporation and transpi- ration, depends, of course, upon the nature of the soil and its cover, especially upon their capacity to absorb and retain water. The loss by evaporation, after the water has ‘ reached the ground, depends, in the first place,upon the amount of direct insolation of the soil; hence its temperature, which again influences the tem- perature of the air. If the loss by evaporation from an open field be compared with that of a for- est-covered ground, it will, as a matter of course, be found to be less in the latter case, for the shade not only reduces the influence of the sun upon the soil, but also keeps the air under its cover rela- tively moister, therefore less capable of absorbing moisture from the soil by evaporation. In addition, the circulation of the air is impeded between the trunks; and this influence upon available water supply-—the wind-breaking power of the forest—— must be considered as among the most important factors of water preservation. Especially is this the case on the Western plains, and on those \Vest- ern mountain ranges bearing only a scattered tree growth, and where, therefore, the influence of shade is but nominal. \ The evaporation under the influence of the wind is dependent not only on the temperature and dry- ness of the same, but also on its velocity, which, being impeded, the rate of evaporation is reduced. Interesting experiments for the purpose of ascer- taining the changes in the rate of evaporation ef- fected by the velocity of the wind were made by Prof. T. Russell, J r.. of the United States Signal Service, in 1887. These experiments were made with Piche’s hygrometers whirled around on an arm 28 feet in length, the results of which were compared with those from a tin dish containing 40 cubic centimeters of water exposed under shelter. These results were obtained: with the temperature of the air at 84 degrees and a relative humidity of 50 per cent., evaporation at 5 miles an hour was 2.2 times greater than in a calm; at 10 miles, 3.8; at 15 miles, 4.9; at 20 miles, 5.7 ; at 25 miles, 6.1 ; and at 30 miles the wind would evaporate 6.3 times as much water as a calm atmosphere of the same tem- perature and humidity. As the average velocity of the winds which constantly sweep the VVestern sub-arid plains is from 10 to 15 miles, not rarely attaining a maximum of 50 and more miles, the cause of the aridity is not far to seek, and the function of the timber belt, or even simple wind- break, can be readily appreciated. The degree of forest influence upon rate of evap- oration by breaking the force of winds is dependent upon the extent and density of the forest, and es- pecially on the height of the trees; for according to an elementary law of mechanics, the influence which breaks the force of the wind is felt at a con- siderable elevation above the trees. This can be practically demonstrated by passing along a tim- ber plantation on the wind-swept plains. Even a thin stand of young trees not higher than five feet will absolutely calm the air within a considerable distance and height beyond the shelter. The following extract from the letter of a farmer in Illinois to the United States Secretary of Agri- culture indicates the actual experience of the VVestern farmers in regard to the value of wind- breaks on the prairies and plains: My experience is, that now in cold and stormy winters wheat protected by timber belts yields full crops, while fields not protected yield only one-third of a crop. Twenty-five or thirty years ago we never had any wheat killed by winter frost, and every year a full crop of peaches, which is now very rare. At that time we had plenty of timber around our fields and orchards, now cleared away. The damage done to crops by the cold, dry winter winds is mainly due to rapid evaporation, and plants are liable to suffer as much by winter drought as by summer drought. Rationally dis- posed timber belts alone will do much to in- grease available water supply by reducing evapora- ion. Various experiments comparing the rate of evaporation within and without a forest are re- corded in the following table, which refers to evap- oration from a water surface in the open field on the one hand and within the shelter of the forest on the other. It is shown that under ordinary cir- cumstances evaporation may, under forest cover, be decreased from two to three times. Evaporation of a water surface from April to October, expressed in centimeters: ' Without Within District. the the Ratio. Forest. Forest. Eastern France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41.2 13.2 312 to 100 Alsatian Mountains . . . . . . . . . . .. 33.5 15.9 211 to 100 Bavaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37.7 15.8 239 to 100 Brandenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39.9 16.3 2-15 to 100 Silesian Mountains . . . . . . . . . . .. 26.7 10.6 250 to 100 Eastern Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25.2 12.0 210 to 100 The reason for this influence of the forest, as has been stated, is due not only to the impeded air cir- culation, but also to the temperature and moisture conditions of the forest soil and forest air. The greater humidity of the atmosphere under forest cover tends also to reduce evaporation. The tem- perature, especially during the warm months, being considerably lower in the forest interior, the air receives less moisture in proportion from the soil and lower vegetation. A cubic foot of forest air contains in the average less moisture than a cubic foot of air over a cultivated field under other- wise similar conditions. While thus the absolute amount of moisture in the forest air is really less, the relative humidity is greater; that is, the air of the forest being of lower temperature is nearer the state of saturation. All vegetation takes up a certain amount of water, a part of which is consumed in building up its body, and a still larger part returned to the at- mosphere by transpiration during the process of growth. The quantity of water so used is as vari- able as the amount of precipitation, and, in fact, within certain limits depends largely upon it. That is to say, a plant will transpire in proportion to the amount of water which is at its disposal. Transpi- ration is also dependent on the stage of develop- ment of the plant, on the nature of its leaves and amount of its foliage, on temperature, humidity, and circulation of the air, on intensity of the sun- light, and on temperature and structure of the soil, and other meteorological conditions. Rain and dew reduce transpiration. wind increases it. The amounts transpired by agricultural crops and other low vegetation, weeds, etc., are exhibited in 709 . 7m the following table, which gives the results of the latest investigations by VVollny : Water con- sumption per acre. Agricultural crops. Time of vegetation. Pounds, Winter rye . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 20-Aug. 3, 1879 2,590,186 Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 20-Aug. 3. 1879 2,720,238 Peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 20—Aug. 3, 1879 3,144,128 Red clover (1st season) April 20-Oct. 1, 1879 3,070,012 Summer rye . . . . . . . . . .. April 20-Aug.14, 1880 3,000,486 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 20-Sept. 14, 1880 3,422,584 Beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 20-Sept.10, 1880 3,139,233 Red clover (2d season) April 20-Oct. 1, 1880 4,109,198 Since this water is given off again to the atmos- phere in the locality where it has fallen—thus re- enriching the atmospheric moisture-it may be considered as part of the circulating water capital, which does its duty in producing useful substance and in conserving moisture for the locality. There is one other element of conservation effect- ing water supplies which requires special mention. This is the retardation in the melting of the snow which is due to forest-cover. According to Dr. Buehler, of Zurich, this retardation in Switzerland amounts to from five to eight days in general, and may, according to weather conditions, be several weeks, thus giving a longer period for distribution. The evergreen coniferous forest in this respect naturally does better service than the deciduous one. ELEMENTS or DISTRIBUTION.—Th6 distribution or “ run-off ” of the available water supply is almost as important a factor, and often more important. in the economy of the water than the quantity of available supply itself, and the manner in which this takes place influences considerably the ulti- mate availability of the supply for human use. There are two methods of distribution or run-ofi ; namely, the superficial or surface run-ofi and the underground run-oil“, resulting in springs which eventually change into open runs, brooks, and rivers. The water capacity of soils and soil-covers has been referred to as an element of interception. With reference to the run-off, this capacity becomes influential in determining the manner of run-ofl’. As soon as the soil-cover and upper soil strata are saturated, and especially when the latter are im- impermeable and the rain continues, either no wa- ter or only a small part gradually can find entrance into the soil, and the run-off becomes superficial, or, if the ground be not sloping, stagnant water re- sults. For every forest there is, therefore, a time when the superficial run-off would be no more im- peded than from an open field of similar conditions but for the retardation by the trunks, underbrush, and roots. This time, however, occurs later in the forest than on the unforested and especially naked soil, because the water capacity of the soil-cover as well as of the protected soil, is greater than that of the naked soil or that covered with field-crops. Since the forest-cover has a tendency to preserve the granular porous structure of the soil, which is favorable to filtration, and as, moreover, the roots furnish channels for unimpeded drainage, it must have the tendency, other things being equal, to al- low a more rapid filtration than the naked, mostly compacted soil. The temperature appears to have an influence favorable to rapid filtration in the forest; for, according to Pfaif, in the field during winter three-quarters of the precipitation will sink to two feet depth in the soil, and not more than ten to thirty per cent. in summer. FOREY—FORLORNIHOPE With regard to the superficial run-ofl’, without any evidence furnished by experiments, we can at once understand that it is impeded by any kind of mechanical obstruction, such as is offered by the vegetation of a meadow or forest. The great num- ber of inequalities which the forest floor offers, in addition to the trunks and stumps and fallen trees, subjects the run-off to many detours, thus retardin its flow and its collection in the open runs an brooks. This retardation is increased by the me- chanical obstruction which the crowns of the trees exert upon the rainfall. Every leaf, every twig breaks the force and retards the fall of the rain- drops, allowing those fallen before to pene- trate the soil. The devious ways in which it reaches the soil make the flow of water from a forest-covered hill longer in time than if the rain had fallen on a bare slope. This mechani- cal effect is further favorable to the penetration of water into the soil, as it prevents the rain from compacting the soil; preserving thereby its mellow condition, which is destroyed on the open field by the force of the raindrops. It also allows more time for the absorption of water by the soil. There is, in fact, no influence of the for- est of more moment in the distribution of the avail- able water supplies than the mechanical retarda- tion of the “run-off,” while in the conservation of supplies the retarding influence upon evaporation is the potent one. FOREY, ELIE FREDERIC, a French marshal, born at Paris, Jan. 10, 1804, died there June 20, 1872. He was educated at Dijon, graduated at the military school of St.-Cyr in 1822, and was engaged in the Algerine campaigns of 1830, 1835, and 1840, return- ing to France a colonel. He took an active part in the coup d’état of December, 1851, and was made general of division and commander of the Legion of Honor in 1852. In the war with Russia he was for a short time in command of the French forces before Sebastopol, and during the Italian war in 1859 defeated the Austrians at the battle of Monte- bello. Gen. Forey commanded the French expe- dition against Mexico, captured the city of Puebla, May 17, 1863, and entered the capital June 10. For these successes he was made a marshal. On his return to France he had command of an army corps and of the camp of Chalons. FORFEITURE, a term in law which includes the various cases in which a person is penally de- prived of property. , FORIO, or Foam, a town of Italy, on the west coast of the island of Ischia, 16 miles southwest of Pozzuoli. Population, 6,407. FORISFAMILIATION,the separation of a child from the family of his father. A child is said to be forisfamiliated either when he marries or when he receives from his father a separate stock, the profits of which are enjoyed by himself, though he may still reside with his father. The same result is also brought about when a child renounces his legal share of the father’s free movable property due to him on the death of the latter. FORKED-BEARD, a gadoid fish (Phycis blen- nioides), found on the European coasts; so called from its barbules. The corresponding species of the United States, P. chuss, P. tennis, and P. regius, are known as hake and as codlings. FORLORN HOPE, a body of men selected to at- tempt a breach, or to lead in scaling the wall of a fortress. The name is given on account of the extreme danger to which the leaders of a storm- ing party are necessarily exposed. As, however, the honor of success is proportionate to the peril of the undertaking, there is ordinarily no lack of volunteers for this arduous service. The for- FORMATION—FORREST lorn hope is called by the Germans Die rerlornen Posten. FORMATION: in geology, a term applied to a group of strata united by some character which they have in common, whether of age, origin, or composition, as the coal or chalk formation. FORMES, CHARLES JCHN (1810-90), a German singer. He appeared in various operas in Vienna, Hamburg and London, and gained a reputation as a bass singer of unequaled talent. In 1857 he came to the United States, and appeared with much success in the principal cities of the Union. After a time, his voice becoming impaired by fre- quent hoarseness, he retired from the operatic sta e. FgORMING’S ISLAND, an island on the bosom of the Pacific lying little to the north of the Sand- wich group, or Hawaiian Archipelago, in latitude 300 49’ north, and longitude 1590 20’ west. FORNEY, JCHN WVEISS (1817-81), an American journalist. In 1840 he published the Lancaster, Pa., “Intelligencer and Journal,” a Democratic paper, and in 1845 became surveyor of the port of Philadelphia. From 1851 to 1855 he was clerk of the House of Representatives, and in 1856 was elected chairman of the Pennsylvania Democratic State Committee. In 1859 he was again chosen clerk of the House of Representatives, and in 1861 became secretary of the U. S. Senate. In 1871-72 he became collector of the port of Philadelphia. He edited for a time the Philadelphia “Pennsyl- vania”; became editor of the Washington “Union” in 1851; of the Philadelphia “Press” in 1857; of the \Vashington “Chronicle” in 1859; and in 1879 of “ The Progress” in Philadelphia. FORREST, EDWIN (1806-72), an American actor. He made his début in Philadelphia in 1820, as Douglas in John Home’s tragedy of that name, and his success was immediate. After six years of travel in the West he appeared as Othello in the old Bowery Theater, New York city, and subse- quently several times visited the important cities of both the United States and England. In 1845, while acting Macbeth in London, he was hissed by the audience, and he attributed the hissing to the professional jealousy of the English actor, Mac- ready. In 1849 when Macready appeared in the Astor Place opera house, New York city, the friends of Forrest hissed the performance, and the Astor Place riot ensued, in which 22 men were killed and 36 wounded. Forrest continued to play until 1871, when age and ill-health necessi- tated his retirement. He died of paralysis. . FORREST, NATHAN Bnnronn, soldier, born July 13, 1821, in Bedford county,Tenn., died Oct. 29, 187 7, in Memphis, Tenn. His father removed from Tennessee to Mississippi with his family during the early boyhood of Nathan, and died soon after, leaving a widow and several younger children de- pendent for support upon the future military chieftain, then only fifteen years of age. By energy, industry and perseverance, he continued to main- tain the family and was enabled to give to the younger children a measure of education that cir- cumstances had denied to himself. Indeed, his own education was greatly neglected, and he ar- rived at manhood practically unlettered and so re- mained through life. But his native endowments, both mentally and physically, were extraordinary. He possessed a natural dignity of character and bearing of person that always commanded atten- tion and respect. He pursued the occupation of planter, near Hernando. Miss., until 1852, when he removed to Memphis, Tenn., and engaged in the business of real estate broker and dealer in slaves, in which he achieved financial independence. 711 In 1861, under the call of Isham G. Harris, gov- ernor of Tennessee, he enlisted in the military ser- vice of the State as a private in the Tennessee mounted rifles—was soon afterward commissioned to raise and equip a regiment of cavalry, of which he was made colonel. He was subsequently trans- ferred with all other State troops, from the mili- tary service of Tennessee to that of the Confeder- ate States, in which he continued with eminent and increasing distinction till the close of the civil war in 1865, having been successively pro- moted to the grades of brigadier, major, and lieu- tenant-general. He distinguished himself at the battle of Fort Donelson in February, 1862, where he remonstrated against the surrender of the Confed- erate forces to Gen. Grant, and urgently advised a withdrawal of all the troops from the position during the night. Being answered that this was impracticable, he proved the correctness of his judgment by actually withdrawing his entire regi- ment without molestation by the enemy, before negotiations for a surrender were begun. From this time, till the close of the war, his feats as a cavalry commander were brilliant, not to say phenomenal—displaying great energy of character, splendid courage and precipitate dash; at the same time being guided by a masterly “common sense.” He was possessed of a wonderful faculty for communicating his own faith and fire to his soldiers, whose confidence in his judgment and generalship was unbounded. Early in the war he observed that the topography of the country in which the war was being waged, with its dense forests and other natural obstructions, rendered cavalry fighting strictly as such practically futile. He therefore changed the existing tactics, and used his horses chiefly as a means of rapid trans- portation, and when he encountered the enemy dismounted his soldiers and fought them on foot as infantry. This fact often struck terror to his adversaries, who believed they were fighting well- disciplined infantry, and were bewildered as to how infantry could so suddenly and unexpectedly appear in their midst. Under favorable condi- tions, and especially in pursuit of a routed enemy, he fought his soldiers on horseback. His battles were often won by the swiftness of his movements, the unexpectedness and impetuosity with which he struck his adversary. Being asked after the war to what he ascribed his success in so many actions, he replied: “lVell, I got there first with the most men.” Emergencies were intuitively met with a wise audacity, and in no exigency did he ever lose his presence of mind or fail in his afliu- ence of ready resource. The following are some of his most brilliant and important military achievements: The cap- ture of the Federal garrison at Murfreesboro, Tenn., in July, 1862, with 1,800 prisoners, and mili- tary stores valued at $1,000,000; his campaign in West Tennessee from Dec. 15 to Dec. 31, 1862, or a period of two weeks, during which he fought three well-contested battles near Lexington, at Kenton and Parker’s Cross Roads; destroyed about fifty small bridges on the Mobile and Ohio R. R.; cap- tured 2,500 of the enemy, ten pieces of artillery, 10,000 stand of small arms, and recrossed to the east side of the Tennessee River. thoroughly armed and equipped with recruits suificient to cover all his losses in men; his distinguished part in the capture by Gen. Van Dorn, of 2,200 prisoners at or near Thompson’s Station, Tenn., in 1\i-arch, 1863; his pursuit and capture of Col. Streight and his entire command, 1.700 strong. near Rome, Ga, in May, 1863, with a force of less than 500; his dis- tinguished services in the battle of Chickamauga, 712 where he contributed materially to Gen. Bragg’s victory; his defeat and rout of Gen. Grierson with a greatly superior force near Okolona, Miss., in February, 1864. His storming and capture of Fort Pillow, Tenn., in April, 1864, was a daring feat. It had been charged that after the fort, which refused to sur- render on demand of Gen. Forrest, had been taken, the Federal troops, largely composed of negroes, were given no quarter, but upon an investigation of the facts the charge was not sustained. At the battle of Tishomingo, or Brice’s Cross Roads, Miss., from June 10 to 13, 1864, Forrest fought a splendidly equipped and gallant army under command of Gen. Sturgis, numbering be- tween 8,000 and 9,000, with a force not exceeding one-half of that number. The loss of the Federals in this battle, and the pursuit which followed, was 4,900 in killed, wounded, and captured. His fight at Harrisburgh, Miss., with the greatly superior force of Gen. A. J . Smith July 14, 1864, was desperate and attended with heavy losses, the Federal commander having the advantage of su- perior numbers, and of natural position, strength- ened by fortifications. Forrest was repulsed, but the Federal commander began a retreat to Mem- phis on the following day, closely pursued by the Confederates. His raid into the city of Memphis, strongly gar- risoned, in August 1864, resulting in his capture of 600 prisoners, was one of his handsome but minor affairs. His destruction of three Federal gunboats, 11 transports, 18 barges, magazines and large quanti- ties of quartermaster and commissary stores at J ohnsonville, Tenn., in November, 1864, was amost remarkable and unprecedented feat-especially so, considering the resources at his command. The Federal property destroyed in this affair was valued at $8,000,000. Gen. Sherman in_his book (Memoirs) says of this exploit: “It was a feat of arms which, I confess, excited my admiration.” He distinguished himself at the battle of Frank- lin, Tenn., also by his masterly movements and opportune fighting while covering Gen. Hood’s re- treat from Nashville, Tenn., to Decatur, Ala. He was beaten by Gen. J. H. Wilson with a largely superior force, near Selma, Ala., in April, 1865, and on May 9th following, and after the sur- render of Gen. Lee and Gen. Johnston, he sur- rendered to Gen. Wilson at Gainesville, Ala. Thus closed the military career of one of the most remarkable‘ soldiers, all things considered, of which American history gives an account. After the war he became president of the Selma, Marion and Memphis Railroad, but resigned the same in 1874; Was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in July, 1868. He took an active interest in national politics, and exercised his influence in behalf of sectional reconciliation and national union. In his farewell address to his soldiers, dated May 9, 1865, after he had surrendered to Gen. Wilson, he said: “Civil war, such as you have just passed through, naturally engenders feelings of animosity, hatred, and revenge. It is our duty to divest ourselves of all such feelings; and, as far as in our power, to cultivate friendly feelings toward those with whom we have so long contended, and heretofore so widely, but honestly differed. Neigh- borhood feuds, personal animosities, and private differences should be blotted out; and when you return home, a manly, straightforward course of conduct will secure even the respect of your enemies. Whatever may be your responsibilities to government, to society, or to individuals, meet FORS~TER—FORSTER them like men. * * * I have never on the field of battle sent you where Iwas unwilling to go myself; nor would I now advise you to a course which I felt myself unwilling to pursue. You have been good soldiers, and you can be good citizens. Obey the laws, preserve your honor, and the gov- ernment to which you have surrendered can afford to be, and will be. magnanimous.” A few years before his death, he professed a be- lief in the Christian religion, was baptized and be- camea communicant of the Cumberland Presby- teria_n church, in which faith he died. FORSTER, ERNST JoAcI-IIM. a German painter, and art-writer, born in Mi'1nchengossenstadt,Ba- varia, April 8, 1800, died May 10, 1885. He studied theology and philosophy in the universities of Ber- lin and Jena, but in 1822 abandoned these to devote himself to painting under the instruction of Cor- nelius. He executed various fresco pieces in Bonn and Munich. In 1826 he visited Italy, and com- menced researches in art-history, which he subse- quently pursued in Germany, France, Belgium, and England. The results of his studies are em- bodied in the publications, Letters on Painting (1838); History of German Art (5 vols. 1851-60); Monuments of German Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting (12 vols. 1853-69); biographies of Fra Angelico, J . G. Miiller, Raphael, and Cornelius. At the time of his death he left two large works unfinished, A History of Italian Art and Monuments of Italian Painting. In his researches in Italy he discovered several ancient pictures, notably fres- coes of Avanzo in Padua, which he restored, and works of Raphael and David. FORSTER, HEINRICI-I, a German prelate, born at Grossglogan, Silesia, Nov. 24, 1800, died Oct. 20, 1881. He was educated at the University of Breslau, was ordained priest in 1825, and was for a time chaplain at Liegnitz and afterwards pastor at Landshut. In 1837 he was attached to the cathedral at Breslau, and in 1853 was chosen to succeed Diepenbrock, prince- bishop of Breslau. He was strongly opposed to the doctrine of papal infallibility,'but submitted when it was declared. It was largely due to For- ster’s efforts that the Prussian government was un- successful in its attempt to control ecclesiastical affairs, and for this reason he was suspended from his office in 1875. Among his published works are: H omilien auf die Sonntage des Katholt-“schen Ki-rchen- jahres (1851) ; Der Ruf der Kirche in die Gegenwart (1852) ; Die Christliche Familie (1854) ; and K anzelvor- trage. FORSTER, J OHANN REINHOLD, a German traveler and naturalist, born at Dirschau, in Prussia, in 1729, died at Halle in 1798. In 1753, having studied for the clerical profession, he became pastor at Nassenhuben, near Dantzic. See Fonsrnn, JOIIANN Gnonc ADAM, in Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 418. FORSTER, THOMAS IGNATIUS MARIA (1789-1850), an English meteorologist and physicist. In 1812 he entered the University of Cambridge, and in 1816 be edited an edition of Catullus. In 1817 he pubhshed Observations on the Influence of Particular States of the Atmosphere on liluman Health and Dis- eases; in 1824, The Perennial Calendar, and in 1827 The “Pocket Encyclopaedia of Natural Phenomena. FORSTER, WILHELM, a German astronomer, born at Grunberg, in Silesia, Dec. 16, 1832, and educated at Berhn and at Bonn. He was successively sec- ond and first assistant in the Berlin Observatory, m 1863 became professor extraordinary of astron- omy lIl the_University, and in 1865 succeeded Encke as director. He has published popular sketches of_the history of astronomy and the lives pf distinguished astronomers, and has edited the ‘ Astronomisches J ahrbuch ” since 1865. FORSTER-—FORTIGUERRA FORSTER, WILLIAM, English philanthropist, born at Tottenham, near London, March 23, 1784, died Jan. 27, 1854. He was of Quaker descent, be- came a minister of the Society of Friends in 1803, and married Anna, sister of Thomas Fowell Bux- ton, in 1816. In 1820 he visited the United States; in 1838 settled as a preacher near Norwich, Eng- land; in 1843-44 engaged in missionary work in France; and in 1846 visited Ireland, endeavoring to relieve the suffering there caused by famine. In 1849 he was commissioned by the Yearly Meeting of London to present an address on slavery and the slave-trade to the rulers of Christian countries. In pursuit of this mission he visited most of the countries on the Continent of Europe, and in 1853 came again to the United States, and had inter- views with the President and several Southern State governors. Before the completion of his work he died at Holston, Tenn. FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD, an English states- man, son of William (1784-1854), was born at Brad- pole, Dorsetshire, July 11, 1818, died April 6, 1886. He was educated at the Friends’ School, Totten- ham, and engaged in woolen manufacture at Brad- ford. In 1861 he was returned to the House of Commons for Bradford, and was a member of Par- liament from that time until his death. He was under-secretary for the colonies 1865-66; became vice-president of the council on education, and a privy councilor in 1868; accepted from Mr. Glad- stone a seat in the cabinet in 1870, and the same year introduced the greatest legislative measure associated with his name, the Elementary Educa- tion bill. In the Gladstone administration of 1880 he accepted the office of chief secretary for Ireland, which position he resigned in 1882. He visited the United States in 1874. FORSYTH, a city and county-seat of Monroe county, Ga. It has a large cotton trade and con- tains Monroe Female College. FORSYTHIA (named after IVilliam Forsyth (1737-1804), a British botanist), a genus of olea- ceous shrubs, of which the two species, F. vz'm'dis- sima and F. saspensa, natives of China and Japan, are now very common in cultivation. They are conspicuous for the showy yellow flowers which they bear in early spring, before the leaves. FORSYTH, J OHN (1780-1841), an American statesman. He was admitted to the Georgia bar in 1802, and became attorney-general in 1808. From 1813 to 1818 he served as a Democrat in Con- gress, and from 1818 to 1819 was a United States Senator, resigning to accept the appointment of minister to Spain. From 1823 to 1827 he was again in Congress, then became governor of Georgia, and in 1829 was once more elected United States Senator. He resigned in 1834 to become Secretary of State, and served till 1841. FORSYTH, JOHN (1813-79), an American jour- nalist, son of the preceding, was one of the fore- most Democratic editors of the South. From 1856 to 1858 he was minister to Mexico, and in 1861, with Marshall J. Crawford, represented the Con- federate States as commissioner to the National Government. After the civil war he was engaged in journalistic work in Mobile, Ala., until feeble health compelled him to retire. FORT ADAMS, a fortification constructed be- tween 1828 and 1838 by Gen. J. G. Totten, on Bre- ton’s Point, at the entrance to Newport harbor, R. I. FORT-ADJUTANT, an ofiicer holding, in a for- tress, an appointment analogous to that of an adjutant in a regiment. He is responsible to the commandant for the internal discipline and the appropriation of the necessary duties to particu- lar corps. 713 FORT AUGUSTUS, a village at the south end of Lock Ness, 29 miles southwest of Inverness. A fort intended to overawe the highlands was built ‘ here soon after the rebellion of 1715, on a small eminence on the lock. FORT ATKINSON, a city of Jefferson county, Wis., on Rock River, near Lake Koshkonong. It has manufactories of wagons, and contains foun- dries, tanneries and flouring-mills. FORT BENTON, the county-seat of Choteau county, Mont., at the head of navigation on the Missouri River, 2,508 miles above St. Louis. FORT COLLINS, the county-seat of Larimer county, Col., on the Cache la Poudre River, 60 miles northwest of Denver. The town has good water-power, some manufactories, and contains Colorado Agricultural College. FORT HAMILTON, a village and fort on the east shore of the Narrows , New York harbor, in New Utrecht, Kings county, L. I. FORT DODGE, a city and county-seat of Web- ster county, Iowa, on the Des Moines River. It has quarries where gypsum, fire-clay, and water-lime are obtained, and coal is mined in the vicinity. It contains various manufactories, a Roman Catho- lic seminary, and a graded school. FORT DONELSON, a fortification in Stewart. county, Tenn., on the left bank of the Cumberland River, 12 miles from Fort Henry. It was the field of action where the Union forces gained an im- portant victory under Gen. Grant, Feb. 16, 1862. FORTE: in music, the Italian term for loud; fortissimo, or forte possibtle, as loud as possible. FORT ED\VARD, a railroad junction of Wash- ington county, N. Y., on the Hudson River and Champlain Canal, 28 miles north of Troy. Adam 900 feet long crosses the River, affording excellent water-power. The village has a collegiate institution and extensive manufactories of iron, lumber, cast- ings, stoneware and machinery. The ruins of an old fortification give the name to the village. FORT FISHER, a fortification of 1Vilmington, N. C. During the civil war two assaults were made upon it-Dec. 24, 25, 1864, and Jan. 13-15, 1865. The fort fell into Union hands at the con- clusion of the second assault. FORT GEORGE, a fortification in the northeast of Inverness-shire, Scotland, on theline of the Cale- donian Canal, on a point of land jutting into Moray Firth. It covers 15 acres, and has quarters for 3,000 men. FORT GRATIOT, a village and military post of St. Clair, l\Iich., on the outlet of Lake Huron, and opposite Point Edward, Ontario. FORTHCOMING: in the law of Scotland, an action by which an arrestment is made available to the arrester. The arrestment secures the goods or debt in the hands of the creditor or holder; by the forthcoming-—the arrestee and common debtor are called before the judge to hear sentence given, ordering the debt to be paid, or the effects to be delivered up to the arresting creditor. FORT HOIVARD, a city of Brown county, lVis., near the mouth of the Fox River and opposite the city of Green Bay. It has an excellent harbor and carries on an enormous lumber trade. FORTIGUERRA, NIooLo, an Italian poet, born at Pistoja in 1674, died in 1735. Destined from youth for the church, he proceeded to Rome at an early period, where the power of the prelate Carlo Fabroni speedily secured him advancement, and he was raised to the dignity of prelate and papal chamberlain by Clement XI. His chief work, R Ricctardetto, published two years after his death, was originally commenced, and one canto com- pleted in a few hours, in confutation of friends who 714 maintained that the striking ease and fluency of Ariosto, Berni, and other poets were but apparent, finbd in reality the fruit of deep art and severe a or. FORT KENT, a town of Aroostook county, Me. It has good water-power and manufactories of lumber. FORT LEAVENWORTH, a village of Leaven- worth county, Kan., on the Missouri River, and an important U. S. military post and depot of sup- plieig)f,;)r Western forts. This fort was established 1n L . FORT MADISON, a city and county-seat of Lee county, Iowa, on the Mississippi River, opposite Niota, Ill. It has a State-penitentiary, jail, schools, and manufactories of sashes, blinds, doors, ma- chinery, castings, beer, furniture, plows, lumber, and leather. FORT PLAIN, a village of Montgomery county, N. Y., on the Mohawk River and Erie Canal. It has manufactories of brooms, springs and axles, and contains a seminary. ‘ FORT ROYAL, or Fonr DE FRANCE, a fortified seaport of the French island of Martinique in the West Indies, and the capital of the colony. It stands on the west coast, in a bay of its own name, in latitude 140 35’ north, and longitude 610 4’ west. In 1839 it was almost totally destroyed by an earth- quake. Population, 13,288. FORT ST. DAVID, a town in India, on the Coro- mandel or east coast of Hindoostan. It is three miles to the north of Cuddalore, and 100 to the south of Madras. FORT SCOTT, a city of Kansas, county-seat of Bourbon county, and one of the most important places in the southeastern part of the State. The ‘city is built on a high plateau 800 feet above the level of the sea, on the south bank of the Mar- maton River, near the Missouri border. It is in the midst of a region rich in bituminous coal, the mining and shipping of which give Fort Scott its chief commercial importance. There are also ex- tensive flagstone quarries and cement rock de- posits in the vicinity. Ten lines of railway furnish an outlet for the mineral products. In 1890 there were ten miles of street railway, operated by elec- tricity. The city contains a large and handsome park, in the center of which is an artesian well. The United States Court-house and Postoffice building cost $150,000. There is a high school and a normal college, the latter having in 1890 over 700 students, representing 12 different States. The principal manufactures are flour, woolen goods, soap, sorghum and beet sugar, carriages, etc. Pop- ulation, in 1880, 6,750; in 1890, 11,837. FORT SUMTER, the fortification at Charles- ton, S. C., first attacked by Confederate forces at the outbreak of the civil war, April 12, 1861. Maj. Anderson, commanding, was obliged to surrender, and the fort was held by the Southern army till Feb. 18,1865. It is built on an artificial island, and the construction was begun in 1829. FORT SMITH, a city of Arkansas. county-seat of Sebastian county, situated at the extreme western boundary of the State, on the south bank of the Arkansas River, about 170 miles from Little Rock. It is an important city, having a large trade in the Indian Territory. It is also the seat of the United States District Court for the west- ern district of Arkansas, having criminal juris- diction of the Indian Territory. In 1889 the county erected a court-house costing $65,000. Other ublic buildings are the United States Custom- ouse, court-house, post office and jail. By an act of Con- gress a military reservation adjacent to the city limits was donated to the city for school purposes. FORT KENT—FORT WAYNE This gift is valued at $750,000, nearly one-half of which has already been realized by the sale of lots. The principal manufactories are saw mills, plan- ing mills, iron foundries, machine shops, oil mills, etc. The machine shops of the St. Louis and San Francisco Railway company are located here. Pop- ulation in 1880, 3,099; in 1891, 11,291. FORTUNE, Ronnnr, a Scottish botanist, born in Berwickshire, Sept. 16, 1813, died April 16, 1880. After serving an apprenticeship as a gardener he obtained employment in the Royal Botanic Gar- den at Edinburgh, and afterwards in the gardens at Chiswick. In 1842 he was sent by the Horticul- tural Society of London to collect plants in North- ern China. After his return he published Three Years’ VVarzdem'ngs in Northern China (1847). He subsequently visited China on three separate occa- sions, to study the methods of tea cultivation, to carry plants from that country to India, and to collect seeds and plants for the Government of the United States. Yeddo and Peking (1863) was written after his fifth and last journey to the East. His other books are: A Journey to the Tea Countries of China (1852); and A Residence Among the Chinese (1857). Fortune was for a few years director of the Botanical Gardens at Chelsea. FORTUNY, MARIANO, Spanish painter, born at Reus, Catalonia, June 11, 1839, died in Rome Nov. 21, 1874. He studied in the Academy of Bar- celona, and by the excellence of some early de- signs won a prize which enabled him to go to Rome in 1858. When Spain declared war against Morocco, Fortuny accompanied the expedition to Africa, and filled his portfolios with studies of Eastern life. On his return to Europe he re- nounced classical traditions, and, giving full scope to his originality and genius, put on canvas the essence of the materials he had gathered. With name and fame already established he went from Rome to Paris in 1866, and there his works were introduced to the whole art-loving world. In 1868 Fortuny went to Madrid and there married Ma- demoiselle Madrazo, a daughter of the director of the Royal Museum. In 1870 he took up his resi- dence in Granada, and in 1872 returned to Rome, where he resided until his death. His best-known pictures are: A Spanish Marriage; The Serpent Charmer; The Amateur of Prints; A Fantcmla at Mo- rocco; The S’word-/Sharpener; TheAcadermIcz'ans of Ar- cadia. Besides his oil-painting he gave consi era- ble attention to etching and to water-colors. FORT WILLIAM, a village and fort of Scotland, in the county of Iverness, on Loch Eil, near the foot of Ben Nevis, adjacent to the village of Mary- burgh. Population, 1,212. FORT WAYNE, a city of Indiana, county-seat of Allen county (see Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 469). Fort Wayne is the third city in the State in popu- lation, and the second in manufacturing impor- tance. An abundant supply of pure water is ob- tained from 30 wells, each 8 inches in diameter and 55 feet deep, the outflow being 30,000,000 gallons daily. In 1891 there were 13 public school build- ings; also a grammar school, with a library of 7,000 volumes, an extensive laboratory, and elabo- rate scientific apparatus. The Roman Catholics have a large and flourishing academy. The State Asylum and School for feeble-minded youth is located at Fort Wayne, and has accommodations for 1,000 pupils. Eight railroad lines meeting here give the city unusual commercial advanta es. Its leading manufactures are car-wheels, e ectrical apparatus, heavy machinery of all kinds, agricul- tural implements, leather, steam engines, furni- giige, etc. Population in 1880, 26,880; in 1890,35,- FORT WORTH—FOSTER FORT WORTH, a city of Texas, county-seat of Tarrant county, situated at the confluence of the West, Clear, and Trinity Rivers in the northern part of the State, about 175 miles north of Austin. Next to Dallas, it is the most important railroad center in northern Texas. It is surrounded by a rich agricultural region, producing cotton, grain, and fruits. The city has good water supply ob- tained from two sources, the Clear River and arte- sian wells, some 200 in number. In 1890 there were in operation 40 miles of electric street rail- ways. A fine bathing establishment, the Nata- torium, costing $50,000, is one of the institutions of the city. The court-house and city hall are note- worthy structures, also the Chamber of Commerce building, which cost $100,000. The High School building, completed in 1891, is a handsome and costly edifice. The Fort VVorth University (Meth- odist) is located here, and the Roman Catholics maintain an academy. There are manufactories of flour, cotton and woolen goods, leather, etc., and rolling-mills, iron foundries, a jute factory, woven wire factory, stock yards, and pork-packing estab- lishments. In 1872 there was but one house stand- ing within the present city limits; in 1876 the pop- ulation was 1,123; in 1880, 7,000; and in 1890, 20,- 725. FORVVARD, VVALTER (1786-1852), an American statesman. For a time he was editor of the Pitts- burgh “Tree of Liberty,” a Democratic newspaper, but later studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1806. From 1822 to 1825 he served in Congress. In 18-11 he was appointed first comptroller of the treasury, and the same year received the appoint- ment to the treasury portfolio. From 18-13 to 18-19 he was engaged in his law practice, and 1849-51 was charge’ d’czfi'az'res in Denmark. In 1851 he became president judge of the district court of Alleghany county,Pa. FOSSA ET FURCA, or PIT AND GALLOWS, an ancient privilege granted by the crown to barons and others, which implied the right of drowning fe- male felons in a ditch, and hanging male felons on a gallows. FOSS, CYRUS DAVID, an American M. E. bishop, born in 1834. He graduated at Vlfesleyan Univer- sity, Middletown, Conn.. in 1854; for three years was an instructor in Amenia Seminary, N. Y., and in 1857 entered the traveling ministry in the New York conference. In 1857-59 he was stationed at Chester, N. Y. ; in 1859-65 was in Brooklyn, and in 1865-75 in several churches in New York city. In 1875 he was chosen president of Wesleyan Univer- sity, and served in that capacity until 1880, when he was elected and ordained a bishop. \Vesleyan gave him the degree of D. D. in 1870, and Cornell College, Iowa, that of LL.D. in 1879. He was a member of the general conference in 1872, 1876 and 1880. Bishop Foss has contributed to current lit- erature, and published several sermons and ad- dresses. FOSSA MARIANA, a system of canals, from the Rhone to near the Gulf of Stomalimne, cut by Marius, B. o. 102. FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS, those which contain organic remains. If we except the lowest meta- morphic rocks, in which no fossils have been found, the term is equivalent to the “stratified rocks” when used comprehensively; but it may also be applied to a particular bed, as when we speak of an un ossiliferous sandstone compared with the fossil- iferous shale or limestone. FOSTER, BIRKET, an English artist, born at North Shields, Feb. 4, 1825. At an early age he showed remarkable talent for drawing, and as pupil to Landsells, wood-engraver, from 1841 to 1 715 1846, he produced a large number of subjects for wood-engraving, the earliest for Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall’s Ireland (1843), and many for the “Illus- trated London News.” He afterwards illustrated Evangeline, and many of the standard English poets. In 1859 Foster exhibited the first of many water-colors, The Mill at Arundel; in 1860 he was elected an associate, and in 1861 a member of the \Vater-color Society. He has devoted himself chiefly to depicting child-life and rural scenes. FOSTER, CHARLES, a governor of Ohio, born in 1828. In 1870 he was chosen to Congress as a Re- publican, and was three times reélected. He was twice chosen governor of Ohio, and served from 1880 to 188-1. His administration was marked by efforts to regulate the sale of intoxicating liquors. FOSTER, JOHN GRAY (1823-74), an American soldier. He served in the Mexican war, and re- ceived the brevets of first-lieutenant and captain for gallantry. For a time he was employed on coast survey, and in 1855-57 was assistant professor of engineering at lVest Point. At the beginning of the civil war he safely removed the garrison of Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, and was brevetted major for these services. In October, 1861, he was made brigadier-general of volunteers, and the same year was brevetted lieutenant-colonel. In 1865 he was brevetted major-general for gallant services in the field during the Rebellion. After the war he served as superintending engineer of various river and harbor improvements. He contributed to periodical literature on engineering topics, and is the author of Submarine Blasting in Boston Harbor. FOSTER, JOHN IVarsox, an American diplo- matist, born in 1836. In 1857 he began the prac- tice of law in Evansville, Ind. At the beginning of the war he entered the national service as a major, and distinguished himself in many battles under Grant and Sherman. In 1869 he was appointed postmaster of Evansville, and in 1873 was sent to Mexico as United States minister, receiving a re- appointment in 1880. Later the same year he was transferred to Russia, and in 1881 resigned to at- tend to private business. From 1883 to 1885 he served as minister to Spain. FOSTER, J01-nv IVELLs (1815-13), an American geologist. In 1835 he was admitted to the Ohio bar, but his leisure moments were spent in the study of science. From 1835 to 18-11 he was em- ployed as an assistant in the geological survey of Ohio, and in 1845 visited the Lake Superior region in the interest of several copper mining companies. In 18-17 he was appointed on a geological survey of the Lake Superior region, and the results of his survey, published by Congress in 1852, still remain the authority. For a time after the completion of this work he lived in Massachusetts, where he was active in the formation of the Republican party. In 1858 he went to Chicago, and for a time was land commissioner for the Illinois Central Railroad. Mr. Foster was a member of several scientific so- cieties, and held important offices in not a few. He contributed to various scientific journals, and pub- lished some scientific works. FOSTER, LAFAYETTE SABINE (1806-80), an Ameri- can statesman. He was admitted to the Connecti- cut bar in 1831; for a time edited the Norwich “ Republican,” and in 1839 and 1840 was elected to the legislature. In 1846-18 he was again in the legislature, and in 1851-52 was mayor of Norwich. In 185-1 he again went to the assembly, and the same year was chosen to the United States Senate, and was reélected in 1860. In 1865 he was made president of the Senate pro tempore, and for awhile was acting Vice-President of the United States. In 1870 he once more served in the assembly, but re- 716 signed the same year to take his seat on the bench of the Supreme Court. He retired in 1876. FOSTER, RANDOLPH SINKS, an American M. E. bishop, born in 1820. He received his education at Augusta College, Ky., and in 1837 entered the itinerant ministry of the M. E. church in the Ken- tucky conference. Later he was transferred to Ohio, and in 1850 to New York. Up to 1857 he had held pastorates in Hillsboro, Portsmouth, Lan- caster, Springfield, Cincinnati, New York and Brooklyn. In 1856-58 he was president of the Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. For some time afterward he was pastor in New York and Sing Sing, and in 1868 was delegate to the British Wes- leyan conference. The same year he became pro- fessor of systematic theology in Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J., and two years later was appointed president. In 1872 he became bishop of the M. E. church, and afterward made episcopal visitations in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, India and South America. He is the author of Objections to Calvinism as It Is; Christian Purity; Ministry for the Times; Beyond the Grave; Centenary Thoughts for the Pulpit and Pew of Itlethodism; and Studies in Theology. FOSTORIA, a natural-gas center of Seneca county, Ohio, containing glass works, flouring-mills and other manufactories. Natural gas is offered free to manufacturers. FOULARD, a light fabric of flexible silk, with- out twill, used principally for ladies’ dresses. It was originally imported from India, but is now made also in the south of France. FOUNTAIN. In heraldry water is represented by a round ball having wavy stripes of blue and white barways, and called a fountain. FOUQUIERA, a genus of Mexican trees or shrubs of the order Tamariscinae, resinous and brit- tle, having leafless branches and stems, and bear- ing brilliant crimson flowers. FOURCROYA, a genus of plants of the natural order Amaryllideae, nearly allied to Agave, but with stamens shorter than the corolla. The species are all tropical. The leaves yield a fiber similar to the pita flax, obtained from the species of the Agave. FOUR EVANGELISTS, part of a larger group of islands known as the Twelve Apostles, which lie off the west entrance of the Strait of Magellan. The eight other islands, with which they are classed as above, are about 15 miles farther out into the Pacific. FOUR LAKES, a chain of deep lakes (Mendota, Monona, Waubesa, and Kegonsa) in Dane county, Wisconsin, connected by short outlets. FOURNI ISLANDS, a group of about 20 small islands in the Grecian Archipelago, between Ni- cara and Samos on the western coast of Asiatic Turkey. The largest of these is about five miles in circuit. FOURTH: in music, an interval including four degrees of the scale. The interval of the perfect fourth contains two whole tones and one semi-tone; a diminished fourth, one whole tone and two semi- tones; and the superfluous or augmented fourth, three whole tones. The perfect fourth is the second most perfect consonance after the octave, and the next to the fifth. FOVVEY, or Fov, a town of England, in the county of Cornwall, 25 miles southwest of Launceston. The principal exports are copper ore, pilchards, china clay, and stone. Population, 1,394. FOWL. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 491. FOWLER, CHARLES HENRY, an American M. E. bishop, born in 1837. He graduated at Genesee College, Lima, N. Y., in 1859, and in 1861 at Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Ill. The same year FOSTER—FRAME he was admitted into the Rock River conference, and was appointed to churches in Chicago till 1872, when he was chosen president of Northwestern University. In 1876 he was elected editor of the New York “Christian Advocate,” and in 1880 be- came one of the corresponding secretaries of the Missionary Society of the M. E. church. In 1884 he was elected and ordained bishop. Northwestern University gave him the degree of D.D., and Syra- cuse University, N. Y., that of LL. D. FOWLER, ORsoN SQUIRE (1809-87), an Ameri- can phrenologist. With his brother Lorenzo he opened an oflice in New York in 1835, and the fol- lowing year published Phrenology Proved, Illus- trated, and Applied. From 1838 to 1842 he edited the American Phrenological Journal, in Philadelphia, and afterwards in New York city. Among his pub- lished works are: Memory and Intellectual Improve- ment; Physiology, Animal and Mental; Matrimony, or Phrenology Applied to the Selection of Companions; Self— Culture and Perfection of Character; Hereditary Descent, Its Laws and Facts Applied to Human Im- provement; Love and Parentage; and The Self-In- structor in Phrenology and Physiology; besides sev- eral works on phrenology and kindred subjects, written in conjunction with his brother. FOIVL MEADOIV GRASS, the Poa serotina oi‘ Europe and North America. It grows in wet lands, and is an excellent grass for hay. The Glyceria nervata of the Northern States is known by the same name, and is of equal value. FOX. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 493. FOXBORO, a village and township of Norfolk county, Mass., 21 miles southwest of Boston. It has large manufacturing industries. Straw hats, bon- nets, carpet-linings, soap, and spring beds are made in the township. There is a granite quarry here. FOX, Gusravus Vasa (1821-83), a United States naval officer. He entered the navy in 1838 as midshipman, and served until 1856, when he re- signed with the rank of lieutenant. He then ac- cepted the position of agent of the Bay State woolen mills at Lawrence, Mass. At the beginning of the civil war he was appointed Assistant Secre- tary of the Navy, and his services in this position were extremely valuable. Soon after the war he was sent on a special mission to Russia to convey to the czar the congratulations of the United States Congress on his escape from assassination. Capt. Fox subsequently became manager of the Middlesex mills. FOX INDIANS. See INDIANS, AMERICAN, in these Revisions and Additions. FOX RIVER, the name of two streams rising in lVisconsin. (1) The Fox River, or Pishtaka (220 miles),fiows south to Aurora, then southwest to the Illinois, which it enters at Ottawa. (2) The Fox River, or Neenah, after a tortuous but gener- ally northeast course of about 250 miles, empties into Green Bay in Lake Michigan. Near its head- waters it approaches within 1% miles of the Wis- consin River, with which it is connected at Portage City, by a canal, and thus the Mississippi River and Lake Michigan are united. FOXTAIL GRASS, a genus of grasses, distin- guished by a spiked panicle, two glumes nearly equal, and generally united at the base, inclosing a single floret which has a single palea with an awn rising from a base. The species are chiefly natives of temperate countries. FOYERS, a small river of Scotland, joins Loch Ness eight miles northeast of Fort Augustus. It is noted for its cascades; the lower fall, 90 feet high, is the finest cascade in Britain. FRAME: in gardening, the covering of any kind of hotbed, flued pit, or cold pit, used for the culti- - --\ ,,_- _- FRAMINGHAM——FRANCE vation of plants not suificiently hardy for the open air. Frames are generally made of wood and glass, in one piece or in sashes, according to the size of the hotbed or pit. FRAMINGHAM, of Middlesex county, Mass., comprises the villages of Centre and South Fram- ingham and Saxonville. It has the oldest normal school in America. Among the articles manufac- tured here are carriages, woolen and straw goods, and shoes. FRANC, a French silver coin and money of ac- count, which (since 1795. when it supplanted the livre Tournois) forms the unit of the French mon- etary system, and has also been adopted as such by Belgium and Switzerland. It is equivalent to about 19 cents and is divided into 100 centimes. FRAN C I S, JOHN IVAKEFIELD (1789-1861), an American physician. He graduated at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, in 1811. and in 1813 became lecturer, and a little later professor of materia medica in that college. He continued as a professor in his alma mater until 1826, when he became a member of the Rutgers Medical School faculty, and afterward devoted himself to his profession and to literature. He was a member of several scientific societies. In 1822-24 he was an editor of the “ Medical and Physical Journal.” He published Use of Mercury; Cases of Morbid Anatomy; Febrile Contagion; Notice of Thomas Eddy; Denman’s Practice of 111 idwifery; Letter on Cholera Asphyrria of 1832; Observations on the Mineral W'aters of Avon; The Anatomy of Drunkenness; Old New York, or Reminiscences of the Past Sixty Years; and numerous addresses. FRANCE. For the geography, history, govern- ment and productions of France, from its earliest settlement to the close of the year 1879, see Britan- nica, Vol. IX, pp. 505-686. After the resignation of Marshal MacMahon and the election of M. Grévy to the presidency, the Republican party, under‘ the leadership of the eloquent Gambetta, instituted various measures of doubtful expe- diency. The Communards were rehabilitated; the church was irritated by violent measures; the Tunis expedition was entered upon; and the peas- ant proprietors, the true conservative power in France, became distrustful of their chosen repre- sentatives. Gambetta’s accession to the premier- ship was not calculated to allay the general dis- trust, and his death (1882), which left his party without a leader and the people without an idol, paved the way for internal discords, which seriously impaired Republican prospects. Owing to the vac- illating policy of the ministry, French influence in Egypt was greatly weakened; and the Tonquin expedition and embroilments with China, which cost many lives and much treasure without per- ceptible returns, increased the general feeling of distrust. Accusations of jobbery and malversa- tions brought against the son-in-law of M. Grévy led to the resignation of the latter, Dec. 2, 1887. In his message to the Senate and Chamber of Depu- ties he declared that they had practically sum- moned him to resign, and he yielded in order to avoid the possible consequences of a conflict be- tween Parliament and the executive. M. Marie Franoois Sadi-Carnot was elected President of the Republic and a new ministry formed, with M. Tirard as President of the Council. The political situation became still further dis- turbed about this time by the eiforts of Gen. Boulanger, who was supported in his schemes of personal political aggrandizement by the three re- actionary parties—the Orleanists, the Imperialists and the Legitimists. Although Gen. Boulanger had performed no public service, and given no evi- 717 dence of any preéminent ability, he became a pop- ular idol. He had said nothing and done nothing of significance, but he was supposed to entertain un' dying enmity to Germany, and this was enough to secure him a powerful following. Then, too, he was a convenient figure-head for a movement of discontent with the situation and a desire for a revision of the constitution; and the rational, practical, and undoubtedly liberal parliamentary institutions which the Third Republic had been in- strumental in implanting in France seemed to be in serious jeopardy. In the French Senatorial elections, Jan.5, 1888, the Republicans lost three seats, and early in April a new ministry was formed with M. Floquet as President of the Council. Gen. Boulanger was elected to the Chamber of Deputies from the De- partment du Nord, April 15, by over 96,000 ma- jority, and at once became the leader of the oppo- sition to the government. After a stormy debate a motion by Gen. Boulanger for the dissolution of the Chamber was rejected by that body, July 12, and a vote of censure passed upon him, where- upon he resigned; but at the election in Paris, which took place J an. 27, 1889, he was reélected by amajority of 51,432. On Feb. 14, Premier Floquet tendered the resignation of the cabinet. and a new cabinet, with M. Tirard as premier, was announced Feb. 21. By a resolution adopted April -1, the French Chamber decided to prosecute Gen. Bou- langer for threatening the peace of the Republic. The trial began before the High Court of the Sen- ate Aug. 8, and resulted in the conviction of the General, together with Count Dillon and Henri Rochefort, of conspiracy and attempt at treason. They were condemned to transportation and im- prisonment in a fortified place; but, anticipating an adverse decision, Gen. Boulanger escaped to England. M. Tirard’s ministry resigned March 11, and two days later a new ministry was an- nounced with M. de Freycinet as President of the Council. The conviction and banishment of Gen. Bou- langer marked the death of Boulangerism, and French politics became comparatively tranquil. Throughout these stormy political struggles, which at one time seriously threatened the stability of the Republic, the French people had been gaining what is indispensable to true popular government, the practice of parliamentary control, self-com- mand, moderation, constancy, and obedience to law, which alone prevented the old bloody excesses, and ive promise of the permanency of the Frenc Republic. The latest ofl‘icial statistics place the area of France at 201,177 sq. miles, and the population (May 31, 1886) at 38,218,903; density per square mile,l87. Notwithstanding a moderate death-rate the popu- lation of France increases more slowly than in most States of ‘Western Europe, owing to the low rate of births. In 1889 there were 111 births for every 100 deaths, but in 32 departments, mostly in the south, the deaths were i11 excess of the births. Public education in France is entirely under the supervision of the government. In 1889 there were only 68 communes which had no primary school, public or private. The public funds, communal, departmental, and state, devoted to primary in- struction in 1888, amounted to 150,000,000 francs. In 1889, 4,622,619 children of school age were en- rolled in primary and infant schools. About 78,- 000 are taught in higher schools. and nearly 10,000 at home, while many children between 11 and 18 years of age discontinue attendance at school, having received certificates of primary instruction. U8 The number of untaught children is thus very small. The budget estimates for the revenue for 1891 were 3,2-47,408,825 francs, and the estimated expen- ditures 3,798,582,966 francs. The total capital of the French national debt cannot be exactly deter- mined, but the most usual estimate is 32,000,000,000 francs (about $6,400,000,000). The military forces of France are organized on the basis of laws voted by the National Assembly in 1872, supplemented by further organization laws, passed in 1873, 1875, 1882, 1887, and 1889. These laws enact universal liability to arms. Sub- stitution and enlistment for money are forbidden, and it is ordered that every Frenchman not de- clared unfit for military service may be called up, from the age of twenty to that of forty-five years, to enter the active army or the reserves. By the law of 1882, supplemented by that of 1888, the yearly contingent must serve three years in the active army,6 in the reserve, 6 in the territorial army, and 10 in the territorial reserve. The active army is composed of all the young men, not other- wise exempted, who have reached the age of 20, and the reserves of those who have passed through the active army. Neither the active army nor its reserves are in any way localized, but drawn from and dis- tributed over the whole of France. On the other hand, the territorial army and its reserves are confined to fixed regions, determined from time to time by administrative enactments. According to the budget for 1891, the peace strength of the whole French army is composed of 573,277 men and 142,870 horses, an increase of 17,947 men and 4,569 horses over 1890. In addition to this the territo- rial army numbers 37,000 officers and 501,716 men. Taking into account the various classes of reserves, France has a war force of about two and one-half millions of men at her disposal; and, taking account of the various classes of able-bodied men whose services have been dispensed with, the total num- ber amounts to 3,750,000. Of the total area of France (52,857,199 hectares) 8,397,131 hectares are under forests, and 36,977,098 hectares under all kinds of crops, fallow, and grasses. The production of wine and cider in 1890 amounted to 27,416,000 hectolitres; and the value of the crop of chestnuts, walnuts, olives, and plums in 1889 was 109,516,741 francs. January 1, 1890, the number of farm animals in France were: Horses, 2,881,153; cattle, 13,508,252; sheep, 21,996,731; pigs, 6,037,743; goats, 1,505,470. Silk culture is carried on in 23 departments. In 1889 the production of cocoons was 7,409,830 kilogrammes; 951,830 kilo- grammes of cocoons were exported, valued at 9,756,258 francs, and 71,428 kilogrammes of silk- worm’s eggs, valued at 5,714,240 francs. The min- eral and metal products for 1889 were, in tons: Coal, 24,588,880; pig iron, 1,722,480; finished iron, 793,358; steel, 529,021. The oflicial figures for 1887 of the woolen, cot- ton, and silk industries, are as follows: Woolens. Oottons. Silks. Works. .. .. . . . . . .. . 1,256 Number of mills . .. . . 1,987 895 1,016 Operatives . . . . . . . . . .. . 109,372 121,543 103,819 Horse-power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,466 63,112 23,777 Spindles... . . . . . . . . 3,151,871 5,039,263 1,109,466 Power looms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44,68 72,7 51,399 Hand looms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,399 28,213 44,257 The value of imports and enports of cotton in millions of francs appears as follows: FRANCISJDSEPH—FRANKFORT -_‘ Imports. Exports. Years. Yarn. Cloth. Yarn. Cloth. .. 24.4 47.2 4.5 66.6 38.0 67.9 2.4 33.8 1387 31.1 50.2 2.5 117 .8 1888 25.8 41.0 2.7 106.2 1839 29.4 41.3 3.1 116.2 The values of the yearly imports and exports of woolens and silks in millions of francs are seen from the subjoined table: Woolens. Silks. Years. Imports. Exports. Imp’ts. Exports. Yarn. Cloth. Yarn. Cloth. Yarn. Cloth 1867-76 13.8 67.6 32.7 286.1 30.9 429.6 1877-86 17.0 77.3 38.1 349.0 40.9 251.0 1887 12.4 63.9 39.6 350.4 53.3 209.8 1888 14.1 65.2 37 .2 323.4 50.5 223.2 1889 12.9 67.8 55.5 364.4 58.1 260.8 In 1888-89 there were 380 sugar works (including two distilleries), employing altogether 54,376 oper- atives, and 43,561 horse-power. It is estimated that the total annual yield of all French indus- tries amounts to 12,800,000,000 francs. In 1889 the total imports amounted to 5,320,000,- 000 francs, andthe exports to 4,803,000,000 francs. The principal articles of import were wine, raw wool, cereals, raw silk, raw cotton, timber and wood, hides and furs, oil seeds, coffee, coal and coke, fruits, cattle, sugar, woolen, silk and cotton textiles, and flax. The principal articles of export were woolen, cotton and silk textiles, wine, raw silk and yarn, raw wool and yarn, small ware, leather goods, linen and cloth, metal goods (tools), cheese and butter, spirits, sugar, skins and furs, and chemical produce. The public roads comprised in 1888: National roads, 37,706 kilometres; departmental roads,29,900 kilometres; local roads, 602,500 kilometres. French railroads have grown from 9,086 kilometres in 1860 to 33,189 kilometres in March, 1890, of which 2,628 kilometres belonged to the state. The total length of the telegraphic lines on Jan. 1, 1889, was 88,047 kilometres, with 276,527 kilometres of wires, and 237 kilometres of pneumatic tubes at Paris. FRANCIS JOSEPH, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. See AUSTRIA, Britannica, Vol. III, pp. 137-41. FRANCOIS, Sr, the name of two towns of the French West Indies. The one is situated on the southeast coast of Grande-Terre,18 miles east of La Pointe-a-Pitre, and has 5,714 inhabitants. The other is a commune of the island of Martinique, a good port on the east coast. Population, FRANCOA, a genus of stemless exogenous herbs, of the order Scmifragaceee, of which there are two species, natives of Chili. They have astringent qualities, but are not important. FRANCS-TIREURS (“free marksmen”), a name applied to French sharpshooters, first organ- ized in 1792, and prominent in the war of 1870. FRANKFORT, a city and county-seat of Clinton county, situated near the center of Indiana, 46 miles northwest of Indianapolis. -tablishment of penny postage. FRANKFORT—-FRANZ FRANKFORT, KY. 704. FRANKFORT, a village of Benzie county, Mich., on the east shore of Lake Michigan. It has a good harbor, and the business of the place is lumbering, iron manufacturing and fruit-raising. FRANKFORT, CCUNCIL OF, a council called by Charlemagne, A. D. 794, and noted in church his- tory for its action against the worship of images. It was attended by bishops from England, Ger- many, Italy, Spain, and Gaul, besides two delegates from the Pope. FRANKFORT SPRINGS, a village of Beaver county, Pa., containing two medicinal springs, which have saline chalybeate waters. Tourists and invalids frequent the place. FRANKING PRIVILEGE, a right formerly en- joyed by government officers of_ sending letters and packages by mail free. The privilege belonged to members of the British Parliament from about 1660 till 1840, and owing to the high rate of postage was greatly abused. It was abolished on the es- In America it was first granted by Congress, in 1776, to private sol- diers actually in service, and was gradually extend- ed to Senators, members of Congress, secretaries, bureau oflicers, postmasters, delegates, etc. The matter thus franked covered not only letters and newspapers, but also public documents, executive papers, and printed matter, the privilege being practically unlimited. Various partial reforms were from time to time attempted by legislation, and on Jan. 31, 1873, an act was passed entirely abolishing the franking privilege. Since that date, however, provision has been made for the free trans- mission of mail matter relating to oflicial business. FRANKL, LUDWIG AUGUST, Baron, a German Jewish poet, born Feb. 3, 1810, at Chrast, in Bohe- mia, and educated at Prague and Leitomischl. He studied medicine at Vienna, but soon devoted himself to literature. In 1851 he was made pro- fessor of aesthetics in the Vienna conservatory of music. In 1856 he went to Jerusalem to found a school, and after his return was for some years in charge of an institute for the blind at Vienna. In 1877 the Emperor of Austria conferred on him the title of Baron of Hochwart. His chief publica- tions are Ifabsbarglied (1832); Sagen aas dem Mor- genlande (1834); Christoforo Colombo (1836); Don Juan cl’Austria (1846) ; Nach Jerusalem (1858) ; Aus Egg/pten (1860). His Gesammeltepoetisehe Werke were published in 1880. FRANKLAND, EDWARD, D. C. L., LL. D., Ph. D., an English chemist, born near Lancaster, Jan. 18, 1825. He was appointed professor of chemistry in Owens College in 1851, Bartholomew’s Hospital in 1857, the Royal Institution in 1863, the Royal Col- lege of Chemistry in 1865, and the Normal School of Science, South Kensington, in 1881. The latter position he resigned in 1885. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, a correspond- ing member of the French Academy in 1866, and afterwards of other learned bodies. He has col- lected many of his papers in Experimental Re- searches in Pure, Applied, and Physical Chemz'sz‘ry (1878), and published, in addition to manuals and lectures, works on lighting, sanitation, etc. FRANKLIN, a city and county-seat of Johnson county, Ind., about 75 miles from Terre Haute. It has a college, expensive school buildings, saw mills, and flouring-mills. FRANKLIN, the county-seat of Simpson county, Ky., 51 miles north of Nashville. It has two col- le es, a woolen factory, and flour mills. RANKLIN, a railroad junction of Norfolk county, Mass., 28 miles southwest of Boston. It See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 719 contains Deane Academy, and establishments where woolen and straw goods are manufactured. FRANKLIN, a village of Merrimack county, N. H., situated at the union of the Pemmigewasset and Winnipiseogee Rivers, the sources of the Mer- rimack. It has a paper mill, woolen mills, machine shops, and wood-working shops. FRANKLIN, a city, railroad-center, and county- seat of Venango county, Pa., situated on Alle- gheny River at the mouth of French Creek. It has oil refineries, machine shops, carriage factories, and flour mills. FRANKLIN, the county - seat of IVilliamson county, Tenn., on Harpeth River, 18 miles south of Nashville. It contains a Masonic temple, Tennes- see Female College, and Harpeth Male Academy, and among its business establishment are carriage manufactories, steam cotton-gins, a planing-mill, flour mills, and a furniture factory. Two battles of the civil war were fought here—April 10, 1863, and Nov. 30, 1864. FRANKLIN, IVILLIAM BUEL, a United States soldier, born in 1823. He entered the army in 1843, and served in topographical engineers until the out- break of the civil war, when he had attained the rank of captain. In 1861 he was appointed colonel of the 12th infantry, brigadier-general of volun- teers the same year, and major-general in 1862. He then received the brevet of brigadier-general in the Regular Army, and in 1865 that of major-gen- eral. He resigned in 1866, and has since been en- gaged in various manufacturing enterprises. He was Connecticut State commissioner at the Cen- tennial exposition of 1876, Presidential elector the same year, and adjutant-general of Connecticut in 1877 and 1878. In 1880-87 he was president of the board of managers of the National Home for dis- abled soldiers. FRANKLIN IA, a species of ternstroemiaceous shrubs or small trees, the Gordonia pubeseem, for- merly native to central and southeastern Georgia, but now known only in cultivation, is much prized as an ornamental evergreen, and for its beautiful, large white flowers. FRANKLIN ISLAND, off the coast of Knox county, Maine, lies on the west side of the entrance of St. George’s River. There is a brick light-house at its northern point. Lat. 430 53' 31" N., long. 690 22’ 10" lV. FRANKLIN LAKE, in Elko county, Nevada, on the east side of the East Humboldt Mountains. It is nearly fresh, very shallow, and has no outlet. iI‘he tulé (Seirpus ralidus) grows abundantly in the ake. FRANK-PLEDGE, a custom prevailing in Eng- land before the Norman Conquest, whereby the freemen of a neighborhood were responsible for the good conduct of each other. Ten men formed an association called a titlzing, in which the ten men were answerable each for the others, so that if one committed an offense, the other nine were liable for his appearance to make reparation. Should the ofl’ender abscond, the members of the tithing, if unable to clear themselves from participation in the crime, were compelled to make good the penalty. FRANZ, RCBERT, a German composer, born at Halle, June 28,1815, studied under Schneider at Dessau, and in 1843 published a set of twelve songs, which won the warm praises of Schumann, Men- delssohn, Liszt, and other masters. He was organ- ist of a church at Halls, and was very active in the department of church music. He was also pro- fessor in the conservatory of music and conducted large concerts. He has published over 250 songs for single voices, a Kyrie, and several chorales and 720 four-part songs, besides arrangements of the master- pieces of Bach and Handel. In 1877 he was obliged by deafness to give up his various positions, and to discontinue his musical work. FRANCHISE, ELECTIVE. See ELECTION LAWS, in these Additions and Revisions. FRANCHISE, a special privilege conferred on individuals or corporations by grant from govern- ment. In the United States franchises can only be granted by virtue of legislative authority, and are almost without exception vested in corporations. The most important are the privileges to erect and maintain railroads, ferries, turnpike roads, and bridges. The grant of franchise, when accepted and acted on by the parties, constitutes a contract be- tween the State and the possessor of the franchise, by which the latter assumes certain obligations as a consideration for the privileges granted him. In England the varieties of franchise are much more numerous than in the United States. FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL, a Scottish meta- physician, born at Ardchattan, Argyllshire, Sept. 3, 1819, and educated at the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. He became a Free Church minis- ter, in 1856 succeeded Sir William Hamilton in the chair of logic and metaphysics at Edinburgh, and in 1859 became Dean of the Faculty of Arts. His edition of Berkeley’s works, in four volumes, with dissertations and annotations, a life of the bishop, and an account of his philosophy, was issued by the Clarendon Press in 1871, Selections from Berkeley in 1874, and in 1881 his monograph on Berkeley was published in Blackwood’s Philosophical Classics, to which series he also contributed Locke (1889). FRASER, CHARLES (1782-1860), an American ar- tist. In 1807 he began the practice of law in Charleston, S. C., and in 1818 retired, in order to devote himself exclusively to art. He paid partic- ular attention to miniature painting, and in 1825 produced a portrait of Lafayette, and subsequently of a great number of citizens of South Carolina. He also painted numerous landscape and genre pictures, and in 1857 his works were exhibited in Charleston. He contributed to various periodicals, and published Reminiscences of Charleston. FRASER, JAMES, an English bishop, born at Prestbury, near Cheltenham, in 1818, died Oct. 22, 1885. He graduated at Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1839, and in 1840 was elected to a fellowship at Oriel. Ordained in 1846, he held the living of Cholderton, Wiltshire, from 1847 to 1860, and that of Ufton Nervet, near Reading, from 1860 to 1870. In 1870 he was consecrated bishop of Manchester. He published valuable reports on elementary edu- cation in England, on the educational systems of the United States and Canada, and on the employ- ment of children. He also published a number of sermons, and two volumes appeared posthu- mously (1887). FRASERA, a genus of plants of the natural order Gentianea, with a four-partite calyx and corolla, four stamens, and two-valvular capsule. It is a pure and valuable bitter, similar in its effects to gentian. The stem is herbaceous, erect, and from three to six feet high ; the leaves oval, oblong, op- posite and whorled; the flowers greenish-yellow. The plant is biennial and grows in marshy places. It is a native of Carolina, Virginia, Ohio and Mis- sissippi. FRASIER,a strawberry flower, is used by Scotch heraldic writers as synonymous with cinquefoil. F R A T E R N I T I E S (from the Lat. fraternitas, “brotherhood”), a eneral term applied to bodies of men associate by some common tie, or by or- ganization, for the purpose of mutual benevolence, evotion, or pleasure. It includes secret societies, FRANCHISE-‘—FREEDMEN’S BUREAU orders of the church and of knighthood, guilds, trades-unions, etc. FRATRES ARVALES, an association of twelve priests of ancient Rome. whose duties were con- nected with agriculture. The office was established at a very early date, and continued into the fourth century. One of the hymns chanted by them, con- tained in an inscription A. D. 218, and preserved in the sacristy of St. Peter’s, is regarded as the earliest specimen of the Latin language. FRATTA—MAGGIORE, a town of Italy, six miles northwest of the city of Naples, has extensive rope- works, and furnishes great quantities of strawber- ries, also silkworms. Population, 10,800. FRAUDULENT CONVEYANCE, a conveyance intended to defraud another who is not a party to such conveyance, or the intent of which is to avoid some debt, duty, or obligation on the part of the party making it. Two famous English statutes declare such conveyance void; a statute with sub- stantially the same provisions has been enacted throughout the United States. FRAXIN, or PAVIIN, a glucoside found in the bark of the ash (Fraainus), and along with esculin in the bark of the horse chestnut. It is a colorless crystalline substance, sparingly soluble in water, and shows a delicate fluorescence in alkaline solu- tions. . FREDERICK CITY, MD. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 742. FREDERICKSBURG, the county-seat of Gilles- pie county, Texas, 85 miles west of Austin. It has flour and saw mills, and a flourishing trade in corn and wheat. FREDERICKSBURG, VA. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 742. FREDERICKTOWN, the county-seat of Madison county, lVIo., 105 miles south of St. Louis. The famous Mine la Motte lead mines are in the vicinity. FREDONIA, a flourishing village of Chautauqua county, N. Y.,3 miles from Lake Erie. It has a State normal school, an academy established in 1824, and a carriage manufactory. Grapes and garden-seeds are raised for sale, and the village for over forty years has been lighted by natural gas; one gas well is 1,000 feet deep. Here was or- ganized the first Patrons of Husbandry grange. FREDONIA, a city and county-seat of Wilson county, Kan., in the southeastern part of the State. FREEBURG, a village of Snyder county, Pa., contains a musical college, and the principal busi- ness of the vicinity is farming and ore-mining. FREEDlW1EN’S BUREAU, THE, originated in the needs growing out of the civil war and its inci- dental abolition of slavery, which suddenly set free four or five millions of uneducated people, and so increased the pauper class that 140,000 peo- ple were in 1865 fed by the army. To meet the grave questions raised by this state of things, the Freedmen’s Bureau act was approved in 1865, which committed to the bureau the management of abandoned lands and all subjects relating to freedmen and refugees in any district under the jurisdiction of the army. These powers, though very broad, were afterwards enlarged to embrace “the care of all refugees and freedmen so far as to enable them to become practically self- supporting United States citizens.” Gen. Howard was ap- pointed first commissioner of this Bureau, with nine assistants, whose headquarters were in differ- ent sections of the Southern States, each section being divided into sub-districts with sub-assistants, and each State had also a superintendent of edu- cation, the central home office being at Howard FREEHOLD-FREEZING University, Washington. A commissary division, 3. medical branch, a land division, a claim division, a school division, a bounty division, and a financial division were added from time to time as need for them arose. The bureau cooperated with church agencies and benevolent societies throughout the land, and employed teachers supplied by the Chris- tian enthusiasm of the cultivated, refined, and com- petent men and women of the North. The value of the abandoned property which fell into the hands of the bureau was over $800,000 ; 9,208 persons were transported to their old homes; $8,000,000 of bounty and prize money was paid, and the ex- penditures of the bureau were $313,000,000. The commissioner and his assistants gave much attention to the settling of labor questions, the substitution of free for slave labor causing much friction. The subject of marriage caused some perplexity, and the system of apprenticeship was considered and abandoned. Freedmen’s banks for some time enjoyed the aid and supervision of the bureau. As the process of reconstruction ad- vanced, bureau courts gave place to others, asy- lums and hospitals were assumed by the States, and cities and all the interests returned to their legiti- mate channels; the schools and the payment of bounty being the last thing given up. The Freed- men’s Bureau was but a temporary expedient, clos- ing with its temporary need. FREEHOLD, the county-seat of Monmouth county, N. J ., 24 miles east of Trenton. It has a machine shop, planing-mill, iron foundry, and a fine monument erected in 1884 to commemorate the battle of Monmouth, 1778. FREE-LANCES, roving companies of knights and men-at-arms, who, after the Crusades had ceased to give them employment, wandered from state to state, selling their services to any lord who was willing to purchase their aid in the per- petual feuds of the Middle Ages. They played their most prominent part in Italy, where they were known as Oondottteri. FREELAND (Collegeville P. O.), a village of Montgomery county, southeastern part of Pennsyl- vania. It is the seat of the Pennsylvania Female College, and of Ursinus College (Reformed German). FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS, an English histo- rian, born at Harborne in 1823, and educated at Trinity College, Oxford. He has filled many im- portant ofllces in his University, of which, in 1884, he became regius professor of modern history. His chief writings are: History of the Norman Conquest; The Ottoman Power in Europe; Histoz*ical Geography of Europe; and Lectures to American Audiences. FREEMAN, JAMES (1759-1835), an American Uni- tarian clergyman. In 1782 he became lay-reader of King’s chapel, Boston, Mass., and was connected with this church until 1826, when he gave up his duties, owing to failing health. He was the first minister in the United States to avow the name of Unitarian, and through him King’s chapel, the first Episcopal church in New England, became the first Unitarian church in America. He contributed liberally to periodical literature, and published a Description 0 Boston; a Sermon on the Death of Rev. John Eliot, . D.; and a volume of Sermons and Charges. FREEMAN, JAMES EDWARD (1808-84), an Ameri- can artist. At an early age he entered the National Academy of Design, New York city; in 1831 he be- came an associate, and two years later an aca- demician. He was a painter of genre pictures and portraits. Among his productions are The Beggars; The Flower Girl; The Saoo yard Boy in London; Young Italy; The Crusader’s Return; and Study of An Angel. He published Gatherings from An.-lrtrlst’Q Portfolio. 721 FREEMASONRY, an ancient and secret insti- tution, at first composed of masons or builders, but now embracing among its members men of every rank and condition of life, of every nation and of every religion which acknowledges a Supreme Being and believes in the immortality of the soul. See Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 747-52; also SECRET AND BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. FREE METHODISTS, a denomination of Metho- dists established in the United States in 1860. They make prominent the doctrines of entire sanctifica- tion and everlasting punishment. and rigidly en- force simplicity of dress and temperate living. FREEPORT, a city of Illinois, county-seat of Stephenson county (see Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 752). Freeport has excellent railroad facilities, being at the western terminus of a division of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad, and at the crossing of the Illinois Central and \Vestern Union Railroads. Freeport College (Presbyterian) established here in 1872, is a flourishing institution. The city is largely engaged in trade and manufactures, and its growth. though not rapid, is substantial. Popu- lation in 1880, 8,515; in 1890, 10,159. FREEPORT, a village of Queens county, L. I., N. Y., on the South Side Railway, and 24 miles from Brooklyn. Oyster planting and fishing are the chief industries. FREE—SOIL PARTY. See POLITICAL PARTIES, in these Revisions and Additions. FREESTONE, any rock which admits of being freely cut and dressed by the builder. It has also been defined as any rock which works equally freely in every direction, having no tendency to split in one direction more than in another. In this sense, limestone and even granite have been called freestone. FREE TRADE, a term which means, in a literal sense, trade or commercial intercourse free from all artificial interferences or restrictions. The phrase also denotes one of the most important and fundamental doctrines in political economy, its ad- herents maintaining that the prosperity of a state or nation will be best promoted by permitting a free exchange of all commodities between its own people and those of foreign countries to the great- est possible extent. During the last few years the literature on the subject of free trade has become so abundant and widespread in the United States that an elaborate article on this subject is unneces- sary. See Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 752-62. FREEZING, the congelation of liquid Substances through abstraction of heat. The freezing point of water under ordinary circumstances is 322° Fahr., or 00 Cent. The freezing point is lowered, however, by an increase of pressure. This is the case with all substances which expand in freezing, but on the other hand the freezing point of substances which contract on solidifying is raised by pressure. FREEZING, ARTIFICIAL. For many years prior to the beginning of the 19th century artificial freezing was merely an interesting experiment performed in laboratories. Subsequently, however, attempts were made to manufacture ice foreco- nomic purposes, and four methods advanced with varied success: (1) by freezing mixtures (q. T.) ; (2) by the absorption of caloric into vapor, that of water being the best suited for the purpose; (3) the re-expansion of compressed air, which ex- tinguishes caloric in the gas; and (4) by radiation into cosmical spaces. The machines used for making ice are inventions by which a commixture or solution of the substances to be employed is made to flow along a metallic surface containing the substances to be cooled non-conductors of heat 2—8 722 being employed to protect them from radiation and external heat. FREEZING MIXTURE, a mixture that has the property of a rapid absorption of heat. It is generally composed of a solid mingled with one or more liquids, in which the solid dissolves, and in so doing causes a considerable absorption of heat. The following table presents the more common freezing mixtures, the proportions of the various substances used, and the number of degrees the temperature is reduced: Mixtures. Parts. Tllsiglllggzgffer Snow or pounded ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 —5° F. Common salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 -20.55° C. Snow or pounded ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 Common salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 —12° F. Sal-ammoniac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 —24.44° C. Snow or pounded ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 Common salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 --18° F. Sal-ammoniac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 —-27.7S° C. N iter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 Snow.. .. .. .. 3 —-23°F. Sulphuric acid, dilute . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 --30.550 C. Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 -27° F. Hydrochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 —32.78° 0. Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 -30° F. Nitric acid, dilute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 -34.-15° C. Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 -50° F. Chloride of calcium crystals. . . . . .. 3 —45.50° 0. Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 -51° F. Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 --46.100 C. Nitrate of ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1-4° F. Water . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 + 15.55’ C. Chloride of ammonium ............ .. 5 +10° F. Nitrate of potassa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 -l2.22° 0. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16 Chloride of ammonium ............ .. 5 Nitrate of potassa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 -4° F. Sulphate of soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 -15.55° C. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16 Nitrate of ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 Carbonate of soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 -70 F. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 -21.67° C. Sulphate of soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 3° F. Nitric acid, dilute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 -19.4-4° C. Phosphate of soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 -120 F. Nitric acid,d1lute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 -24.4-4° O. Sul hate of soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 -0° F. Hy rochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 —17.7S° C. Sulphate of soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 —3° F. Sulphuric acid, dilute . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 ---16.110 C. Sulphate of soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 -—l4° Nitrate of ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 -25.5o° C. Nitric acid, dilute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 4 FREGENAL DE LA SIERRA, a town of Spain, in the province of Badajoz. It has tan-yards and manufactures of linens and leather. Population, 7 707. ,FREIRIRA, a seaport of Chili, in the province of Atacama, at the mouth of the Guasco. Population, 10,000. FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE (1817- 85), an American lawyer. He was admitted to the bar in 1839, was chosen Newark city attor- ney in 1849, and in 1850 its counsel. In 1861 he became attorney-general, and in 1866 received a reappointment, but in the same year was sent FREEZING ,MIXTURE—FREMONT by the governor to the United States Senate to fill a vacancy caused by the death of William Wright. In 1870 he was appointed minister to England, but declined, and in the following year was again elected to the United States Senate. In Decem- ber, 1881, he was appointed Secretary of State, and served through President Arthur’s administration. Mr. Frelinghuysen held important oiiices in various educational and charitable organizations. FRELINGHUYSEN, THEODORE (1787-1861), an American lawyer. He was admitted to the New Jersey bar in 1806, and in 1817 became attorney- general. He resigned in 1829, after three succes- sive appointments, and became a United States Senator. His term expired in 1835, and in 1837, and again in 1838, he was chosen mayor of Newark, N. J. From 1839 to 1850 he was chancellor of the University of New York, and in the latter year be- came president of Rutgers College, continuing as such until the day of his death. He was presi- dent of various literary, scientific, and charitable organizations. FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES (1813-90), an Amer- ican explorer. In 1833-35 he taught mathematics on the sloop-of-war Natchez, and then became assistant engineer of the United States topograph- ical corps, receiving the commission of 2d lieuten- ant in 1838. In 1840-41 he made a survey of the river Des Moines on the western frontier, and in 1841-42 was in charge of an expedition for the ex- ploration of the Rocky Mountains. In 1843-44 he explored the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, and received the brevet of captain in 1845. The same year he set out to explore the Great Basin and the maritime region of Oregon and California, and in 1846 received despatches di- recting him to look after the interests of the United States in California. On July 4, of that year, after he had freed Northern California from Mexican authority, the American settlers elected him gov- ernor. In 1848 he resigned from the army, and started on an expedition across the continent, at his own expense, with the object of finding a prac- ticable passage to California by way of the upper waters of the Rio Grande, and after suffering ter- rible hardships discovered a secure route by which he reached the Sacramento in the spring of 1849. He then settled in California, and was appointed to rep- resent that State in the United States Senate, his term of service expiring March 4, 1851. In 1851 he went on another expedition across the continent, and found passes through the mountains on the line of latitude 380 and 39°. In 1855 he took up his residence in New York city, and in the following year was nominated for the Presidency by the National Republican convention, and also by the National American convention. In the election that followed, he was defeated, however, the elec- toral vote standing Buchanan 174, Fremont 114, and Fillmore 8. In 1858 Fremont went to Califor- nia, and resided there some time. At the begin- ning of the civil war he was made a major-general of the Regular Army, and given the command of the western department. In 1862 he was assigned to the command of the mountain district of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. At his own request he was relieved of his command in June of the same year. After 1864 Gen. Fremont took little part in public affairs, although from 1878 to 1881 he was governor of Arizona. He published Report of the Erploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in 18493, and to Oregon and North Carolina in 1843-44 (1845); Col. J. C. Fremont’s E.rpZorations (1859); and Memoirs of Illy Life (1886). FREMONT, a village of Newaygo county, Mich., contains a tannery, lumber and stave mills, and a FREMONT-—FRERE-ORBAN chair factory. South of this village is Fremont Lake, a pleasant summer resort. FREMONT, a city and county-seat of Dodge county, N eb., and a great market for cattle, horses, hogs, and sheep. It has a normal and a business college, water works, gas and electric lights, tele- phone system, pork-packing houses, planing-mills and flouring-mills. FREMONT, a village of WVayne county, N. C. It has lumber mills, a wool-carding establishment, cotton-gins, and a good trade in lumber, cotton, and naval stores. There is a mineral spring in the Vicinity. FREMONT, OHIO. See Britannica,Vol. IX, p. 767. FRENCH BERRIES, the fruit of a certain species of buckthorn, used in dyeing; the berries are gathered unripe and dried. They yield a rich yellow color. It is a native of the rough, rocky places in the countries near the Mediterranean. In the south of France it is cultivated to some extent. FRENCH BROAD RIVER rises in the western part of North Carolina, near the Blue Ridge, flows northward into Tennessee, thence northwest, then southwest, joining the Holston River about three miles above the city of Knoxville. It is about 200 miles in length, and is navigable by steamers for a distance of 30 miles. FRENCH HONEYSUCKLE, a biennial plant of the natural order Leguminosa, sub-order Papilio- naceae. It has fine foliage, grows from four to five feet high, and is very nutritious. It is cultivated in the south of Europe as a food for cattle. FRENCH INDIA. The French possessions in India, as established by the treaties of 1814 and 1815, consist of five separate towns,which cover an aggre- gate of 50,803 hectares (about 200 square miles), and had on Jan. 1, 1889, the following estimated populations : Pondichery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41,253 Karical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,719 Oulgaret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46,529 Villenour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35,983 Nedounkadou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,487 Shandernagar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,395 Bahour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,129 La Grande Aldée . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.260 Mahé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,349 Yanaon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,199 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 280.303 Of this total over 270,000 are Indians. The col- onies are divided into five olépenolanees and ten com- munes, having municipal institutions. The gov- ernor of the colony resides at Pondichery. The col- ony is represented by one Senator and one Deputy. Estimated budget (1889), 1,665,685 francs; expendi- ture of France, 448,183 francs; debt, 300,000 francs. The chief exports from Pondichery are oil seeds. The imports in 1889 amounted to 4,248,230 francs, and total exports 21,398,308 francs. FRENCH INDO-CHINA. Under this designa- tion the French dependencies of Cochin-China, Tonquin, Annam, and Cambodia have, to a certain extent, been incorporated. There is a Superior Council of Indo-China. which fixes the budget of Cochin-China, and advises as to the budgets of Annam, Tonquin, and Cambodia. In 1887 the French possessions in Indo-China, including An- nam and Cambodia, were united into a customs- union. In 1888 the external trade of the union reached 68,069,305 francs for imports, and 71,274,- 063 francs for exports. FRENCH LICK, a township of Orange county, Ind. Twelve saline sulphur springs are situated in a pleasant valley of this township, and the waters are useful for the cure of some diseases. FRENCHMAN’S BAY, an arm of the ocean ex- tending 30 miles into Hancock county, Me., with a 723 width of about 10 miles. Mount Desert Island lies between the bay and the Atlantic. - FRENCH PURPLE, a beautiful dye obtained from archil (Roceella tinctoria), and used for coloring purples on silk and wool. FRENCHTOIVN, a manufacturing town of Hun- terdon county, N. J ., on the Delaware River. Among the articles made here are iron and brass castings, regalia, sashes, and blinds, distilled liquors, and carriages. FRENEA U, PHILIP (1752-1832), an American poet. He contributed to the “United States Magazine” and the“ Freeman’s Journal,” and in 1790 became ed- itor of the New York“ Daily Advertiser.” Later he was appointed translator for the State department, and at the same time assumed the editorship of the “ National Gazette.” He next became editor of the “Jersey Chronicle,” and in 1797 of the New York “ Time-piece and Literary Companion,” but his con- nection with this paper was brief. Freneau pub- lished A Poem on the Rising Glory of America (1771) ; Voyage to Boston (1774) ; General Gage’s Confession (1775); The British Prison-ship (1781); The Poems of Philip Freneau, lVritten Chiefiy During the Late lVar (1786) ; A Journey from Philadelphia to New York, by Robert Slender, St0Ck1.7Zg—’LU6Cl?)6’I‘ (1787); The I1’is- cellaneous Tlbrks of Mr. Philip Freneau (1788) ; The Village flferchant (1794) ; Poems Written Between the Years 1768 and 1794 (1795); Letters on Various In- teresting and Important Subjects, by Robert Slender (1799) ; Poems lVritten and Published During the American Revolutionary l/Var (1809); A Collection of Poems on American Afiairs (1815) ; and a translation of Abbé Robin’s Voyages and Travels (1783). FRERE, CHARLES Tnnononn, a French painter, born at Paris, June 24, 1815, died in 1888. He studied art with Coignet and Roqueplan, and made his first public appearance at the exhibition of 1834. In 1836 he went to Algeria, was present at the tak- ing of the city of Constantine by the French in October. 1837, and afterwards visited the East. His pictures are chiefly representations of Eastern scenes. Among the more famous of these are the Halt of the Arabs, which was bought by the French government in 1850; A I-Iarem at Cairo; Ruins of Karnalc; The Island of Philee; The Cararan of flfecca; The Nile-Evening, and The Desert—Noon. FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD, K. C. B., G. C. S. I., D. C. L., an English colonial officer, born in ‘Vales, March 29, 1815, died in London, May 29, 1884. He was educated at Bath and at Haileybury College, and entered the Indian Civil Service in 1833. In 1847 he became British Resi- dent at Sattara, and three years later chief com- missioner of Sind. During the mutiny in 1857 he succeeded in keeping his own province in subjec- tion and assisted his colleagues in adjoining prov- inces. In 1862 he was appointed governor of Bom- bay, which post he held until his return to England in 1867. In 1872 he was employed on a successful mission to Zanzibar for the suppression of the slave- trade, and in 1877 was appointed governor of the Cape, and high commissioner for the settlement of affairs in South Africa. There being considerable difference of opinion among English statesmen with regard to the justifiableness of Sir Bartle’s course in the Zulu war, he was recalled by the gov- ernment in 1880. He subsequently devoted him- self to the duties entailed upon him by the presi- dency of various learned societies, and to the pro- motion of missionary work. He published several works on Indian and African subjects. FRERE-ORBAN, Hnnnnr Josnrrr IVALTHER, a Belgian statesman, educated in France, and ad- mitted to the bar in his native city. Elected to the chamber of deputies in 1847, he had charge of the 5 724 public finances, and organized the national bank of Belgium. He retired in 1852, was recalled in 1861, and in 1878 became head of the ministry, which po- sition he held until 1884. He was the leader of the opposition to the clerical party, the conflict being chiefly on the subject of education. Frere-Orban established a special ministry of public instruction, and in 1879 instruction was secularized. His re- tirement in 1884 was in consequence of the victory of the clerical party at the polls. FRERE, PIERRE EDOUARD, a French painter,born in Paris, Jan. 10, 1819, died at Ecouen, May 23, 1886. He studied under Delaroche, and first ex- hibited in the Salon of 1843. Most of his pictures represent the amusements and occupations of -country children, and they are characterized by much grace and purity of feeling. His best-known works are: The Little Gourmand; Boys Going from School; Girls Going from School; The Road to School; The Orphan’s First Prayer; and Preparing for Church. The last is in the Corcoran Gallery at Washington. FRESHVVATER STRATA are so named from their supposed origin. This can be easily deter- mined from an examination of the contained fossils. Though the great proportion of aqueous rocks are of marine origin, yet freshwater strata are occasion- ally met with. The Yellow Sandstones of the Old Red or Lower Carboniferous period are freshwater beds. FRESNO, an enterprising city of California, county-seat of Fresno county, about 20 miles east of San Joaquin River and 40 miles north of Tulare Lake. FRETTY. When six, eight or more pieces are represented crossing and interlacing like lattice- work, the shield is said to be fretty. FREYCINET, CHARLES LoUIs DE SAULCES DE, a French statesman, ,born at Foix, Nov. 14, 1828, and educated at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris. Appointed in 1864 an ordinary engineer of the first class, he was until 1870 a member of the council of Tarn-et-Garonne. In October, 1870, Gambetta ap- pointed him his subordinate in the war depart- ment. Elected to the Senate in 1876, he became minister of public works in 1877, and premier in 1879, with the portfolio of foreign affairs. He re- signed in 1880, but formed a ministry again in 1882 and in 1886; and in 1889 he became minister of war under M. Tirard. In 1890 he became for the fourth time premier and minister of war. He has written several scientific works of acknowledged excellence. He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1891. FREYR, or FREY: in Norse mythology, the god of peace and fertility, who presided over rain, sun- shine and all the fruits of the earth, and to whom prayers were addressed for a good harvest. He was the son of Njord, and was held in great ven- eration, especially in Sweden and Iceland. His chief temple was at Upsala. FREYSTADTEL, or FREYSTADT, a town of Hun- gary, 15 miles northwest of Neutra, on the Waga, opposite Leopoldstadt. Various articles of wood are extensively manufactured, and there are im- portant cattle markets. Population, 6,346. FREYTAG, GUSTAV, a German writer, born July 13, 1816, at Kreuzburg in Silesia; studied at Breslau and Berlin, and from 1839 till 1847 was a lecturer on Germanl nguage and literature in the former university. In 1848 he settled at Leipsic, where he edited the “ Grenzboten” until 1870. Since 1879 he has resided at \Viesbaden. His dramas, Die Valen- tine (1847), Graf Waldemar (1850), and Die Journal- isten (1853), proved brilliant successes; but his greatest achievement in literature is undoubtedly FRERE-.---FRIEDRICH \ Soll und Haben (1855, 30th ed., 1885), a realistic novel of German commercial life, which was translated into English under the title of Debit and Credit (1858). Other of his works are Die Verlorne Hand- schrift (1864, Eng., The Lost Manuscript, 1865), and the series (1872-81), called Die Ahnen (Our An- cestors). FRIDESWIDE, ST., daughter of Dida, an ealder- man, was the patroness of Oxford, where she was born early in the eighth century. She preferred a religious life to marriage with Algar, a great Mer- cian noble, who,coming in search of her, was struck blind. She was canonized in 1481. Catherine, Peter Martyr’s wife, was buried beside her pillaged shrine in 1552; exhumed by Cardinal Pole, but re- interred there in 1561, when the remains of the virgin saint and of the ex-nun were indissolubly mingled together. FRIEDRICH, KARL NIKOLAS, Imperial Prince of Germany, eldest son of Prince Karl (1801-85), second brother of Emperor Friedrich VVilhelm, born March 20, 1828, died June 15, 1885. He re- ceived a military education, entered the army in his youth, was engaged in the Schleswig-Holstein war in 1864, and in the war against Austria in 1866 had command of the First Army. In the Franco- German war he commanded the Second German Army, defeated the French general Froissart at Speichorn, commanded in the sie e operations against Metz, and after the surren er was made field-marshal. He afterwards recaptured Orleans, £00k Le Mans, and dispersed the Army of the oire. FRIEDRICH III (1831-88), second German em- peror and eighth king of Prussia, the only son of Emperor William I and Empress Augusta, born at Potsdam, Oct. 18, 1831; received a scientific educa- tion, and for some years studied the art of war under Moltke. He paid several visits to England, and in lanuary, 1858, was married to Victoria, the Princess Royal. Engaging in the Danish war, he was present at the battle of Diippel and at the later operations of the Prussian and Austrian forces, which resulted in the defeat of Denmark. On the outbreak of the war between Prussia and Austria in 1866, he was placed at the head of the Second Prussian Army, and during a brief but brilliant series of operations he fought victorious engage- ments at Trautenau and Nachod. His opportune arrival on the field of Sadowa, or Koniggréitz, gave the crowning victory to the Prussians. In the Franco-German war he commanded the armies of the south, and his were the victories of Wissem- bourg and Wbrth. In the memorable engagements preceding the French capitulation at Sedan, his troops were engaged against a part of MacMahon’s forces. The Germans succeeded in crossing the river Meuse under specially diilicult circumstances. Upon the fall of Metz the dignity of field-marshal was conferred on him, and at Versailles, on Jan. 18, 1871, he became crown-prince of the German empire. During the time of peace which ensued he manifested a keen interest in the welfare and development of Germany. During the year 1887 it became known that he was suffering from an ar- fection of the throat, and a few months later the disease assumed a malignant form. On the 9th of March, 1888, Emperor William died, and the crown- prince was proclaimed emperor under the title of Friedrich III. During the next two months his malady exhibited many fluctuations, but after a brave and patient battling against death the em- peror expired, June 15, 1888. He possessed broad and liberal views of theology, literature and poli- tics ; was opposed to the persecution of the Jews; encouraged art and letters; and sought as far as FREIDRICH-—FROND possible to liberalize the institutions of the empire. As a ruler it was his desire to reconcile the mon- archy with popular aspirations, and had he lived he must have deeply impressed his personality upon the immediate future of Prussia and Ger- many. FRIEDRICH, J OHANN, a Roman Catholic theo- logian, born in Franconia in 1836. He was a leader with Dbllinger in the Old Catholic movement. He became a professor of theology at Munich in 1865; assisted at the Vatican council in 1870, and subse- quently, in life and labors, has been identified with the Old Catholics. FRIEDRICHRODA, a town of Thiiringen and a popular and favorite summer resort in the beauti- ful Schilfwasser valley, 13 miles southwest of Gotha by rail. The duke of Gotha’s handsome country-seat, Reinhardsbrunn, is situated here on the site of the old abbey of that name. which was destroyed in the Peasant war. The town has bleaching establishments and large laundries, sup- plied from Magdeburg, Berlin and Hamburg. Pop- ulation, 3,146. FRIEDRICHSDORF, a town in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on the southern slope of the Taunus, three miles northeast of Homburg. It was founded in 1687 by thirty-two Huguenot families, and its inhabitants still speak French. FRIENDSHIP, a village of Allegheny county, N. Y. It is the seat of Baxter’s Musical University, and has an academy and a furnace. FRIEZE, a thick, coarse woolen cloth having a shaggy nap on one side, much used for making rough cloaks and jackets since the 1-lth century. Hand-woven friezes are still manufactured in Ire- land, whence they are exported for overcoating. FRIGATE: originally,a long, narrow vessel of the Mediterranean, propelled by oars and sails, used on occasions when speed was requisite. The name was afterwards applied to the men-of-war which were employed in the wars of the 18th and early part of the 19th centuries. FRIGGA: in Northern mythology, a goddess who seems to have occupied an analoenus position to that of Venus in Roman mythology. She was the wife of Odin, and was also the goddess of the earth and of marriage, being frequently confounded, and latterly quite identified, with Freyja. She was the only Scandinavian deity placed among the stars; Orion’s belt, in Swedish, being called Frigga’s dis- taff. From her Friday takes its name. FRINGES: in optics, those colored bands of dif- fraction which appear when a beam of light passes the clean edge of a screen, or is transmitted through a slit or hole. FRINGE TREE, a genus of plants of the nat- ural order Oleaceee, consisting of small trees or large shrubs, natives of America, the lVest Indies, and New Holland. The popular fringe tree or snowflower found in the United States sometimes attains the height of 80 and -10 feet, has opposite, oval leaves 6 or 7 inches long, and numerous snow- white flowers in panicled racemes. The limb of the carolla is divided into four long linear seg- ments; the fruit is an oval drupe. The tree is fre- quently cultivated as an ornamental plant. FRITH, or Frscm-1. an arm or channel of the sea that is passed or crossed; the opening of a river into the sea. FRITH, IVILLIAM PowELL, an English artist, born i11 Yorkshire in 1819. His numerous pro- ductions have been popular from the interest of their subjects and their obvious dramatic point, and have been made widely known by means of engravings; as Othello and Desdemona, Ramsgate Stands, The Derby Day, and others. In 1852 he be- 725 came a Royal Academician, and in 1890 was, by his desire, placed on the retired list. His Autobiog- raphy and Reminiscences were published in 1887 and 1888. FRITILLARY, a genus of plants of the natural order Liliaceee, herbaceous, bulbous-rooted, with bell-shaped perianth of six distinct segments, each having a conspicuous honey-pore at the base. There are about twenty species, chiefly of the tem- perate parts of Europe and Asia. Many varieties are in cultivation; the best known is the Crown Imperial, a native of Persia and the north of India. FRITILLARY, a name given to a number of species of butterfly, from the resemblance of the coloring of their wings to that of the petals of the fritillary. This resemblance appears only on the upper side of the wings, the under side being often remarkable for metallic brilliancy. FROBISHER BAY, an inlet opening westward near the mouth of Davis Strait into the territory called by Frobisher Meta Incognito, at the southern end of Baflin Land. It is about two hundred miles long by above twenty wide, with rugged mountain- ous shores. It was, till Hall’s voyage, called Fro- bisher Strait, being erroneously regarded as a pas- sage into Hudson Bay. F RCEBEL. JULIUS, nephew of Friedrich Frcebcl, the founder of the Kindergarten system, was born at Griesheim, Germany, July 16, 1806, and studied in the Universities of Munich, Jena, and Berlin. He was professor of mineralogy at Zurich from 1833 to 184-1; afterwards edited a radical political paper; removed to Prussia, but was obliged to leave for political reasons; took part in the revo- lution of 18-18. and was elected to the German Congress at Frankfort; was arrested and con- demned to death for an attempt to excite a revo- lution in Vienna, but was pardoned. He subse- quently traveled for several years in Central America, Mexico, and California, returning to Germany as a naturalized American citizen. In 1862 he was an editor in Vienna, in 1867 founded a journal in Munich, in 1873 was made consul of the German empire at Smyrna, and in 1876 was trans- ferred to Algiers in the same capacity. Among his publications are Sezen Years’ Trarel in Central America and the Far West (1859) ; Theorie der Politik (1861-6-1); Die Gesclzz‘clzz‘spunkte und Aufgaben der Politik (1878); and Die Realistische ll'eltansicht and die utilitczrisclze Cz'rilz'sation (1881). FROG. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 795. FROGBIT (Hydrocharis morsus-ranee), a small aquatic plant of the order .Hyd/‘ocha/"2'dacea’, allied to the water-soldier (Stratiotes), but with floating leaves. FROGGED, a term used in regard to uniforms, Emd applied to a coat ornamented or fastened with rogs. FROG—SPITTLE, a popular name for various fresh-water algae, which form green floating-masses in streams and ditches. The term is also applied to a frothy substance often seen on plants which is secreted and exuded by insects of various families of the Hemiptera. FROHSDORF, a village in Lower Austria 30 miles south of Vienna, on the river Leitha. and near the frontiers of Hungary. It is celebrated for its splendid castle, which acquired a kind of politi- cal importance through its having been from 1814 to 1883 the rendezvous of the elder Bourbon party and the residence of the Comte de Chambord. FROND, a term used in botany to designate the leaves of cryptogamous plants. The term leaf is now very generally used even as to mosses. ferns, etc., and the term thallus is employed as to lichens. In the case of many Algae the term frond is often W6 used to designate the whole plant except its organs of reproduction. FRONTENAC, LOUIS DE BUADE, COMTE DE (1620- 98), a governor of New France. At fifteen he entered the army, and in 1672, having gained a high military reputation, was made governor of Canada, with all the other countries included under the name of New France. For a time he ruled alone, and when the court sent him a col- league in the erson of Duchesneau, bitter quarrels ensued. n 1682 both were recalled, and Frontenac for a while lived in retirement. In 1689 the Marquis de Denonville, then governor, waged against the Iroquois a war meant to humble, but which served only to enrage them, and they spread blood and havoc everywhere. Frontenac was re- turned to Canada to restore peace, and accom- plished this end in a remarkably short time. He continued to rule until his death, and his name stands in the annals of the colony as that of the most remarkable man who ever represented the crown of France in America. FRONTISPIECE, the name generally given to an engraved and decorated title-page of a volume, or an engraving placed opposite the title-page. The term is also used to denote the front or prin- cipal face of a building. FROSINONE (Frusino of the Volscians), a town of Italy, sixty miles southeast of Rome by rail, with remains of an ancient amphitheater. Popula- tion, 7,018. FROSTBURG, a village of Allegheny county, Md., located on a plateau between Dan’s and Savage mountains,1,792 feet above sea-level and over the coal-basin of Western Maryland. The gillage has a fire-brick manufactory and foun- ries. FROTH-FLY, also called Fnorn-Horrnn, Fnoe- I-Io1>i>ER, FROG-SPIT, numerous insects parasitic on plants, on which the larvae and pupae are found surrounded by a frothy spittle. They are of the family Cicadellidae, order H omoptera, and are related to the amphides, cicadas, and lantern-flies. The family, which is large, consists of plant parasites, mostly small in size, often very beautiful in form and color. The young stages, which are very like the adults, except in the absence of developed wings, suck their plant hosts, and thereupon sur- round themselves with the familiar froth which issues from the hind end of the gut, and which is popularly called cuckoo-spit or frog-spittle, from fancies entertained as to its origin. It is some- times so abundant, on willows for instance, that it drops from the branches. In some cases it may be helped by an exudation from the wounded plants. The adults have long hind-legs, and are able to hop about with some activity. FROTHINGHAM, NATHANIEL LANGDON (1793- 1870), an American clergyman. For a while he was an instructor in Harvard University, and from 1815 to 1850 was pastor of the First Congre- gational church (Unitarian) in Boston. He con- tributed to various religious periodicals, and pub- lished, besides many sermons, Deism or Christian- ity (1845); Sermons in the Order of a Twelve-month (1852) ; and Metrical Pieces, Translated and Original (1855). FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS Bnooxs, an Ameri- can author, born in 1822. In 1847 he was ordained astor of the North church (Unitarian) at Salem, ass. In 1855-59 he was pastor in Jersey City, N. J., and in 1860-79 had charge of the Third Unita- rian Congregational Church, New York city. In 1881 he withdrew from specific connection with any church, and devoted himself to literature. Mr. Frothingham has contributed to various periodi- FRONTENAC—FRYE l cals, and published, besides more than 150 sermons, Stories from the Lips of the Teacher (1863); Stories from the Old Testament (1864); Child’s Book of Reli- gion (1866) ; The Religion of Humanity (1873); Life of Theodore Parker (1874); Tmnscendentalism in New England (1876); The Cradle of the Christ (1877); Life of Gerrit Smith (1878); Life 0 George Ripley (1882); and Memoir of William enry Channing (1886). FROTHINGHAM, RICHARD (1812-80), an Ameri- can historian. For years he was proprietor, and in 1852-65 managing editor, of the Boston, M ass., “ Post.” In 1839, 1840, 1842, 1849 and 1850 he was a member of the Massachusetts legislature, and in 1851-53 was mayor of Charlestown. For several years he was treasurer of the Massachusetts His- torical Society. He is the author of History of Char/estown (1848); History of the Siege of Boston (1849); The Command of the Battle of Bunker Hill (1850); Life of General Joseph Warren (1865); Trib- ute to Thomas Starr King (1865); and Rise of the Re- public (1871) ; besides many addresses and pamph- lets. FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY, an eminent English historian, youngest son of the Archdeacon of Totnes, born at Dartington, Devonshire, April 23, 1818. He was educated at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford, and was elected a Fellow of Exe- ter College in 1842. He took deacon’s orders in 1844, but having altered his religious views he wrote in 1848 a work entitled The Nemesis of Faith, in which the solemnity and sadness of religious scepticism are relieved by a singularly tender and earnest humanity. The book was written with great power, and cost Froude his fellowship and an educational appointment in Tasmania. For the next few years he employed himself in writing for “Fra- zer’s Magazine” and the “Westminster Review,” and in 1856 issued the first two volumes of his History of England from theFall of Wolsey to theDe_/"eat of the Span- ish Armada, completed in 12 volumes in 1869. In this work Froude displays supreme literary ability, but, like Macaulay, who in the art of making his- tory as facinating as fiction is his only rival, he isa man of letters first and an historian afterwards, and the defects of his merits have sadly impaired the permanent value of his work; his views of men and motives are always distorted by being seen through 19th century spectacles; and these, more- over, spectacles of his own. Four volumes of brilliant essays and papers, entitled Short Studies on Great Subjects, appeared between 1867 and 1882. He became rector of St. Andrew’s University in 1869, and received the degree of LL. D. His next history, in 13 volumes (1871-74), was The English in Ireland in the 18th Century. In 1874, and again in 1875, Froude visited the South African colonies on a mission from the home government, and pub- lished his impressions in Two Lectures on South Af- rica, in1880. As Carlyle’s literary executor Froude edited his Reminiscences in 1881, Mrs. Carlisle’s Let- ters in three volumes, in 1882, and Carlyle’s own Life in four volumes (1882-84). Among his several later works are The Two Chiefs of Dunboy, published in 1889, an historical romance of Irish life toward the close of the 18th century; and a Life of Lord Beaconsfield, in 1890. FROZEN STRAIGHT, a passa e about 15 miles wide, separating Southampton Is and, in the north of Hudson Bay, from Melville Peninsula. FRYE, WILLIAM PIERCE, a United States Sena- tor, born in 1831, graduated at Bowdoin College, Maine, 1850; studied and practiced law; was a member of the State legislature in 1861, ’62, and ’67; was mayor of the city of Lewiston in 1866-67; was attorney-general of the State of Maine in 1867 FRUCTED—FULAHS '68, and ’69; was elected a member of the National Republican Executive Committee in 1872, reélected -in 1876, and in 1880 was elected a trustee of Bow- »doin College; received the degree of LL. D. from Bates College in July, 1881, and the same degree from Bowdoin College in 1889; was a presidential elector in 1864; was a delegate to the National Re- publican conventions in 1872, ’76, and ’80 ; was -elected chairman of the Republican State Commit- tee of Maine in place of Hon. J . G. Blaine, resigned in November, 1881; was elected a Representative in the 42d, 43d, 44th, 45th, 46th and 47th Con- gresses; was elected to the United States Senate as a Republican to fill the vacancy occasioned by the resignation of James G. Blaine, appointed Sec- retary of State; took his seat March, 1881, and was reélected in 1883, and again in 1888. His term of service will expire March 3, 1895. FRUCTED. Trees when represented as bearing fruit are said, heraldically, to be fructed. FRUCTIFICATION, a term frequently employed in cryptogamic botany, sometimes to denote the whole reproductive system, and sometimes the fruit itself. FRUIT-PIGEON (Carpophaga), a genus of pig- eons, including about fifty species, distributed over the whole Australian and Oriental regions, but much more abundant in the former. They live in forests, are well adapted for arboreal life, and feed on fruits. The gape is wide; the coloring of the plumage brilliant. The term fruit-pigeon is also extended to members of other genera—treron, alectroenas, etc. FRUITPORT, a summer resort and center of a fruit region in Muskegon county, Mich., at the mouth of Grand River. It has a magnetic mineral spring. FRUSTUM: in geometry, the part of asolid next the base, left on cutting off the top by a plane par- allel to the base. The frustum of a sphere or sphe- roid, however, is any part of these solids comprised between two circular sections, and the middle frus- tum of a sphere is that whose ends are equal cir- icles, having the center of a sphere in the middle of it, and equally distant from both ends. FRYKEN, a lake, or rather chain of lakes, in Sweden, stretching from north to south over a dis- tance of about 40 miles and discharging into Lake lVenner by the Nors. They are surrounded by some of the finest scenery in Sweden. FRYXELL, ANDERs, a Swedish historian, born Feb. 7, 1795, in Dalsland, died at Stockholm, March 21, 1881. He took priest’s orders in 1820, and in 1828 became rector of a gymnasium in Stockholm. From 1847 until his death he devoted himself en- tirely to literary pursuits. His reputation rests upon Berrimftelser ur Soenska Historien ( “ Narratives from Swedish History” (46 vols., Stockholm, 1832- 80). These narratives, largely biographical in form, soon obtained popularity in Sweden, and parts of them have been translated into almost all European languages. Another work, Conspiracies of the Swedish Aristocracy (4 vols. Upsala, 1845-50), was intended as a reply to the accusations urged against that class by Geiger and others, and iii- volved Fryxell in a keen controversy with the dem- ocratic liberal party in Sweden. Besides these works he wrote a Contribution to the History of the Literature of Sweden (9 vols., 1860-62). FUCA, or JUAN DE FUCA, STRAIT, a passage sepa- rating the State of Washington from Vancouver Island, and connecting the Pacific Ocean with the Gulf of Georgia. It contains several islands, one of which, San Juan, became the subject of a dispute be- tween Great Britain and the United States,the ques- :tion being whether it belonged to Washington (then 727 a territory) or to British Columbia. In 1872 the em- peror of Germany, as arbiter, decided that the line of boundary should be run through the Strait of Haro, west of San Juan, thus awarding that island to the United States, and it and several neighboring islands now form a county of Wash- ington. The county of San Juan had in 1880 a popu- lation of 948. FUCACEE, a group of coarse olive-green sea- weeds, belonging to the Oiisporea. About 500 species are known, growing mostly in saltwater. Some at- tain a great size; Macroeystis pyrifera is said to have fronds 500 to 1,500 feet in length. Most of the Fucaceaz contain iodine in great quantity. They are also valuable for the soda which they contain. FUEL. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 807. FUENTE—ALAMO, a town of Spain, 18 miles south of Murcia. It is at the northern base of a range of hills, and at a short distance from the canal of Murcia. Population, 808. FUENTE DE OVEJ UNA, a small walled town of Spain, in the province of Cordova, is situated on the crest and sides of a conical hill, between two of the upper branches of the Guadiata. It has manufactories of linens, woolens, and leather. Pop- ulation, 2,919. FUENTES DE ONORO (the Fountains of Honor), a small village of Salamanca, Spain, on the Portu- guese frontier, 14 miles west of Ciudad Rodrigo. This place is celebrated as the scene of one of the important battles of the Peninsular War, between the French under Massena and the English under Wellington. FUERTE DE ANDALGALA, or ANDALGALA, a town of the Argentine Republic, in the province of Catamarca, 75 miles north of Catamarca, in a mountainous district. Population, 3,073. FUERTE, or VILLA DEL FUERTE, a town of Mexico, in the province of Sinaloa, 75 miles north of Sinaloa, on the Rio del Fuerte. It is a place of commercial importance. Population, 5,000. FUGARA, a name applied to a stop of small ‘scale, in organs, made of wood or metal. In tone it is as piercing as the gamba, but much clearer. FUGITIVE SLAVE LA\VS. See UNITED STATES, Britannica, Vol. XXIII, pp. 747, 751, 768, 770. FUGLEMAN, an intelligent soldier placed in front of a line of men at drill to give the time and an example of the motions in the manual and pla- toon exercises. FUH-HE, or FUH-HE-SHE, the first of the five emperors of China who flourished in the mythologi- cal period. He instructed the people in rearing cattle, and invented the eight combinations of four strokes to express the changes of Nature. His chief invention was that of letters, which he copied from the back of a dragon rising from the deep FUHNEN, the largest of the Danish islands after Seeland, bounded on the west by the Little Belt. on the north by Odensee Fjord, on the east by the Great Belt, and on the south by the island of Langeland. The coast is rugged and much indented with bays, but the interior is generally flat. It is fruitful and well cultivated, producing abundant crops of cereals. Barley, oats. buckwheat, rye, flax, and hemp are grown in large quantities; honey is also largely exported. The Fiihnen horses are in great request, and a large number of them are annually sent out of the island. Population, 204,- 904. FULAHS, a people of the Soudan, extending from Senegal in the west to Darfur in the east, and from Timbuktu and Haussa in the north to J oruba and Adamawa in the south. Their ethnographic relations are not yet definitely settled, some ally- 728 ing them with the Soudan negroes, some with the Nuba of the Nile region, and others regarding them as an isolated race. There appear to be two distinct branches, a dark-skinned division, having its center in Bornu and Adamawa, and an olive-skinned division, occurring chiefly in Sokoto. All are strong and well-built, with long hair and regular Caucasian features. They are very intelli- gent, have a frank, free bearing, are trustworthy, possess considerable self-respect and decision of character, and are devoutly religious. These peo- ple are also industrious, their occupations being agricultural, trading, and cattle-raising; they also work iron and silver, manufacture articles of wood and leather, and weave various durable fabrics. They probably number from seven to eight millions, and almost all their towns contain mosques and schools. FULCRUM, in mechanics, is the prop or fixed point on which a lever moves. FULGURITES, tubes formed of vitrified sand and found in sand banks, and in soils consisting chiefly of silicious sand. They are attributed to the action of lightning melting and vitrifying the sand. They are from a quarter of an inch to two inches in diameter, their internal surface is of a perfectly glassy substance, hard enough to scratch glass, and to give fire with steel. They usually descend vertically, but sometimes obliquely in the sand, become narrower downwards, and occasion- ally branch towards the bottom. The effects of lightning seem to be exhibited also in some places on rocks by vitrification and the production of a sort of enamel, sometimes assuming the form of beads. FULLER, RICIIARD (1804-76), an American Baptist clergyman. He was admitted to the South Carolina bar, and soon rose to eminence in his pro- fession. Subsequently he entered the Baptist min- istry and took charge of the church at Beaufort, S. C. In 1846 he was called to the Baptist church in Baltimore, and there spent the remainder of his life. He published Sermons; Letters; Argument on Baptist and Close Communion; and a Psalmist. FULLER, SARAH MARGARET, Marchioness Ossoli (1810-50), an American authoress. For a while she taught school in Boston, Mass., and Providence, R. 1., and in 1844 went to New York as literary critic of the “Tribune.” In 1846 she visited Europe, where she met many of the foremost people in the literary, social, political, and reformatory world, and in 1847 married Giovanni Angelo, Marquis Ossoli. She entered with zeal into the Italian struggle for independence in 1849, and her conduct during the siege of Rome by the French was of the most heroic, humane, and tender kind. In May, 1850, with her husband and son, she sailed for America, but the vessel was wrecked off Fire Island Beach, L. 1., and all on board perished. Besides many contributions to magazines and papers, she wrote Summer on the Lakes (1843); Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1844) ; and Papers on Literature and Art (1855). FULLERTON, the county-seat of Nance county, Neb. It is the seat of Nebraska Wesleyan Uni- Versity. FULLERTON, LADY GECRGIANA, writer of re- ligious novels, daughter of the first Earl Granville, born in ~3taffordshire, Sept. 23, 1812, died at Bourne- mouth, Jan. 19, 1885. In 1833 she married Alex- ander Fullerton, and two years afterward published her first story, Ellen Middleton. Under the in- fluence of the Tractarian movement she became in 1844 a convert to Roman Catholicism. The rest of her life was devoted to charitable works and the composition of religious stories, among which FULCRIJM—-FUMIGATION \ was Grantley Manor; Constance Sherwood; A Stormy Life; Mrs. Gerald’s Niece; and Gold-digger and Other Verses. FULMINIC ACID has never been isolated in the hydrated form, but its formula doubtless is CZNZHZOZ, the hydrogen acting the part of a base. See EXPLOSIVES, Britannica, Vol. VIII, p. 808. FULNEK, a town of Moravia, ten miles from Neutitschein, with a Capuchin convent, and manu- factories of silk, cloth, and fezes. It was formerly a principal seat of the Moravian brethren, and gave its name to Fulneck in Yorkshire, near Brad- ford, England, where a Moravian settlement was established in 1748. FULTON, a post-town in Fulton township, WVhite- side county, Ill., an important railroad junction and the depot of much grain from Wisconsin, Min- nesota, and northwestern Illinois. It has allarge elevator, carriage, pipe, and stoneware factories,. and is the seat of Northern Illinois College. FULTON, a city of Fulton county, Ky., contains two seminaries, and establishments where cotton- ginning and wool-carding are carried on, and where wagons, tobacco, lumber, and flour are manufactured. FULTON, a city and county-seat of Callaway county, Mo. It contains Westminster College, State asylums for the deaf and dumb, and for the insane, and two State institutions under Presby- terian control. FULTON, a village of Oswego county, N. Y., on Oswego River, 12 miles from Oswego. It has good water-power, several manufactones, and a semi- nary. FULTON, Jonn, an American P. E. clergyman, born in Scotland in 1834. He emigrated to Amer- ica in 1853, and took priest’s orders in 1858. He has devoted much time to study regarding the canon law, and is one of the ablest canonists i11 his de- nomination. He resides in St. Louis. Among his works are Letters on Christian Unity (1868); Index Canonum (1872); Laws of Marriage (1883); and Documentary Ilistory of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States. FULTONVILLE, a village of Montgomery county, N. Y., on the Mohawk River and Erie Canal, 40 miles west of Albany. It has steam mills, an elevator, a foundry, and machine shops. FUH, or FUNG, the Chinese Phoenix, one of the four symbolical animals supposed to preside over: the Chinese empire. Its appearance indicates an age of universal, virtue, the influence of which has extended throughout creation. It is supposed to originate from the element of fire, and to be born in the Tan-heué, or Hill of the Fiery Halo of the Sun. According to Chinese history it has occa- sionally appeared, and a celebrated female flute- player, named Lung-Yu, is said to have enticed it from heaven with her music and then fled away with it. FUMIGATING PASTILS are composed of va- rious ingredients, which,by their smoldering com- bustion, evolve agreeable odors. They are pre- pared by taking benzoin and dry balsam of Peru, each 16 parts, sandal-wood, 4 parts, labdanum, 1 part, charcoal from limetree wood, 96 parts, nitrate of potash, 2 parts, and mucilage of tragacanth, enough to form the mixture into a paste,from which conical pastils are to be made by a small mold. FUMIGATION, the cleansing or medicating of the air of an apartment by means of vapors, em- ployed chiefly for the purpose of detaching infec- tious poisons from clothing and furniture. Most of the methods of fumigation formerly employed’ have little real value. and are to be looked on chiefly as grateful to the senses; as, for instance, FUNCTUS OFFICIO——-FURY AND HECLA the burning of frankincense. For the really active processes, see DISINFECTANTS, Britannica, Vol. VII, . 258. P FUNCTUS OFFICIO (Lat, “having discharged a duty”), a term applied in law to an agent whose legal authority has been exercised and thereby terminated. FUNDAMENTAL BASS: in music, the root or fundamental note of the harmony. FUNDI, a kind of grain much cultivated in the west of Africa. It is light and nutritious, and is highly esteemed as a food for invalids. FUNGIBLES, movable effects which perish by being used, and which are estimated by weight, number, and measure, such as corn, wine, or money. Things are fungible when their place can be adequately supplied by other individuals of the same class, as where a sum of money is repaid by means of other coins than those in which it was received. Thus jewels, paintings, and works of art are not fungibles,because their value differs in each individual of the species without possess- ing any common standard. FUNGUS (Lat, “a mushroom”), a term applied in pathology and surgery to exuberant granula- tions or ulcerating tumor growths, when they project somewhat in the form of a mushroom above the surface of the skin or mucous membrane where they are situated. The conditions giving rise to this appearance occur especially in connection with the testicle and the brain. Tumors in which it occurs are frequently cancerous. The name also occurs in pathology in its true botanical sense, for Actinomycosis, Favus, Ringworm. etc., are pro- duced by parasitic fungi. FUNKIA, so called after a Prussian botanist and herbalist (1771-1839), and sometimes known in English as Plantain-lilies, a genus of Liliaceae allied to the day-lilies (Hemerocalis). Since their introduction from China in 1790, the five or six species have been largely and increasingly culti- vated, not only in greenhouses, but in shrubberies and borders, or in rockwork, on account of the re- markable beauty of their masses of large broadly ovate or cordate, often variegated leaves. They are easily propagated by division of the tuberous crown, and thrive best in deep soil well manured. FUNNEL: in vessels, the iron tube designed to convey away above the deck the smoke and gases set at liberty during the combustion of fuel in the boiler flues, and also from its height to afford a suf- ficient draft to the furnaces. FUNNEL, a conical vessel terminating in a tube and used for pouring liquids into narrow- mouthed vessels, and in laboratories for filtering. For common purposes funnels are made of tin- plate or copper, but when for corrosive liquids, they are made of glass or earthenware. FUNNY BONE, the ulnar nerve, which in most persons is so little protected where it passes be- hind the internal condyle (the projection of the lower end of the humerus at the inner side) to the forearm, that it is often affected by blows on that part. The tingling sensation which is then feltto shoot down the forearm to the fingers has given rise to the name. FUR. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 836. EUR, the term applied to the incrustation which is formed in the interior of vessels, tea-kettles,‘ boilers of steam engines, etc.,when calcareous water has been boiled in them for a considerable time. FURFURAMIDE, FURFURINE, and FURFUROL. \Vhen starch, sugar, or bran is acted upon by dilute sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, the dis- tillate contains not only formic acid, but also a small quantity of an essential oil, which, after being 729 purified by redistillation, is colorless, has a fragrant odor somewhat resembling that of bitter almonds, and when dissolved in cold sulphuric acid forms a beautiful purple liquid. This oil is termed fur- furol. If furfurol be treated with ammonia, it is converted into furfuramide, which occurs in color- less crystals, insoluble in water, but soluble in alco- hol. If furfuramide is boiled with a solution of potash, it dissolves, its elements assume a new ar- rangement, and the solution on cooling deposits long silky needles of a powerfully alkaline base, furfurine, which is isomeric with furfuramide. It is dissolved by dilute acids, and on adding ammonia to these solutions the alkaloid is precipitated un- changed. - FURLCNG, a measure of length, the eighth part of a mile. or 220 yards. FURLOUGH, a military term signifying leave of absence. Non-commissioned officers and private soldiers on furlough must be provided with a pass, or they are liable to be seized and dealt with as de- serters. FURNEAUX ISLANDS, a group of islands in Bass’s Strait. They are numerous, the largest being 35 miles in length, 10 miles in breadth. The soil is sandy and the vegetation feeble. FURNES, a small town of Belgium, near Dun- kirk. Four important lines of canal meet at this town, and it has tanneries and linen manufactures, as well as a considerable trade in horses, cattle, hops and cheese. Population, 5,322. FURNESS, Honacn How-\.RD, an American au- thor, born in 1838. He graduated at Harvard in 185-1, traveled three years in Europe, and in 1859 was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. He has been a diligent student of Shakespeare, and under- took the editing of a new mriorum edition, several volumes of which have been issued. FURNESS, \Y1LLIAM HENR1', an American Con- gregational Unitarian clergyman, born in 1802. In 1825 he was ordained to the First C. U. church in Philadelphia, Pa., where he remained until 1875, when he retired from the ministry. From 1815 to 1817 he edited an annual called “The Diadem.” He is the author of Renzarlcs on the Four Gospels (1835) ; Jesus and His Blographers (1838); Domestic Worship (1812); A Hz'story of Jesus (1850); D2'sco'urses (1855); Thoughts on the Life and Character of Jesus of Nasa- reth (1859); The Veil Partly Lifted and Jesus Becom- ing Visible (186-1); The Unconscious Truth of the Four Gospels (1868); Jesus (1871); The Power of S'pt'rit Manifest in Jesus of Nazareth (1877); The Story of the Resurrection Told Once lllore (1885) ; and Verses: Translations and H',z/mns (1886). He has also translated from the German several noted works. FURNITURE, the name applied to an organ-stop, or register, consisting of two or more ranks of pipes to each note. FURNITURE. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 8-17. FURNIVALL, FREDERICK Jnnns, an English philologist, born at Egham, Surrey, Feb. -1, 1825, and graduated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in 1812. He became interested in efforts to improve the condi- tion of the laboring men of London, and was for ten years engaged in the Working Men’s College. As secretary of the Philological Society, he edited Early English Poems and Lires of Saints (1862), and for a time edited the society’s English dictionary. He has distinguished himself by his editions from early and middle English literature. FURY AND HECLA STRAIT, in 70° N. lat., separates Melville Peninsula from Cockburn Island, and connects Fox Channel with the Gulf of Boothia. It was discovered by Parry in 1822, and named after his ships. 730 FUSAN, one of the three open ports of Corea, on the southeast shore of the peninsula, and prac- tically a Japanese settlement, under a treaty of 1876. The trade is almost entirely in Japanese hands, and in 1888, of 2,614 foreigners, the Japanese numbered 2,595. The imports in 1887 (chiefly Man- chester goods, salt, and Japanese wares) were val- ued at $659,000, the exports (rice, beans, hides, etc.), excluding specie, at $394,000. There are good cus- tom stores, and regular communication by steamers with Shanghai, Nagasaki, and Vladivostok, and by telegraph with Seoul. FUSARA, LAKE OF, a small lake of Italy, eleven miles west of Naples, called by the Romans Ache- rusia Palus. It is near the site of the ancient Cumae, and during the Roman empire its banks were studded with villas. Numerous remains of massive buildings, houses, and tombs are still to be seen in the neighborhood. The water of the lake is brackish. Oysters have been cultivated here since the time of the Romans. FUSILIERS, formerly soldiers armed with a lighter fusil or musket than the rest of the army; but at present all regiments of foot carry the same pattern of rifle. Fusilier is, therefore, simply an historical title borne by a few regiments of the British army. ’ FUSTEL DE COULANGES, NUM4 DENIS, born at Paris, March 18, 1830, died Sept. 12, 1889. After filling several chairs successively at Amiens, Paris, and Strasburg, he was transferred in 1875 to the Ecole Normale at Paris, and became a member of the Institute in the same year. His earlier writings, Mémoire sur L’iZe de Chio (1857), and Polpbc, ou la Grece cbnquise par Zes Romains (1858) had hardly prepared the reading public for the alto- gether exceptional importance of his brilliant book, a Cité Antique (1864; 10th ed. 1885), which threw a flood of fresh light on the social and religious institutions of antiquity. The work was crowned by the French Academy, as was also his profoundly learned and luminous Histoire des Institutions Poli- tigues ole l’Ancienne France (Vol. I, 1875). FUSUS, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks nearly allied to Murex, having a spindle-shaped shell with a very elevated spire, the first whorl FUSAN—FYAN often much dilated, and a straight elongated canal. The whorls are not crossed by varices, as in Mureas. About 100 existing species have been described, and more than three times that number of fossil ones. FUTAK, a town of lower Hun ary, in the county of the Lower Bacs, situated on t e left bank of the Danube. It has a beautiful castle and garden. It produces great quantities of vegetables and to- bacco, and has an extensive trade in corn. Popu- lation, 7,900. - FUTTUHA, or Furwa, a town of India, in the district of Patna, and sub-presidency of Bengal, stands at the confluence of the Punpun and the Ganges. As the Ganges is here deemed peculiarly sacred, Futtuha is, at certain seasons of the year, the resort of vast numbers of pilgrims. Popula- tion, 11,295. FUTTYGURH, a military cantonment of Fur- rackabad, about three miles to the east of that city, on the left bank of the Ganges, being in lati- tude 27° 22' north, and longitude 79° 41' east. Population, 10,335. FUTURE STATE, ,the condition of the future life, which will continue forever. Abelief in im- mortality has been held in connection with a belief in God by all nations in every age of the world. The traditions of the most civilized nations favor the belief that it originated in divine revelation, while its universality would seem to show that it has its foundation in the innate sentiments of our nature. For what Christian speculation has con- cluded about a future state, see ESCHATOLOGY, Britannica, Vol. VIII, pp. 535-538. FYAN, ROEERT VV., a lawyer, born in Bedford county, Pa., March 11, 1835, and removed to Marshfield, Mo., in 1858. He was an ofiicer in the Confederate army during the war of the Rebellion; was circuit attorney of the Fourteenth Judicial Circuit in 1865 and 1866, and judge of the same circuit from April, 1866, to January, 1883, when he resigned. In politics a Democrat, he was a member of the Missouri Constitutional Convention of 1875; was elected a Representative from the Fourteenth Congressional District of Missouri to the 48th Con- gress, and in 1890 was elected from the same dis- trict to the 52d Congrem. 7 1 G GABBRO—GAGERN GABBRO, a rock consisting essentially of the two minerals plagioclase feldspar and diallage. It shows a thoroughly crystalline granitoid texture, with no trace of any base. The plagioclase is a basic variety—labradorite being commonest, but ano- thite is also sometimes resent in abundance. The diallage may usually e noted by the pearly or metalloidal luster on its cleavage planes. It is usu- ally brownish or dirty-green in color. Olivine is also often a constituent of gabbro, and some apa- tite is almost invariably present. In certain kinds of gabbro other varieties of pyroxene appear; and among other minerals which occasionally occur in gabbro may be mentioned hornblende, magnesia, mica, magnetite, ilmenite, quartz. The rock is of igneous origin, and occurs in association with the crystalline schists as large amorphous masses or bosses. Sometimes it appears in the form of thick sheets and bosses, associated with volcanic erup- tive rocks. GABELLE : in France, a word sometimes used to designate every kind of indirect tax, but especially the tax upon salt. This impost, levied in 1286 by Philippe IV, was meant to be only temporary, but was declared perpetual by Charles V. It was un- popular from the first, and the attempt to collect it occasioned frequent disturbances. It was finally suppressed in 1789. The word gabelle also indi- cated the magazine in which salt was stored. GABERLUNZIE, an old Scotch term for a beggar. GABORIAU, EMILE, the great master of “police novels,” born at Saujon in Charente-Inférieure, in 1835, died Sept. 28, 1873. He had been a contrib- utor to some of the smaller Parisian papers, when he leaped suddenly into fame with his story, L’-1f- faire Lerouge (1866) in the feuilleton to Le Pays. This was quickly followed by other works of note. GABRIEL CHANNEL, between Tierra del Fuego and Dawson’s Island, is about 25 miles in length, and varies in width from two to three miles at the extremities to half a mile midway. The shores are abrupt masses of rock rising to the height of 1,500 feet. The channel is subject to violent whirlwinds. GACHARD, Lours PROSPER, writer on the his- tory of Belgium, born at Paris, March 12,1800, died Dec. 24, 1885. He spent the greater part of his life as keeper of the archives at Brussels. He edited from the national archives of Belgium and Spain the correspondence of William the Silent, Philip II, Margaret of Austria, and Alba, and wrote Les Troubles de Gand sous Charles T’, and Iletraite ct Mort de Charles V, besides other books dealing with the history of Belgium. GADE, NIELS WILEELM, musical composer, born at Copenhagen, Feb. 22, 1817. He became known by his Echoes of Ossian, studied at Leipzig, and was Mendelssohn’s successor as leader of the Gewand- haus concerts there. In 1868 he was appointed master of the Chapel Royal at Copenhagen. He has composed symphonies, an octet, the E)-I King’s Daughter, and other works. Gade died in 1890. GADFLY, an insect of the genus CEstrus, which stings cattle and horses, and deposits its eggs in their skin, one in a place, which, hatching, live on the integument under the skin until fitted to emerge. The maggot then drops to the ground, where it burrows, and undergoes its transforma- tion to the perfect fly. The ovipositor of the female is formed of a horny substance, and consists of four telescopic tubes, of which the last terminates in hooked joints. In depositing her egg the fly does not remain longer than a few seconds on the animal’s back. The cattle are said to exhibit alarm and excitement at the presence of a gadfly. About twenty species are known in the United States, some native, and some imported with our domes- ticated animals. See Britannica, Vol. VII, p. 256. GADSDEN, the county-seat of Etowah county, Ala., on the Coosa River. Yellow-pine lumber is here manufactured, and in the vicinity coal and iron are found. GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), an Ameri- can patriot. He received his education in England; from 1741 to 1745 he was a clerk in a counting- house in Philadelphia, and then made a second visit to England. After his return to America he engaged in business on his own account. and ac- cumulated a small fortune. In 1765 he was adele- gate to the first Colonial Congress, and in 1774 to the first Continental Con ress. At the beginning of the Revolutionary war e entered the army as a colonel, and in September, 1776, was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. For a time he was lieutenant-governor of South Carolina, and was a framer of the State constitution. He signed the capitulation when Charleston was taken by Sir Henry (Lnnton in 1780, and, refusing a narole, was imprisoned for forty-two weeks. In 1782 he was elected governor of South Carolina, but declined the office on account of his age. GADSDEN, JAMES (1788-1858), a United States statesman. He served in the war of 1812 as lieu- tenant-colonel of engineers, and later was Jack- son’s aid in the expedition to examine the mili- tary defenses of the Gulf of Mexico and the south- western frontier. In 1818 he served in the Semi- nole campaign. In 1822 he retired from the army, and settled in Florida as a planter. In 1824 he be- came a member of the territorial council; was a commissioner to remove the Seminoles from northern to southern Florida, and in 1853 was made minister to Mexico. He shortly after retired to private life. GADSDEN PURCHASE, a name given to that portion of New Mexico and Arizona which was pur- chased from Mexico by Gen. James Gadsden for the United States, Dec. 30, 1853. The Government paid $10,000,000 for the territory, which comprised an area of 45,535 square miles. GAGE, M-\TILD-I J OSLYN, an American reformer, born in 1826. From 1852 to 1861 she spoke on reform measures, and advocated the abolition of slavery. From 1878 to 1881 she edited the Syracuse, N. Y., “National Citizen,” and is the author of Woman As An Inventor (1870). lVith Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton she compiled the History of lVoman Sufl"rage (1881-86). ‘ GAGERN, HEINRICII IV"ILIIEL.\I Aueusr, FREI- IIERR voI\T (1799-1880), a German statesman, born at Baireuth, Aug. 20. 1799. He was one of the founders of the student movement of 1815-19. After holding ofiice under the government of IIe‘sse-Darmstadt down to 1848, he became in that 7% year one of the leading politicians of the Frank- fort parliament, of which he was elected president. In 18-19 he resigned his position, and_ shortly after retired to private life. Pensioned off in 1872, he died at Darmstadt, May 22, 1880. GAINES, EDMUND PENDLETON (1777-1849), an American soldier. He entered the army in 1799; became major, then colonel, and in 1814 brigadier- general. The same year he was brevetted major- general for gallant conduct at Fort Erie, where he was severely wounded. Ile also received the thanks of Congress, with a gold medal. He was afterwards active against the Seminoles in Florida, and in 1836 conducted an expedition against Os- ceola, in which he was again severely wounded. GAINES, MYRA CLARK (1805-85), an American heiress, wife of Gen. E. P. Gaines. She is known through the extraordinary lawsuit with which her name was associated, and through which she be- came heir to her father, Daniel Clark, whose for- tune was estimated at $35,000,000. Clark died in 1813, and his estate was disposed of under the pro- visions of a will dated 1811. Some time afterward, however, witnesses were found who had seen and read a will, dated 1813, which left the entire for- tune to Myra; and in 1856, although this will was never discovered, the Supreme Court of Louisiana decided that the missing will should be received as the last will of Daniel Clark. Only a small por- tion of the original fortune, however, came into the possession of the claimant, the rest having been swallowed up in the legal proceedings that pre- ceded the final victory. GAINESVILLE, a health resort of Florida, and the county-seat of Alachua county. It contains a State normal school. GAINESVILLE, the county-seat of Hall county, Ga., situated on the summit of the Chattahoochee ridge that divides the waters of the Gulf and the Atlantic. It has mills, machine shops, car shops, a college; and its fine springs, which are chalybeate, limestone, and freestone, make it a health re- sort. GAIN ESVILLE, the county-seat of Cooke county, Texas, eight miles south of Red River. It contains educational institutions, and the chief business of the people is stock-raising and farming. GAIRDNER, J AMES, historian, born at Edinburgh, March 22, 1828; attended lectures in the University there, and at 18, as a clerk, entered the Public Rec- ord office in London, where he became assistant keeper in 1859. He has distinguished himself by the rare combination of profound erudition,patient accuracy, and judicial temper which he has shown in the editing of a long series of historical docu- ments. GAIRDNER, IVILLIAM TENNANT, a distinguished physician, born in 1824. He graduated M. D. at Edinburgh in 1845, becoming fellow of the Royal College of Physicians there in 1850, and afterward LL. D. of Edinburgh, and M. D. of Trinity College, Dublin. He was appointed by the crown in 1862 to the chair of practice of medicine in Glasgow Uni- versity; was president of the medical association there in 1888, and is physician in ordinary to the Queen for Scotland. He has contributed many val- uable papers to the special medical journals. GAIRLOCH, an inlet of the sea on the West coast of Ross-shire, six miles in length, which gives name to a parish and village. GAISFORD, THOMAS, D. D. (1780-1855), a distin- guished classical scholar, born at Ilford, Wilts, in 1780, graduated at Christ Church, Oxford, in 1804, and in 1811 was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford. From 1819 to 1847 he was rector of W estwell, Oxfordshire. In 1831 he became dean of GAINES~GALES Christ Church. He died in 1855, and in his memory a Greek prize was founded at Oxford. GALATONE, a very ancient town in the south of Italy, in the province of Lecce, about nine miles northeast of Gallipoli, situated in a very rich but insalubrious plain. Population, 5,559. GALA IVATER, a stream of Edinburgh, Selkirk, and Roxburgh shires, Scotland, rising among the l\Ioorfoot Hills, and winding 21 miles south-south- east past Stow and Galashiels, where, after a total descent of 800 feet, it falls into the Tweed, a little below Abbotsford, and 2% miles west of Melrose. In its valley, the ancient Wedale, Skene localizes one of Arthur’s battles. GALAXY, or the Milky-way, the great luminous band which nightly stretches across the heavens from horizon to horizon, and which forms a zone very irregular in outline, but completely encircling the whole sphere almost in a great circle, inclined at an angle of 630 to the equinoctial. At one part of its course it opens up into two branches, one faint and interrupted, the other bright and contin- uous, which do not reunite till after remaining dis- tinct for about 1500. Its luminosity is due to in- numerable multitudes of stars, so distant as to be blended in appearance, and only distinguishable by powerful telescopes. GALE, or SWEET GALE, a species kindred to the North American candleberry, and widely distrib- uted through the peaty uplands of the Northern hemisphere. Its leaves and berries are dotted with resinous oil-drops, which have a most agree- able fragrance, and formerly gave it a most exten- sive range of uses in the domestic economy. GALENA, a city and the county-seat of J o Daviess county, Ill., situated on the Fevre River six miles from its entrance into the Mississippi. By railroad it is 19 miles east-southeast of Dubuque, and 133 miles west-northwest of Chicago. Steam- boats can ascend the river to Galena, which is about 100 miles by water above Davenport, Iowa. The principal exports are lead (mined and smelted in the vicinity), zinc, dairy products, and grain. Population in 1890, 6,406. GALERITES, a genus of fossil sea urchins. pecu- liar to and abundant in the Cretaceous system. The generic name, as well as that popularly given to them in the districts where they abound, viz., “Sugarloaves”, is descriptive of the conical shape of their shell. The body in breadth is nearly circu- lar or polygonal. The under surface is entirely flat, and has the mouth placed in its center, with the vent near the margin. There are five avenues of pores reaching from the mouth to the summit. The fossils are often found silicified. GALES, JosErII (1760-1841), an American jour- nalist. He published the “Register” in Sheffield, England, for several years, and in 1793 sold his journal and came to the United States. He then edited the Philadelphia “ Independent Gazetteer,” till 1799, when he removed to Raleigh, N. C., and founded the “Register,” which he continued to publish until he reached an advanced age. He then became interested in African colonization, and was an active member of the American coloniza- tion society until his death. GALES, JosEI>II (1786-1860), son of the preced- ing, also an American journalist. In 1807 he be- came connected with the \Vashington “National Intelligencer,” and in 1810 succeeded to the sole proprietorship. In 1812 he formed a partnership with IVilliam Winston Seaton, and in 1813 the “In- telligencer,” which had previously been a tri- weekly paper, became a daily. Mr. Gales con- Einued his connections with this journal until his eath. GALESBURG-—GALLE GALESBURG, a city of Knox county, Ill., 53 miles west-northwest of Peoria, 16-l miles west- southwest of Chicago, 43 miles east by north of Bur- lington, Iowa, and 99 miles northeast of Quincy. Galesburg is directly connected with all these cities by railroad. It is surrounded by fertile prai- ries, and is noted for its educational institutions. It has several foundries and machine shops, and manufactories of brooms, corn planters, carriages, etc. Population in 1890, 15,212. See Britannica,Yol. X, p. 24. GALESVILLE, the county-seat of Trempealeau county, IVis., on Beaver Creek. It has a university, a flour mill, stove works, and a barrel factory. GALIGNANI, J OHN ANTHONY (1796-1873). and VVILLIAM (1798-1882), Parisian publishers, born in London, the former Oct. 13, 1796, the latter Harch 10, 1798. They published the “Messenger,” and made it an important medium for advocating cor- diality between England and France. They founded at Corbeil, near Paris, a hospital for distressed Englishmen ; and in 1889 the Galignani Home, for decrepit members of the printing and bookselling trades, was opened at Neuilly. The elder died Dec. 30, 1873, and the younger Dec. 12, 1882. GALILEE, the name applied to a porch or chapel attached to a church, in which penitents stood, pro- cessions were formed, and corpses deposited for a time previous to interment. In some religious houses the galilee was the only part of the church accessible to women. A portion of the nave was sometimes marked off by a step, or by a line of blue marble, to mark the boundary to which n omen were limited. GALIPOT, or BARR xs, concrete turpentine which collects upon the stems of pine trees. It is an arti- cle of commerce, and enters into some pharma- ceutical compounds. GALION, a city of Crawford county, Ohio, 64 miles north of Columbus. It has railroad shops, foundries, and a fine union school building. GALL OF THE EARTH, an herbaceous com- posite plant with variously lobed and cleft leaves, usually the Prenanthes serpen.taria.——[ lV’bster’s In- ternational Dict*ionary.] GALLAGHER, IVILLIAM DAVIS, an American poet and journalist, born in 1808. In 1830 he be- came editor of the Xenia, Ohio, “ Backwoodsman,” in 1831 of the Cincinnati “Mirror,” in 1836 of the Cincinnati “\Vestern Literary Journal and Monthly Review,” in 1838 of the “ Hesperian: a Monthly Miscellany of General Literature,” and at the same time was manager of the Columbus, Ohio, “State Journal,” and from 1839 to 1850 was connected with the Cincinnati “ Gazette.” In the latter year he became the confidential clerk of Thomas Corwin, Secretary of the United States Treasury, and dur- ing the civil war was again employed in the Treas- ury department. At the close of the war he retired to Louisville, and has since been a resident of that neighborhood. For a few years from 1854, Mr. Gal- lagher was an editor of the Louisville“ Daily Cour- ier.” He published three volumes of poems under the name of Erato (1835-37), and also Seleetionsf/~om the Poetical Literature of the West (1841), and Miami VVoods; A Golden Wedding and Other Poems (1881). GALLA OK, or SANGA, a remarkable variety of ox inhabiting Abyssinia. The chief peculiarity of this animal is the extraordinary size of the horns, which rise from the forehead with an outward and then an inward curve. producing a figure of a lyre, and finally curve a little outward at the tip, to which they taper gradually. GALLATIN, the county-seat of Daviess county, Mo., on Grand River. It is a railroad junction, and is 76 miles northeast of Kansas City, M0. 733 GALLATIN, the county-seat of Sumner county, Tenn., 26 miles northeast of Xashville, and three miles from Cumberland River. It contains cotton, woolen and carriage factories, flour mills, a foundry and an establishment for the manufacture of agri- cultural implements. GALLATIN, MOUNT, a mountain of the National Park, W'yoming,10,000 feet high. Gallatin River and the east fork of Madison River rise near its base. GALLATI3T RIVER rises in the National Park, flows northward through Montana, and, after a course of 125 miles, unites with the Jefferson to form the Missouri River. GALLAUDET, EDWARD )II.\'ER, an American educator, son of Thomas H., born in 1837. In 1856 he became a teacher in the Hartford asylum for deaf-mutes, and in 1857 organized the Columbian institution for the deaf, dumb and blind at Wash- ington, D. C.. becoming its principal the same year. In 1864 he was made president of the National Deaf-mute College, and the following year profes- sor of moral and political science. In 1880 he at- tended the international congress of instructors of deaf-mutes, held at Milan, Italy, and i11 1883 was president of the convention of American instructors at Jacksonville, Ill. In 1886 he visited England on the invitation of the British government, and gave the royal commission on the education of the deaf, dumb and blind information regarding the system pursued by the United States. He is the author of a popular Manual of International Law (187.1). GALLAUDET, Tnouas. an American clergyman, son of Thomas H., born in 1822. In 1850 he was or- dained deacon of the Protestant Episcopal church, and the following year became priest. In 1852 he founded St. Ann’s church for deaf-mutes in New York city. He has contributed to the ..‘1)7Ie)‘lCrlI?, A/inals of the Deaf and Dumb, and to other periodi- ca s. GALLAUDET, THOMAS Hormxs (1787—1851), an American educator. He studied theology at An- dover. and was licensed to preach in 181-1, but, after studying the methods in use at the establishments in Europe for teaching the deaf and dumb, devoted himself to the education of that class in the United States. He founded the first American institu- tion for deaf-mutes, at Hartford, Conn., and was its president from 1817 to 1830, when he resigned because of impaired health. In 1838 he be- came chaplain of the Connecticut insane asylum. Among his works are: Sermons .P/‘cached to An Eng- lish (‘on_oregaz‘ion in Paris,‘ Bible Storimfo/' the Young, Ch2'ld’s Boole of the Soul; and I'outh’s B001; ofNatnral Theology. He edited also American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb. See DEAF AND DUMB, Britannica, Vol. VII, p. 11. GALLE, J OIIANN GOTTFRIED, a German astrono- mer born at Pabsthaus in 1812. He studied at the Universities of \Vittenberg and Berlin, and after- wards became a teacher at Guben and in Berlin. In 1835 he was made an assistant in the newly founded observatory in Berlin. Here he enjoyed the instruc- tion of the celebrated astronomer Encke. At the end of 1839 Galle discovered three new comets, for which he was awarded the Lalande prize. On Sept. 23, 18-16, Galle r‘eceived a letter from the French astronomer Leverrier, requesting him to examine a certain part of the sky for an unknown planet, and that very evening he discovered the planet Neptune. This discovery marks an era in the history of astronomy. Galle continued to make further discoveries, and since 1851 he has been pro- fessor of astronomy and director of the observatory at Breslau. He has published a number of articles 7% on astronomy in several scientific journals, but es- pecially III the “Astronomische N achrichten.” GALLEASS, a sort of galley formerly used in the Mediterranean. The alleass was larger than an ordinary galley, carried generally three masts and about 20 guns, and was rowed by galley-slaves, sometimes as many as 800 being employed in row- ing one vessel. GALLEON, a large ship formerly used by the Spaniards to carry home the gold, silver, and other wealth contributed by the Mexicans and South American colonies. Galleons were armed, and had usually three or four decks, with bulwarks three or four feet thick, and stem and stern built up high like castles. They were large clumsy structures, and the easy prey of pirates and hostile navies. GALLIARD, the name of alively dance, the same as the Romanesca of the Italians. The air is mostly in -2- or % time, but sometimes also in if or -1% time. The tempo is also quick and lively, with a flowing melody. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS, or Rxsonrzs, an old order of birds, including the fowls, sand-grouse. hemipods—e. g. turnex—and often also the pigeons. The title is often used to include the pheasant fam- ily, the grouse, the sand-grouse, the turnicidae, the mound-makers, the tinamous, altogether over 400 species and about fourscore genera, and including forms of high antiquity. See Gsousn, Britannica Vol. XI, pp. 221-23; PIIEASANT, Vol. XVIII, pp. 782-33; POULTRY. Vol. XIX, pp. 644-48. GALLINGER, JACOB H., United States Senator from New Hampshire, a physician, born in Corn- wall, Ont., March 28, 1837. He received an aca- demical education; was a printer, and became a physician in 1858. In politics he was a Republican; he was a member of the State house of representa- tives in 1872 and 1873; a delegate to the New Hamp- shire Constitutional convention of 1876; a State Senator, 1878-80, being president of the Senate in 1879-80. He was surgeon-general of New Hamp- shire for two years. He received the honorary degree of A. M. from Dartmouth College. He was a representative in the 49th and 50th Congresses; in 1891 was elected by the New Hampshire legis- lature to the United States Senate to succeed Henry \V. Blair. GALL-INSECTS, those which deposit their eggs in the tissue of plants, and which live within ab- normal growths or excrescences produced on plants either by the action of the tenant of the excres- cence, or that of its parent. The most common gall-producers belong to two of the seven orders of true insects, I-Iymenoptera and Diptera. See IN- sncrs, Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 148-52. GALLIOPOLIS, a city and county-seat of Gallia county, Ohio, on the Ohio River, midway between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh. It has a line of packet- boats between these cities. The city contains foundries, woolen mills, furniture factories. and planing-mills. GALLIOT, a Dutch vessel carrying a main and a mizzen-mast, and a large gaff-mainsail. Galliots of 400 to 500 tons burden were formerly used as bomb-vessels. GALLIPOT, the name given to a pot painted and glazed, commonly used by druggists for containing medicine. GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS Aueusrmn (1770-1841), a Russian nobleman, and an American missionary. In 1796 he was ordained a priest of the Roman Catholic church, and after traveling through va— rious States of the Union as a missionary he settled in Cambria county, Pa., and purchased a large tract of land to be given to Roman Catholic families. GALLEASS—GAULT He named his colony Loretto,‘ and through his ei- forts the wilderness in which he settled was trans- formed into a thrifty community. Among his published works are: Defense of Catholic Principles in a Letter to aProtestant Clergyman (1816); Letter to a Protestant Friend on the Holy Scriptures (1820); Appeal to the Protestant Public; and Six Letters of Advice (1834). GALLIVATS, large row-boats, formerly, and still to some degree, used in eastern waters. They rarely exceed seventy tons, carrying two masts with high triangular sails. The Malay pirates em- ploy these swift but somewhat fragile vessels. GALLOMANIA, an excessive admiration of French customs. For an explanation of the origin of the term, see ANGLOMANIA. in these Revisions and Additions. GALLOWAY,.IosEPH (1729-1803), an American lawyer and loyalist. He studied law in Philadel- phia, andfrom 1757 to 1774 was almost continuously a member of the Pennsylvania assembly. He was elected to the Continental Congress in 1774, and proposed a plan for the government of the colonies, closely resembling that in use in Canada. In 1776 he joined the British troops, and in 1778 went to England. In 1779, before acommittee of the House of Commons, he charged the failure of the British in the Revolutionary war to Gen. Howe’s incom- petency. He published A Candid Examination of Mutual Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies, with a Plan of Accommodation on Constitutional Principles (1775); Historical and Political Reflections on the American Rebellion (1780); and Brief Commentaries Upon Such Parts of the Revelation and Other Prophecies as Immediately Refer to the Present Times, in which the Several Allegorical Types and Expressions of Those Prophecies Are Translated into Three Literal Meanings (1802). GALLOWAY, MULL or, bold headland of pre- cipitous rock, the southern extremity of the pen- insula called the Rhinns of Galloway, in Wigtown- shire, and the most southern point of Scotland. It is 11/4 mile long, and 1/4 of a mile broad, and rises to a height of 210 feet at its eastern extremity, on which stands a light-house 60 feet high. GALLOWS-BITS. the name applied on board ship to two strong frames of oak, on which the spare topmasts and yards are lashed. GALT, SIR ALEXANDER T1LLooH, a Canadian statesman, born in 1817, and at an early age emi- grated from England to Canada. In 1838 he be- came a clerk of the British and American Land Company, and from 1844 to 1856 was sole manager of the company’s estates. In 1849 Mr. Galt was elected a member of the Canadian Parliament from Sherbrooke, and from 1853 continued to occupy the same position till 1872, when he resigned. In 1858-62. in 1864-66, in 1867, and in 1869, he was minister of finance. He was a member of numer- ous important commissions, and his services in behalf of his country gained him many marks of honor. He is the author of Canada from 1849 to 185.9 (1860). GALTON, FRANCIS, F. R. S., explorer and author, born at Duddeston, England, in 1822, is a grand- son of Erasmus Darwin. He was educated in Birmingham and London, and graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1844. In 1846 he traveled in North Africa, and in 1850 explored lands in South Africa; his published accounts of his experiences procuring him the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. He is the author of a work on meteorology and‘ of several on heredity, and is a prominent member of a number of scientific associations. \ GAULT, GALT, or Govr, a sub-division of the GALVA-GAOL DELIVERY Cretaceous system, is a stiff, bluishl gray clay, which here and there contains indurated nodules and septaria. Now and again it becomes some- what calcareous, or sandy and micaceous. The deposit is of variable thickness, reaching in some places over 300 feet, while occasionally it hardly attains a greater thickness than 50 feet, and forms a well-marked geological horizon, forming the bot- tom member of the Upper Cretaceous rocks. It is abundantly fossiliferous, the remains being almost exclusively marine, only a few drifted land plants having been met with. The gault is extensively employed in the manufacture of bricks and tiles. See GECLCGY, Britannica, Vol. X, pp. 357. 359. GALVA, a city of Henry county, Ill., 45 miles southeast of Rock Island, on the ridge dividing the Illinois and Mississippi River basin. It is located in a rich coal region. I GALVANOPLASTY, the process of electrotypy; the application of electricity to the working of metals. The chief application of the process is to the preparation of plates for printing; but it is also commonly resorted to in coating base metals with silver, gold, nickel. or platinum, and in making copies in metal of any engraved or molded suriace. GALVESTON. a port of entry, the seat of justice of Galveston county. and the most populous and commercial city of Texas, situated on the Gulf of Mexico, and on an island at the mouth of a bay of its own name, about 450 miles west by south of New Orleans. It is 214 miles by rail southwest of Austin City, lat. 29° 18’ north; long. 94° 50’ west. The island of Galveston, which separates the bay from the Gulf of Mexico, is about 30 miles long and 3 miles broad. The surface is level, and has a mean elevation of only four or five feet above the water. The bay extends northward from the city to the mouth of the Trinity River, a distance of 35 miles, and varies in breadth from 12 to 18 miles. Galveston is one of the most flourishing ports on the Gulf of Mexico, and carries on an active trade. The chief articles of export are cotton, hides, grain, and pork. Steamships make regular passages from this port to New York, New Orleans, Indian- ola, Morgan City, Havana, Liverpool, etc. Gal- veston has several lines of street railway, and is the seat of the University of St. Mary, and of the Texas Medical College. The value of the annual exports is about $33,000,000. The quantity of cot- ton received here in a year is nearly 450.000 bales. Population in 1860, 7.307; 1870, 13,818; 1880, 22,248; 1890, 29.118. See Britannica, Vol. X, p. 53. GALVEZ,BERNARDQ DE, CCUNT (1755-86), a Span- ish general and colonial governor. From 1772 to 1775 he served in the French army, and the follow- ing year served with Spain. He became colonel and governor of Louisiana in 1776, and in 1778 he assisted the Continental Congress with arms and ammunition and $70,000 in cash. In 1779-81 he marched against the British and captured various osts from Baton Rouge as far east as Pensacola. n 1783 he was given the title of count and the rank of lieutenant-general, and became captain- general of Cuba. In 1785 he was promoted viceroy of Mexico. GALVVAY BAY, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, on the west coast of Ireland, between the counties of Galway and Clare. It -is 30 miles in length from west to east, with an average width of 10 miles, and is sheltered by the Arran Isles. GAMBESON, or WAMBEYS, a word implying a covering for the body, was the name of a thickly quilted tunic stuffed with wool, and worn by knights under the hauberk as a padding for the armor. As it was sufliciently strong to resist ordi- >- u 735 nary cuts it was sometimes worn without other armor. GAMBETTA, LEON MICHEL (1838-82), a French statesman of Jewish descent, who first acquired celebrity in 1868 by his denunciations of the arbi- trary measures of Louis Napoleon. In 1869 he was elected a deputy by the “Irreconcilables,” and until 1882 held a prominent position in -French politics (see Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 626-29). Upon the surrender of Napoleon at Sedan, Gambetta pro- posed the deposition of the imperial dynasty, and was one of the proclaimers of the Republic. He be- came minister of the interior in the Government of National Defense in ‘.870, and when the capital was invested he escaped from Paris in a balloon to ioin his colleagues at 'I‘ours, and for five months at ordeaux was dictator of France. He issued a decree in 1871 disfranchising all functionaries of the em- pire and all members of the royal dysnasties; and this being repudiated by the government at Paris, he resigned. Reelected, he became chief of the ad- vanced Republicans. For having declared that MacMahon must submit or resign, he was con- demned in 1877 to imprisonment and a fine; but he was not imprisoned, and MacMahon did resign. In 1880 he was called on to form a cabinet, and in January, 1882, he resigned on the rejection of his scheme for revising the constitution. He was wounded in the hand by a shot from a revolver, and died from the wound at the close of that year. GAMBLING, or GAMING, the practice of playing a game of hazard, or one depending partly on skill and partly on hazard, with a view to a pecuniary gain (see Britannica, Vol. X, pp. 66-67). In the United States nearly every form of gambling is prohibited by law. GAMMARUS, a genus of amphipod crustaceans. See Britannica, Vol. V1, p. 661. GAl\IMELL, WILLIAM, an American author and educator, born in 1812. In 1831 he became a tutor at Brown University; from 1835 to 1849 was pro- fessor of rhetoric and English literature. and from 1850 to 1864 of history and political economy. He published a History of American Baptist ]l[issions (1850), and has written extensively for the “Christ- ian Review ” and other periodicals. GAMRUN. See BENDER-ABRAsI, Britannica Vol. III, p. 557. GANANOQUE, a town of Leeds county, Ont., Can., situated on ,,the St. Lawrence at the mouth of the River Gananoque, 18 miles by rail northeast of Kingston. It has great water-power, extensive manufactures, and is a place of summer resort. GANDOLFO, a village 12 miles southeast of Rome, near the west shore of Lake Albano. Here Urban VIII built a summer residence for the Popes. Population. 1.916. GANGLION : in surgery, the name given to an encysted tumor on a tendon. GANNET, EZRA STILES (1801-71), an American Unitarian clergyman. In 1824 he became the col- league of Rev. W. E. Channing in Boston, and finally succeeded him aslpastor. In 1844-49 he was co-editor of the “ Christian Examiner,” in 1847-51 was president of the American Unitarian Associ- ation ; and in 1857-62 of the Benevolent Fraternity of churches. He was killed in a railroad accident near Boston. GA NTANG PASS, in 31° 38’ N. lat. and 78° 47’ E. long., leads eastward from Kunawar, in Bashahr, into the Chinese territory- Its height is 18,295 feet above the sea, and it is overhung by a peak of its own name, nearly 3,000 feet loftier GAOL DELIVERY, CoMMissioN or, one of the commissions issued to judges of assize and judges of the Central Criminal Court in England. 7% GAPES, a disease of fowls and other birds, due to the presence of threadworms, or nematodes (q. v.), in the windpipe. As a large number may be present, the worms cause inflammation, suffoca- tion and death. The worms breed in the trachea, -embryos are coughed up, and, if swallowed by the same or other birds,pass from stomach to air sacs, -lungs, and eventually to the windpipe. GARAMANTES, the ancient name of a warlike people of the desert of Sahara, who were engaged in the caravan trade across the desert. Their descend- ants. if any exist. are now known by other names. GARANCEUX, a product obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on waste madder. It is employed in dyeing red and black. GARCIN DE TASSY, JCSEPH HELICDCRE SAGESSE VERTU, French orientalist, born at Marseilles, Jan. 20, 1794, died in Paris, Sept. 2, 1878. He studied oriental languages under Silvestre de Sacy, and was appointed professor in the Institute in 1838. He published Mémoires sur les Particularités de la Religion Musulmans clans l’Inde (1832); Ifistoire de la Littérature Hindoue et IIindoustans (1837); La Poesie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persons (1864); and Rhetomgue et Prosodic des Langues cle -l’Orient Ilfusulman (1873). GARDANT: in heraldry, said of an animal which is represented full-faced. and looking forward. GARDEN, ALEXANDER (1730-1791), an English naturalist. In 1752 he settled in Charleston, S. C., and began the practice of medicine. He subse- quently became an eminent physician and botanist, and in 1754 accepted a professorship in King’s (now Columbia) College. In 1773 he became a member of the Royal Society of London, and later was vice-president. He adhered to the royal cause in the Revolution, and went to England in 1783. His property in South Carolina was confiscated, but afterwards was restored to his son. He pub- lished numerous works on botanical and zoiilogical subjects. GARDEN, ALEXANDER (1757-1829), an American soldier and author, son of the preceding. He joined the Revolutionary Army in 1780, and was aid-de-camp to Gen. Greene, and a lieutenant in Lee’s Legion. He is the author of Anecdotes of the Revolutionary War, with Sketches of Character of Persons most Distinguished in the Southern States for Civil and Military Services (1822). This work is es- teemed as an authority for the period. GARDEN CITY, a village of Queens county, N. Y., situated on Long Island about 18 miles east of New York city. It was founded by the late A. T. Stewart, and is now held by his estate in fee in its entirety. It is the seat of the Protestant Epis- copal bishop of Long Island, and contains about 100 houses; the streets and avenues are wide, lighted by gas, and bordered by ornamental trees, and the whole property is supplied with abundance of pure water. The hotel is surrounded by a park of 30 acres, beautifully laid out. The memorial cathe- -dral of the Incarnation, Protestant Episcopal, is a fine example of Gothic architecture, and the Memorial School, St. Paul’s, for boys, is the largest and most complete school institution in the country. There is also a female seminary. Each of the ecclesiastical buildings is surrounded by an extensive park of its own. GARDEN GROVE, a village of Decatur county, Ia., situated on a branch of the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad. about 60 miles south of Des Moines. It has a good steam flouring-mill and excellent schools. GARDENIA, a genus of Cinchonaeeae, tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs. The fruit of various species is used in dyeing silks yellow. GAPES—GARFlELD GARDINER, J OHN (1731-93), an American law- yer, son of Sylvester. He began the practice of law in London, and iii 1766 was appointed attorney- general of the Island of St. Christopher, West In- dies. In 1783 he returned to Boston, his native town, and soon after settled in Pawnalborough, Me., which town he represented in the Massachu- setts legislature until his death. He published a Dissertation on the Ancient Poetry of the Romans, and a political tract in verse entitled Jacobinial. GARDINER, JCHN SYLvEs'rER JOHN (1765-1830), an American clergyman and scholar, son of J ohn. In 1787 he was ordained deacon of the Protestant Episcopal church, and became pastor of the parish at St. Helena, S. C. In 1791 he took priest’s orders; in 1792 became assistant minister of Trinity church, Boston; and in 1805 rector, continuing to hold the position until his death. For several years he con- ducted the “Anthology and Boston Monthly Re- view,” and contributed to various literary periodi- cals. GARDINER, SYI.vEs'rER (1707-86), an American physician. He began the practice of medicine in Boston, and acquh ed a large fortune. Being a loy- alist he went to England in 1776, but returned to America in 1785. During his absence much of his property was confiscated, but was afterwards re- stored to his heirs. Mr. Gardiner established Pitt- son and Gardiner, Me., and was afounder of King’s Chapel, Boston. GARDINER’S (or GARDxER’s) ISLAND, east of Long Island, belonging to Suffolk county, N. Y. Area, 3,300 acres. Its surface is undulating pasture land. Here treasures were dug up which were reputed to have been buried by Cap- tain Kidd in 1699. There is a lighthouse at the northern end of the island. GARDNER, a village of \Vorcester county, Mass., and a flourishing manufacturing center. Great quantities of chairs are here made; 200 different varieties are manufactured, giving employment to 2,000 men. GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-81), the twenti- eth President of the United States, born in Orange township, Cuyahoga county, Ohio, Nov. 19, 1831. As a boy he had few advantages, and received a com- mon school education only. He then worked early and late at various occupations until he accumu- lated sufficient money to put him through college. He entered Williams in the fall of 1854, and two years later graduated with one of the highest honors of his class. He then studied and practiced law, and was a member of the Ohio Senate in 1859-60. In 1861 he entered the army as colonel of the 42d Ohio volunteers, and served in south- eastern Kentucky. In 1862 he was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers, and served at Shiloh and Corinth. In 1863 he was appointed chief of staff by Gen. Rosecrans, and for gallantry at the battle of Chickamauga was promoted major- general of volunteers. He resigned shortly after- wards to occupy a seat in the 38th Congress, to which he had been elected. He remained in Con- gress, serving on various important committees. until 1880, when he was elected United States Senator. At the Republican Convention held in Chicago in June, 1880, he received the nomination for President of the United States, and was elected November 2, over his competitor, Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, by the votes of every Northern State except New J ersey. Nevada, and California, the electoral votes standing: For Gen. Garfield, 215; for Gen. llancock, 155. On July 2, 1881, four months after his inauguration, he was shot in the depot of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad in Washington, by Charles Jules Guiteau, a disap- GARGET ROOT--GARNETT pointed office-seeker. He lingered, suffering great pain, till September 19 of the same year, when he died at Elberon, N. J ., to which place he had been removed in the hope of prolonging his life. His remains were removed to Washington, and funeral services were held in the rotunda of the Capitol. On Sept. 26th, the burial services were held at Cleveland, Ohio, and the casket was deposited in the tomb prepared for it. GARGET-ROOT, POKE, or SHOKE, the Phytolaeca decandra, a perennial herb, native of the United States, which has emetic and cathartic properties, and has been employed in medicine. It has been naturalized to some extent in southern Europe, and the berries are employed in France for color- ing wines. GARGLE, or GARGARISM, a class of medicines intended to be churned about in the throat, with a view of cleansing the parts, and of acting as antiseptics, astringents, sedatives or stimulants in various conditions of the throat. In using them a full breath is taken, the mouth filled with the liquid, and the head thrown back; as the breath is gradually allowed to escape, the liquid is freely brought into contact with the upper part of the throat. GARIB1-LDI, GIUSEPPE (1807-82), Italian pat- riot, was born at Nice, in Sardinia, Italy, his father being the owner of a trading vessel and engaged in maritime pursuits. Becoming a sailor, and in 1830a command r of a brig, he visited various Italian ports, forn ed the acquaintance of Mazzini and the leader or ’ he Italian liberal movement, and in 1831 was involved in the Young Italy movement. He was condemned to death for taking part in an attempt to seize Genoa, but escaped to South America, where he distinguished himself as a guerilla warrior and privateer in aid of the prov- ince of Rio Grande, in rebellion against the Emperor of Brazil, and where he eloped with and married Anita Riveira de Silva. In aid of the Montevid- ians against Rosas, the tyrant of Buenos Ayres, he won fresh renown on sea and land in 1816, and the “red shirt” of Garibaldi became famous. lVhen, in 1817, Pope Pius IX ascended the throne, Gari- baldi tendered his services in his support, but they were not accepted; and when the Pope appeared to desert the national cause, Garibaldi threw in his lot with the revolutionary government of Rome, from which place he fled before the French and Austrians. After enduring great hardships, which his wife shared until her death from exhaustion, he succeeded in escaping to America, and for eighteen months was engaged in the business of candle-making on Staten Island, in New York har- bor, and, returning to a sea-faring life, became captain of various merchantmen. In 1851 he re- turned to Italy, and settled down as a farmer on the island of Caprera, but in 1859 resumed arms once more, placing his sword at the disposal of Victor Emanuel, and rendering valuable services to the allies. \Vhen Victor Emanuel was elected sovereign of the Two Sicilies, Garibaldi again re- tired to Caprera, indignant that he had not been permitted to march on Rome, and that his veteran volunteers were not enrolled in the regular army. In 1862 he embarked on a rash expedition against Rome, and was wounded and taken prisoner at Aspromonte, being detained two months at Spez- zia. In the war of 1866 Garibaldi, with his two sons, was engaged and arrested by the Italian government for another rash attempt on Rome; he was once more allowed to retire to Caprera, where he wrote two novels, one of which has been translated, the Rule of the Monk. In 1870 he came to the assistance of the French Republic, being 737 placed by Gambetta in command of the volunteers of the Vosges, who distinguished themselves at Dijon in January, 1871, and he was elected to the assembly at Bordeaux. During the remainder of his life he remained a helpless invalid, rarely leaving Caprera, of which his English friends made him entire proprietor. In 1871 he was made a member of the chamber of deputies at Rome, and took his seat. In 1880 his marriage with an adventuress in 1859 was annulled, and he married Francesca, his peasant companion, who had come to the island as nurse to the children of Teresa, his daughter. the wife of one of his officers. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. -187-91 for an ex- tended account of the assistance rendered by Garibaldi to the cause of Italian unity. His auto- biography was published in 1887, and an English translation in 1889. GARIGLIANO, a river of Southern Italy, rising in the Abruzzi, west of the former Lake of F ucino, and flowing. after a generally southerly course of 90 miles, into the Gulf of Gaeta. It is navigable be- low Pontecorvo. GARLAND, AUGUSTUS HILL, an American statesman, born in 1882. He was admitted to the Arkansas bar in 1853, and in 1861 was a member of the Provisional Congress that met in Montgomery, Ala. He was a member of the First Confederate Congress, and at the close of the civil war was a Confederate Senator. In 1867 he was elected to the U. S. Senate, but was not allowed to take his seat. In 187-1 he was elected governor of Arkansas, and in 1876 was sent to the U. S. Senate. He served as Senator from 1877 to 1885, when President Cleve- land appointed him Attorney-General of the United States. Mr. Garland’s term of office expired with Mr. Cleveland’s retirement from the Presidency. GARLASCO, a town of Italy, in the province of Pavia, 28 miles southeast of Novara. It contains monuments of the mediaeval period. Population, 6,500. GARNEAU, Famcors Xavrnn (1809-66), a Ca- nadian historian. He was admitted as a notary in 1830. Subsequently he was clerk of the legisla- tive assembly, member of the council of public in- struction, and from 1815 till his death, city clerk of Quebec. He is the author of H lstoire du Canada, depais sa Découoerte jusqu,d nos Jours (1852); and Voyage en Angleterre et en France dons Zes Années 1831-33. GARNET, I-IENRY HIGHLAXD (1815—82), an Ameri- can negro clergyman, born in slavery. He taught school in Troy, N. Y., was licensed to preach in 18-12, and then was pastor of a Presbyterian church in Troy for nearly 10 years. In 1850—53 he lectured on slavery in Europe, and then went to Jamaica as a missionary for the United Presbyterian church of Scotland, but returned to the United States on account of failing health. In 1855 he be- came pastor of Shiloh Presbyterian church in New York city, and in 1865 accepted a call to a church in lVashington, D. C. In 1869 he was chosen presi- dent of Avery College, but resigned soon after- ward and returned to Shiloh church. In 1881 President Garfield appointed him minister and consul-general to Liberia, and in November he sailed for Africa. A few months after his arrival he succumbed to the climate. GARNETT, a city and county-seat of Anderson county, Kan., on the Pottawattomie River. Cheese and furniture are made here, and the city con- tains a college, which is under United Presbyterian control. GARNETT. RICHARD, an English author, born at Lichfield in ‘.835. His father, the Rev. Richard- 2—l0 738 Garnett, was an eminent author and philologist and one of the librarians of the British Museum. The younger Garnett was appointed assistant keeper of that great library when his father died in 1850. In 1875 he became superintendent of the reading- room. The following are some of his works: Primula, a volume of poems; Poems from the Ger- man; Idyls and Epigrams; and a valuable volume entitled Relics of Shelley. He has also edited his father’s Philological Essays (1858); SheZley’s Minor Poems (1880) ; and the Florilegium Amantis of Cov- entry Patmore. Mr. Garnett wrote many of the biographical articles in the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITAN- NICA. GARNIER, J EAN Lours CHARLES, a French arch- itect, born at Paris,, Nov. 6, 1825. He gained the grand prize at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1842, and subsequently continued his studies in Greece and Italy. His plans were adopted for the new Paris opera house, which was completed under his direction in 1875. He also built the San Carlos theatre in Monaco.‘ GARNIER-PAGES, Lonrs ANTOINE, a French author and statesman. born at Marseilles in 1803, died in 1878. He was a Republican. In 1830 he took part in the revolution at Paris, and was after- wards elected to the chamber of deputies. In the provisional government of 1848 he was minister of finance. But he was soon forced to retire into pri- vate life, because he insisted on an extra taxation in order to save the state from bankruptcy. In 1869 he was again elected to the Corps Legislatif. When the Germans besieged Paris he took part in the defense of the city. Among his writings are: Histoire de la Réuolution de 1848; Histoire ole la Com- mission Executive (1869); and L’Opposition et l’Em— pire (1872). GARNISHMENT: in law, a form of attachment by which a creditor obtains the security of the property of his debtor which is in the possession of a third party. It consists in a warning to the party holding the property not to ay the money or deliver the goods to the defen ant, but to be in readiness to answer the plaintiffs suit by re- taining the property in his own hands. The pro- cess is known in some of the United States as the trustee process. GARRAUD, GABRIEL JosEI>I~I, French sculptor, born at Dijon, March 23, 1807; studied under Ramey and Rude, and first exhibited in the Salon of 1838. Among his works are La Premiere Famillc (1845) ; Le Sécret de l’Amour (1863), and many busts. He was chief of the Department des Beaux-Arts for a short time in 1848. GARRETSON, J AMES EDMUND, an American physician and author, born in 1828. He graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1859, and began practice in Philadelphia. In 1861- 63 he lectured in the Philadelphia School of Anat- omy, and in 1866-69 in the University of Pennsyl- vania. Since 1879 he has been dean of the Phila- delphia Dental College. He is a member of vari- ous medical societies, and has published System of Oral Surgery (1869) ; Odd I-I ours of a Physician (1873) ; Thinkers and Thinking (1873); Two Thousand Years After (1875) ; Hours With John Darby (1877); Brush- land (1882); and Nineteenth Century Sense (1887). He has contributed extensively to periodical liter- ature. GARRETTSVILLE, a village of Portage county, Ohio, on a division of the Atlantic and Great West- ern Railroad, 37 miles southeast of Cleveland. It has machine shops and various manufactures. The principal occupation is farming and dairying. GARRO’I‘, a name sometimes given to a sea-duck of the genus Clangula, family Anatidw, of which GARNIER—GASTINEAU 1 there are several species. The common garrot, Anas or Fuligula clangula, is also called golden-eye. GARROTTE, a mode of execution practiced in Spain and the Spanish colonies. Originally it con- sisted in simply placing a cord around the neck of the criminal, who was seated on a chair fixed to a post, and then twisting the cord by means of a stick inserted between the post and the back of the neck, till strangulation was produced. Afterwards a brass collar was used, containing a screw, which the executioner turned till its point entered the spinal marrow where it unites with the brain, causing instantaneous death. In its primitive form it exactly resembles the punishment of the bow- string in use among Mohammedan nations. GARROVILLAS DE ALCONETAR, a small town of Spain in the province of Caceres, situated 20 miles northwest of the town of that name, on the left bank of the Tagus. It has manufactories of linen and woolen fabrics, and some trade in grain, cattle and fruit. GAS, ILLUMINATING. 87-102. GASCONADE, a river of Missouri, winding 200 miles northeastward through a hilly and pictur- esque country, till it joins the Missouri River, 35 miles below Jefferson City. GASPARIN, AGENOE ETIENNE, COMTE DE (1810- 71),a French author and publicist, born at Orange in 1810. His father, Comte Adrien E. P., was in 1836 secretary of the interior, and Agénor at that time was employed under his father. In 1842 he was elected to the chamber of deputies. Although a member of the nobility of France, Count Gas- parin favored many liberal measures, being moved thereto by his Protestant principles. During the revolution of 1848 he was in the East. He did not favor the empire established by Napoleon III. For this reason he removed to Switzerland, and lec- tured at Geneva on social, religious and historical subjects. As he was an enemy to slavery he ex- pressed the warmest friendship for the cause of the Union during our late civil,war, and published two works in its behalf: Les Etas-Unis en 1861; Un Grand Peuple que se Reléoe (1861) ; and L’A mérique deoant l’Europe (1862). These were translated and published in New York as the Uprising of a Great People, and America Before Europe. Comte Gasparin also published several works on French Protestant- ism, Spirituahsm, the family, moral liberty, and the Life of InnocentIII (1874). His philanthropic labors in behalf of French refugees who flocked to Geneva hastened his death, which occurred May 14, 187]. GASPE, a peninsula in the east of Quebec prov- ince, Canada, comprising the counties of Gaspé and Bonaventure, projects into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between the estuary of that name on the north and the Bay of Chaleurs on the south. It has an area of nearly 8,000 square miles, and 34,- 652 inhabitants. GASPE BASIN, a port of entry in Gaspé Bay. It is the seat of extensive fisheries, and is dis- tinguished in history as being the place where Jacques Cartier landed in 1554. Population, 726. GASTINEAU, BENJAMIN, a French writer. born at Montreuil-Bellay, in the department of Maine- et-Loire, July 12, 1823. He began to contribute to Socialist papers in 1844, entered into politics, and in 1852 was banished to Algeria. Receiving per- mission to return to France in 1856, he devoted himself to literature until 1870. In 1872 he was im- prisoned for taking part in the insurrection of the Commune. Among his works are : Lutte olu Catholi- cisme et de la Philosophie (1844) ; La Guerre oles Jes- uites (1845);Le Regne de Satan, ou Zes Riches et les See Britannica, Vol. X, pp. I.‘ GASTON—GAY Pauvres (1848); Les Victimes cl’Isabelle II (1868) ; and L’imperatrice du Bas-Empire (1870). GASTON, WILLIAM (1778-1844), an American ju- rist. He was admitted to the North Carolina bar in 1798; in 1799 was chosen to the State Senate; in 1808 to the house of delegates; and from 1813 to 1815 was a member of Congress. He was judge of the North Carolina Supreme Court from 1834 till his death, and in 1835 was prominent in revising the State constitution. In 1840 he declined the United States senatorship. GASTROCH./ENA, a genus of boring bivalves, not far removed from Tereclo and Pholas, but a type of a distinct family, Gastrochw/viola. The origi- nal shell has the two valves typical of lamelli- branchs; but these are delicate, and become sur- rounded by a secondary tubular shell lining the cavity which the mollusk bores in limestone, coral, other shells, etc. GASTRODIA, a genus of orchids, a native of Van Diemen’s Land, the roots of which form large coral- like masses, and are sometimes called native pota- toes, being edible. GASTROSTOMY, an operation performed for the relief of stricture of the gullet, to save the patient from the imminent risk of starvation by introduc- ing food directly into the stomach through an ex- ternal opening. GATINEAU, a river of Quebec, in Canada, which has its origin in a chain of lakes lying immediately north of 480 N. latitude, and, after a south-south- western course of 400 miles, enters the Ottawa River a mile below Ottawa City. GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN, an American in- ventor, born in 1818. At the age of 20 he invented ascrew for propelling steamers, and later a ma- chine for sowing rice and wheat. In 1850 he in- vented a hemp brake; in 1857 a steam plow; and then a machine for transmitting power by means of compressed air. His fame is based. however, upon his invention of the machine gun which bears his name. In 1866 the arm was adopted into the United States service. The gun has since received many improvements, from 250 to 300 shots being -originally fired in one minute, while now over 1,200 are discharged, and as many as 500 have been fired in two and one-half seconds. See GUNIIAKING, Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 285-88. GAU, a German word meaning, in ageneral way, district, but applied specially to a political divi- sion of ancient Germany, having relation to the ar- rangements for war and the administration of jus- tice. The division into such districts was in force under the Franks in the 7th century. GAUDENTIUS, the name of a number of an- cient Christian bishops. Of these the chief were a bishop ofBrescia, iI1 Northern Italy, and a Donatist bishop of Thagarnuta, in Northern Africa. The former was born about 360, and died shortly after 410. Some of his sermons are extant, the best edi- tion of which is by Galeardus (1738). Little is known of the personal history of the bishop of Thagamuta. He is first noticed in connection with the famous conference in Carthage in 411. Several of Augustine’s later works in the Donatistie contro- versy were directed against him. GAULEY MOUNTAINS, a range of the Appa- lachian system in West Virginia, continuous with the ridge known farther southwest as the Cumber- land Mountains. GAULE Y RIVER, West Virginia, rises in Poca- hontas county, flows nearly south eastward, and falls into the great Kanawha. It is about 120 miles in length. GAULTHERIA, a genus of small procumbent “evergreen shrubs, of the natural order Erteaceae. 739 Various species are found in mountain regions throughout the world. The most common species of North America is G. procumbens, and bears the names of checker-berry, partridge-berry, deer-berry, win- tergreen, and mountain-tea. It is about 4 or 5 inches in height, with small whitish flowers and red “ ber- ries,” which are eatable, but not safe in any con- siderable quantity, because of the pungent volatile oil which they contain. The whole plant has an agreeable aromatic odor and taste, and the vola- tile oil is used in medicine as a stimulant, also for flavoring syrups, and in perfumery under the name of “ Oil of I/Vintergreen.” An infusion of the ber- ries was used as tea during the war of Independ- ence. The berries are employed for flavoring beer and other drinks, also for tooth powders and hair washes. The leaf is astringent, and is used in med- Icine. GAVAZZI, ALEKAXDRO, a popular Italian preacher and reformer, born at Bologna in 1809, died in 1889. When 16 years old he became a monk of the Barnabite order. Soon afterwards he was appointed professor of rhetoric at Naples, where he speedily acquired a reputation as an orator. He illustrated the theory of his art by eloquent ad- dresses in the pulpits of the chief Italian cities. On the accession of Pius IX to the papal chair, Gavazzi was one of the foremost supporters of the liberal policy which inaugurated that pontifl”s reign. Having repaired to Rome, he devoted him- self to the diffusion of political enlightenment and patriotic aspirations among the masses of the Re- man population. Pius IX sanctioned his politi- cal labors, and appointed him almoner of a body of about 16,000 Roman troops. Gavazzi’s fervid speeches brought him the title of “Peter the Her- mit” of the national crusade. On the establishment of the Roman Republic, he was appointed almoner- in-chief to the national army. Under his superin- tendence efficient military hospitals were organ- ized and attended by a band of Roman ladies, who volunteered their services and coiiperation in the care of the wounded. After the fall of the Holy City in 1849, he left Italy, an exile, and went to England, where he delivered numerous addresses and lectures, illustrative of the political and re- ligious aims of his country. Afterwards he visited the United States, and lectured here with brilliant success. In 1860 Father Gavazzi was present with Garibaldi during the expedition to Palmero. He was the president of the evangelization committee of the Free Italian church. GAVI, a town of Italy, in the province of Ales- sandria,5 miles south of Novi. It is of ancient origin, and is still surrounded by medieeval fortifi- cations. Popula-tion, 6.304. GAVILIAN MOUNTAIN S. a branch of the Coast Range in California, extending through the coun- ties of San Mateo and Santa Cruz. The highest point is Mt. Pacheo, 2,845 feet high. GAVOTTE, a French dance of a lively yet digni- fied character. The music is in common time, moderately quick, and always begins on the third beat of the bar; each of the two sections of which it consists is usually repeated. GAY, EBENEZER (1696-1787), an American Uni- tarian clergyman. In 1718 he became pastor of the church at Hingham. Mass., where he remained till his death, preaching in the same pulpit with- in three months of seventy years. He published many sermons. GAY, SIDNEY Howann, an American author, born in 1814. In 1842 he became a lecturing agent for the American anti-slavery society, and from 1844 to 1857 was editor of the New York “Anti-Slavery Standard.” He then became connected with the 740 “Tribune,” and from 1862 to 1866 was managing editor. From 1867 to 1871 he was editor of the Chicago “Tribune,” and from 1872 to 1871 was on the editorial staff of the New York “ Evening Post.” Mr. Gay wrote an American history (1 vols., 1876—80); and a Life of James Madison (1881). GAY, Wmoxwonrrr ALLAN, an American artist, born in 1821. He studied in Italy and France, and traveled in Egypt, China and Japan. Among his pictures exhibited at the National Academy in New York are: Mackerel Fleet; Beverly Coast, Mass, (1869); and The Doge’s Palace, Venice (1875). His Windmills of Delfshaven, Holland, was at the Cen- tennial exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, and was highly spoken of in the oflicial report. GAYAL, a species of ox, which is found wild in the mountains of Aracan, Chittagong, Tipura, and Sylhet, and which has long been domesticated in these countries and in the eastern parts of Ben- gal. It is about the size of the Indian buffalo, is dark brown in color, and has short curved horns. GAYARRE, CHARLES ETIENNE ARTHUR, an Amer- ican historian,born in 1805. He was admitted to the bar in 1829; was elected to the Louisiana legis- lature in 1830; appointed deputy attorney-general of the State in 1831, and in 1833 presiding judge of the New Orleans city court. In 1835 he was elected to the United States Senate, but impaired health prevented his taking his seat. In 1811 he again became a member of the State legislature, and was reelected in 1816. The same year he was appointed secretary of State, and again in 1850, retaining the office till 1857. Since the civil war he has been reporter of the State Supreme Court. He is the author of Histoire de la Louisiana (1817) ; Romance of the History of Louisiana (1818); Louisi- ana, Its Colonial History and Romance (1851); Loa- isiana, Its History as a French Colony (2 vols.. 1851- 52) ; Histo/'_y of the Spanish Domination in Louisiana from 1769 to December, 1803 (1851); the complete History of Louisiana, ,revised (1866); Philip II of Spain (1866) ; Fernando de Lemos, Truth and Fiction (1872); Aubert Dabayet (1882); also a drama, The School for Polztics (1851); a comedy in two acts, Dr. Blafi", and several literary and political ad- dresses. GAY—FEATHER, a popular name for the button snake-root, Liatris spicata, and other species of the genus, growing extensively throughout the United States. They have active medicinal properties. GAY—HEAD, a post-township of Dukes county, Mass, a promontory forming the western portion of the island of Martha’s Vineyard. Its rocks abound with Miocene fossils. The inhabitants are chiefly Indians, who live by farming and fishing. Here is a revolving light raised 170 feet above the level of the sea. GAYLORD, the capital of Otsego county, Mich., on the Mackinaw division of the Michigan Central Railroad. GAZETTEER, a geographical or topographical dictionary, or alphabetical arrangement of place- names, with a more or less abundant complement of information, descriptive, statistical, and histori- cal. GAZONS, in fortification, are sods laid over newly made earthworks, to consolidate them, and prevent the soil from rolling down. GEARING, a term applied to the machinery which communicates motion from one part of a machine to another, and may consist of toothed wheels, endless bands, etc. GEARY, JOHN ‘VHITE (1819—73), an American soldier. He studied engineering and law, and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced. In 1846 he was lieutenant-colonel of the 2d regiment of GAY--GEIKIE Pennsylvania, and for services rendered in the field was made first commander of the city of Mexico. and colonel of his regiment. In 1849 he was ap- pointed first postmaster of San Francisco, and in 1850 was made mayor of that city. In 1856 he was appointed territorial governor of Kansas, and held the office one year. At the beginning of the civil war he raised the 28th Pennsylvania volun- teers, and during the war commanded in several engagements. He several times‘won distinction, and attained the rank by brevet of major-general. In 1866 he became governor of Pennsylvania, and held the ofiice to within two weeks of his death. GEBANG PALH, a fan-leafed palm,native of the East Indies, and one of the most useful palms of that part of the world. Its stem yields akind of sago; its root is medicinal, being both emollient and slightly astringent; its leaves are used for thatch, for making broad-brimmed hats, and for various economical purposes. Its young leaves are plated into baskets and bags, in the manufacture of which many of the people of Java find employ- ment; the fibers of its leaf-stalks are made into ropes, baskets, nets, and cloth. GEFFRARD, FABRA (1806-79), a president of Hayti. In 1821 he enlisted as a private soldier in the Haytian army, and rose by successive promotions to a captaincy. In 1843 General Herard Riviére appointed Geffrard lieutenant-colonel, and he was soon afterward appointed colonel. In 1811 he be- came brigadier-general and commander of Jacmel. In 1815 he was appointed general of division. and in 1850 was created Duke of Tabaro. In 1859 he headed a revolt against Soulouque’s government, and became president of Hayti. In 1867 his gov- ernment became unpopular, and there was a revolt under Salnave. Geffrard, seeing that resistance was useless, took refuge on board a French vessel, and went to Jamaica, where he died. GEIKIE, ARCHIBALD, a Scotch geologist, born at Edinburgh in 1835. He studied at the high school and University of his native city, and was in 1855 appointed a geologist in the national survey of Scotland. In 1867 he was made director of the survey, and in 1870 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geology in the University of Edin- burgh. He has published The Story ofa Bowlder, The Phenomena of the Glacz'alDrift of Scotland, Scen- ery of Scotland Viewed in Connection With Its Physi cal Geography, some text-books of geology and physical geography ; has contributed to many scien- tific and literary periodicals, and was associated with Dr. George 1Vilson in preparing the Life of Prof. Eclward Forbes (1861), and wrote afterwards the Memoir of Sir Roderic Impey Murchison. In 1881 he was appointed director-general of the geological survey of the United Kingdom. GEIKIE, CUNNINGHAM, a Scottish clergyman, born in Edinburgh in 1826. After his education at the high school and University of Edinburgh was finished, he followed his father to Canada, became pastor of a church near Toronto, and was subse- quently called to a pastorate in Halifax. In 1862 he returned to England, and there accepted a pas- torate in Sunderland. In 1876 he took orders in the Church of England, and has since his ordina- tion held rectorship at Paris, France, and at Barn- stable, Eng. Geikie is a prominent “Low Church” leader. He is also the author of the following works: The Backwoods of Canada; Great and Preci— oas Promises; Life and Words of Christ; Old Testa- ment Portraits; Hours with the Bible, etc. Most of his works have been republished in America. Gei- kie’s Life of Christ has passed through 25 editions in England, and has been reproduced in four sepa- rate editions in the United States. GEIKIE-—GENII GEIKIE, JAMES, a Scottish geologist, brother of Archibald, born in Edinburgh in 1839. He was edu- cated at the high school and University of Edin- burgh. In 1861 he was appointed an assistant on the geological survey of Scotland; in 1867 he was promoted to be a full geologist, and in 1869 he was appointed a district surveyor. Afterwards he wrote many important scientific papers. Among these are: The Great Ice Age and Its Relations to the Anti- quity of Man (1874); and Prehistoric Europe (1881), a work treating of archaeology as well as Pleisto- cene geology. GELIDIUM, a species of sea-weed said to be utilized in the building of the edible birds’-nests, so much prized by the Chinese. These and allied species are largely used for food in the East, as yielding wholesome jellies. GEMBLOUX, or GEMBLOURS, a town of Belgium, province of Namur, celebrated as the scene of the victory of Don John of Austria over the United Netherlands in 1578. A state agricultural es- tablishment is located here. Population, about 3000. 7 GEMINI (the Twins), the third constellation in the zodiac. GENDER, a grammatical distinction between words corresponding directly or metaphorically to the natural distinction of sex. Names applied to the male sex are said to be of the masculine gender; those applied to the female sex, feminine; while words that are neither masculine nor feminine are said to be of the neuter gender. In modern English we have no such thing as merely grammatical gen- der, save when sex is attributed metaphorically to inanimate things by such a figure of speech as per- sonification; but in old English, as well as in San- skrit, Greek, and Latin, inanimate things are gen- erally either masculine or feminine; and this dis- tinction of gender is marked by the terminations of the case-endings. In Hebrew there is no neuter, all names being either masculine or feminine, as also in the modern Romance tongues, Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. German, in matter of gender, resembles Old English and the classical tongues. GENERAL, an oflicer of the general staff of the army. A field marshal or general commanding-in- chief would in the field usually command several army corps; a general one corps, a lieutenant-gen- eral one division, and a major-general one brigade. The general’s yearly pay is $13,500; the lieutenant- general’s is $11,000, the major-general’s $7,500, and the brigadier-general’s $5,500. The rank was created by Congress in 1866, and bestowed on Gen- eral Grant, afterwards being conferred on Sherman and Sheridan. \Vith the death of \V. T. Sherman in 1891 it became extinct. The rank held by \Vash- ington was that of lieutenant-general. GENERAL CONVENTION, THE, a body con- sisting of bishops, clerical and lay delegates from each Protestant Episcopal diocese of the United States, convened every three years, and by its con- stitution having power to form new dioceses, to try bishops, and to establish and revise a Prayer Book. This body was organized in 1785, with a view to a closer union of the churches in the different States. It has gradually become the governing body of the church, its acts extending to all points of discipline and doctrine. GENERALIZATION, the act of comprehending under a general name a number of objects which agree in one or more points. The result of gener- alization is a common name or general term which stands for the many objects in so far only as they all agree. In logic the genus is a higher class which includes a lower. the lower one being the 741 species; but the distinction is relative. That which is a genus in relation to its species is itself a spe- cies in regard to a higher genus. GENERATIONS, ALTERNATION or, an interesting complication in the life-history of many plants and animals, the organism producing offspring which are unlike itself, but which in turn gives rise to forms like the original parents. See REPRODUC- rrox, Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 429-31. GENESEE RIVER rises in Potter county, Pa., flows northward through New York, and enters Lake Ontario. It is about 120 miles in length, is navigable for lake vessels for 5 miles, has falls at Rochester and Portageville, and its valley is a beautiful and fertile region. GENESEO, a city of Henry county, Ill., 23 miles east of Rock Island on the Mississippi River. It is a shipping point for stock and grain, and an en- terprising manufacturing town. Among the arti- cles produced are wagons, furniture, tubs, pails, fiour, and agricultural implements. GENESEO, the county-seat of Livingston county, N. Y., on the Genesee River. It has a State normal school, public library, waterworks, and gas. GENEST, Enuoxn CHARLES (1765-1834), a French diplomatist. In 1789 he was sent to St. Petersburg as ehargé d’afl”aires, and in 1792 was appointed min- ister to the United States. He was cordially wel- comed by the American people; but, when he de- nounced the American government for remaining neutral in the troubles between France and Eng- land, and went so far as to issue commissions to privateers, ordering that their prizes should be tried and condemned by French consuls in the United States,\Vashington demanded and obtained his recall. Genest decided not to return to France, and was naturalized and settled in the State of New York. During his remaining years he took great interest in promoting improvements in agri- culture and in the arts and sciences. GENEVA, the capital of Geneva county, Ala., situated on the Choctawhatchee River. It has a lumber mill. GENEVA, the county-seat of Kane county, Ill., on Fox River, 35 miles west of Chicago. It has excellent water-power, which is utilized in glucose and other factories. It has a foundry and expen- sive school buildings. GENEVA, a village of Franklin county, Iowa, situated on the Central Railroad,9 miles northwest of Ackley, and 7 miles southeast of Hampton, the capital of the county. GENEVA, the capital of Fillmore county, Neb., 60 miles west-southwest of Lincoln. GENEVA, a town of Ontario county, N. Y., at the north end of Seneca Lake, about 16 miles east of Canandaigua. By railit is 26 miles west of Auburn, and 50 miles east-southeast of Rochester. It is situated on high ground, and is the seat of Hobart College. Steamboats ply daily between Geneva and Watkins, which is about 36 miles distant. It has optical works. bending-works, and manufac- tories of engines. boilers, and steam-heating appa- ratus. Population, 1.390. GENEVA, a village of Ashtabula county, Ohio, 45 miles northeast of Cleveland. It contains a norlmal school, and manufactories of agricultural too s. GENEVA. a village of lValworth county. \Vis.. on Geneva Lake. It has a ladies’ seminary and flouring-mill. GENII, among the ancient Romans, were pro- tecting spirits, who were supposed to accompany every created thing from its origin to its final de- cay, like a second spiritual self. They belonged 742 not only to men, but to all things, animate and in- animate, and more especially to places. The genius of an individual was represented by the Romans as a figure in a toga, having the head veiled, and the cornucopia or patera in the hands ; while local genii appear under the figure of serpents eating fruit set before them. See DEMCNCLCCY, Britannica, Vol. VII, pp. 60-64; MA.\*Es', Vol. XV, pp. 477-78; and PENA'rEs, Vol. XVIII, pp. 488-89. GENIPAP, a large tree of the IV est Indies and warm parts of South America, with excellent fruit. The pearl- gray timber is occasionally used by joiners. GENISTA, the broom; a small, much-branched, very spiny shrub of poor soils. It is sometimes called petty-whin and needle-furze. The Genista of Virgil and other Roman classics is supposed to be G. hispanica, of Southern Europe, with branched stiff spines. From the French name of this plant, plante-(1-genét, a line of English kings derived their name; the Count of Anjou, from whom they were descended, wearing a sprig of broom as a badge. GENOA, GULF or, a large indentation in the northern shore of the Uediterranean north of Corsica. It has, between the towns of Oneglia on the west and Spezzia on the east, a width of nearly 90 miles, with a depth of about 30 miles. GENOA, a village of Ottawa county, Ohio. 13 miles southeast of Toledo. It has lime-stone quar- ries. Lumber, washboards. wooden bowls, stoves, barrels, and hoops are made here. It has a German school and graded schools. GENRE-PAINTING, a term in art which was originally used to indicate simply any class or kind of painting, and was always accompanied by a distinctive adjective. It has now, however, come to be applied to scenes from familiar or from rustic life. GENS D’ARl\IES, a title in France originally applied to all men liable to military service, and later to the body of nobles and gentry serving un- der the kings of France. In the present cen- tury it denotes the armed and mounted rural olice. GENTLEMAN : in its original and strict sense, a person of noble descent. The terms gentleman and nobleman were formerly identical in mean- ing; but the popular signification of each has be- come gradually modified, that of the former hav- ing widened, of the latter having become more re- stricted. Gentleman is now used to designate a man of gentle and refined manner. See NOBILITY, Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 524-30. GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS, the body-guard of the British sovereign, and, with the exception of the yeoman of the guard, the oldest corps in the British army. It consists of a captain, a lieuten- ant, a standard-bearer, a clerk of the cheque, and 40 gentlemen. The attendance of the gentlemen- at-arms is only required at drawing-rooms, levées, coronations, and similar important state ceremo- mes. GENTOO, the term applied by old English writers to the I-Iindoos, or natives of India; and especially to the Gentoo laws, a code compiled by Sir lVilliam Jones. GENUFLEXION, the act of bending the knee in worship or adoration. It is of frequent occurrence in the ritual of the Catholic churches. GENZANO, a town of Italy, 18 miles southeast of Rome, on the Appian Way. An annual flower festival, called the Infiorata di G’en,zemo. is held here on the eighth day after Corpus Christi, and attracts many visitors. Population, 5,306. GEOCENTRIC means having the earth for a center. Thus, the moon’s motions are geo- GENIPAP—GEORGE’S CHANNEL centric; also, though no other of the heavenly bodies revolves round the earth, their motions are spoken of as geocentric when referred to, or con- sidered as they appear from, the earth. GEODES (GR, “earthly”), rounded hollow concre- tions, or indurated nodules, either empty or con- taining a more or less solid and free nucleus, and having the cavity frequently lined with crystals. They are sometimes called “potato stones,” on ac- count of their size and shape. GEOFFRIN, MARIE TIIERESE, a distinguished Frenchwoman, born at Paris, June 2, 1699, died in October, 1777. She was the daughter of a oalet-de- chambre named Rodet, a native of Dauphiné. In her fifteenth year she was married to a manufac- turer iii the Faubourg St. Antoine, who died not long after, leaving her an immense fortune. Though imperfectly educated she had a love of learning, and her house became a rendezvous of artists and literary men of Paris and of illustri- ous foreigners, many of whom she befriended with great delicacy and liberality. Poniatowski, after- wards king of Poland, was a frequent visitor at her house, and she was received by him with the greatest distinction in 1766 when she visited \Var- saw; also by the Empress Maria Theresa and her son, Joseph II, in Vienna. GECPHAGISM, or DIRT-EATING, a habit which prevails among many uncivilized races, as the Ot- tomacs of South America, the Laplanders, and the lVest India blacks. Ferruginous clay,bergmehl, and soft steatite are the substances thus used. Dirt-eating is also a form of depraved appetite occurring among chlorotic young women. GEORGE, a division of the western province of Cape Colony, Africa, on the south coast, east of Cape Town. It contains 2,600 square miles, and about 11,000 inhabitants. It is valuable chiefly for its pasturage and its timber. The town of George stands six miles north of the coast, and has a popu- lation of over 2,000. On the coast is the port of Mossil Bay. GEORGE, ENCCII (1767-1828), an American M. E. bishop. In 1790 he was admitted into the Vir- ginia conference, and in 1796 was presiding elder of Charleston, S. C., district. In 1803 he joined the Baltimore conference, and in 1816 was ordained a bishop. He served in this office with zeal and suc- cess until his death. GEORGE, HENRY, an American political econo- mist, born in 1839. In 1879 he published Progress and Poverty, and iii 1881 published The Irish Laud Question. In the same year he visited England and Ireland,and in 1883-84 and again in 1884-85 he visited England and Scotland. He made speeches which produced a marked effect on the land question. In 1886 he was a candidate for mayor of New York on the United Labor Party ticket, receiving 68,110 against 90,552 for Abram S. Hewitt, the Demo- cratic candidate, and 60,435 for Theodore Roosevelt, the Republican candidate. He then founded the “Standard,” a weekly newspaper, and became its editor. He is also the author of Social Problems (1884), and Protection or Free Trade (1886). GEORGE, LAKE, sometimes called Lake Horicon, a beautiful sheet of water in New York, extending from southwest to northeast, 36 miles long and from 1 to 3 miles wide, 310 feet above sea-level; 400 feet is its greatest depth; it contains 300 islands, and has an outlet into Lake Champlain. On its shores stood Forts George and VVilliam Henry. It is a favorite summer resort. GEORGE’S CHANNEL, Sr’, the name applied to the south portion of that arm of the Atlantic which separates Ireland from Britain. At its northern extremity it is 64 miles in width, GEORGE- and at its southern about 62; its length from north- east to southwest is about 100 miles. GEORGE, “The Bearded,” duke of Saxony from 1500 to 1539, was known as a zealous anti-Protestant. GEORGE, THE, the badge of the Order of the Garter. GEORGETOWN, a village of Halton county, Ontario, on Credit River. It has good water-power, and manufactures paper. GEORGETOWN, the county-seat of Clear Creek county, Col., situated in a valley of the Rocky Mountains, 51 miles west of Denver, on two branches of Clear Creek. Itis in an extensive silver region, and has large reduction works. GEORGETOVVN, a railroad junction, and capi- tal of Sussex county, Del., 15 miles southwest of Lewes. GEORGETOWN, the county-seat of Scott co unty, Ky., 12 miles north of Lexington. It is in the center of the “Blue-grass country,” and the business of the vicinity is farming and stock-raising. The town contains a college, two female seminaries, other schools, and has good water-power. GEORGETOWN, the county-seat of Brown county, Ohio, 7 miles from the Ohio River. It con- tains a woolen mill, flour mill, and the business of the vicinity is chiefly tobacco-raising. GEORGETOWN, a port of entry, and county- seat of King’s county, Prince Edward Island. It has a good harbor, builds ships, and exports pro- Visions. GEORGETOWN, the county-seat of Georgetown county, S. C., on Winyaw Bay. It has direct com- munication with New York by schooner lines; is located in a great turpentine region, and the vil- lage contains lumber and rice mills. GEORGETOWVN, the coun-ty-seat of Williamson county, Texas, 25 miles north of Austin. The region is healthful and picturesque, and the village con- tains the Southwestern University. GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, D.C. See COLLEGES, in these Revisions and Additions. GEORGIA, an Atlantic State of the United States, and one of the original thirteen States (see Britannica, Vol. X. pp. 431-88). Under the present constitution, which was adopted in 1877, the legislative department consists of a senate of 44 members and a house of representatives of 175 members. Senators and Representatives are each elected for two years. The legislature, called the general assembly, meets biennially on the first day of November of even years, and each session is limited to forty days. The executive depart- ment consists of a governor, secretary of State, treasurer, comptroller - general, attorney - general (each of whom is elected for the people for a term of two years), and a State school commissioner. The latter is appointed by the governor for a term of two years. General elections for State oflicers are held biennially on tho first \Vednes- day of October of even years. The judicial de- partment comprises a supreme court, with a chief justice and four associates; superior courts; courts of ordinary, corresponding to the county courts of other States; and justices’ courts. The judges of the supreme and superior courts are selected by the general assembly, and hold ofiice for four years each. The ordinaries and justices of the peace are elected by the people—the former for four years, and the latter for two years. The State is represented in the United States Con- gress by two Senators and ten Representatives, and is thus entitled to twelve votes in the electoral college. The educational interests of the State are under the general direction of a State school commis- GEORGIA 743 sioner and a State board of education, while local interests are directed by county school commis- sioners and county boards of education. Excellent systems of graded and high schools prevail throughout the State. The State University and its branches, the Atlanta University, and the high schools of Atlanta, Macon, Augusta and Savan- nah, provide for special normal instruction. The State University is located at Athens, and has branches at Milledgeville, Cuthbert, Dahlon- ega and Thomasville. There is an institution for the education of the deaf and dumb at Cave Spring, and an academy for the blind at Macon. Both of these are State institutions. The lVesleyan Female College, located at Macon, was the first chartered female college in the world. Other ex- cellent private colleges, acadernies and profes- gional schools are located 111 various parts of the tate. According to the census of 1890 the area of Georgia was 59,475 square miles, and the population 1,837,358. The following table shows the population by counties for 1880 and 1890: Population. Counties. 1890 1880. Appling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,676 5 276 Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,111 7,807 Baldwin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,608 13,806 Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,562 7 ,337 Bartow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,616 18,690 Berrien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.691 6,619 Bibb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42,870 27,117 Brooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,97 9 11.727 Bryan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,520 4.929 Bulloch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13.712 8.053 Burke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,501 27,128 Butts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,565 8,311 Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,138 7,024 Camden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,178 6,18“ Campbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,115 9,970 Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,301 16.901 Catoosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,431 4,73 Charlton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,335 2,151 Chatham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 .740 45,028 Chattahoochee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,902 5,670 Chatt00ga.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,202 10,021 Cherokee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,112 11 Clarke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,186 11,702 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.817 6.650 Clayton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,295 8,027 Clinch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.652 4.138 Cobb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.286 20.718 Coffee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.183 5,07 Colquitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,791 2.527 Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,281 10,165 Ooweta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.351 21.109 Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 9.315 8,656 Dade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,707 4,702 Dawson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,612 5 .837 Decatur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,919 19.072 De Kalb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,189 14,197 Dodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,452 5,358 Doofy . .............................. .. 18.146 12.120 Dougherty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,206 12 ,622 Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,791 6.931 Earl~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,792 7,611 Echols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,079 2.553 Efiingham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,599 5,979 Elbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15.376 12,957 Emanuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,703 9,759 Fannin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,721 7 .245 Fayette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,728 8,605 Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.391 21.118 Fore th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,155 10.539 Fran lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.670 11.153 Fulton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 ,655 49.137 Gilmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.071 8,386 Glascock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7:. 3.57 lynn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.120 6.197 Gordon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.758 11.171 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.051 17.517 Gwinnett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.899 19.511 Habersham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.573 8.718 Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.017 15.298 744 Population. Counties. 1890. 1880. Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 .149 16,989 Haralson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,316 5,974 Harris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,797 15,758 art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ,887 9,094 Heard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,557 8,769 Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,220 14.193 Houston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,613 22,414 Irwin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,316 2,696 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,176 16,297 Jasper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,879 11,851 J efierson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,213 15,671 Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,129 4,800 Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,709 11,613 Laurens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,747 10,053 Lee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,074 10,577 Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,887 10,649 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,146 6,412 Lowndes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,102 11,049 Lumpkin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,867 6,526 McDufiie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,789 9,449 Mclntosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,470 6,241 Macon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,183 11,675 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,024 7,978 Marion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,728 8,598 Meriwether . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,740 17,651 iller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,275 3,720 Milton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,208 6,261 Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,906 9,392 Mon roe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,137 18,808 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.248 5.381 Morgan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,041 14,032 Murray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,461 8,269 Muscogee . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,761 19,322 Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,310 13,623 Oconee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,713 6,351 Oglethorpe ............................. . . 16,951 15,400 Paulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . 11,948 10,887 Pickens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,182 6,790 Pierce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,379 4,538 Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,300 15,849 Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,945 11,952 Pulaski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,559 14,058 Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,842 14,539 Quitman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,471 4,392 Rabun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,606 4,634 Randolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,267 13,341 Richmond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,194 34,665 Rockdale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,813 6,8 Schley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,443 5,302 Screven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,424 12,786 Spalding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,117 12,585 Stewart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,682 13,998 Sumter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,107 18,239 Talbot .............. . .‘ ................. . . 13,258 14,115 Taliaferro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,291 7 ,034 Tattnall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,253 6,988 Ta lor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,666 8,597 Te fair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,477 4,828 Terrell Q - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s . . - . - . . . . . . . . . - Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,154 20,597 Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,064 3,261 Troup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,723 20,565 Twiggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,195 8,918 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,749 6,431 Upson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,188 12,400 Walker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,282 11,056 Walton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 A67 15 .923 Ware. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,811 4,159 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,957 10,885 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.237 21.964 VVayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . ° . . . . . - Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,695 $237 . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . Whitefield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - YYIICOX . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . - Wilkes. . ............................ . . 18,081 15,985 Wilkinson ............................. . . 10,781 12,061 Worth .............................. . . 10,048 5,892 The population by decades was, in 1790, 82,548; 1800, 162,686; 1810, 252,434; 1820, 340,985; 1830, 516,- 823; 1840, 691,392; 1850, 906,185; 1860, 1,057,286; 1870, 1,184,109; 1880, 1.542,180; 1890, 1,837,353. Cotton is the chief agricultural crop of Georgia. In 1888 there were 2,970,901 acres devoted to the culture of cotton, yielding 463,460,556 pounds, GEORGIAN BAY-—GERM THEORY valued at $39,394,147. Indian corn came next with an acrea e of 2,923,885, yielding 28,069,000 bushels, value at $16,841,400. Then came oats, with 618,687 acres, yielding 7,115,000 bushels, valued at $3,770,950; wheat, 374,452 acres, yielding 1,910,000 bushels, valued at $2,101,000; hay, 39,996 acres, yielding 47,995 tons, valued at $646,013; potatoes, 10,291 acres, yielding 638,000 bushels, valued at $574,238; rye, 28,456 acres, yielding 151,000 bushels, valued at $135,735. January 1, 1890, there were in Georgia 115,629 horses, valued at $9,582,125 ; 155,700 mules, valued at $15,119,264; 354,618 milch cows, valued at $6,113,614; 580,816 oxen and other cattle, valued at $6,408,205; 411,846 sheep, valued at $640,- 173; and 1,627,008 hogs, valued at $5,379,540. GOVERNORS OF GEORGIA (Since the adoption of the United States Constitution). George Walton . . . . .. 1789-90 William Schley . . . . . .. 1835-37 Edward Telfair . . . . . .. 1790-93 Geor e R. Gilmer..... 1837-39' Geor e Matthews... 1793-96 Char es J.McDonald.. 1839-43 Jare Irwin... . 1796-98 George W. Crawford. 1843-47 James Jackson 1798-1801 George W. B. Towns.. 1847-51. David Emanuel . . . . .. 1801 Howell Cobb . . . . . . . .. 1851-53 Josiah Tatnal. .. 1801-2 Herschell V. Johnson. 1853-57 John Milledge . . . . . . .. 1802-6 Joseph E. Brown.. 1857-65 Jared Irwin . . . . . . . .. 1806-9 James Johnson . . . . .. 1865 David B. Mitchell.... 1809-13 Rufus B. Bullock . . 1868-72 William Rabun 1817-19 James Milton Smith.. 1872-77 Matthew Talbot... .. 1819 Alfred H. Colquitt. . .. 1877-81 John Clark... . . . . .. 1819-23 A. H. Stephens . . . . . .. 1882-83 George M. Troup..... 1823-27 H. D.McDanie1..... 1883-84-86 John Forsyth . . . . . . .. 1827-29 John B. Gordon. . .. 1886-88-90 George R. Gilmer.... 1829-31 W. J. Northen . . . . . . . .. 1890-92 Wilson Lumpkins. . .. 1831-35 GEORGIAN BAY, the northeastern part of Lake Huron, in the province of Ontario, Can. It is partly separated from the rest of the lake by a peninsula called Cabot’s Head, and by the Great Manitoulin Island. It is about 120 miles long and 50 miles Wide. GEOTE UTHIS, a genus of fossil calamaries, pe- culiar to the Oiilitic period. The shell or horny pen is broad and truncated in front and pointed behind, with the lateral wings shorter than the shaft. Some specimens are remarkably preserved, still showing the muscular mouth, the basis of the arms, and the ink-bag. GERANICEJE, an order of thalamifloral dico- tyledons, herbs or undershrubs of temperate countries. The leading genera, Geranium, PeZar- gonium and Erodium, yield a great number of garden and greenhouse plants. In a wider sense the order is extended to include the closely related lints (Linaceaz) and sorrels (Oxalidaceae), together with the Balsmninaceae. GERANIUM, a genus of exogenous plants, the type of the natural order Gcraniaceae, the limits of which correspond with those of the Linnae-an genus. This order contains at least 500 known species distributed over the world. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 439. GERBIL, a rodent animal of the sub-family Ger- billimc, family Muridae, found chiefly in Asia, Af- rica, and Southern Europe. Gerbils are rat-like in appearance, but of a jumping habit, having elongated hind limbs. The genera are Gerbillus, My/strovm/s, Otomys, and Dasg/mg/s. GERKI, a town of the Saccatoo country, Africa, about 50 miles northeast of Kano. It is surrounded with walls. Population, 15,000. GERM THEORY OF DISEASE, the view that epidemic diseases are due to bacteria, or vegeta- ble cells, which enter the body with the air we breath, the Water we drink, and the food we eat. In some cases they enter the body by contact. They generally increase very rapidly, pervade the GERMANDER—-GERMANUS system in the vital parts, undermine the strength wf the body gradually and most usually terminate in the death of the individual. This theory is now definitely proven in the cases of cholera, yellow fever, typhus, consumption, small-pox, syphilis, gonorrhoea; and, in several other diseases, the pre- sumption is strong in favor of its correctness. Leewenhoeck observed these vegetable cells as early as 1675, and O. F. Miiller classified them in 1773. But that they were the causes of the infec- tious diseases was not admitted even during the first half of this century, although Kircher in Ger- many, and Linnaeus in Sweden, had advanced the idea that some of the epidemic diseases are due to bacteria. The common belief was that these diseases are caused by decaying vegetable and ani- mal matter, as it seemed to be apparent in the ease of malaria; that decaying organic matter B.C'ES as a poison; when its eflluvia are taken into the body that they set rip similar processes of de- generation and decay in the living tissues. But in 1836 Cagniard de la Tour discovered that the action of yeast is caused by bacteria. or living plant-cells; and Schwann found in 1837 that putre- faction is originated in a similar way. In 1850 Rayeraud Davaine observed in the blood of cattle dead or splenic fever (called anthrax) the bacillus anthracis, a hair-like bacterium; and in 1863 Da- vaine proved that the anthrax bacilli are the cause of splenic fever. He produced this fever by inocu- lating animals with these bacilli. In 1865 L. Pas- teur proved,conclusively, that a disease of the silk worms, called pebrine, which threatened to destroy the silk industry of France, was due to minute rvibratile corpuscles, which filled the bodies of the \.-silk worms and checked their vital operations. He ,also showed that this disease can be overcome by protecting the worms from infection. Koch in Berlin, and Pasteur in Paris, soon :afterwards made experiments with Davaine’s an- thrax bacilli and produced the splenic fever in nu- merous cases by inoculation; they also showed that this disease never appears in animals that are rigidly isolated from infectious material. Cultiva- tion of bacillus anthracis in infusions, through several generations, was found to weaken the vitality of the germs, especially through the action of the ozone contained in the air. The subsequent inoculation of cattle with this weakened material produced in them a mild form of the disease which protected them against the effects of subsequent inoculations with the strongest virus. Thousands -of cattle have been annually saved from the fatal milt fever in France alone by inoculating them with the weakened culture germs. More recently Pasteur made researches espe- ~cially into the cause and cure of rabies, the " mad-dog disease” in men and animals. He has shown that a bacterium is present in this dis- ease, that it can be communicated by inoculation to healthy animals of various species, and that its energy may be reduced by producing a mild and harmless for1n of hydrophobia in men and animals bitten by mad does. Pasteur has also proven the parasitic origin 0 chicken-cholera. Of all human diseases, it has been most clearly demonstrated in the case of small-pox that the in- -oculation of or contact with the bacterial matter is capable of producing the disease. In septic-eemia, zthe inflammation _of open wounds and the result- ing blood poisoning are due to minute bacteria tfioating in the air, with which the wounds come in contact. If the instruments used in surgical opera- 74.5 tions are carefully disinfected, and the wounds are treated with sprays of carbolic acid or mercuric chloride and lotions capable of killing the bacteria present in the air, etc., the fatal disease of blood- poisoning will be prevented. Bacteria have been discovered and isolated in diphtheria, typhoid, yellow and malarial fevers. and most recently in cholera and tuberculosis. Koch found in the tubercle of consumption a germ similar to the bacterium of leprosy. By inoculating rab- bits and guinea pigs with this bacteria he produced in them genuine tuberculosis. In the intestines of cholera patients in India and Egypt he found millions of bacteria of several kinds, some of them harmless. But one kind, comma-shaped, was pecu- liar, and present in all cholera patients. He called it the comma bacillus. He considers it the cause of the disease, although it has been doubted by others. The recent researches with the microscope prove that malaria (swamp fever, fever and ague) is due to a germ found in the blood of the patients. This germ is called the plasmodium of malaria. It can be demonstrated in every case of the disease by drawing a drop of blood and examining it care- fully under a good microscope. The presence of this plasmodium is always accompanied by the same series of symptoms; and as these symptoms cease as soon as the germs disappear, the conclu- sion is inevitable that the germs are the true cause of the disease. Dr. VValter B. James, of New York. stated, recently, before the New York Academy of Medicine, that he had examined the blood it several hundred cases of malaria, and found the plasmodium present in all cases. In hydrophobia and septicaemia, the microbes are introduced by contact with open wounds; bul in syphilis and gonorrhoea no open wounds are re- quired for causing infection. In these cases tln disease germs are of animal growth. GERMANDER, a popular name for various labiate plants of the genus Tevcrium. The one species of the United States is T. Canaclense. T Clzamaedrys, T. Scordium, the water-germander. and T. Scorodonia, the wood-germander, are Ole. World species. Most of them have been employed in medicine. GERMANO, SAN, a beautiful and prosperous town of Italy, situated at the base of Monte Casino, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, about 50 miles north-northwest of Naples. It contains handsome public edifices, and is surrounded by the remains of monuments and buildings of high antiquarian interest; it is built on the site and from the ruins of the ancient Volscian town, Casinum,or Casca. The district of San Germano is highly cultivated and beautiful. Population, 8,766. See Moxrn Cxsmo, Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 7 78. GERMANTO‘VN, a former borough of Pennsyl- vania, included since 1851 in the limits of Philadel- phia. Here an attack by \Vashington on the British camp in the early morning of Oct. -1, 1777, was re- pulsed, the Americans losing 1,000 men, the British 600. GERMANUS, ST., bishop of Auxerre, said to have been invited to Britain in 129 to combat Pelagianism. Under him the Christian Britons won the bloodless “Alleluia Victory” over the Picts and Saxons. In 1736 a column was erected on the supposed site. Mzes Garmon (Germanus field), in Flintshire. There are several churches in Wales and Cornwall dedicated to St. Germanus. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 247. 2 H6 GERMANY GERMANY. For the geography, history, pro- ductions, government, language, literature, and earlier statistics of Germany, and the German States, see Britannica, Vol. X,pp. 447-547. Present total area, 211,168 English square miles; population in 1885, 46,855,704. Capital, Berlin, with a popula- tion of 1,315,287. STATES, AREA AND PoI>ULA'rIoN.—The following are , the official figures giving the returns for December, 1880, and Dec. 1, 1885, and the density for 1885: I I Area - - Dcnsit . ~ Population Population “ Y States of the Empire. Engllsh ; .,- er sq. _ Sq_mileS. Dec.1, 1880. Dcc.1,1ss5. 151.1885. Ilgrussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,352,113; 28,318,470 208.1 avaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . .. , ‘ , ,77 5,420,199 182.7 W1"1rtemberg . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,619 1,971,118 1 995,185 261.8 1s3aden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g,gg(g 5,373,325}: %,eg1z,;);85 axony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ," 7 , ,1~, ° %_%eck1enburg-Schwerin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . 577,255 575,152 110.6 esse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 936,‘ 40 956,611 "18.8 Oldenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,508 337,478 341,525 135.7 Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,441 349 ,3(;7 372,452 253, 4 Saxe-W eimar. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,404 309,577 313,946 223. 6 Mecklenburg-Strelitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,144 100,269 98,371 85. 9 £Sk8.Xh8-%€ einingen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96$ g07,gg5 214 384 222 _ 3 n a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91 32, 2 248,166 259.7 Saxe—Coburg-Gotha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 194,716 198,829 258 .5 Saxe-Altenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 155,036 161,460 312. 3 %V1p1%e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1g3,g1g 259.3 a ec' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ° , 1 5, 7 129.1 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 80,296 83,836 228.4 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 337 71,107 73,606 218.4 Reuss-Schleiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 101,330 110,598 342, 4 Schaumburg-Lippe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 35,374 37,204 279. 7 Reuss—Greiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 50,782 55,904 454.5 Hamburg .................... . .-. ............................................ . . 160 453,869 518,620 5,241. 3 1Igmbeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 ggaagg 1 .223 .5 remen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 ,3 1 ,6‘. , (5, Alsace-Lorraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,668 1,566,670 1,554,355 275.9 Total ............................................................... . . 211,168 4-5.234,061 46.855,704 221.8 - PRESENT EMPEROR AND ROYAL FAI\IILY.—)/Vilhelm Greece. 5. Princess Margarethe, born April 22, II, born Jan. 27, 1859, eldest son of Friedrich III, German Emperor and King of Prussia—who was the eldest son of VVilhelm I, and.was‘ bornOct. 18, 1831; married Jan. 25, 1858, to Victoria (Empress and Queen Friedrich), Princess Royal of Great Britain, succeeded his father March 9, 1888, and died June 15, 1888, when he was succeeded by his son, Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, under, the title of Wilhelm II. The Emperor married, Feb. 27, 1881, Princess Victoria; married Nov. 19, 1891, to Prince Adolphus of Schaumberg-Lippe. Born Oct. 22, 1858, daughter of the late Duke Friedrich of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. CHILDREN OF THE EMPEROR.-—1. Prince Friedrich Wilhelm Victor August Ernst, born May 6, 1882, Crown-Prince of the German Empire and of Prussia ; 2. Prince lVilhelm Eitel-Friedrich Christian Karl, born July 7, 1883; 3. Prince Adalbert Ferdinand Berenger Victor, born July 14, 1884; 4. Prince Au- gust Wilhelm Heinrich Giinther Victor, born J an. 29,1887 ; 5. Prince Oscar Karl Gustav Adolf, born July 27, 1888. BROTHER AND SISTERS OF THE EM1>ERoR.—1. Princess Charlotte, born July 24, 1860; married Feb. 18, 1878, to Prince Bernhard, eldest son of Duke George II, of Saxe-Meiningen; offspring of the union is a daughter, Feodora, born May 12, 1879. 2. Prince Heinrich, born Aug. 14, 1862; married May 24, 1888, to Princess Irene, daughter of Grand-Duke Ludwig IV, of Hesse; offspring of the union is a son, VValdemar, born March 20, 1889. 3. Princess Victoria, born April 12, 1866. 4. Prin- cess Sophie Dorothea, born June 14, 1870; married Oct. 27, 1889, to Crown-Prince Konstantin, of 1872. AUNT OF THE EuI>ERoR.—PrinceSs ‘Louise, born Dec. 3, 1838; married Sept. 20, 1856, to Grand-Duke Friedrich, of Baden. EMPERORS OF PRESENT EMPIRE.--1. lVilhelm I, from April 16, 1871, to March 9,1888. 2. Friedrich, from March 9, 1888, to June 15, 1888. 3. VVilhelm II, from June 15, 1888. SUPPORT OF THE ROYAL FAMILY.—Tl1O election of Wilhelm I, king of Prussia, as emperor of Germany bears date from April 16, 1871. The election was by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confed- eration, on the initiative of all the reigning princes of Germany. The imperial dignity is now hereditary in the Prussian royal house of Hohenzollern, fol- lowing the usual law of primogcniture, and the support of the royal family is provided for by the Prussian constitution. Up to within a recent period the kings of Prussia enjoyed ‘the whole in- come of the state domains, amounting to about a million sterling per annum. By a decree of Jan. 17, 1820, King Friedrich VVilhelm III fixed the Krondotations at the total sum of 2,573,098% thalers, which was sanctioned on J an. 31, 1850, by art. 59 of the constitution; remaining, as before, dependent on the revenue derived from domains and forests. The amount of the civil list was fixed by art. 59 of the constitution of Jan. 31, 1850; but by law of April 30, 1859, it was raised 500,000 thalers; by law of J an. 27, 1868, 1,000,000 thalers, and by law of Feb. 20, 1889, a further 3,500,000 marks. At present the total “ Krondotations Rente,”' as far as it figures ' in the budgets, amounts to 15,719,296 marks, or $3,752,770. The reigning house is also in possession _ born afterwards. GERMANY of a vast amount of private property, comprising castles, forests, and great landed estates in various parts of the kingdom, known as “ Fideikomiss-und- Schatullgfiter,” the revenue from which mainly serves to defray the expenditure of the court and the members of the royal family. The Royal Fideikomiss was last regulated by cabinet order of Aug. 30, 1843. Besides this the royal crown treasure, founded by King Friedrich Wilhelm III, consists of a capital of 6 millions, which has since considerably increased, and also the family Fideikomiss, likewise founded by King Friedrich Wilhelm III, for the benefit of princes It comprises the domains of Flatow, Krojanke and Frauendorf, as well as the Fideikomiss founded by the late Prince Karl (Glienicke). Finally, the royal house is also en- titled to the House Fideikomiss of the Hohen- zollern princes. GHANCELLOR AND IMPERIAL SEcRE'rARIEs.--Gen- eral Georg von Caprivi, the successor of Prince Bismarck as Chancellor of the empire, and presi- dent of the Prussian Council of Ministers, was born in 1831; entered the army in 1849; became chief of staff to the 10th corps, 1870; was appointed com- mander of the 30th division at Metz, 1883; was ap- pointed head of the admiralty in 1884; and was appointed Chancellor of the empire and president of the Prussian~Council, March 20, 1890. Salary, 54,000 marks. 1 Representative of the Chancellor and Imperial Secretary of State for the Home Office, Dr. Carl Heinrich von Boetticher, born Jan. 6, 1833; studied jurisprudence and entered state service, 1856; Landdrost at Hanover; 1876, Regierungs- préisident at Schleswig; appointed Imperial Secre- tary of State, September, 1880; and in 1881 repre- sentative of the Chancellor of the empire. Salary, 36,000 marks. The imperial secretaries of state number 12, in- cluding the Chancellor. They do not form a “cabinet,” but act independently of one another, under the general supervision of the Chancellor. Under the latter they are the executive heads sev- erally of the Imperial Departments, viz.: Foreign Affairs; Home Office; Admiralty; Ministry of Justice; Treasury; Post Ofiice; Railways; Ex- chequer; Invalid Fund; Imperial Bank; Debt Commission. Salary of each of the department secretaries, 36,000 marks. CONSTITUTION AND GrOVERNl\IENT.—Tl1e constitu- tion of the empire bears date April 16, 1871. By its terms all the States of Germany “form an eternal union for the protection of the realm and the care of the welfare of the German people.” The supreme direction of the military and political aflairs of the empire is vested in the king of Prussia, who, in this capacity, bears the title of Deutscher Kaiser. According to art. 2 of the constitution, “the em- peror represents the empire internationally,” and can declare war, if defensive, and make peace, as well as enter into treaties with other nations, and appoint and receive ambassadors. To declare war, if not merely defensive, the Kaiser must have the consent of the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, in which body, together with the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm, are vested the legislative functions of the empire. The Bundesrath represents the indi- - vidual States of Germany, and the Reichstag the German nation. The members of the Bundesrath, fifty-eight in number, are appointed by the gov- ernments of the individual States for each session, while the members of the Reichstag, 397 in num- ber (about one for every 118,000 inhabitants), are elected by universal suffrage and ballot, for the term of three years. By the law of March 19, 1888, 747 the duration of the legislative period is five years; the law to come into force in the legislative period beginning in 1890. The various States of Germany are represented as follows in the Bundesrath and the Reichstag: '+-I ::: u-I : . 0'" as O""‘ (:1) r-I m "'3 :-1 *1: :3 ca 5;‘, 0 :>*.j’, States of the Empire. -§,;3 225.3 :1 5 Q :5 Zg-£1 Kingdom of Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 236 “ “ Bavaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 48 “ “ Wiirtemberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 17 “ “ Saxony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 23 Grand-Duchy of Baden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 14 “ “ Mecklenburg-Schwerin . . . . .. 2 6 “ “ Hesse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 9 “ “ Oldenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 3 “ “ Saxe-Weimar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 3 “ “ Mecklenburg-Strelitz . . . . . . .. 1 1 Duchy of Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 “ “ Saxe-Meiningen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 2 “ “ Anhalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 “ “ Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 2 “ “ Saxe-Altenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 Principality of Waldeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 " “ Lippe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 “ “ Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 1 1 “ “ Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.. 1 1 “ “ Reuss-Schleiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 “ “ Schaumburg-Lippe . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 “ “ Reuss-Greiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 Free town of Hamburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 3 “ “ “ Liibeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 “ “ “ Bremen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58 397 Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Bundes- rath by four commissioners (Kommissare) without votes, who are nominated by the Statthalter. The total number of electors to the Reichstag in- scribed on the lists was 9,769,802, or 20.9 per cent. of the population at the general election of 1887, while the number of actual effective voters was 7,540,938 at the same election, or 77.5 per cent. of ‘the total electors; in 1890 it was 7,031,460. Of the 397 electoral districts 21 consists solely of towns, 107 of districts each containing a town of at least 20,000 inhabitants, and 269 of districts without any large towns. In 252 districts Protestantism is pre- dominant, and in the remainder Roman Catholi- cism claims the majority. Of electoral districts with 60,000 of a population and under, there were 5 in 1887 ; between 60,000 and 80,000, 26 ; between 80,000 and 100,000, 74; between 100,000 and 120,000, 130; be- tween 120,000 and 140,000, 105; between 140,000 and 160,000, 21; and above 160,000, 36. Of electoral districts with 12,000 voters or less, there were 4 in 1887; 12,000-16,000, 26; 16,000-20,000, 60; 20,000- 24,000, 121; 24,000-28,000, 103; 28,000-32,000, 41; above 32,000 voters, 42. Both the Bundesrath and the Reichstag meet in annual session, convoked by the Emperor. The Emperor has the right to prorogue and dissolve, after a vote by the Bundesrath, the Reichstag. Y-Vithout consent of the Reichstag the prerogation may not exceed 30 days; while in case of disso- lution new elections must take place within 60 days, and a new session must open within 90 days. All laws for the empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority of the Bundesrath and the Reichstag. The Bundesrath is presided over by the Reichskanzler or Chancellor of the Empire, and the president of the Reichstag is elected by the deputies. \- M8 The laws of the empire, passed by the Bundesrath and the R-eichstag, to take efiect, must receive the assent of the Emperor, and be countersigned when promulgated by the chancellor of the empire. All the members of the Bundesrath' have the right to be present at the deliberations of the Beichstag. Acting under the direction of the chancellor of the empire, the Bundesrath represents also a su- preme administrative and consultative board, and as such has twelve standing committees—namely, for army and fortifications; for naval matters; tarifl’, excise, and taxes; trade and commerce; rail- ways, posts, and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the constitution; for the standing orders; _and for railway tariffs. Each committe‘ consists of representatives of at least four states of the empire; but the foreign affairs committee includes only the representatives of Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirtemburg, and two other rep- resentatives to be elected every year. l.VIOVEMENT OF POPULATION.—II1 1888 the number of persons in the empire engaged in agriculture and cattle-raising was 18,840,818 out of a total of 48,000,000; in forestry, hunting and fishing, 384,637 ; in mining, metal works, etc., 16,058,080; in trade and commerce, 4,531,080; in domestic and other service, 938,291; in the professions, 2,222,982; with- out occupation or profession, 2,246,222. The bulk of the German population is (on the basis of language) Teutonic; but in the Prussian provinces o Posen, Silesia, \/Vest and East Prussia are 2,513,500 Slavs (Poles), who, with 280,000 Wal- loons and French, 150,000 Lithuanians, 140,000 Danes, and about the same number of \Vends, Moravians, and Bohemians, make up 3,223,500 non-Germanic inhabitants, or nearly 7 per cent. of the total popu- lation. On Dec. 1, 1885, there were 434,525 foreigners resident in Germany, the nationalities of whom were as follows: Austrian . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155,3? British . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14,889 Russian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48,853 Swedes, Norwegians. . 13,174 Dutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,270 Luxemburgers . . . . . . . . 11,607 Swiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36,902 Other Euro eans..... 26,611 French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36,708 From Unite States.. 15,017 Danish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,848 Other non-Europeans. 8,628 Besides 111 born at sea, and 1,116 of unknown nationality. In 1880 the number of foreigners was only 275,856. ‘ " The great majority of the emigrants sail from German ports and Antwerp. In 1885-89, 18,179 em- barked at Rotterdam or Amsterdam; and in 1885-89 a yearly average of 4,503 at French ports, notably Havre and Bordeaux. The emigrants of 1.889 by way of German ports, Antwerp, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, comprised 49,497 males, 40,692 females (76 sex not stated). The number of fami- lies was 13,557, including 50,328 persons. During the sixty-eight years from 1820 to 1888 the total emigration to the United States, which absorbs the best classes of emigrants, numbered over three and a half million individuals, and during the last twelve years nearly three-quarters of a million. It ' is calculated that each represented, on the average, a money value of 200 marks, or $50, so that the total loss by this emigration amounted to over $175,000,000. The number of emigrants to Brazil during the last nineteen years (1871 to 1881) has been 35,865. There are in Germany 21 towns of over 100,000 inhabitants, viz.: Berlin (1,315,287), Hamburg (305,690), Altona (104,717), Breslau (299,640), Munich GERMANY (261,981), Dresden (246,086), "Elberfeld (106,499), Barrnen (103,068), Leipsig (170,340), Cologne (161,- 401), Frankfurt-on-the-Main (154,513), Kiinigsberg (151,151), Hanover (139,731), Stuttgart (125,901), Bremen (118,395), N iiremberg (114,891), Diisseldorf (115,190), Danzig (114,805), Magdeburg (114,291),. Strasburg (111,987), Chemnitz (110,817). Enncmron AND RELIeroN.—There are 22 uni- versities in the empire, with 2,437 professors and teachers, attended by about 29,444 matriculated students. Education is general and compulsory throughout Germany. The laws of Prussia, which provide for the establishment of elementary schools (Vollcsschulen), supported, from the local rates, in every town and village, and compel all parents to send their children to these or other schools, have been adopted, with slight modifica- tions, in all the states of the empire. The school age is from six to fourteen. The system of second- ary education is also practically homogeneous. Above the elementary schools rank the middle schools of the towns, the Biirgerschulen and Hiihere Bilrgerschulen, which fit their pupils for business life. Children of the working classes may continue their education at the Fortbildungs-Schulen, or con- tinuation schools, which are open in the evening or other convenient time. The Gymnasia are the most fully developed classical schools, preparing pupils in a nine years’ course for the universities and the learned professions. The Progymnasia differ from these only in not having the highest classes. In the Realgymnasia, Latin, but not Greek, is taught, and what are usually termed “ modern subjects ” have more time devoted to them. Real- progymnasia have a\similar course, but have no class corresponding to the highest class in the pre- ceding. In the Obe'rrealschuZen and Realschulen Latin is wholly displaced in favor of modern lan- guages. In 1884, 878 secondary schools, including 31 private schools, possessed the right of granting certificates to pupils who pass the leaving exami- nation (Abz'turienten Examcn), entitling them to serve in the army as one-year volunteers. The teachers in German schools are required to hold a government certificate, and to have undergone a year’s probation. Higher schools for girls are called Hohere Téchterschulen. Besides these there are numerous Gewerbeschulen, or technical schools, Polyteclznica, normal schools, seminaries, and the universities. The total number of children of school a e in 1885 was 8,609,198. ' Accor ing to religious confessions there were (1885) 29,369,847 Protestants (62.7 per cent.), 16,- 785,734 Catholics (35.8 per cent.), 563,172 Jews (1.2 per cent.). Adherents of the Greek church are in- cluded in “Roman Catholics ;” but the Old Cath- olics are reckoned among “ Other Christians.” Certain changes were introduced in 1885 in the grouping of “Other Christians” and “Others,” which explain the difierences between the returns for these groups for 1880 and 1885. Roman Cath- olics are in the majority in only three of the Ger- man States, and form more than 20 per cent. of the population in only four others. JUSTICE AND Cnnvrn.—ln terms of judicature acts in 1877 and 1879 a uniform system of law courts was adopted throughout the empire not later than Jan. 1, 1879, though, with the ex- ception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the- government of the special state in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial government. The appointment of the judges is also a state and not an imperial function. The empire enjoys -uniform codes of commercial and criminal law, though no uniform code of civil law has yet been adopted. GERMANY The lowest courts of first instance are the Amis- -gerichte, each with a single judge, competent to try petty civil and criminal cases. There are 1,914 Amtsgerichte in the empire, or one for every 24,- 281 inhabitants. The Landgerichte exercise a revis- ingjurisdiction over the Amtsgerichte, and also a more extensive original jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, etc. In the criminal chamber five judges sit, and a majority of four votes is required for a conviction. Jury courts (Schwurgerichte) are also held periodically, in which three judges preside; the jury are twelve in number. There are 172 Landgerichte in the empire, or one for every 272,417 of the population. ‘The first court of second instance is the OberZandes- gericht. In its criminal senate, which also has an original jurisdiction in serious cases, the number of the judges is seven. There are 28 such courts in the empire. The total number of judges on the bench in all the courts above mentioned is 7,027. In Bavaria alone there is an Oberste Landesgericht with 18judges, with a revising jurisdiction over the Bavarian Oberlandesgerichte. The supreme court is the Reichsgericlzt, which sits at Leipsig. The judges, 79 in number, are appointed by the Emperor on the advice of the Bundesrath. The court exercises an appellate jurisdiction over all inferior courts, and also an original jurisdiction in »cases of treason. It has four criminal and six civil -senates. THE GERMAN ARMY.—The German army on a ;peace footing consists of 20,250 officers and 468,409 men, with 93,650 horses and 1,914 guns from Oct. 1, 1890* On a war footing the total strength amounts to 35,427 officers and 1,456,677 men, with 312,731 horses and 2,808 guns. The field army has 744,031 men and 19,391 ofiicers, 242,415 horses and 2,040 guns; the depot troops, Ersatztruppen, num- ber 296,614 men, 4,796 officers, with 31,373 horses and 444 guns; the garrison troops, Besatzungstruppen, with 416,032 men, 11,240 ofiicers, 38,943 horses, and .324 guns. The Landsturm, a last reserve, is not included in the above, but it is not organized in time of peace. Service in the army is compulsory. In 1887, 41,135 men, forming 31 battalions, 24 field batteries, 9 companies of pioneers, and 14 of train, were added to the peace establishment. On a war footing, Germany is prepared to place more than 3,350,000 men in the field, fully armed. As no official statement respecting the army is issued, the above figures are said to be merely conjectural. Germany has a total frontier length of 4,600 miles. On the north it is bounded by the North Sea (295 miles), Denmark (46 miles), and the Baltic (930 miles); on the south well-defined mountain ranges and the Lake of Oonstance separate it from Austria (1,410 miles) and Switzerland (265) miles). On the remaining sides, however, the boundaries are chiefly conventional, except in the southwest, where the Vosges Mountains separate Germany and France. On the east Germany is bounded by Russia for 850 miles; on the west by France (245 miles), Luxemburg (75 miles), Belgium (70 miles), and Holland (380 miles). Some of the coast defenses and batteries have been placed under the jurisdiction of the admiralty. The empire is at present divided into eleven “fortress districts” (Festungs-Inspectionen), each including a certain area with fortified places. It has 16 fortified places of the first class, serving as fortified camps, and 29 other fortresses. These "' By the law of March 11, 1887, to continue in force to March 31, 1894, the peace strength of the nnpenal army is 468,409 })n55en, besides oificers, surgeons, paymasters, etc.-—1n all, 491,- 749 fortresses are all connected with each other by means of underground telegraphs, while strategical railway lines lead from the principal military cen- ters towards the frontiers. All German troops are bound by the imperial constitution of April 16, 1871, to obey uncondition- ally the orders of the Kaiser, and must swear ac- cordingly the oath of fidelity. But this oath to the Kaiser is not imposed upon the Bavarian troops in time of peace. Art. 65 of the constitution gives the Emperor the right of ordering the erection of for- tresses in any part of the empire; and art. 68 in- vests him with the power, in case of threatened disturbance of order, to declare any country or dis- trict in a state of siege. The constitution of the army is regulated by various military laws passed between 1867 and 1888; the Prussian military legis- lation before 1871 being extended to the empire. By the constitution of April 16,1871, it is enacted that “every German is liable to service—and no substitution is allowed.” Every German capable of bearing arms has to be in the standing army (or navy) for seven years, as a rule from the finished twentieth till the commencing twenty-eighth year of his age, though liability to service begins on the completion of the seventeenth year. Of the seven years, three must be spent in active service and the remaining four in the army of reserve. Oonscripts, whose conduct or proficiency earns them the priv- ilege, are sometimes discharged from active service at the end of two years, though liable to recall. They are familiarly known as “Konigs Urlauber.” After quitting the army of reserve, the conscript has to form part of the Landwehr for another five years in the first class or “ ban,” and up to his thirty-ninth year in the second “ ban.” About 400,000 young men reach the age of twenty every year, and when the numbers of those morally or physically unfit to serve, of volunteers and of emigrants, are deducted, about 300,000 are left lia- ble to service. Of these, however, owing to the legal limitation of the peace strength, only a cer- tain number (chosen by lot) join the army; the re- mainder are drafted into the Ersatztrzqapen, a kind of reserve, where the period of service is twelve years. Men in the Ersatztruppen, are liable to three periods of drill (of ten, six, and four weeks, respect- ively); but as financial considerations allow of only a certain number being so drilled, many re- ceive no military training at all. At the end of twelve years the trained members of the Ersatz pass into the first ban of the Landsturm, the un- trained into the second ban. One-year volunteers, of whom about 8,000 join annually, serve at their own charges, and are not reckoned in the legal peace strength. Non-com- missioned officers are generally appointed from men desiring to make the army their profession. All able-bodied men between the ages of seven- teen and forty-five, who are neither in the standing army nor the reserves, must belong to the Land- sturm. which is only called out in the event of an invasion of Germany. The Landsturm is divided into two classes, or “ bans.” To the first ban belong those between the ages of seventeen and thirty- nine; to the second, those between thirty-nihe and forty-five. The mass of soldiers thus raised is divided into companies, battalions, regiments, and corps d’armée. The strength of an ordinary battalion in peace is 544 men, raised in war to 1,002 by calling in part of the reserves; it is divided into four com- panies, each of which in war consists of 250 men. Exceptions to this general rule are the battalions of the Guards and the regiments in garrison in the Reichsland of Alsace -Lorraine, the strength of \ 750 which, on peace footing, is 686 men. During peace each regiment of infantry consists generally of three battalions, but fifteen regiments have four battalions each; each brigade of two regiments; each infantry division of two brigades, to which, under the command of the divisional general, four squadrons of cavalry, four batteries of artillery, each of six guns, and either a battalion of rifle- men or a battalion of pioneers are attached. Each field artillery regiment is divided into three de- tachments, each of three or four batteries. In all there are 364 field batteries, of which 47 are mounted. Each battery numbers, as a rule, in peace four, in war six, fully mounted guns. In war the strength can be raised to 455 batteries. The corps d’armée is considered a unit which is inde- pendent in itself, and includes not only troops of all three arms, but a portion of all the stores and appliances which are required by a whole army. Each corps d’armée consists of two divisions of in- fantry, a cavalry division of four regiments, with two horse-artillery batteries attached, besides the two cavalry regiments attached to the infantry divisions, and a reserve of artillery of, six field bat- teries and one mounted battery. There is, more- over, attached to each corps d’armée one battalion of pioneers and one of train. The corps d’armée, with the exception of the corps of the Guards, are locally distributed through the empire. . ' In November, 1889, it was resolved to add two new army corps, making a total of 21. The in- fantry and rifles are armed with Mauser’s breech- loading repeating rifle, carrying eight cartridges in the magazine and one in the chamber, with an ex- treme range of 3,300 yards; weight, 10 lbs. 1 oz., with bayonet, 11 lbs. 13 oz. The cavalry have swords and carbines; the lancers, swords and lances, 10 feet long, weighing 4% lbs. THE GERMAN NAVY.——Th6 imperial navy in 1890, exclusive of torpedo boats, consisted of 78 steam and sailing vessels, with 533 guns, including 27 ironclads, mounting 165 guns, 28 cruisers, with 17,860 men. There are in all 34 torpedo vessels. The following ships were in process of construction in 1890: 4 belted cruisers of 9,000 to 10,000 tons; 9 coast-defense armor-clads of 3,000 tons each; one deck-protected cruiser of 4,230 tons and 8,000 horse-power; one torpedo gunboat of 2,000 tons and 5,400 horse-power, speed 19 knots; one torpedo dispatch vessel of 1,240 tons, 4,000 horse- power, 19 knots; 2 gun-vessels, 1,100 tons, 1,500 horse-power, 14 knots. The K(')'n'1Tg Wilhelm is the largest of the iron-clads, carrying 29 guns of ham- mered steel. The German navy, according to the budget of 1891, was commanded by 12 admirals, under whom there were 892 oflicers of all kinds, including en- gineers and surgeons, and 15,617 non-commissioned oflicers, men and sailors. The sailors of the fleet and marines are raised by conscription from among the sea-faring population, which on this ac- count are exempt from service in the army. The total sea-faring population of Germany is esti- mated at 80,000, of whom 48,000 are serving in the merchant navy ' at home, and 6,000 in foreign navies. Germany has two ports of war—-at Kiel, on the Baltic, and 'Wilhelmshaven in the bay of Jade on the North Sea. The port of Wilhelmshaven is a vast artificial construction of granite, and com- prises five separate harbors, with canals, sluices to regulate the tide, and an array of dry docks for or- dinary and ironclad vessels. EXPENDITURE, REVENUE, AND IMPERIAL DEBT.- The following table gives the estimated total GERMANY revenue and expenditure (including supplements) for the financial year ending March 31,1892: Expenditure. Marks. Reichstag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390,025 Chancellery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148,260 Foreign Ofhce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,161,415 Home Ofiice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,221,098 Imperial Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .., . . . . . .. 412,550,954 Imperial Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . , . . . . 42,818,633 Ministry of Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,956,156 Imperial Treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336,216,420 Railwa s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304,090 Debt 0 Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53,861,500 Audit Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 607,583 Pension Fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40,905,640 Invalid Fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,453,293 Increase of salaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 540,000 Total ordinary expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . .. 941,135,067 Extraordinary expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . 189,510,821 Grand total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,130,645,888 Revenue. Marks. Customs and Excise Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 588,996,140 Stamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,506,000 Posts and Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,790,807 Printing Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,185,300 Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,298 500 Imperial Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,691,700 Various departmental receipts . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,739,719 Interest of Invalid Fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,453,293 Interest of Imperial Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441,600 Various . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,128,955 Extraordinary receipts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98,790,369 Federal contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 322,623,505 Grand total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ,-, 1,130,645,888 The extraordinary expenditure for 1891-92 in- cludes an expenditure of 71,303,510 marks for military purposes, 51,062,150 marks for the navy, 30,700,000 for the interior, and 10,242,500 marks for the imperial debt. For 1890-91 the Federal contributions (1lIatricuZcm~ Beitrdge) amount to 302,172,427 marks, to which the principal States contribute as follows: States. Marks. Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176,524,157 Bavaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,664,667 W iirtemberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,568,459 Saxony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.829 ,655 Baden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,003,328 Alsace-Lorraine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,821,638 1-Iesse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,963,219 Mecklenburg-Schwerin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,585,230 Saxe-Weimar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,956,993 Oldenbur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,128,908 Brunswic ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,321,692 Hamburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,232,835 For the end of 1889 the total funded debt amounted to 976,502,000 marks, and to meet the extraordinary expenditure a loan of 257,007,000 marks was granted. The debt bears interest at 4per cent., and some of it 3% per cent. Besides the funded there exists an unfunded debt, repre- sented by “Reichs-Kassenscheine,” or imperial treasure bills, outstanding on March 31, 1889, to the amount of 126,552,405 marks. GERMANY As a set-oflz’ against the debt of the empire there exists a variety of invested funds. These comprise (end of 1889) the fund for invalids, 476,- 649,024 marks, besides 3,459,450 Frankfort florins, and 5,563,462 silver marks; the fortification fund, 138,548 marks; and a fund for Parliament build- ings, 16,520,453 marks. The war treasure fund 120,- 000,000 marks, is not invested, but preserved in gold at Spandau. GERMAN RAILWAYS, Posrs AND TELEGE.1PHS.—. Most of the German railways are now owned by the imperial government. Of the 25,358 miles of railway completed and open for traffic in 1889, only 3,545 miles belonged to private companies. The total length in August, 1890, was 26,263 miles. Total capital, 10,116,246,000 marks; total expendi- ture for five years ending in 1889, 635,813,000 marks; total receipts, 1,172,188,000. The postal and telegraph services in Bavaria and Wiirtemberg are retained in the hands of their respective governments; but all other parts of the empire are united to form an imperial postaldistrict—Reichspostgebiet. The financial ex- hibit for the united postal and telegraphic services in the year ending 1890 was as follows in marks: Reichspostgebiet. Bavaria. Receipts .................. . . 214,070,173 17,978,177 Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186,703,051 15,073,499 Surplus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,367,122 2,904,678 Wiirtemberg. Empire. Receipts . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,479,271 241,527,621 Expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,070,448 209,855,998 Surplus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,308,823 31,671,623 In 1889 there were in the empire 57,416 English miles of telegraph lines of wire. SUPPLEMENTARY OUTLINE or Hrsronrc EVEN'1‘S.—- The German historic record given in Vol. X of the Britannica closes with the opening of the new Im- perial Parliament, Sept. 9, 1878, and soon after the attempted assassination of Emperor Wilhelm I. The Em eror resumes government, Dec. 5.1878. B1smarc ’s Protectionist Tarifi bill passed, May 9, 1879. Emperor’s golden wedding June 11. 1879. B1smarck’s stamp-duties bill rejected, April 3, 1880.‘ General elections-large Liberal m. ‘ority, Oct. 28, 1881. B1smarck’s Tobacco-tax bill rejecte by Parliament June 14, 2. Fourth centenary of Luther’s birthday celebrated, August- September, 1883. Anti-socialist law prolonged for two years, May 19, 1881. 82grcermstn colony founded at Cameroons, Africa, August, Five “ dynamitards” convicted of attempt to assassinate Em- peror, Dec. 22. 1884. _ B1sn1arclr’s “Schnaps bill” (spirits) rejected March 27, 1886. Socialist law rolonged for two years, March 81, 1886. Parlmment d ssolved for Ameny bill for increasing army, J an. 14_, 1887. Parhamentary elections resulted in Government majority, Feb. 21. 1887. Treaty with Austria and Italy signed March 13, 1887 . 8g?71smarck’s 25th anniversary as premier celebrated Sept. 23, Crown-Prince suffers tracheotomy, performed by Dr. Mack- enzie, February, 1888. * r1‘he Emperor refused to accept Bismarck’s resignation; the state yielded and passed the bill. 751 Emperor Wilhelm I dies; succeeded by his son Friedrich March 9, 1888. ‘ Emperor Friedrich dies of cancer of larynx, and 1s suc- ceeded by his son Wilhelm, June 15, 1888. Emperor Wilhelm II visits the sovereigns of Sweden, Den- mark, Austria, and Italy, July and October, 1888. Emipress Friedrich and family visit England, November, 1888- eb. 26, 1889. East African bill passed February, 1889. King of Italy, son, and Signor Crispi received at Berlin,. May 21-26, 1889. Socialist bill rejected by Reichstag, Jan. 25, 1890. 18Gaerman elections resulted in Socialistic gains, Feb. 20,. 9 . Bismarck resigned oificial relations with government, March 17, 1890. Prussian ministry reconstructed, March 18. 1890. Herr von Marshall Bieberstein made secretary of foreign afiairs, March 25, 1890. . Reichstag opened, May 6, 1890. _ Herr von Levetzard reelected president of Remhstag, May 7 1890. 3’T§;6a.ty with France, Russia, and Switzerland signed June- 1 . ’ Gen. Lesycynski made minister of war Sept. 2, 1890. Treaty with Zanzibar signed Oct. 2, 1890. GERMAN FOREIGN DEPEXDENCIES.-—Germany be- gan in 1884 to extend her empire regions outside of- Europe. This has not been done by colonization proper, for she has not sent out any colonies; but she has declared her protection over various areas or spheres of influence in Africa and in the West- ern Pacific, within which a few factories and trad- ing posts, and in some cases some plantations,. have been established by Germans and other Eu- ropeans. Tho following is a list of the various for- eign regions at present (May, 1891) under the pro- tection or influence of Germany, the estimates. given being necessarily of uncertain value: '33 aoco o coco Q o _,_».,.., coco o coco o 0 6+’ ¢.Q.Q.°.. Q. QQQQ. Q. 0.. E73 coco o oooc c 0 P‘ oouzwz 7-i 1-i@0Or-l O -55 \m=:3_<;\u§_ v-_l_ 1-lr-I . 1.1 mg‘ as H 1:: 155 HO C14 ‘'0 Q) 33 S888 - 8 388? 3 E E2 QQQQ. Q. O..°.Q. "1 "1 .,_. coc>cmr.~ co mac: o co -.,=,< sass s M 2 as rrrq 1 s 3E*_ -~21 . C1 .C1¢3;_, . £1 2 :29-Q ii 2 - mpmgq E ~71 *9 r/2Q.'n"‘O an ‘HQ -1-1,_,-1-4 O-4 E -7-4 gg sgsog Os s on E>Ec$a O0 5 ,.c1;_j OQOQ H51 '0 “$0 DUO-HE 03.2 0 25 -~~s'r:-T3 ‘Em "* dwd Q) Q Q E'::< Q ‘E - P‘ cvoopu E Q) Q-QJ-C-772:1 |-( Q -EE5‘-‘"3 S HHHH /\-/\/\P_‘ ci Q . ""‘--1 cc 0 <0 :9 o 3-5 ss°‘j,‘ :13 °°s~=s °° ‘P $.53 H1-100% £ °o\—1\—n-4 0° Q04 “H H 1-1 1-1 H 0 <4 .73 . . . . . q; : : .5 : : : : : : as 2 s '21;-;,: 2 2 s : 3- 3 '5 ‘Ms 2 I 3 ‘U - _+;}o 8 - - g 5 ~ 3<1>'EI m 3°;-Lcnui <13 9, ' -.%‘+-* <11 ''''''U''d ‘'1 Q) _' j;q<fi O Being in _ ‘up p_, 7--49,663 O Q ' -:30’) .,'g;"r—'-47--1 Q4 ZUJOQ Q Q,_‘Q""‘ U222 H ‘-4 QQQ) Q qqdw “’ C3 C3 ‘or " " 43 O *3 '9 geooo O games 0 O H E H E-1 E1 These possessions are almost entirely undevel- oped. The colonial budget for the three West rm .-African dependencies alone for 1890-91 shows an expenditure of 564,500 marks, and an income of 295,700 marks. GERMEN, a disused botanical synonym for ovary. GEROME, JEAN LEON, a French historical genre- painter,,born at Vesoul in 1824. While studying at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, he also enjoyed the instruction of the celebrated Delaroche, with whom he went to Italy in 1844, and there exhibited his first picture,A Coclgfight, which brought him a ‘third-class medal. ,In 1863 he was made a professor ‘of painting at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Gérome traveled in the East in 1853, and has since often gone there for subjects for his canvas. His picture entitled The Age of Augustus was considered worthy to be bought by the French government in 1855. Among his chief works are: The Gladiators Salut- ing Caesar; The Wife of Canolaules; Phryne Before the Judges; The Death of Caesar; The Call to Prayer at Cairo; The Clothes Merchant; and The Door of the Mosque. Many of his works have become widely known by photographic enlarged reproductions. - His subjects are bold and sometimes objectionable, but the drawing is always well finished, and they have a peculiar fascination. As a colorist and painter of the human figure he has a high reputa- tion. GEROPIGIA, or JERUPIGIA, a factitious liquor exported from Portugal, and used for adulterating wines and other beverages. Its composition is various, but it usually consists of grape-juice, -strong brandy, and sugar, colored by logwood, rhatany-root, etc. It sometimes contains very de- Eleterious ingredients. GERRY, ELBRIDGE (1744-1814), an American statesman. He entered commercial life at an early age, soon acquired a considerable fortune, and in 1773 began a public career as a member of the general court of Massachusetts Bay. In 1776 he was chosen to the Continental Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence. He was a mem- ber of Congress till 1780, and again from 1783 to 1785. He then accepted a seat in the Massachu- setts legislature, and in 1789 was elected to the first National Congress, and reélected in 1791. In 1797 he was sent on a commission to France, and from 1810 to 1812 was governor of Massachusetts. He was then elected Vice-President of the United States, and held the office at the time of his death. Many of his speeches have been published. GERRYMANDER: in United States politics, an arbitrary apportionment of the political divisions of a State, so contrived by the dominant party as to give a larger majority to their side. The term originated in a fancied resemblance of the out- line of one of the new districts of Massachusetts, Formed in 1811, to a salamander. It was at that time thought an unfair apportionment had been made at the instigation of Gov. Gerry. Hence the term gerrymander. . GERSTER, ETELKA, a Hungarian singer, born at Kaschau in 1857. The director of the Conserva- tory of Music at Vienna happened to hear her sing once in a religious procession, and advised her A70 study vocal music under Madame Marchesi. Gerster enjoyed these instructions for three years. In January, 1876, she made her début at Venice in Verdi’s Rigoletto with wonderful success. After this she took up the parts of Ophelia, Lucia, Amina, and Marguerite. She then went to Berlin, where she had unexampled success. In St. Petersburg and Moscow she sang before the Tzar and Tzarina, and received special favors from the latter. Re- turning through Germany she appeared in London in 1877 and 1878, and was afterwards twice in the GERMEN—GHENT United States, where she was much applauded. Her voice is a pure high soprano. Gerster was married to M. Carlo Gardini in 1877. GESNERACEZE, a sub-order of Scrophularlacew, including about 700 species, mostly herbs, chiefly of tropical America. They are frequently noted for the beauty of their flowers, notably Gloxina, Achimenes, and other common inmates of our greenhouses. Fieldta A fr/icana, however, yields the so-called African teak. GESSLER, the name given to the tyrannical gov- ernor in the story of William Tell. GETTY, GEORGE ‘VASHINGTON, an American soldier, born in 1819. He entered the army in 1840, and was promoted to first-lieutenant of artillery in 1845; was made captain in 1853, major in 1863, colonel of the 37th infantry in 1866, and was trans- ferred to the 3d artillery in 1871. He served on the northern frontier during the Canada border dis- turbances in 1840; in the war with Mexico in 1847- 48. in Florida in 1849-50, and during the civil war with the Army of the Potomac in the Virginia peninsular campaign. He received the brevets of lieutenant-colonel, colonel, brigadier-general, and major-general, United States Armyg. In 1877 he commanded the troops along the altimore and Ohio railroad during the riot, and was retired from service in 1883. G_ETTYSBURG,the county-seat of Adams county, Pa., near the southern boundary of the State. It contains 2 granite yards, and carriage manufac- tories. There are several educational institutions, among which are Pennsylvania College and Lu- theran Theological Seminary. There is an orphan’s homestead and a National cemeter . In 1863 the famous battle of July 1st, 2d, and 3 was fought in the vicinity. GETTYSBURG, CAMPAIGN AND BATTLE OF. The battle between the Army of the Potomac and the Confederate forces under Gen. Lee commenced about 11 A. M., July 1, 1863, and continued till the afternoon of the 3d. It resulted in the retreat of Gen. Lee, and a Confederate loss of about 26,000 men. The Union army suffered the loss of 23,187, of whom 16,543 were killed and wounded. See Bri- tannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 778. GEUM, a genus of Rosacew, sub-order Potentll- lea. Two species are common natives of Britain, G. urbauum, the wood avens or herb bennet, and G. rtoale, water avens. The so-called G. interme- dlum is usually regarded as a mere hybrid of these two species. Both are aromatic, tonic, and astrin- gent, and of old repute among herbalists; the root- stock of G. urbanum was formerly gathered in early spring to impart its clove-like flavor to ale, and is still used in the preparation of liqueurs. G. Canadense, the chocolate root or blood root of 1l\Tor‘th America, has some reputation as a mild omc. GHARA, formed by the junction of the Sutlej and the Beas, the most easterly of the rivers of the Punjab, unites with the Chenab. The Ghara IS nowhere fordable at any season, and its breadth varies from two hundred yards to five hundred. GHEN T, TREATY or, a treaty between the United States and Great Britain, which put an end to the war of 1812-15. It was negotiated on our part by John Q. Adams, Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin, and two other envoys at Ghent; was concluded Dec. 24,1814, and ratified Feb. 17 , 1815. Its leading pro- VlSlOIlS were restoration of possessions taken by either party from the other during the war; the appointment of a commission to decide the owner- ship of certain islands in Passamaquoddy bay; the provision of several commissions to settle boun- daries and determine the middle of water commu- GHOST-MOTH—GIFFORD 7532 nications; and a provision binding both parties to use their best endeavors for the abolition of the slave-trade. The treaty is remarkable for the omission of reference to some important interests; particularly the impressment of seamen, which was one of the main causes of the war, and the fisheries question, which had been a fruitful source of trouble since 1783. GHOST-MOTH (Hepialus humuli), a species of moth very common in many parts of Britain; the caterpillar devours the roots of the hop, nettle, burdock, and some other plants. The moth belongs to a small family (Hepialidae), often popularly called “ swifts” from their rapid flight. The an- tennae are short, the wings long and narrow, the entire size about two inches across. The male is entirely of a satiny white above, and the female yellowish and reddish with darker markings ; both sexes are brown on the under side. The cater- pillar (see illustration in Britannica, Vol. IV, plate xxx, fig. 27), which is sometimes two inches long, is yellowish-white, with scattered hairs. It spins a large cocoon among the roots on which it has been feeding, and there becomes a chrysalis. GIAOUR, the Italian spelling (popularized by Byron) of a Turkish word, applied by the Turks to all who reject Mohammedanism, especially to European Christians. ' GIBBET, a sort of gallows on which the bodies of criminals who had been guilty of particularly atro- cious crimes were by order of the courts of justice suspended after execution, encased in an iron frame near the spot where the crime was committed. This was done for the purpose of striking terror into the evil-minded, and of affording “a comfortable sight to the relations and friends of the deceased.” The practice, first recognized by law in 1752, was finally abolished in 1831. GIBBON, J01-xx, an American soldier, born in 1827. He entered the army in 1817, and served till the close of the Mexican war. In 1851-57 he was as- sistant instructor of artillery at West Point, and was quartermaster there in 1856-59. In 1859 he be- came captain in the 4th artillery, chief of artillery in Gen. McDowell’s division in 1861; in 1862 was made brigadier-general of volunteers, and in 1861 major-general. In 1866-69 he was colonel of the 36th infantry; and in 1869-86 of the 7th infan- try. In 1886 he was promoted brigadier-general. He is the author of The .»lrt.2'ller2'st’s llfanual (1859), and has contributed extensively to current litera- ture. GIBBONS, JAMES, an American Roman Catholic cardinal, born in 1831. In 1861 he was ordained priest, and became assistant priest at St. Patrick’s church, Baltimore, Md. A few months later he be- came pastor of St. Bridget/s church. and then was transferred to the cathedral, and appointed chan- cellor of the archdiocese. In 1868 he was made vicar apostolic of North Carolina, with the rank and title of bishop, and in 1872 was translated to the vacant see of Richmond, Va. In 1877 he was appointed coadjutor to Archbishop Bailey, of Balti- more, and the same year succeeded him. In 1886 Archbishop Gibbons became a cardinal, being the second American to receive this honor. He has published The Faith of Our Fathers (1871). GIBBCSITY (Lat., gibbus,“humpbacked”), a state of disease characterized by protuberance of a part of the body; chiefly applied to humpback or other distortions depending upon disease of the spinal column. GIBBS, JOSIAH ‘WILLARD (1.790-1861), an American prhilologist. From 1811 to 1815 he was a tutor in ale College, and for some years at Andover. where he devoted himself to the study of Hebrew and bib- lical literature. From 182-1 until his death he was professor of sacred literature in the theological; school of Yale College. Prof. Gibbs published a translation of Storr’s Historical Sense of the New- Testament (1817) ; a translation of Gesenius’s He- brew Lexicon of the Old Testament (1824) ; an abridged‘. form of Gesenius’s Manual Hebrew and English Leasi- con (1828); Philological Studies With English Illus- trations (1856); A New Latin Analyst (1859); and‘ Teutonic Etymology (1860). GIBBS, OLIVER WoLco'rr, an American chemist,, born in 1822. He was graduated in 1815 at the Col- lege of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, and‘. then studied chemistry for three years in Germany. From 1819 to 1863 he was professor of physics and chemistry in the College of the City of New York, and has since been professor in Harvard Univer- sity with the charge of the laboratory of the Law- rence Scientific School He is the only American. honorary member of the German Chemical Society, and one of the two American honorary members. of the London Chemical Society. Hr. Gibbs has written no books, but has contributed many valu- able articles to various scientific journals. GIBELLIN A, a town of Sicily, in the province of’ Trapani. In its vicinity are found curious remains of troglodyte habitations. Population, 5,827. GIBSON CITY, a village of Ford county, Ill., rail- road junction, 22 miles southeast of Fairbury. GIDDINGS, the capital of Lee county, Texas, situated on a railroad, 58 miles east of Austin. GIDDINGS, Josnux REED (1795-1861), an Ameri- can statesman. He was admitted to the Ohio bar- in 1820, and in 1826 was elected to the legislature, serving one term. In 1838 he was chosen as a 1/Vhig to Congress, and for 20 years was a member of that body. From 1861 to his death he was United States consul-general in Canada. Mr. Giddings published avolume of his speeches (1853), and wrote The Be- bellion: Its Authors and Causes, issued posthumous- ly (186-1). GIERS, N101-ror.xs CARLOVITCH, a Russian states- man, born May 9, 1820, and educated in the Impe- rial Lyceum of Czarskoe-Selo. Entering the service- of the ministry of foreign affairs in 1838, he filled various diplomatic missions; was ambassador to- Persia 1863-69, Berne 1869-72, and Sweden 187 2-75,. and in 1882 became minister of foreign affairs. GIFFORD, RoBERT Swxrx, an American artist, born in 18-10. In 1867 he was elected an associate of the National Academy, and in 1878 an academi- cian. In 1869 he made an extensive sketching tour in Oregon and California; went to Europe in 1870; spent 187-1 in Algiers and the Great Desert; and in 1875 made a sketching tour in Brittany and South- ern France. He is a member of various art societies in both England and America. Among his paint- ings are Scene at Man.ehester, Cape Ann (1867) ; Mount Hood (1870); Halti-ng for Wa-ter (1871); The- Rossetti Garden (1875); The Mosque of Mohannned' All (1876); The Borders of the Desert (1877); Salt Boats at Da.-rt'mou.th (1878); Deserted ll'haler (1867); Day on the Sea Shore (1869) ; Bloch House at Eastport (187-1); l”enet1'an Co'm.pan'z'ons (1876); Nonqu/itt Cltfi’ (1882) ; New Zaandaam (1883) : The Sh ores of Buzza rd Bay, and Near the Coast (1885); and .el’lll'lt77Z'll in New England (1886). GIFFORD, SANDFORD Ronnvson (1823-80), an American artist. ate and in 1851 amember of the National Academy. In 1855-57 he studied in Europe, and later visited Colorado, California. Utah. Oregon, British Colum- bia and the Rocky Mountains. Among his most successful works are: Baltimore in 1862 (1862); 1l1'orning in the Adiro)2<‘lr/ehs (1867) ; Jfount Jlan-\jfield" (1869); San Giorgio, Venice (1870); Tiroli (1871); In 1851 he was chosen an associ- 2—l1 754 Fishing Boats (1873); Pallanza, Sunset on the Sweet Water, Wyoming, and Venetian Sails (1874); At Beni- Hassan, and Near Palermo (1876); Leander’s Tower, Sunset on the Hudson, and Fire Island Beach (1877) ; and Sunset, Bay of New York (1878). GIGNOUX, Fnnnoors Rners (1816-82), a French landscape painter. From 1844 to 1870 he was in Brooklyn, N. Y., and in 1851 became a member of the Academy of Design, and was first president of the Brooklyn Art Academy. He returned to France in 1870, and there resided until his death. Among his best known works are: Niagara Falls; Virginia in Indian Summer; The First Snow; Four Seasons in America; The Dismal Swamp; Moonlight on the Sagac- nay; Mount Washington, and Spring. GIGCUX, JEAN Fanxgors, a French painter, ,born at Besanoon in 1806. After studying at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, he exhibited his first picture in 1831. His subjects are chiefly historical; as, The Death of Cleopatra and the Taking of Ghent, and reli- gious, as The Baptism of Christ, and the Last Ec- stacy of St. Mary Magdalene. He also painted por- traits, and was especially successful in his decora- tion of churches. GILA RIVER rises in the western part of New Mexico, in the Sierra Madre, flows generally west- ward, and joins the Colorado River in Yuma county, Arizona, at the southeastern extremity of California. Its total length is variously estimated at from 500 to 600 miles. Gold and silver are found ‘near this river in Arizona, and the ruins of an an- cient civilization abound in its lower valley. Its chief tributaries are the Rio Verde, Rio Santa Cruz, and the Rio San Pedro. GILBERT, Jor-IN THOMAS, Irish historian, born in Dublin in 1829. He was secretary of the public record office of Ireland in 1867-75; is a member of the Royal Irish Academy, its professor of archaeol- »ogy, and its librarian. He has published History of the City of Dublin (3 vols., 1854—59); History of the Viceroys of Ireland (1865) ; History of A fairs in Ire- land, 1641-52 (6 parts, 1879-81); History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland, 1641-43 (2 vols., 1882) ; and National Manuscripts of Ireland. The latter work has given a strong impulse to the study of the Celtic language. GILBERT, J OSEPI-I HENRY, an English chemist, born at Hull in 1817, studied at Glasgow Univer- sity, at University College, London, and at Gies- sen, Germany—at the last-mentioned place under the celebrated Liebig. After taking his doctorate at Giessen he was appointed instructor in Univer- sity College, London, in 1840. He conducted a course of experiments and researches in agricult- ural chemistry and the physiology of farm animals, the results of which have been published in a se- ries of valuable papers. GILBERT, VVILLIAM SCI-IWENCK, an English dra- matist, born in London in 1836. He was educated at Great Ealing School, and received the degree of B. A. from the London University in 1857. From that time to 1862 he was a clerk in the Privy Coun- cil ofiice, and in 1864 he was admitted to the bar. For many years afterward he was on the editorial staff of “ Fun,” in whose columns his Bab Ballads first appeared. His stage work began with a Christ- mas burlesque, Dulcamara (1866), which was fol- lowed by a succession of dramas, burlesques, come- dies, and operas. Among his fairy comedies are The Palace of Truth, Pygmalion and Galatea, The Wichecl World, and Broken Hearts. Among his come- dies are Sweethearts, and Engaged. His other plays include Charity, Gretchen, Comedy and Tragedy, etc. In 1876 appeared his comic opera, Trial by Jury, in which he was associated with Arthur Sullivan. In conjunction with the latter he also produced The GIGNOUX-—GILES Sorcerer, H. M. S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance, Patience, Iolanthe, Princess Ida, The Mikado, Ruddi- gore, The Yeomen of the Guard, and The Gondoliers. In most of his works Gilbert displays a fantastic humor that is often subtle, and at other times slightly flavored with cynicism. He has quaint and grotesque conceits, which are worked out with an absurd earnestness. In The Yeomen of the Guard he presents some pathetic characters. Gilbert’s operas have been eminently popular in New York and other places in this country, where some of the barriers between the church and the stage fell be- fore the harmless guns of H. M. S. Pinafore. GILDER, JEANNETTE LEONARD, journalist, born in 1849 at Flushing, L. I. Since 1881 Miss Gilder has been associated with her brother, Joseph B., in the editorship and management of “The Critic,” which they established in New York city in that year. GILDER,RICHARD ‘VATSON, an American jour- nalist, son of IX/illiam Henry, Sr., born in 1844. In 1865 he became an editor of the Newark, N. J., “Advertiser,” and three years later, with Newton Crane, established the Newark “Morning Regis- ter.” In 1869 he was made an editor of “Hours at Home” (now “The Century”), and in 1881 became its editor-in-chief. He has published four volumes of poems: The New Day (1875); The Poet and His Master (1878); Lyrics (1885) ; and The Celestial Pas- sion (1887). He is a founder of the New York Author’s Club. GILDER, WILLIAM HENRY (1812-64), an Ameri- can clergyman. In 1834 he became a preacher in the Methodist church, and shortly afterward was ordained. In 1840 he began the publication of the “ Philadelphia Repository,” and subsequently pub- lished the Philadelphia “Literary Register.” At the beginning of the civil war he became chaplain of the 40th regiment of New York volunteers, and remained in active service until his death. He was the author of a New Rhetorical Reader. GILDER, \V1LLIAM I'IENRY, an American ex- plorer, son of the preceding, born in 1838. At the beginning of the civil war he enlisted in the 5th New York volunteers, and afterward was trans- ferred to the 40th. In 1878 he went on an expedi- tion to King W illiam’s Land in search of the relics of Sir John Franklin, and in 1881 accompanied the Rodgers expedition in search of the Jeannette. He has published Schwatlca’s Search (1881); and I ce-Pack and Tundra (1883). GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU, an Ameri- can educator, born in 1831. He graduated at Princeton College in 1849, and studied in Ger- many for four years. In 1856 he was chosen pro- fessor of Greek in the University of Virginia, where he remained till 1876. Since the establishment of Johns Hopkins University he has been professor of Greek there. Prof. Gildersleeve for a time edited the Baltimore “American Journal of Philology,” and has published six Latin text books, and also editions of Pcrsi-us (1875); Justin Martyr (1877); €1.1r18%5 the Olympian and Pythian Odes of Pindar ). GILES, PIENIW (1809-82), an American Unita- rian minister. I-Ie preached for a time in Greenock, Scotland, and then three years in Liverpool, Eng- land. In 1840 he came to the United States, and soon became eminent as a lecturer. I-Ie contrib- uted to_many periodicals, and published numerous essays. Among them being Lectures and Essays (1845); Christian Thought on Life (1850); Illustra- tions of Genius in Some of Its Applications to Society and Culture (1854); Human Life in Shakespeare (1.868); and Lectures and Essays on Irish and Other Subjects (1869). _ -<_,~ GILES-GILMORE GILES, WILLIAM BRANCH (1762-1830), an Ameri- can statesman. He was admitted to the bar, and practiced for several years in Petersburg, Va. In 1791 he was elected to Congress, and served con- tinuously till 1803, except from 1799 to 1801, when he was in the Virginia legislature. From 1804 to 1815 he was a member of the U. S. Senate, and in 1826 was again chosen to the State legislature. The same year he was elected governor, and held that oflice until 1829. He published many speeches and political letters. GILL (Low Lat., gillo, gello, a drinking-glass), a measure of capacity, containing the fourth part of a pint, or the thirty-second part of a gallon. GILL, TI-IEoDoRE NIcHoLAs, an American natu- ralist, born in 1837. In 1863, he became an assist- ant in the Smithsonian Institution, and for some years was senior assistant librarian of Congress. From 1884 to 1887 he was professor of zoology in the Columbian University, \Vashington, D. C. Be- sides numerous papers on scientific subjects he has published Arrangement of the Families of Molluslss (1871); Arrangement of the Families of .llIammals (1872) ; Arrangement of the Families of Fishes (1872) ; Catalogue of the Fishes of the East Coast of North America (1875); Bibliography of the Fishes of the Pa- cific of the United States to the End of 1879 (1882); and since 1879 the annual Reports on Zoblogy, for the Smithsonian institution. GILLEM, ALvAN CULLEM (1830-75), an American soldier. In 1851-52 he served against the Semi- noles; was made captain in 1861 ; brevetted major; was chief quartermaster of the Army of the Ohio in the Tennessee campaign; was apppointed colonel 10th Tennessee volunteers in 1862; commanded a brigade in 1863 ; was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers; and from 1863 to the end of the war served as adjutant-general of Tennessee. He was a member of the first Tennessee legislature that was elected, and afterward commanded the cavalry in East Tennessee. In 1866 he was promoted col- onel in the U. S. Army ; commanded the district of Mississippi in 1867-68, and then served on the Texas frontier and in California. GILLENIA, a North American perennial genus of Rosaceaz, closely allied to Spireea, and similarly suitable for shrubberies. The roots are often called Indian physic, sometimes wild ipecac, In- dian hippo, dropwort, and Bowman’s root. GILLETT, EZRA HALL (1823-75), an American author. In 1844 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian church in Harlem, N. Y., and in 1868 was appointed professor of political economy, ethics and history in the University of New York. He wrote much for various periodicals, and pub- lished Life and Times of John Hztss (1864); Hz'stoz-y of the Presbyterian Church in the U-nited States (1864) ; God in H u/man Thought (1874) ; and The Moral System (1875) ; besides Life Lessons, Ancient. Cities and Em- pires, and England Two Hundred Years Ago. GILLMORE, QUINCY ADAMS, an American sol- dier-,'born in 1825. He graduated at the U. S. Military Academy in 1849; was assigned to the engineers; served three years at Hampton Roads; appointed instructor at West Point, and later treasurer and quartermaster at the Academy. In 1856 he was promoted first-lieutenant in the en- gineering corps; was appointed captain in 1861; engineer-in-chief of the Port Royal expedition under Gen. Sherman; brevetted lieutenant-col- onel. U. S. Army, in 1862; was assigned to im- portant commands in Kentucky the same year; brevetted colonel in 1863; in June was given com- mand of the Department of the South; a month later of the 10th army corps; was brevetted briga- dier-general; and then made major-general of 755 volunteers. In 1864 he commanded the 10th army corps on the James River; later commanded two di- visions of the 19th army corps in the defense of Washington; and in 1865 was again in command of the Department of the South. Subsequently he was appointed engineer-in-chief of the fortifica- tions and harbor and river improvements on the Atlantic coast south of New York. In 1863 he was promoted major, in 187-l lieutenant-colonel, and in 1883 colonel. He is the author of Siege and Reduction of Fort Pulaski (1862): Limes, Hydraulic Cements, and ./llortars (1863); En;n'neering and Ar- tillery Operations Against C'harleston in 1863 (1865); B/iton, Coignet, and Other Artificial Stones (1871); The Strength of the Building Stone of the Uziteel States (1874); and Roads, Streets and Pavements (1876). He died in 1888. GILMAN, a town of Iroquois county, 111, on the Illinois Central Railroad, where it crosses the To- ledo and IVarsaw Railroad, 81 miles southwest of Chicago. It is the northeast terminus of the Gil- man, Clinton and Springfield Railroad. There are numerous fruit farms and fine pasturage in the vicinity, and the town does considerable business in small fruit, corn and cattle. GILMAN, GAROLL.\'E HowARD. an American authoress, wife of Samuel Gilman, born in 1794. At the age of sixteen she wrote her first poem, en- titled Jephthah’s Rash V010, and this was followed by .Iairus’s Daughter. From 1819 to 1870 she resided in Charleston, S. C., and then went to Cambridge, Mass. From 1830 to 1839 she edited “The Rose,” a magazine for children. Among her works are Recollections of a I\'ev: England Houselceepe-r (1835); Recollections of a Southern ll[atron (1836); Poetry of Traveling in the United States (1838); Ladies’ An- nual Register (1838-39); Ruth Ra'ymond (1840); Oraeles from the Poets (1845); Sibyl, or New Oraeles from the Poets (1849); Verses of a Lifetime (1849); Oracles for Youth (1852); Mrs. Gilman-’s Gifi-Boole (1859); Poems and Stories by a Mother and Daughter (1872); and Letters of Eliza Il'ill:inson. During the Inzasion of Charleston. GILBIAN, DANIEL Corr, an American educator, born in 1831. In 1855 he became librarian of Yale, and subsequently professor of physical and politi- cal geography there. In 1872 he was chosen presi- dent of the University of California, and three years later was elected the first president of Johns Hopkins University,which oflice he has since held. He has printed many addresses, and con- tributed extensively to current literature. Dr. Gilman is a member of several scientific and his- torical societies. GILMAN, SAM1'EL (1791-1858), an clergyman and author. In 1817 he became maths- Iiiatical tutor at Harvard, and in 1819 was or- dained pastor of the Unitarian church in Charles- ton, S. C., which relation was only terminated by his death. He wrote extensively for current liter- ature, and published Contributions to Literature, Descriptive, C‘ritical, and I~Iumorous-, Biographical, Philosophical, and Poetical (1856); Memoirs of a. I\'ez0 England Villezge Chair (1829); and Pleasures and Pains of a Student’s Life (1852). GILMORE, J A.\uas R-oR1<:u'rs, an American author, born in 1823. He became a partner in a counting- room before he was of age, and in 1848 became the head of a cotton and shipping firm in New York city, from which he retired before the beginning of the civil war. In 1862 he founded the “ Continental l\Ionthly,” but discontinued his connection with it soon afterward. In 1878 he again engaged in busi- ness, but retired in 1883, and devoted himself to literature. He is the author of Among the Pines (1862); My Southern Friends (1862); Down in Ten- American 756 nessee (1863); On the ‘ Border (1864); Life of Gar- field (1880) ; The Rear-Guard of the Revolution (1886) ; and John Servier as a Commonwealth Builder (1887). GILROY, a city of Santa Clara county, Ca1., on the Southern Pacific railroad, 30 miles southeast of San J osé, the county-seat. The city is lighted with gas, supplied with good water, and has manufacto- ries of flour and tobacco. It is surrounded by fer- tile land, and farming and dairying are quite extensively carried on in the vicinity. GILTHEAD (Chrysophrys), a genus of “seabreams” or Sparidag represented by about a score of species from the warmer seas, best known by the Medi- terranean species. It is also found off the Cape of Good Hope and on East Indian and Chi- nese coasts. The gilthead has an oblong com- pressed body, a single dorsal fin with spines which can be received into a groove, scaly cheeks and gill-cover, and teeth sharp like canines in front and rounded like molars behind. The length is about a foot; the back is silvery gray, shaded with blue; the belly like polished steel; the sides have golden bands and there is a half-moon shaped spot of gold between the eyes. They feed chiefly on mollusks, in search of which they are said to stir up the sand with their tails. The fish is generally found near the shore in small shoals , and its pres- ence is sometimes betrayed to fishermen by the noise which its teeth make in crushing shells. It was often kept in the rv'varz'a by the Romans, be- ing much valued and easily fattened. GIMBALS (Lat., gemellus, “a twin”), two circular brass hoops used for suspending the compass-box on board ship, so that it may always rest horizon- tally, unaffected by the ship’s motion. The outer hoop is attached to a box or other fixed object, while the inner is constructed so as to allow of its moving freely within the outer, to which it is at- tached by two pivots, at the extremities of a diam- eter. The compass-box is attached to the inner hoop by two similar pivots at right angles to the former. Thus the compass moves freely in two di- rections at right angles to each other, and can al- ways retain its horizontal position, however the vessel may roll or pitch. GIMP, or GYMP, a kind of trimming for dress, curtains, furniture, etc., made either of silk, wool, or cotton. Its peculiarity is that fine wire is twisted into the thin cord of which it is made. Gold and silver are used in the manufacture of military gimps. GINGAL, a large clumsy musket used by Asiatic armies in the defense of fortresses, and sometimes mounted on carriages as a light field-gun. GIN GILIE OIL, a name often given to the bland fixed oil obtained by expression from the seeds of Sesamum lmlicum. See OILS, Britannica,Vol. XVII, . 746. P GINGKO, a large tree of the natural order Ta r- aceee, with straight erect trunk and conical head, and leaves somewhat cloven and notched at the upper extremity, shortly stalked, leathery, smooth, shining, yellowish-green. with numerous minute parallel ribs and somewhat thickened margins. The fruit is a sort of drupe, of which the fleshy part is formed by the persistent calyx, about an inch in diameter. The nut or endocarp white, a thin shell with a farinaceous kernel, which is sold for food in China; resembles an almond in flavor, with a little mixture of austerity, which is removed by boiling or roasting. It is called the maiden-hair tree from the shape of its leaves, and is very com- monly cultivated for ornament. The other mem- bers of this family are fossil, and this would probably have become extinct but for its cultiva-- tion in China and Japan. GILROY——GIUDlCl-EMILIANO GINSENG, a root hi hly esteemed in China as a medicine, being regar ed as possessing the most extraordinary virtues as a remedy for almost all diseases. It is sometimes solu for exorbitant prices. See Britannica, Vol. X, p. 605. GIOJ A DEL COLLE, a commercial town of It- aly, in the province of Bari, 38 miles by rail, north- west of Taranto. It is believed to have been founded in the sixth century, and very valuable Greeco-Roman coins and ancient vases have been found in its neighborhood. Population, 13,094. GIOVANNI A TEDUCCIO, SAN, a town three miles east of Naples, situated near the seashore in‘ a fertile plain. Its neighborhood is well culti- vated, and embellished with beautiful villas. Popu- lation, 11,116. GIRARD, a city and county-seat of Crawford county, Kan., whose chief trade is with stock-rais- ers and farmers. GIRARD, a borough of Erie county, Pa., on the Erie and Pittsburgh and Lake Shore railroads, 15 miles southwest of Erie city. It has excellent graded schools, and some manufactories. GIRARD COLLEGE. See COLLEGES, in these Revisions and Additions. GIRARDIN, EMILE DE (1806— 81), a French journalist and politician, the illegitimate son of General Alexandre de Girardin and Madame Dupuy. He was born in Switzerland in 1806, and educated in Paris. Until 1827 he bore the name of Dela- mothe. After 1827 he assumed the name of his father, who acknowledged him in 1847. His first attempt in literature was a novel, ile, in which he pleaded the cause of illegitimate children. After the July revolution in 1830 he published the Journal des C'onnm'.qsances Utiles, which soon at- tained a sale of 120,000 copies. In 1836 he founded the half-penny newspaper “ La Presse,” an Orleanist journal with a conservative tendency. As his rivals accused him of receiving subsidies from the government he got into quarrel with Armand Car- rel, editor of the “National,” which culminated in a duel. Carrel was fatally wounded and died. After this Girardin occupied himself ardently with politics, both as a journalist and a deputy, and gradually became a decided Republican. When Louis Napoleon was elected to the presidency, Gi- rardin promoted his cause; but he was strongly against the coup d’état, and was rewarded with a short period of exile. In 1856 Girardin sold his share in the “Presse,” but became its editor again in 1862. Soon after- wards he became the editor of “Liberté,” and man- aged this paper till 1870. He excelled all his fellows in braggadocio on the outbreak of the Fran- co-Prussian war. In 1874 he founded “ La*France,” and both in its pages and the “ Petit Journal” sup- ported the Republic. His political ideas were given to the world in a number of brochures. Girardin died April 27, 1881. GIRNAR, a sacred mountain in India, stands in the peninsula of Kathiawar, Bombay province, 10 miles east of J unagahr. It is a bare and black rock of granite rising to the height of 3,500 feet above the sea; and, as a holy place of Jainism, is covered with ruined temples. One group contains sixteen temples, nearly 3.000 feet above the sea. GIUDICI—El\lILlANI, PAOLO, an Italian author, born at Mussomeli, in Sicily, in 1819, died at Hast- ings, England, in 1872. At the age of sixteen he unwillingly entered a convent, where he devoted himself to the study of literature. He subse- quently quitted the convent and fled into Tuscany, where he began his principal work, La Storia della lJe1‘z‘eratura Ilaliana. About this time he received a legacy which enabled him to pursue his studies GIULIANI-—GLAOIER at leisure. He became professor in the University of Pisa in 1849, and in 1861 was made secretary to the Academy of Fine Arts in Florence. In 1867 he was elected to the Italian Parliament. Other of his writings are St0'/‘ta dei ltfuniciyoii Italiani (1851), and Storia delle Belle Arti in I lalia. GIULIANI, GIAMBATTISTA, an Italian writer, born at Oanelli, in Piedmont, in 1818, died in 1883. He made a profound study of Dante while holding various professorships in different schools of learning, and in 1845 published his celebrated Saggio di un Nuoco Commenlo della Commeclia dz’ Dante Allz'ghieri. He was for a time censor of the Press, and performed the duties of the oflice with much liberality. He published Sal Vicente Linguaggio della Toscana; Le Norme cli Cornmentare la Divina Commedia, Teatle dall’ Epistole dz’ Dante a Cangrande (1856); and Metoelo di Com’/nentare la Dirina Commeclia. He also published a critical and annotated edition of all the works of Dante. GLACIER (see Britannica, Vol. X, pp. 218-20; 626-31), a river of ice in the valley of a mountain through which it descends very slowly and steadily. Glaciers are found in the Alps, in Alaska, Green- land, etc. In the winter season snow gathers in the valleys of mountain chains in large masses; Wm ’ — I_5'L\ _ __'Q_=>-_l-=;-‘I--"'-__;';-."_'~:}_§__:x:'_$ .A:. __--____$ GLACIERS. above. In Greenland the foot of the glaciers extends to the sea-shore and pushes out over the sea-bottom. There the glaciers cover large tracts of country. including hills and valleys. and extending over thousands of square iniles. The Hum_boldt glacier is one of the largest. It has a sea-front of 50 miles. Where the ice is pushed out into deep water, it is lifted up by reason of its being lighter than water. This lift- mg action breaks off huge masses. which float on the ocean, and are known as ice-bergs. In Switzerland and the Hima- layas the foot of the glacier is always on levels much higher than that of the sea,because the sun’s heat is suflicient to melt the me before it reaches the lower mountain valleys. In the Alps the_re are about 1,000 glaciers, some large others small. In the Himalayas they are usually larger, some 30 to 40 miles in length. In the southernmost parts of the Andes there are also some large glaciers, which extend into the fiords of the west coast. Northward the Andean glaciers de- crease_1n size, and cease near the equator. A few glaciers occur in the Cascade range of Oregon and Washington, one upon Mount Rainer being describe as 4 to 5 miles wide and 10 miles long. In British America and Alaska the glacial ice reaches to _t e sea level at Mount St. Elias, which is on the boundary line between British America and Alaska. East and _west of this mountain there are numerous glaciers of considerable length. There are the G-uyot, T_i/ndall and Agas- siz GWIICI-Ct(‘7‘8 immediately around this mounta.in: east of it are the beward, Ma-i'i>'i-ne, Hag/den, Litcia. Dalton and Hubbard Gla- ciers. All of these connect with a large sea of ice, called the llly-ailU~SpZ'll.C Glacier, which fronts the Pacific Ocean between the lakutat Bay and the Ice Bay. Besides the ones here named, there are many other extensive glaciers in Alaska. The downward movement of a glacier is too slow to be perceptible to the eye, yet it is none the less 7 75 is compacted by the pressure and partial melting of the topmost layers, and gradually changes into- ice, more or less viscous, and yielding to the push- ing mass above and behind it. This causes the glacial motion downhill. The thickness of these- ice and snow masses varies from a few feet to- thousands of feet. The surface of glaciers is often cracked and fissured. and the waters produced by the melting of the top layers percolaies through the cracks and fissures, and serves to compact the: mass.The lower end of aglacier is all ice ; while the upper end. is mostly snow and is called néve in French, firn in German. The neve is often a very extensive basin-—a collecting reser- voir for feeding the glacier; while the other portion is nar- rower, resembling the bed of a river, having more or less parallel sides. A row of stones, called the “lateral moraine.” marks each side of this ice river. These stones are the drop- pings and rendings from the sides of the rocky channel. Where two glaciers combine, we find a row of stones in the middle; this stone line, called the “ median moraine,” marks the lim- its of the two confluent ice rivers. Other stones are borne along by the bottom of the glacier. They scratch, polish and channel the rocky bed as they move onward with an irresisti- ble force, and grind the abraded materials into small peb- bles, sand and impalpable mud. This material is borne on- ward both by the ice and the stream of water which flows beneath the ice. At the lower end of the glacier a heap of stones, pebbles and mud is deposited. called the terminal moraine. If this moraine is cut or broken through. the ice front presents a cavernous, arched vault over a stream of water. This water is muddy, being mixed with the fine abraded particles from present, and generally continuous. J. D. Forbes found (from measurements made in the Mer de Glace, Mont Blanc, near Ohamouni) and first proved that the whole sheet does not possess the same rate of motion, the center advancing more rapidly than the sides. He discovered that in sum- mer and in the fall of the year the middle of that glacier drew forward at a rate of from 1 foot 8 inches to 2 feet 3 inches, and at the sides from 1 foot 1 inch to 1 foot 7% inches per diem. Agassiz at about the same time carried on a series of inde- pendent experiments on the glacier of the Aar, and arrived at similar conclusions. Helland later on demonstrated that in Greenland a more rapid motion was to be found, and that the Jacobshafn glacier advanced at the rate of from 48.2 feet to 64.8 feet in the twenty-four hours. This result has lately been generally confirmed, although some- what modified, by Dr. Rink, who, from a consider- able collection of data, concludes that the quickest rate of progress of the centers of the glaciers of that region averages 21 feet in twenty-four hours. In many areas in Greenland, however, the limits of the ice sheets were found to be almost stationary, and prolonged and careful observations became neces- sary before any progress could be noted. In these cases the configuration of the ground was the prin- 7% cipal cause of the more gentle motion. The varia- tion in the rate of movement in different parts of the mass is analogous to that of rivers, and there are many other points of similarity between glaciers and streams of water which will call for notice below. The above remarks broadly point out the general movements of glaciers, but various modifying agencies are frequently present, which change for a time the regularity of the motion. Thus, when slipping down a steep incline. the rate of progress is much more rapid than when level tracts or rising ground are being traversed. The surface of the ice- sheet, too, travels with somewhat greater velocity than the lower strata, and the nature of the glacier’s bed here again produces modifications. When the path is smooth and sloping, the rates of speed at which the upper and under portions advance are much more equal than when obstacles intervene, preventing the lower strata from keeping up an equal ratio of motion with the portions nearer to and at the surface. The glaciers which now exist are the remnants of the vast ice-sheets which covered Northern Europe and America during the glacial period. That of Europe extended south from Scandinavia over Northern Germany and a great part of the British Islands; while the Alps sent out their ice rivers hundreds of miles in advance of their present limits. In America the ice-sheet was of still greater proportions. It extended over all the Northern hemisphere as far south as the terminal moraine, which it left behind it. This southern limit is well marked. It passes through Long Island-, Perth, Amboy, N. .l., and Easton and Pittsburgh, Pa.; thence it runs through Ohio, touching the river east of Cincinnati, and extending for a few miles into Kentucky. From this point it passes onward through Middle Indiana and Illinois, and the States farther west as far as Dakota. Beyond this point the moraine disappears. This immense At- lantic glacier was paralleled by two smaller ones, which extended along the Pacific coast and the high ridges of the Rocky Mountains. As to the thickness of the Atlantic glacier, we find glacial markings 5,500 feet high in the White Mountains, 3,000 feet high in Southern Massachusetts and the Catskill region, and 1,000 feet high in Southern Connecticut. These indications point to a depth of 6,000 feet or more. In many other places in North America the surface of the rocks has been scraped, furrowed and scoured by the motion of this stupendous mass of ice in a southerly direc- tion. These parallel scratchings and furrowings of the rocks, wherever they were hard enough to re- sist weathering, can only be explained by glacial action. The ice, over a mile in thickness, had nu- merous sharp stones frozen into its bottom, and abraded the rocks by its scouring action. Where the rocks were soft or fissile they were broken into fragments and swept forward, thus forming or deepening valleys and lake bottoms. This ac- counts for the numerous lakes and rivers over the whole drainage area of the St. Lawrence River, Hudson’s Bay and the Arctic Ocean, as well as around the Great Lakes in the United States. They owe their existence to excavations made by ice, or are dammed back by ridges of glacial. de- posits. Other indications of glacial action are certain geological deposits all over this region. The low- est of these deposits is the “unstratified bowlder clay.” This “drift” or “till” is a heterogenous mixture of gravel, sand and clay, mixed with stones of all sizes. It is strewed alike over hill and dale to depths of 30 feet up to 300 feet, and rests often GLAClER—CLADSTONE' on polished and striated rocks. Then there are numerous erratic bowlders found scattered over the surface, and often over the tops and slopes of ridges. Some of these are small, but others are 40 feet long by 20 feet wide and high. Research into the localities of their origin shows that these bowlders have often been transported, embedded in the ice, from 20 to 200 miles, and nearly always in a southerly direction. When the intense cold of, the Glacial period grad- ually ceased, the ice-sheet began a slow retreat northward, and dropped its accumulated matter all along its southern limits. These limits were not regular. High mountains, hills and other local causes produced an irregular retreat. Local glaciers have therefore existed in the valleys of the White Mountains, those of the Rocky Moun- tains and of the Sierra Nevada. Terminal moraines mark the sites of these glaciers. One of them filled the Yosemite Valley, and passed down Merced Caiion. Others extended into the basin of Lake Tahoe. These local glaciers produced glacier striee differing from the regular southerly mark- ings, and also transported bowlders in other than southerly directions. The great Atlantic glacier existing during the Glacial period is partially paralleled by the ice-sheet which now covers Greenland. This great island, 1,200 miles long and 400 to 500 miles wide, is cov- ered with ice to a depth of 3,000 feet. This shows that conditions favorable to the production and maintenance of such ice-sheets may exist; As to the causes of the great cold during the Glacial period, various theories have been advanced, but the theory of Mr. Croll seems to be the most prob- . able. He ascribes the phenomenon to the varia- tion in eccentricity or ellipticity of the earth’s orbit, and the cyclical change through which the earth is at one time nearest to the sun in winter, and at another time farthest from it. According to this theory the latest ice period began 240,000 years ago and ended about 80,000 years ago. This was the last glacial epoch. It lasted about 160,000 years. Geologists are now generally i11 favor of Croll’s theory. GLADSTONE, IVILLIAM EWART, statesman, ora- tor and author, born in Liverpool, Dec. 29, 1809. He was the fourth son of Sir John Gladstone, a well- known Liverpool merchant and member of Parlia- ment. Mr. Gladstone is of Scotch descent on both sides. He was educated at Eton, and at Christ -. Church, Oxford. In 1831 he graduated as a double first class. As a speaker in the Oxford Union De- bating Society and a writer for the Eton “ Miscel. lany,” he showed himself a strong opponent of all advanced measures of political reform—-a pro- nounced conservative. The Conservative party were then looking out for a promising young man who could stiffen their ranks in Parliament. Glad- stone stood for the burgh of Newark, and was elected. In the House of Commons in 1833, the young orator made a decided impression. I-Iis manner, his voice, his diction, his fluency, were alike the subject of praise. He showed great par- liamentary capacity. In December, 1834, Sir Robert Peel appointed Gladstone to the office of junior lord of the treas- ury. In the year following he gave him the more important post of under-secretary for the colo- nies. Very soon Peel was defeated in an election and resigned as premier. Gladstone went with him. In 1841 Peel came back again to oflice, and Mr. Gladstone was made vice-president of the board of trade and master of the mint. He was at the same time sworn in as a member of the Privy Council. In 1843 he became president of GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET_cLEn1TsoH1A the board of trade, but he resigned after two ears. y In 1847 Gladstone was elected M. P. for the Uni- versity of Oxford, which he continued to represent for 18 years. He advocated the cause of Italian independence in many eloquent speeches. In 1858 he accepted a special mission to the Ionian Islands. At that time he published a three volume work on Homer and the I-Iomerz'c Age. In 1859 he became -chancellor of the exchequer, and in 1860 he carried through Parliament a commercial treaty with .France. In 1865 he was returned for South Lanca- shire, and succeeded Earl Russell as leader of the House of Commons. Mr. Gladstone became prime -minister in 1869. The Irish church was disestab- lished, the Elementary Education act was carried, and the Irish Land bill, but the government was beaten on the Irish University bill in 1873. In 1874 Gladstone resigned the leadership of the Liberal party. In 1880 he became again premier, after the defeat of the Disraeli administration at the polls. In 1885 he again resigned. After the short-lived -administration of Lord Salisbury, Gladstone again came into power, and signalized his return to of- fice by presenting his Irish Land and Home Rule bill. It was rejected on June 7, 1886. In conse- quence of this, Parliament was dissolved. Gladstone and his colleagues appealed to the country, but were defeated. For the time the ministerial, ca- reer of Mr. Gladstone was closed, but as member for Midlothian he continues to lead his party in the House of Commons. Gladstone has written numerous essays on polit- ical, literary, and even theological subjects. He shows a marvelous mental activity. His work as a statesman has been unique. He has a long and most successful record of practical legislation; as .a parliamentary debater he never had a superior, if he ever had an equal. GLAGOLITIC ALPHABET, one of the ancient Slavonic alphabets, apparently derived from the cursive Greek of the 9th century, and somewhat older than the Cyrillic alphabet, by which it was superseded. It is only used in the liturgical books of the Dalmatian Slavs. GLASGOW, the county-seat of Barren county, Ky. It contains a male and female college, several mills, and is situated only three miles from the flowing oil-wells of the State. ~ GLASGO'W, a city of Howard county, Mo., on the Missouri River. It has a great tobacco trade, con- tains tobacco factories, flour mills, two colleges and a public school for colored pupils. GLASS (see Britannica, Vol. X pp. 647-73) is now manufactured in the United Statesas follows: The annual production of all kinds is about 828,- 000,000. In hollow-ware articles there is very little foreign competition. The coarse greenish bottles are all made in this country. Only the fancy cologne and.cut-glass castor bottles, decanters, etc., are im- ported, chiefly from France. Of common druggist’s ware, as prescription bottles, stoppered bottles, and graduated bottles, we export largely to Eng- land, and to some extent also to France. Of table-glass the United States produces articles fully equal to the English and French, except in a few styles. Our best grades of pressed glass-ware Vary so little from the finest foreign cut glass that Dtlllly experts in the trade can distinguish between t em. - In window-glass (not plate) the American manu- facturers 'command the market, except in those places where the English crown-glass and the cheapest styles of German window-glass are yet preferred. In fine plate-glass, glass for optical in- struments, and Bohemian glassware, the French, 7 59 English, and German manufacturers are consider- ably ahead of the Americans. Yet there is some- thing like $2,500,000 worth of these kinds of glass produced yearly in this country. The chief centers of the manufacture of glass in the United States are Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. Of the Pennsylvania glass about 65 per cent. comes from Allegheny county, chiefly from Pittsburgh. There are also glass factories at Lenox, Mass., New Albany, Louisville, and J effer- sqnville, Ind., and at Crystal City and St. Charles, IV 0. ' Pressed glass made by means of a lever-press is an American invention. It has enabled manufac- turers to ofier for common use glassware of grace- ful forms and beautiful designs, which formerly could only be afforded by the most wealthy. The sandblast is now much used in carving, edg- ing, and drilling glass. The invention of this pro- cess has added greatly to the economical uses of glass. By its means glass can be cut in any form, holes drilled in it, figures edged or carved on it in low or high relief, etc. As a consequence, plate- glass is largely introduced into our modern furni- ture, as for small shelves at bank-teller’s des rs, cashier’s desks in stores, in ticket oflices, in hand mirrors, as dial plates in clocks, for door panels, etc. These various new applications cause a steady increase in the manufacture of the finer qualities of plate glass in America. GLASS—CRABS, the larval forms of rock lobsters, etc.,but formerly regarded as adults, and made into a genus or even family. The body consists of two transparent leaf-like discs; there are beautiful eyes on long stalks, twenty pairs of appendages, and a small abdomen. GLASS PAPER, or CLOTH, is made by sprinkling ‘ powdered glass over paper or calico, which is wet with a coat of glue, and to which the powdered glass adheres. Glass paper is extensively em- loyed in polishing wood-work. GLASS SPONGE, a name given to various sili- cious sponges, but particularly applied to HyaJo- ne-ma Sieboldi, found in Japan. It is shaped like a cup, and is supported by a flexible, loosely-twisted cable of glass-like threads, which is sunk in the mud of the sea-bottom. GLASSWORT, a genus of Chenopod-iaceaa of which one species is common in salt-marshes in Britain. Several species grow abundantly on the shores of the Mediterranean, and as they contain a large quan- tity of soda were formerly of importance in making barilla, along with the species of saltwort. GLA-UX, a genus of primulaceous plants, repre- sented by a single species, G. mar-z't7'.ma. It is a little fleshy perennial, growing in saline localities in Europe, Asia, and North America. GLEANING, the act of gathering that portion of a harvest which the reaper leaves behind. I11 Eng- land the custom of allowing the poor the gleanings had very nearly passed into a legal right, but the court of common pleas has decided that the public cannot claim the privilege as a right. The custom, however, still exists in England, though it is often restricted to the wives and children of the har- vesters. In the United States the poor possess no right to glean, and the farmer may exclude them from his fields. GLEDITSCHIA, a genus of leguminous trees, of which there are five or six species of North Amer- ica, Northern Asia, and Africa. It is represented . in the United States by the honey-locust, or three- __ thorned acacia (G. trmcantlzos), and by the water- ' locust, G. -monospeqvna. The former is a large tree having compound leaves, large flat pods filled with a sweet pulp between the seeds, and inconspicuous 760 flowers. It is widely cultivated for shade and as a hedge-plant. The timber is hard and durable. The other North American species is a smaller tree growing in swamps in the Eastern United States. GLEIG, GEORGE ROBERT, aBritish clergyman and author, born at Stirling, Scotland, in 1796, died in 1888. After being educated at Glasgow, and Balliol College, Oxford, he served under the Duke of WVellington in Spain. In 1814 he also served in America, but was wounded at the cap- ture of lVashington. Returned to England, he graduated at Oxford, and took ecclesiastical orders. He became curate of Ash in 1822, and after- wards rector of Ivy church. In 1846 he was ap- pointed chaplain-general of the army, which oflice e resigned in 1875. As he interested himself very much in the education of the soldiers, he was also made inspector-general of the military schools. Gleig tells his early adventures in an amusing book, The Subaltern (1825). He also wrote Cam aigns at Washington and New Orleans, a Family istory of England, and a Military History of Great Britain. His Life of the Duke of Wellington (1859) has been much read. From his contributions to the “ Edin- burgh” and “Quarterly Reviews” two volumes of Essays were collected in 1858. GLENCOE, the county-seat of McLeod county, Minn., situated on Buffalo River. It has a semi- nary, grain elevators, and plenty of water and timber. GLENS FALLS, a village of VVarren county, N. Y.,9 miles south of Lake George. It has a famous cave, lime, black marble, water-power, water works, gas works, soldier’s monument, two opera houses, and a ladies’ seminary. Large quan- tities of plaster are made here annually. There are saw mills, plaster mills, lath mills, a machine shop, stone-sawing mills, and iron foundry. GLEN LIVET, the valley, in Banffshire, Scotland, of Livet Water, which runs 14 miles northwest, till at a point 5 miles south of Ballindalloch station, it falls after a total descent of 1,600 feet into the Avon,itself an affluent,of the Spey. Its popula- tion is still largely Roman Catholic. Since 1824 its 200 whisky bothies have given place to one cele- brated distillery. In 1594 Glenlivet was the scene of a battle, in which 10.000 Protestants under the Earl of Argyll were routed by the insurgents under the Earl of Huntly. GLEN ROY, PARALLEL RoADs or. The Roy is a small stream in the district of Lochaber, Inver- ness-shire. Scotland, having a course of about fifteen miles, and falling into the Spean at Inverroy, oppo- site to Ben Chlinaig. The valley through which the Roy runs has its slopes indented with three shelves, which are everywhere perfectly horizontal and parallel to each other. The granitic and meta- morphic rocks, of which the mountains are com- posed, are covered with a greater or less thickness of angular fragments and earth, and an examin- ation of the shelves shows that they are worn out of this soft alluvial coating. They almost in- variably form a gentle slope from the hillside, and are from three to thirty feet wide. The highest, 1,139%feet above sea-level, is easily followed along both sides of the valley to the point at which the valley narrows above Glen Glaster. The second shelf. eighty feet lower, is continued farther down until it includes Glen Glaster. The third line is 212 feet lower than the second; it may be traced 1S~ound the mouth of the glen into the valley of the pean. GLENTILT, in North Perthshire, Scotland, the deep, narrow glen of the Tilt, which issues from Loch Tilt, runs sixteen miles southwest, and at GLElG—GLOUCESTER CITY Blair-Athole falls into the Garry. It is traversed by the foot-path from Blair-Athole to Braemar. Glentilt is classic ground to the geologist, having furnished evidence for the Huttonian or denuda- tion theory. GLENWOOD, a city and the county-seat of Mills county, Iowa, 20 miles south of Council Bluffs. GLENWOOD, a manufacturing and shipping town of Schuyler county, Mo. GLIDDON, GEoReE Ronms (1809-57), an Amer- ican archaeologist. At an early age he went to Alexandria, and for twenty-three years resided in Egypt, for the most part of the time serving as U. S. vice-consul. He then visited the United States, and lectured in the principal cities of the Union on Egyptian antiquities. He wrote A Me- moir on the Cotton of Egypt (1841); An appeal to the Antiquaries of Europe on the Destruction of the Monu- ments of Egypt (1841); Discourses on Egyptian Ar chazology (1841); Ancient Egypt (1850) ; Types of Man- kind (1854), and Indigenous Races of the Earth (1857). GLOBE—FLOWER ( Trollius), a small palaearctio genus of Ranunwlaeeze, with a globe of large showy sepals inclosing the small inconspicuous linear petals. The common yellow globe-flower (T. Europeeus) is one of tin finest ornaments of moist grounds in elevated districts of Northern Europe and in the Alps. It is cultivated in flower- gardens. The orange globe-flower (T. Asiaticus) is also common in gardens. GLOBULINS, a group of proteid substances closely allied to albumen, but differing from it in that they are not soluble in water unless it con- tains a small proportion of a neutral salt, and that they are precipitated by carbonic acid, and (except. vitellin) by a saturated solution of common salt. The most important globulins which occur in ani- mal tissue are: globulin (proper) or crystallin, in the crystalline lens of the eye; fibrino-plastin, or paraglobulin and fibrinogen in blood, serous fluids, etc.; myosin, in muscle; vitellin, in the yolk of egg. Precisely similar bodies occur also in the vegetable kingdom. GLOBUS HYSTERICUS, or BALL IN THE TnRoAT, the name applied to a peculiar sensation sometimes accompanying hysteria. GLORIOSA, a genus of Liliaceae, of which the best-known species, G. superba, a native of India, is a herbaceous perennial with a weak stem, alter- nate simple leaves terminating in tendrils, and very beautiful flowers finely colored with red and yellow. The root-stock is poisonous but is washed for its starch-like manioc. GLOSSITIS, inflammation of the tongue. GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Mass., 28 miles northeast of Boston, situat- ed on the south side of the peninsula of Cape Ann, and connected by railroad with the principal cities and towns of the seaboard and interior. Its in- terests are almost entirely commercial. It has a greater amount of tonnage employed in the domes- tic fisheries than any other town in the United States. Eighty per cent. of the vessels of all classes are employed in the fisheries, whose total value in 1876 was $4,000,000. Of the ports of Massachusetts, only Boston surpasses Gloucester in foreign im. ports. The harbor is one of the best on the coast, and is accessible at all seasons for vessels of the largest class. Gloucester was occupied as a fish- ing station as early as 1624, being the first settle- ment made on the north shore of Massachusetts,, Bay. It was incorporated as a town in 1639, and became a city in 1874. Population in 1850, 7,786; 1860, 10.904; 1880, 19,329; 1890, 21,262. ‘ GLOUCESTER CITY, a post-town of Camden county, N. J ., on the Delaware River, and on the GLOVERSVILLE—GOAT-M‘0"TH Camden, Gloucester and Mount Ephraim Railroad, and theWest Jersey Railroad, 3 miles south of Cam- den. It is connected by steam ferry with Phila- delphia. Ginghams, print-cloths and calicoes are made here. Population in 1870, 3,682; 1880, 5,347 ; 1890, 6,563. GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, N. Y., situated on the Cayadutta River. It was incor- porated a city in 1890. A board of trade was or- ganized in 1889. There are 60 miles of streets, mostly broad and paved with cedar blocks, the principal ones being traversed by horse-cars. The Fonda, J ohnstown and Gloversville Railroad passes through the city, and connects with the New York Central and West Shore roads, and with the Erie Canal at Fonda. The water supply is abundant, brought by gravity from reservoirs 3 miles above the city. The fire and police departments are excel- lent. The assessed valuation of the city in 1890 was $4,000,000, and no city debt. There is one national and one private bank, and a building and loan asso- ciation. Two electric plants furnish lights for the streets and business houses, and power for manu- facturing purposes. Kasson’s opera house is a fine brick building. The public schools are excel- lent. The Union free school building, erected in 1888, is a substantial three-story edifice. There is a free library containing 9,000 volumes, and a read- ing room with daily and weekly papers and maga- zines. There is a great variety of manufacturing carried on, and the city is particularly noted for the manufacture of buckskin and other gloves and mittens. Population in 1880, 7,133; 1890, 13,796. GLUCOSE, STARCH or GRAPE-SUGAR. The term “ grape-sugar ” is often restricted to the solid varie- ties of the sugar made from corn-starch, while the liquid varieties alone are designated “ starch-su- gar,” or “glucose.” The manufacture of glucose has long flourished in Europe. In 1882 there were 39 factories in Germany producing 18,000 tons of solid grape-sugar and 19,000 tons of liquid glucose per annum. In America this industry has only recently been introduced; and, in spite of the prejudice as to the healthfulness of glucose, its manufacture has spread so rapidly that there are at present over 30 factories in this country, using about 50,000 bushels of corn per day when they are running. When corn is low in price, and cane-sugar, molasses and barley are high, all the factories are in full operation. When the opposite conditions prevail all the glu- cose factories are idle. The McKinley tariff has lately crippled the glucose interest in our country, because it allows the low grades of sugar to be i1n- ported without duty. Glucose is chiefly used in the manufacture of table syrups and confectionery, in the brewing of beer and ale, and the manufacture of artificial honey. S metimes it is also used as food for bees. Brewers 0 nceal the fact of its employment, and confeotioners do not like to speak of their use of glucose. For making artificial honey, the combs are manufactured of parafline and their cells filled with pure glucose by machinery. It looks white and inviting, but is less sweet than genuine honey. As it can be sold at less than half the price of the genuine article, and sweetened by the addition of cane sugar, a good deal of artificial honey has been manufactured. In the form of bleached grape su- gar, glucose was largely mixed with table sugar be- ore the adoption of the McKinley tariff. In 1884 a committee of the National Academy of Sciences submitted a report on glucose, in response to a request made by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Their report declared that the sweeten- ring power of grape sugar is about two-thirds that 761 of cane sugar. Many experiments were made by the committee with reference to the healthfulness of glucose, it being taken internally in various con- ditions. In all cases it was found to be harmless and unobjectionable. The committee’s report con- cludes that the manufacture of sugar from starch is a long-established industry, “scientifically valua- ble and commercially important; that the processes employed in the United States are unobjectionable and leave the product uncontaminated; that the starch sugar thus made and sent into commerce is of exceptional purity and uniformity of composi- tion, and that, although it has less sweetening power than cane sugar, yet starch sugar is in no way inferior to cane sugar in healthfulness, there being no evidence before the committee that it has any deleterious effect upon the human system,even when taken in large quantities.” GLUCOSUBIA, a modern name for diabetes mel- litus, and indicative of its characteristic symptom, the presence of sugar in the urine. GLUE, l\IARIl\’E, a cementing composition used in ship-building, for covering seams in ships’ decks after being oalked. In hot climates it is preferred to tar for this and other purposes, where the mate- rials are exposed to the influence of the wet. It consists of India-rubber out very small, and di- gested at a gentle heat in a closed vessel with coal- tar naphtha until it is dissolved, when powdered shellac is added, and the digestion continued until it is also dissolved. GLUME, a term applied to certain bracts in grasses and sedges (which are sometimes conjoined as Glumiferw). GLYCOSMIS,a genus of the natural order Au- rantiaceae, trees of the East Indies. The fruit of G. citrifolia is delicious. GMELINA, a genus of verbenaceous trees. The timber of G. arborea (Koombar or Goombar of Italy) resembles teak, but is closer in grain, and lighter. GD/IUNDEN, a town of Upper Austria, 159 miles west of Vienna by rail. It lies 1,439 feet above sea level, amid the grandest scenery of the Salzkam- mergut, at the lower end of the Traunsee, or Lake Gmunden, above which towers the Traunstein. \Vith numerous hotels and villas it is a favorite summer bathing-place. Salt mines employ many of the inhabitants. Population, 6,631. GNEIST, RUDOLF, a German jurist, born at Ber- lin in 1816. He studied jurisprudence at Berlin. In 1841 he was made assessor in the superior court (Kawmnergem'c7zt), and was successively assistant judge of the same court and of the supreme trib- unal, until in 1850 he resigned these positions in order to devote himself exclusively to teaching law. In the Prussian chamber of deputies, acting with the National Liberals, and in the Imperial Parliament, he has advocated a greater amount of self—government of the people, more attention to the welfare of the working classes, and reform of the judicial and penal systems. In his speeches he pressed the adoption of more liberal usages like those in England, and for this end he wrote Das Izezotige Englische l'm*waZtungsrech1‘; Englische Ver- _fassungs-geschicizte; Das Englische Parlicmnent, and several other works. - GOAT, Aneonm See ANGORA Goar, in these Re- visions and Additions. GOAT ISLAND, an island 70 acres in area, which divides the current of Niagara River just above its falls. It is 900 feet from the American shore, with which it is connected by a bridge. GOAT—MOTH (Cossus ligniperda), a large moth common throughout Europe and Asia. It meas- ures three inches across the wings, and has a thick heavy body. The general color is yellowish-gray; 762 the upper wings mottled with white and marked with black lines, the lower of a more uniform ash- color. The caterpillar when full grown is about three inches long and has a yellowish color. It in- habits and feeds on the wood of willows, poplars and elms, often destroying the tree. It takes two or three years to attain maturity. The pupa is in- closed in a cocoon of chips cut by the jaws of the creature. The caterpillar has been regarded by some as the Cossus of Roman epicures, but this was more likely the larva of some large beetle. GOAT’S BEARD ( Tragopogon), a genus of plants of the natural order Compositw. The common Goat’s Beard (T. pratense), also known by the name Go-to-bed-at-noon, is an erect biennial plant, an abundant native of Britain. The roots, if tak- en before the flower stems shoot up and boiled, resemble asparagus in flavor, and are said to be nutritious. In some parts of France the fresh juice of the young stems and leaves is believed by the common people to be an excellent solvent of bile. Salsify (T. porrifolium), also a native of Bri- tain, is cultivated in gardens for the sake of its es- culent roots, which are esteemed by some. GOAT’S RUE (Galega), a genus of plants of the natural order Leguminosze, of which one herba- ceous perennial species (G. oflicinalis) is sometimes cultivated like lucerne (especially in Switzerland) as a forage plant, on account of the great bulk of produce which it yields. Its peculiar smell is not relished by cattle unaccustomed to it. It was formerly employed in medicine. GOBAT, SAMUEL, bishop of the Protestant church at Jerusalem, born at Cremine in Switzerland in 1799, died at Jerusalem, May 12, 1879. In the Mis- sion-house at Basle he prepared himself for the work of a missionary from 1821 to 1824. After studying Arabic and ]Ethiopic in Paris he entered the services of the Church Missionary Society, and was sent to Abyssinia. But as that country was in a state of war he stopped at Cairo for three years. In 1830 he was allowed to enter Abyssinia, and soon gained the good-will of some of the prominent inhabitants. They gladly received from him an Amharic translation of the Gospels. On the re- newal of the war in Abyssinia he returned to Eu- rope. A second missionary journey, undertaken in 1835, was fruitless on account of his severe ill- ness. In 1839 Gobat became principal of the Mis- sionary College at Malta, where he translated the Bible into several Oriental languages. Pursuant to an agreement between the governments of Eng- land and Prussia the missionary bishopric of Jeru- salem was created, and Dr. Gobat, nominated by the king of Prussia to be the first bishop, was con- secrated in London, July 5, 1846, and in the follow- ing December proceeded to Jerusalem. He assumed the general superintendence of the Protestant in- terests in Palestine, and founded schools in con- nection with many of the congregations. Gobat did not succeed in uniting the various Christian bodies in Palestine, although he was highly re- spected by all sects of Christians for his piety and ea . GOBBE, or VOANDZON ( Voandzeia subterranea), a leguminous annual of tropical Africa (sub-order Ceesalpineee), of which the young pod is thrust into the ground in the same manner as that of Arachis hypogaea (the ground-nut), thus at once protecting and planting the seeds. The rich oily seeds (“An- gola peas”) are wholesome and agreeable when boiled. The young pods also are used like French beans. GOBINEAU, Josnr ARTHUR, COMTE DE, a French diplomatist and author, born at Bordeaux in 1816. His first diplomatic service was as secretary of the GOAT’S BEARD--GODMAN French legation at Berne, in 1851. He was next sent as ambassador to Persia in 1861, to Greece in 1864, to Brazil in 1869, to Sweden in 1872, and in 1877 he resigned and retired. Gobineau was very much given to study wherever he found himself. Besides his literary pursuits he was also active in various philosophic and philanthropic endeavors. Among his writings we mention Essai sur L’iné- galité des Races Humaines (4 vols.); Trois Ans en Asie; Les Religions et les Philosophes dans L’Asie Centrale; Histoire des Perses; La Renaissance, and Souvenirs de Voyage. He also published some poems. Among these we mention Les Cousins de Isis, an epic poem; Amadis; and Typhaines Abbey, a historical novel, translated into English by Dr. C. D. Meigs. He died in 1882. GODESBERG, a village of Rhenish Prussia, on the Rhine, four miles south of Bonn. It has a min- eral spring, and a picturesque ruined castle (1213). Population, 2,901. GODERICH, a port of entry and chief town of the county of Huron, Ont., Can., situated on Lake Huron, at the terminus of the Buffalo and Goderich division of the Grand Trunk Railway, 78 miles northwest of London. It has a good harbor, and communicates by steamer with the various lake- ports. It has eight valuable salt-wells, extensive lake fisheries, and manufactories of woolens, ma- chinery, boots and shoes, etc. Population, 4,564. GODFREY, THOMAS, born in Bristol, Pa., in 1704, died in Philadelphia in December, 1749. He worked as a glazier, and studied mathematics, ac- quiring Latin in order that he might read mathe- matical works in that language. In 1730 he made an improvement in Davis’s quadrant, which, after considerable delay, was laid before the Royal So- ciety of London. A similar invention was about the same time presented by John Hadley, the vice- president of the society, and both claimants being declared entitled to the honor of invention, each received a prize of £200. The instrument is called Godfrey’s or Hadley’s quadrant, and is still in gen- eral use. GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE, an American jour- nalist, born in 1831. He was a correspondent of the London “ News” in Turkey and Russia in 1854-56, and then came to the United States. He was ad- mitted to the New York bar in 1859, and from 1862 to 1865 was correspondent of the “ News” and an editorial writer for the New York “Times.” In the latter year he became editor of “ The Nation,” and in 188], when it was made the weekly issue of the “Evening Post,” Mr. Godkin became an editor and proprietor of the joint publication. He wrote a History of Hungary, A.D. 300-1850 (1856); and a yg%1P}li:)on Government in the American Science Series GODMAN, J OHN D. (1794-1830), an American physician. In 1818 he graduated in medicine at the University of Maryland, and then practiced in Philadelphia. In 1821 became professor of surgery in the Medical College of Ohio, and began the publi- cation of the Cincinnati “Western Quarterly Re- view.” In 1822 he returned to Philadelphia, and two years later became an editor of the “ Philadelphia Journal of Medical Sciences.” In 1826 he was made professor of anatomy and physiology in Rutgers Medical College, New Jersey, but resigned the fol- lowing year on account of failing health. He wrote many articles for various periodicals, and published American Natural History; Rambles of a Naturalist; Account of I rregularities of Structure and Morbid Anatomy; Contributions to Physiological and Pathological Anatomy; Bell’s Anatomy; a translation of Leyasseu r’s Account of La fayette’s Progress Through the United States, and Anatomical Imesfi_oations. GCDCLLC—GCLD GODCLLC, a market-town of Hungary, fifteen miles northeast of Pesth, with a royal castle and ark presented by the Hungarians in 1867 to their ing, the emperor of Austria-Hungary. Here, April 7,1849, the Austrian forces were defeated by the Hungarians. Population, 3,940. GODON, SYLVANUS WILLIAM (1809-79), a United States naval officer. He was appointed midship- man in 1819, was promoted lieutenant in 1836, com- mander in 1855, and captain in 1861. He took part in the attack on Port Royal under Admiral Du- Pont; in 1863 was promoted commodore, and com- manded the 4th division of Admiral Porter’s fleet at both bombardments of Fort Fisher. At the close of the war he was made rear-admiral. He commanded the South Atlantic Squadron in 1866-67, and was commandant of the Brooklyn navy-yard in 1868-70. In 1871 he was retired on account of age. GOD’S TRUCE. In the 9th and 10th centuries, when the empire of Charlemagne had begun to break into small fragments, the right of private war and private vengeance threatened to cause an- archy and dissolution instead of being a rough and ready method of enforcing equity between man and man. Accordingly, the church stepped in, and at the end of the 10th century formulated stern penalties against all who, while waging feudal war, should violate the peace. The God’s Truce, technically speaking, was a mutual agreement, sanctioned by the church, on the part of the barons and nobles of a particular district, to abstain altogether from private war at certain fixed times, and to respect permanently the rights of those who followed purely pacific callings. This movement was first -set on foot at a synod held at Tuluges, in Boussil- lon, in 1027. Fourteen years later it spread from the whole of France into Germany, Italy, Spain and England. About 1041 the main provisions of the Peace of God (Trenga Devi) were these: Peace was to last from \Vednesday evening to Monday morn- in each week, also during Advent and Lent, and on certain of the principal -saint’s days and holy days of the church; the punishments for disobedience were money fines, banishment for a long term of years, and excommunication. The Peace of God was confirmed by several councils of the church, more especially by that of Clermont (1095), when Urban II proclaimed its universal extension throughout Christendom. During the course of the 13th century this institution fell into desuetude, its place being taken by the stronger executive of the kings. GCDWIN, PARKE, an American editor, born in 1816. He was admitted to the bar, but never prac- ticed. From 1837 to 1853, excepting one year, he was connedted with the New York “ Evening Post,” and in 1843 issued the “\Veekly Pathfinder.” He contributed largely to the “ Democratic Review,” and was also an editor of “Putnam’s l\’Ionthly.” In 1865 he again became connected with the “Evening Post.” He wrote Popular View of the Doctrines of Charles Fourier (1844); Construction Democracy; Vala, a Mythological Tale (1851); A Handbook of Universal Biography (1851) ; History ofFrance (1861) ; Out of the Past (1871), and an edition of Bryant’s writings, with a life (1883-84). GOETTLING, KARL IVILHELM, German philolo- gist and historian, born at Jena in 1793, died Jan. 20, 1869. He was educated at Jena and at Berlin; in 1815 became professor in the gymnasium at Rudol- stadt, in 1819 director of the gymnasium at Neu- wied; in 1822 professor extraordinary, and in 1832 professor in the University of Jena. He visited Italy, Sicily, and Greece in connection with his archaeological and historical studies. He published 763 Das Geschichtliche tm N§ebeZw/zgenliede (“The His- torical in the Niebelungenlied,” 1814); Niebelungen u. Ghibellinen (1817); Lehre von Griech Accent, translated as Elements of Greek Accentuation (Lon- don, 1831) ; Geschichte der Rorhischen Staatsverfassung (a history of the Roman Constitution from the founding of the city to Caesar’s death, 1840); and Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem Classischen AZ- tertham (1851). GCFFE, IVILLIAAI (1605-79), an English regi- cide. In 1647 he joined the army, and in 1655 be- came a major-general. In 1654 and 1656 he was sent to Parliament, and Cromwell appointed him to a seat in his House of Lords. He was one of the judges who signed the death-warrant of King Charles I. Before the restoration of Charles II, Gen. Goffe and Gen. Edward Whalen arrived in Boston, and when the king offered a liberal reward for their arrest they were compelled to conceal themselves. In 1675 Goffe suddenly put himself at the head of the citizens of New Haven who were attacked by Indians. He led them to victory, and disappeared as quickly as he had come. GCFFSTOIVN, a manufacturing village of Hills- borough, N. H., 8 miles northwest of Manchester. GOHANUH, a town of India, in the Bengal presi- dency, on the Rohtuk Branch Canal, 50 miles north- west of Delhi. Population, 6,668. GOLCONDA, the county-seat of Pope county, Ill., on the Ohio River. Farming, mining, and manufacturing are the chief occupations of the vi- cinity. There are several mills and a lead and a kaolin mine. GOLD (see Britannica, ‘Vol. X, pp. 740-53) is the most ductile and malleable metal, almost as soft as lead, and on account of its brightness, scarcity, beautiful yellow color, and the facility with which it can be wrought into ornaments,has always been held in the highest estimation by mankind. In its na- tive state we find it mostly in small grains, fibers and scales, seldom in irregular lumps, called nug- gets. It is sparsely disseminated through various rocks, as granite, shale, etc.; but is most abund- antly found in quartz veins, which penetrate these rocks, and in beds of quartz sand and quartz peb- bles. Solid gold veins are never met with. The grains of gold are embedded in the quartz rocks,ex- cept where the latter have been disintegrated. \Ve find it most abundantly where iron pyrites pre- vail. It is well-known that the waters of the ocean contain also gold; but the quantity is too insigni- ficant to pay for its separation. It amounts to about one grain of gold to every ton of water, or a dollar’s worth of gold for 25 tons. Gold can only be mined where it has accumulated in fissure veins, or at the bottom of placer deposits near the bedrocks. On account of its great specific gravity, which is 19, it settles to the bottoms of the gravel beds, and is most concentrated upon their bedrocks. There its yellow glistening luster has early attracted the attention of man. Until about 40 years ago, all the gold in circulation was ex- tracted by washing the gravel, sand, and earth of placers. Quartz-mining, crushing and stamping the gold quartz and amalgamating the gold out of the quartz powder, is a recent invention. It began in California about 1860. Placer-mz'nz'ng is principally carried on in Cali- fornia, Australia, on the Siberian slope of the Ural Mountains, in Georgia and North Carolina, and in some of the South American States. Hydraulic- mz'nz'ng is a Californian invention. In this mode of mining, streams of water issuing from nozzles are thrown against banks of earth containing gold, and the earth thus disintegrated is washed into sluices, where the gold particles are caught. Noz- 7M zles have been used as large as six to eight inches in diameter; and water under heads of 200 to 300 feet has been thrown by these nozzles. Such streams have an incredible power. If we try to strike a crowbar or an ax through the stream a few feet from the nozzle, we find it impossible to do so, as the stream behaves like a solid bar of iron. If a man is hit by such a stream, even at 20 or more feet from the nozzle, he will be instantly pounded into a shapeless mass. It will throw bowlders of 1,000 pounds weight to a distance of 200 feet, as boys throw balls. ‘With such streams directed against abank of dirt and gravel, the bank is very soon hollowed out by the water and made to cave in. Whole hills have been washed down in this way. In Nevada, where water is very scarce, people are anxious to find away of extracting the gold par- ticles contained in the loose dirt on the hills with- out the use of water. It has often been tried by a winnowing process. Blasts of air have been driven through the dry dirt, and the heavier gold made to settle down, while the sand and dirt particles were blown away. Although gold was obtained by this method, yet it could never be made to pay. Quartz-mining is carried on in the same countries where placer mining is done. In some cases, as, for instance, in the mines of the Forbes Reef Min- ing Company, in Transvaal, South Africa, the dril- ling of the blast holes is accomplished by drills worked with electric motors. Dynamos are driven by a water-fall situated five miles away, and the electric current is brought to the mines by wires stretched on posts. In the Comstock and other mines around the Sutro Tunnel, Virginia City,Nev., the stamps used for crushing the ore containing gold and silver are also worked by several electric motors. A great fall of water at the end of the Sutro Tunnel drives a number of water wheels; and these, in their turn, drive several dynamos, the currents from which are conducted by wires to the electric motors at the stamp mills. For amalgamating the ground ore an apparatus similar to the Hungarian mill is used. But recently the “hydrogen amalgam process” of extracting gold from ground ore and tailings has been intro- duced. It consists in placing the mercury in a pan having a flat disk floating on the mercury. This sur- rounds a porous pot. The ground ore, with water, is fed in between the porous pot and the disk. A circu- lar motion is given to the disk, so as to spread the ore through the mercury. In the porous pot there is a solution of sodium sulphate. An electric cur- rent is passed into the apparatus, the quicksilver being made the cathode. This current develops hydrogen over the quicksilver, and this hydrogen cures its tendency to“ sicken ;” that is, to oxidize and become ineffective. It is claimed that 40 per cent. more gold can be-extracted from the ore by this process than by the ordinary way of amalga- mating, and that the waste of quicksilver is pre- vented. The yearly product of the gold mines in the United States averages about $40,000,000; and that of the entire world is not far from $100,000,000 at this time. GOLDAU, formerly a small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Schwyz, memorable for its de- struction by astupendous landslip, Se t. 2, 1806. In a few minutes not only Goldau, but t e neighbor- ing villages of Bpsingen, Rtithen and Lowerz were overwhelmed, and a part of the Lake of Lowerz was filled up, by the fall of the upper slope of Mount Rossberg. The valley is now a wild, rocky waste, overgrown with grass and moss. The village of New Goldau, on the line of the Rigi railway, con- sists of but a few houses. GOLDAU—COLDSBOROUGH GOLD-BEATER’S SKIN, a very thin but tough membrane placed between the layers of gold dur- ing the process of beating. It is prepared from the great intestine of the ox (see Britannica, Vol. X, p. 753), and besides its application in gold-beating is used in the dressing of slight wounds. GOLDEN, the county-seat of Jefferson county, Col., containing a college, State school of mines, flour and paper mills, smelting-works, foundry and coal mines. . GOLDEN BEETLE, the name popularly given to many members of a genus of coleopterous insects, Chrysomela, and of a sub-family, Chrysornelidae, be- longing to the tetramerous section of the order. The body is generally short and convex, the anten- nae simple and wide apart at the base. None of the species are of large size, but many are distin- guished by their metallic splendor of color. The finest species are tropical. See Britannica, Vol. VI, p. 134; and Vol. XIII, pp. 149-50. GOLDENDALE, the capital of Klikitat county, Wash., about 12 miles northeast of Celilo, Oreg. GOLDEN—EYE FLY (Chrysopa perla), also called lacewing fly, a neuropterous insect of a pale green color, with long thread-like antennae, long gauze-like wings, and brilliant golden eyes. Its flight is feeble. The length, from the tip of the an- tennae to the tip of the wings, is almost an inch and a half, but the insect without wings and antennae is not more than one-third of this. The eggs have been mistaken for fungi. The larvae, called aphis- lions, are useful in destroying aphides. The pupa is inclosed in a white silken cocoon, from which the fly is liberated by a lid. See NEUROPTERA, under Insncrs, Britannica, Vol. XII, p. 151. GOLDEN—ROD (Solidago), a genus of plants of the natural order Compositze, closely allied to Aster. Only the S. Virga-aurea is British, but more than 100 species belong to North America, where their bright coloring lightens up the beautiful au- tumnal scenery. S. Virga-aurea had at one time a great reputation as a vulnerary, whence probably the name (from Lat. solidare, “ to unite”). The leaves of this and a fragrant North America species, S. odora, have been used as a substitute for tea. They are mildly astringent and tonic. GOLD—EYE, or Moon-EYE (Hyodon tergisus), a peculiar fish, abundant in the Western rivers and lakes of North America. It has many technically interesting peculiarities of structure, and forms a family by itself in the Physostomi order of bony fishes. It measures about a foot in length. See Britannica, Vol. XII, p. 693. GOLD OF PLEASURE, or FALSE Fmx, the Camelina saliva, an annual plant of the order Cruciferae, growing in Europe, and sparingly in the United States. Its fibers can be used for the manufacture of coarse fabrics, and it is sometimes cultivated for the oil of its seeds. GOLDSBORO, a city and county-seat of Wayne county, N. C. It is a railroad center, is on the great Southern thoroughfare of travel, has a fe- male college, and various manufactories. GOLDSBOROUGH, Lours Mnmsrrnnnns (1805- 77), a U. S. naval officer. He entered the navy as midshipman at seven years of age, and at twenty was appointed lieutenant. In 1827 he received the thanks of the English government for the rescue of the brig Comet, which had been captured by Greek pirates. During the Seminole war he com- manded a company of volunteer cavalry, and in 1847 was executive officer of the frigate Ohio, which bombarded Vera Cruz. In 1849 he was senior mem- ber of the commission to explore California and Oregon, and in 1853-57 was superintendent of the U. S. Naval Academy. In 1861 he became flag-oifi- GOLDSCHMIDT-—GOODE cer, and was placed in command of the Minnesota. He was made rear-admiral in 1862, and in 1865 com- manded the European squadron. In 1873 he was placed on the retired list, after a career of longer service and more active duty than any other naval officer then living. GOLDSCHMIDT, MADAME JENNY MARIA LIND, a celebrated Swedish singer, born at Stockholm, Oct. 6, 1820, died near Malvern, England, Nov. 2, 1887. Her father was a teacher of languages. When only three years old, she could sing any piece she had ever heard. At nine she was ad- mitted to the singing school attached to the court theater. Soon afterwards she played juvenile parts on the stage, showing considerable dramatic ability. At eighteen she appeared in the role of Agatha in Der Freischi'u5z, Alice in Robert Ze Diable, etc., and soon became the prima donna of the Royal Theater, Stockholm. In 1811 she went to Paris to receive lessons from Garcia, who did not encourage her at first. But Meyerbeer, who heard her once, prophesied a brilliant future for the young singer. J enny’s voice was thought to be wanting in volume, and when she appeared at the Grand Opera two years later, her failure dis- couraged her so that she resolved never again to sing in France. In 1844 she went to Berlin, where she studied German. Returning to her native city, Jenny was heard with enthusiasm in Robert le Diable. Upon Meyerbeer’s recommendation she was engaged at Berlin in October, appearing in Norma, and Meyer- beer’s operas. In 18-16 she visited Vienna; in 1847 London. Prices at her Majesty’s theater rose to a fabulous height, and “the town,” says Chorley, “ sacred and profane went mad about the Swedish Nightingale.” She selected the part of Alice, which had first shown the sweetness of her voice. Her soprano voice was at that time very thrilling and sympathetic. She warbled like a bird. On May 18, 1849, she sang on the London stage for the last time in Roberto. After that her appearances were con- fined to the concert-halls. In September, 1850, she came to America under the auspices of P. T. Barnum. Her share of the profits of a brilliant tour in this country amount- ing to $300,000, she afterwards spent in founding and endowing musical scholarships and charities in Sweden and England. Her first concert in New York was accompanied by scenes of the wildest en- thusiasm. The seats were sold at auction, and hundreds of dollars bid for the best choice. After giving about one hundred concerts in the principal American cities, she married, at Boston, Mass, Otto Goldschmidt, who had accompanied her as pianist. Returning to Europe she continued to sing at concerts and in oratorios, as in London (1856), and for the last time at Diisseldorf in 1870. Her English charities included the gift of a hos- pital to Liverpool, and of a wing of another to London. Her voice retained its sweetness to the last, but she only sang occasionally in London draw- ing-rooms, except at the Royal College of Music, where she was professor of singing from 1883 till 1886. Jenny Lind’s moral character was pure and elevated, and her feelings deeply religious. GOLD STICK, a title given in England to the captain of the Gentlemen-at-Arms, and to the col- onel of the Life Guards, who bear gilded rods on occasions of state. GOLD—THREAD, the popular name in America for Ooptis trifolia, a ranunculaceous plant, found from Denmark to Siberia, and over the North American continent through Canada into the United States. It is a small creeping plant, the leaves somewhat like those of the strawberry, but 765 smaller, and evergreen under the snow. The flowers are small and white. The name “gold- thread” is given to the abundant silk-like root- stocks which the plant produces. It was a popu- lar remedy with the Indians of the Northern United States and Canada for sore mouths and ulcerated throats. The French Canadians use it often for these maladies, little bundles of the roots being often sold in the French markets of Mon- treal under the name of Tissa voyanne jaune. The Indians made a dye from the stems and leaves, by which they colored skins of animals a saffron yellow. GOLFO DULCE, a lake of Central America, in Guatemala, forming the principal water-way of that State to the Atlantic. It is 25 miles long, 10 miles broad, and communicates with the Gulf of Honduras by a small stream. The entrance into the river is impeded by a bar, but the river itself and the lake have considerable depth. GOLIAD, the capital of Goliad county, Texas, situated on the north bank of the San Antonio River, about 90 miles southeast of the city of San Antonio. It is the seat of Aranama College. It has a salubrious climate, and is surrounded by rich lands. GOLIATH BEETLE, an immense cetonian la- mellicorn beetle of the genus Goliatlzus. G. gigan- teus, one of the largest of known coleopters, is about four inches long and two inches broad. Some of these insects are very handsome. The species are African, but some related genera occurring in tropical Asia are also called goliath beetles. See Britannica, Vol. VI, p. 132. GOLOMYNKA (Comephorus, or Callz'ong/mus baikalensis), a remarkable fish, found only in Lake Baikal, the only known species of its genus, which comes near the gobies, but is the type of a dis- tinct family. It is about a foot long, is destitute of scales, and is very soft, its whole substance abounding in oil, which is obtained from it by pres- sure. It may be almost said to melt into oil on the application of fire. It is never eaten. GOMARISTS, the name by which the opponents of the doctrines of Arminius, the founder of the Dutch Remonstrants, were designated. They wer followers of Francis Gomarus (1563-16-11), 23. Dut h disciple of Calvin. They were also known as SupraIapsarz'ans and Anti-Remonstrants. GONAIVES, a seaport of Hayti, on a beautiful bay on the West Coast, with an excellent harbor, 65 miles north-northwest of Port-au-Prmce. It ex- ports coffee, cotton, log-wood and hides. Popula- tion (1887), 18.000. GONIATITES, a genus of fossil cephalopodous mollusca, belonging to the same family as the Am- monites. The septa are lobed, but without lateral denticulations, as in ammonites. The siphonal portion is shorter than the sides. forming a sinus at the back, as in the Nautilus. The last chamber, tenanted by the animal occupies a whole whorl, and has a lateral expansion. The shells are small. This genus is confined to the Palzeozoic strata; nearly two hundred species have been described from the Devonian, Carboniferous and Triassic systems. GONFALON (ltal.,gonfalone), or GONFANON, an ensign or standard, in virtue of bearing which the chief magistrates in many of the Italian cities were known as gonfaloniere, standard-bearers of the church. GONZALES,the county-seat of Gonzales county, Texas, on Guadalupe River, and one of the oldest towns of the State. It is the seat of Guadalupe College. GOODE, Gnonen Bnown, an American ichthyolo- gist, born in 1851. In 1873 he became a member of 7% the staff of the Smithsonian Institution, and from 1874 to 1887 was chief of the division of fisheries. He has been a member of many important com- missions, and in 1887 became fish commissioner. Besides numerous papers on ichthyology, Mr. Goode is the author of Catalogue of the Fisheries of the Bermudas (1876); Annual Resources of the United States (1876); A Catalogue of the Fishes of Essex County (1879); Game Fishes of the United States (1879); American Fisheries-—A History of the Men- haden (1880); Materials for a IIistory of the Ameri- can Mackerel Fisheries (1882); Materials for a His- tory of the Sword Fishes (1882) ; The Natural History of the Bermuda Islands (1882); A Review of the -Fishing Industries of the United States (1883); The Fisheries of the United States (1884); Status of the United States Fish Commission in 1884 (1884); Be- ginnings of Natural History in America (1886); Britons, Saxons, and Virginians (1887); and Virginia Cousins (1888). GOODELL, WILLIAM (1792-1867), an American missionary. He graduated at Andover theological seminary in 1820, and two years later sailed for the island of Malta. In 1823 he went to Beirut, and in 1831 to Constantinople. He endured many hard- ships, and during his twenty-nine years of mission- ary life, was compelled to change his residence thirty-three times. He returned to the United States in 1865. In 1843 he completed a translation of the Scriptures from the original Greek and Hebrew into Armeno-Turkish, and later contributed papers to the New York “Observer,” entitled Remi- niscences of the Missionary’s Early Life. GOODENIACE./E, an order of corollifloral dicoty- ledons, closely allied to Campanulaceee and Lobilia- cex. The 200 species, the greater part herbs, are mostly natives of the Australian and South Afri- can regions. Goodenia ouata is a pretty yellow- flowered shrub of Australia. Scxuola taecada is a shrub from the pith of which the Malays make a kind of rice-paper. The young leaves are eaten as a salad. GOODRICH, CHAUNCEY ALLEN, an American lexicographer, born in New Haven, Conn., Oct. 23, 1790, died there Feb. 25, 1860. He was a tutor in Yale College from 1812 to 1814; was pastor of the Middletown, Conn., Congregational church in 1816-17; professor of rhetoric and oratory in Yale from 1817 to 1839; and professor of pastoral theol- ogy until his death. He contributed extensively to various periodicals, and in 1829 established the “Christian Quarterly Spectator,” being its sole editor from 1836 to 1839. He published a Greek grammar (1814); Greek and Latin Lessons (1832); an abridged edition of the American Dictionary (1847); the Universal edition of the same work (1856); the supplement (1859); and Select British Eloquence (1852). GOODWIN SANDS, famous sandbanks stretch- ing about ten miles in a northeast and south- west direction at an average distance of five and a half miles from the east coast of Kent, Eng- land. Large level patches of sand are left dry when the tide recedes, and aflord a firm foot-hold, but when covered the sands are shifting, and may be moved by the prevailing tide to such an extent as to considerably change the form of the shoal. These sands have always been dangerous to vessels passing through the Strait of Dover, though an admirable system of lightships and buoys has robbed them of much of their danger. GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON, an American scholar, born in 1831. He was a tutor at Harvard from 1856 to 1860, when he became professor of Greekliteratnre. He isamember of several sci- entific and historical societies, and has contributed GOODELD—GORDON to various literary and philological journals. He is the author of Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb (1869) ; Elementary Greek Grammar (1870) ; Greek Reader (1871), and an edition of Xeno- phon’s Anabasis (1877). GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-60), an American in- ventor. At the age of twenty-one he became a mem- ber of the firm of A. Goodyear & Sons, manufactur- ers of steel hay-forks; but in 1830, through the failure of Southern houses, the firm was compelled to suspend. From that time until his death Mr. Goodyear was engaged in experimenting with In- dia rubber. In 1844 he obtained his patent for vul- canized rubber, and he lived to see his material. applied to nearly 500 uses, and to give employment to more than 60,000 persons. GOOKIN, DANIEL (1612-87), an American soldier. He came to Virginia in 1821, and in 1844 removed to Cambridge, Mass. He was appointed a captain of the militia and a member of the house of depu- ties ; was speaker of the house in 1651; was chosen magistrate in 1652 ; and in 1656 was appointed su- perintendent of all the Indians acknowledging the government of Massachusetts, retaining t e oflice until his death. In 1681 he became major-general of the colony. He wrote Historical Collections of the Indians of Massachusetts (published posthumous- ly); and a History of New England, which was lost and never published. ~ GOOSE. See Britannica, Vol. X, pp. 777-79. GOOSEBERRY. See Britannica, Vol. X, pp. 779-80. GOOSE LAKE lies partly in Jackson county,Oreg., and partly in Siskiyou county, Cal. It is 30 miles long and 10 miles wide, and at the southern end has an outlet called Pitt River. GOPHER WOOD. The probable identity of the gopher wood of Scripture with the cypress is main- tained partly on account of the qualities of the wood and partly on account of the agreement of the radical consonants of the names. GORAL, a kind of goat antelope, Nemorhaedus go- ral, inhabiting the rocky heights and lofty table- lands of India. It is of a grayish-brown color, dotted with black, the cheeks and throat white; the horns are short, inclined, recurved, and pointed. It is a wild and fleet animal, hunted for its excellent flesh. GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE, a British general, best known as “ Gordon Pasha,” born at Woolwich in 1833, died in 1885. In 1847 he entered the mili- tary academy at hVoolwich, and in 1852 the Royal Engineers. At Sebastopol, where he fought in the trenches, he was slightly wounded. Subsequently he was engaged in surveying the new frontier be- tween Turkey and Russia in Europe and Asia. In 1860 Gordon went to China, and took part in the capture of Peking and the destruction of the sum- mer palace there. In 1863 he was appointed to the command of a Chinese force officered by Europe- ans and Americans, and was for two years engaged against the Taiping rebels. He fought 33 actions in two campaigns, took numerous walled towns, and crushed the formidable rebellion which had so long wasted the fairest provinces of China. Returning from China in 1865, “ as poor as when he had entered it,” he performed engineer duties at Gravesend till 1872, when he went to Bulgaria as commissioner. In 1873 Khedive Ismail of Egypt em- ployed him to open up the regions of the equatorial Nile and the lakes which recent explorations had discovered, a work formerly begun by Sir Samuel Baker. Gordon was appointed governor of the equatorial provinces, and in February, 1874, he marched with 2.000 Egyptian and negro troops to Gondokoro, on the White Nile. Here he established GORDON--GORTON a chain of fortified posts as far as the great equa- torial lakes. He aimed at the suppression of the slave-trade which had formerly been the one great object of Soudanese commerce. The Khedive sup- ported his efforts, raised him to the rank of pasha, and made him governor of all Soudan in 1877. In 1879, when the new Khedive,Tewfik, failed to support him, Gordon resigned his position and re- turned to England, where he was greeted with great enthusiasm. After a brief holiday in Switzerland he was sent to Mauritius as command- ing royal engineer. Afterwards he was appointed major-general, and had command of the British troops in Cape Colony till 1882. Early in 1884 the British government asked him to procede once more to the Soudan, where the Moslem populations had risen in revolt, and defeated the Egyptian armies and isolated the Egyptian garrisons. A month after Gordon reached Khartum, this place was invested by the troops of the Mahdi, the leader of the Soudanese revolt. A relief expedition was organized in England, but reached the Soudan too late. The town of Khartum had been taken by the Mahdi two days before the expedition arrived. Gordon had fallen after a brave resistance of many months. The journal he left behind reveals won- derful courage, faith, resolution, and humility—a true Christian hero. He was treacherously slain by an Arab. GORDON, J om: B., United States Senator from Georgia, a lawyer, born in Upson county, Ga., Feb. 6, 1832. He was educated at the University of Vir- ginia, served in the Confederate army, being pro- moted from captain up to major-general, and was eight times wounded in battle. In politics a Dem- ocrat, he was a Presidential elector in 1868 and 1872, and a delegate to the National Democratic conventions of those years. In 1872 was elected by the State legislature to the United States Senate to succeed Joshua Hill. He resigned in 1880, be- came State railroad commissioner, and was gov- ernor of Georgia from 1886 to 1890. In 1890 was again elected to the United States Senate to suc- ceed Joseph E. Brown. GORDON, SIR ARTHUR HAMILTON, a British colo- nial governor, born at Aberdeen in 1829. After graduating at Cambridge University, he served as private secretary to his father, the fourth earl of Aberdeen, who was minister 1852 to 1855. In 1854 Sir Arthur became a member of Parliament for Beverly. In 1858 he was attached to Mr. Glad- stone’s mission to the Ionian Islands. Since 1861 Sir Arthur has been governor of New Brunswick, Trinidad, Mauritius, and of the Fiji Islands (1875), then just made into a British colony. In 1880 he was made governor of New Zealand. He displayed great administrative abilities in all these posi- tions. GORDONIA, a genus of lants of the natural or- der Ternstv*cevm'aceae. G. asiantlms, the Loblolly Bay, which cover considerable tracts of swampy coast in the Gulf of Mexico, is a handsome tree (fifty to sixty feet), with evergreen leaves, and large white fragrant flowers. The bark is used in tanning. GORDONSVILLE, a village of Orange county, Va., on the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, at its junction with the Virginia Midland and Great Southern Railroad, 87 miles southwest of Washing- ton, D. C. GORGEI, ARTHUR, the commander-in-chief of the Hungarian forces during the revolt of 1849, born in 1818. In 1848 he distinguished himself by compelling J ellachich’s Croatian reserve of 10,000 men to capitulate to him. In March, 1849, he was made commander-in-chief. In August he was nomi- 767' nated dictator in Kossuth’s stead,and shortly after- ward surrendered his army of 24,000 men, the last of the Hungarian forces in the field, to the Rus- sian commander. G5rgei himself was imprisoned for some time at Klagenfurt, in Carinthia, but eventually set at liberty. In 1868 he returned to Hungary, and in 1884 was presented with an ad- dress by 260 of his old companions in arms. GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (1565-1647), a proprie- tor of Maine. During the war with Spain he served in the English army, and in 1604 became governor of Plymouth. He then became interested in the colonization of the New World, and formed a company for that purpose. After several un successful attempts at settlement the council re- signed its charter, and in 1839 Gorges obtained a new charter, which constituted him lord-proprie- tary of the province of Maine. He divided it into two counties, and these were further divided into hundreds and parishes. In 1840 he sent his nephew, Thomas Gorges, to Maine as deputy-gov- ernor. Sir Ferdinando died at an advanced age, and his territorial rights had been more a source of expense than of profit. GORGONIA, a genus of corals of the Alcyonari-an type, in which the colony of polypes forms a branched but flattened growth, supported by an internal axis of horn (cornein), originally derived from the bases of the polypes. The genus, which includes over a score of widely distributed species, is nearly allied to the black coral (Plex- aum antipathes of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean), from whose black horny axis ornaments are often made; and to the sea-fan (Rhipid0g0rgia flabellum), whose much-branched fan-like skeleton is often brought as a curiosity from the ‘Vest Indies. GORHAM, a village of Co5s county, N. H.,. situated on the Androscoggin River and on the Grand Trunk Railroad. 91 miles northwest of Port- land, and about ten miles northeast of Mount VVashington. It has fine scenery, and is a favorite place of summer resort. GORY DEIV, a dark-red slimy film, sometimes seen on damp walls and in shady places. Its ap- pearance on the whitewashed walls of damp cellars, etc., is apt to occasion alarm from its resemblance to blood. It is one of the lowest forms of vegetable life—an alga of the group Palmellaceze, and allied to the plant to which the phenomenon of red snow is due. Its botanical name is P0rplzyrz'dium cruentum (Palmella cr'ue72z‘a). GORTON, SAMUEL, founder of the sect of Gor- tonians or Nothingarians, born at Gorton,England, about 1600, died in Rhode Island in 1677. He was for a time employed by a linen-draper of London, but in 1636 sought religious freedom in Boston, Mass. Becoming involved in disputes, he removed to Plymouth. was accused of heresy and expelled from the colony; went with a few followers to Aquidneck (now Newport), R. I., and was there publicly whipped for treating the magistrates with contempt. He then settled at Pawtuxet, R.I., but again became involved in disputes with the colonists, and in 1642 removed to Shawomet (now Warwick), R. I., where he purchased land of the Indians. His claim to the property was contested; he and his ten followers were taken to Boston, tried as heretics, and sentenced to imprisonment and hard labor, but the sentence was afterwards com- muted to banishment. Gorton then went to Eng- land, procured an order giving him possession of the lands at Shawomet, returned there, and subse- queutly became a preacher and magistrate of much consideration. His sect survived him‘ for nearly one hundred years. He published several religious works 7% GORTSCHAKOFF, PRINGE ALEXANDER M ICHAEL- ovIToII (1798-1883), a Russian statesman. In 1854- 56 he was ambassador at Vienna, and then became mmister of foreign affairs. In 1863 he was ap- pointed chancellor of the empire, and from this time until the ascendency of Bismarck he was the most powerful minister in Europe. In 1882 he re- tired from public life and went to Baden-Baden, where he died. GOSCHEN, GEORGE JoAoHIN, an English states- man, born in 1831. In 1863 he entered Parliament, as a Liberal, for the city of London, and in 1.966 he entered the cabinet; in 1868 he became president of the poor-law board, and in 1871 head of the admiralty, holding the latter post until 1874. In 1878 he represented Great Britain at the international monetary conference held at Paris. In 1887 he took his seat as a Liberal-Union- ist and accepted the chancellorship of the ex- chequer. In 1890 his budget proposals in connection with licensing were warmly opposed by the Liberals. GOSHEN, a city and county-seat of Elkhart county, Ind., midway between Chicago and Toledo. Elkhart River furnishes abundant water-power, and great quantities of lumber are manufactured here. There are flour mills, a woolen mill, oil mill, and plow factories. GOSHEN, a railroad junction and one of the county-seats of Orange county, N. Y. Dairying is the chief business. GOSN OLD, BARTIIOLOMEW, an English navigator, who first became known as an associate of Raleigh in his unsuccessful attempt to found a colony in Virginia. In 1602 he sailed from England with one ship and twenty colonists; steered directly across the Atlantic; entered Massachusetts Bay; discovered and named Cape Cod; stopped at an island now known as No Man’s Land, and planted his colony on Cuttyhunk; but the colonists soon became discouraged and returned to England. Gos- nold then organized a company, which settled at Jamestown, Va., in April, 1607. He died there Aug. 22, 1607. GOSPELS. See Britannica, Vol. X, pp. 789-843. GOSSAMER, a light filamentous substance, which often fills the atmosphere during fine weather in the latter part of autumn, or is spread over the whole face of the ground, loaded with dew- drops. This has been ascertained to be produced by small spiders, although it is not yet well known if the gossamer spread over the ground is pro- duced by the same species of spider which pro- duces that seen floating in the air, or falling as if from the clouds. The eagerness which some of the small spiders known to produce these webs show for water to drink, has led to the supposition that dew may be one of the objects of the forma- tion of those on the ground, also that they may afford a rapid mode of transit from place to place. As to the gossamers in the air, conjecture is more at a loss; although the supposition that the spider forms them in order to shift from place to place is more probable. The spiders which produce these threads eject with great force from their spinner- ets, a viscid fluid which presently becomes a thread; sometimes several such threads are pro- duced at once in a radiating form, and these, being caught by the ascending current of heated air, are borne upwards, the spider along with them. It has been said that the spider has power of guiding in the air the web by which it is wafted up. GOSSE, EDMUND WILLIAM, an English poet and critic, born in London, Sept. 21, 1849, and educated privately. He was appointed assistant librarian at the British Museum in 1867; translator to the GORTSCHAKOFE—GOUGH board of trade in 1875, and is Clark lecturer in English literature at Trinity College, Cambndge. He has published Madrigals, Songs, and Sonnets (1870) ; On Viol and Flute (1873) ; ‘New Poems (1879); From Shakespeare to Pope (1885); The History of 18th Century Literature, 1660-1780 (1889); and the dramas King Eric (1876) ; The Unknown Looer(1878); and The Masque of Painters. He has edited a new series of translated foreign novels, commencing in 1890 with In God’s Way, by Bjiirnson. GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY, a British zoblogist, born at Worcester, April 10, 1810, died Aug. 23, 1888. He was reared at Poole; in 1827 went to Newfoundland as a clerk, and was afterwards in turn farmer in Canada, schoolmaster in Alabama,and professional naturalist in Jamaica. Returning to England he published in 1840 the “Canadian Natural- ist,” and after another stay in the West Indies set- tled in England to a busy life of letters. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1856. His best-known work is Romance of Natural History (1860-62). Actinologia Britannica (1860), and the Prehensile Armature of the Papilionidze (1885), are later and more strictly scientific works. He also published a number of works on American natural history. GOTHA ALMANAC (Almanach de Gotha), a universal political register, published annually at Gotha, in Germany. It was issued in the German language from 1764 to 1804, and from the latter date till the present has been published both in French and German. The Gctha Almanac is a small volume, containing nearly 1,000 pages, and recording the sovereigns and royal families of every civilized country, the civil, diplomatic, mili- tary, and naval oflicers, a great amount of statisti- cal information, a compact summary of historical events, and other matters or political interest. GOTHAM,a parish of Notts, England, whose people were long famed for their stupidity, being termed in derision “the wise men of Gotham.” The name was by Irving humorously applied to the city of New York, and the appellation is still a familiar one in the United States. GOTTSCHALK, Lours MoREAU, an American pianist and composer, born in New Orleans, La., May 8, 1829, died at Tijuca, Brazil, Dec. 18, 1869. He early showed marked musical ability, and at the age of twelve was sent to Paris, where he studied the piano with Hallé and Camille Stamatz, and harmony with Maleden. His first appearance was made in Paris in 1845. He afterwards traveled in Switzerland and Spain, and achieved a high repu- tation before returning to the United States. His first appearance in this country was made in Bos- ton. He was subsequently heard in other cities of the Union, in Mexico, and South America. Gott- schalk was popular as a man and admired as an artist. Among other decorations he received the cross of the Legion of Honor and the Order of Isa- bella the Catholic. His numerous pieces are chiefly illustrative of Southern life. GOUGH, J OIIN BARTIIoLoMEw, a temperance lec- turer, born at Sandgate, Kent, England, Aug. 22, 1817, died at Philadelphia Pa., Feb. 18,1886. At the death of his father, 'n 1829, he came to the United States, and was or a time employed on a farm in Oneida county, New York; in 1831 he went to New York city, whe e he became a bookbinder. After some years of poverty, caused by dissipated habits, which finally reduced him to the utmost misery, he reformed and devoted himself to the temperance cause, laboring with great zeal and success. He visited England in 1853, by invitation of the London Temperance League, and lectured for two years in the United Kingdom. He was GOULBURN——GOURKO again in England in 1857-60 and in 1878. In some 0? his later addresses he took up literary and social topics, and acquired a moderate fortune by his lec- tures. He published an Autobiography (1846); Ora- tions (1854); Temperance Address (1870); Temperance Lectures (1879) ; and Sunlight and Shadow, or Glean- ings from My Life-w ork (1880). GO LBURN, EDWARD MEYBRICK, an English clergyman and author, born in 1818. In 1841 he was elected a fellow of Merton, and after holding the Oxford incumbency of Holywell he became head master of Rugby, 1850-58. In 1858 he was prebendary of St. Paul’s ; was chaplain to the queen, and vicar of St. J ohn’s, Paddington, 1859, and dean of Norwich, 1866-89. Among his publications are: The Philosophy of Grammar, With Especial Refer- ence to the Doctrine of the Cases (1852); Thoughts on Personal Religion (1862); and The Ofiice of the Holy Communion (1863). GOULD, BENJAMIN Arrnonr, born at Lancaster, Mass., June 15,1787, died in Boston, Oct. 24, 1859. He graduated at Harvard in 1814, and was ap- pointed principal of the Boston Latin School, con- tinuing in charge until 1828. Under his adminis- tration the institution became famous for thorough- ness in classical teaching. Mr. Gould was one of the first Americans to annotate classical authors, and his critical editions of Horace, Ovid and Virgil, prepared for use in the Boston school, had an ex- tensive circulation throughout the country. In 1828 failing health compelled him to relinquish teaching, and after several years spent in Eu- ropean travel he returned and engaged in the im- porting business. He subsequently filled important offices in his native State. GOULD, BENJAMIN Arrnonr, astronomer, born in Boston, Mass., Sept. 27, 1824, graduated at Har- vard in 1844, and received the degree of Ph. D. at Gottingen in 1848. Returning to America, he con- ducted the “Astronomical Journal” from 1849 to 1861;was director of the Dudley Observatory at Albany in 1856-59, and in 1868 was appointed to organize and direct the National Observatory at Cordoba, in the Argentine Republic. He organized an admirable series of stations throughout the country, and mapped a large part of the southern heavens. In 1885 he returned to the United States, where he received the degree of LL.D. from Har- vard in 1885, and from Columbia in 1887. Dr. Gould has published valuable astronomical reports and charts, and is a member of numerous scientific societies in Europe. GOULD, HANNAH FLAGG, an American poet, born in Lancaster, Mass., Sept. 3, 1789, died in Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 5, 1865. She began her literary career by writing for periodicals. Her poems, published in 1832-36 and 1841, were much admired both in England and America. Her life was passed quietly in the homestead at N ewbury- or . GOULD, JAY, an American financier, born at Roxbury, N. Y., May 27, 1836. He early developed a taste for mathematics and surveying, and on leaving school was employed in making surveys for county maps. He was afterwards employed for a short time in lumbering, and accumulated sufficient capital to become in 1857 the principal shareholder in the bank of Stroudsburg. Pa. He now began to buy up railroad bonds, and in 1859 established himself as a broker in New York city. He was president of the Erie Railway company till 1872; afterwards invested largely in the stocks of other railways and telegraph companies, and in 1881 be- came interested in the elevated railroad system of New York city. In 1882, a question of his financial stability having arisen, Mr. Gould produced for 769 examination stock certificates in his own name having a face value of $53,000,000, and offered to produce $20,000,000 more if desired. In 1887 it was estimated that he controlled over 13,000 miles of railway, or nearly a tenth of the entire mileage of the country. GOULD, JOHN (1804-81), an English ornitholo- gist. From an early age he interested himself in the study of natural history, and in 1824 became employed in preparing specimens for the museum of the London Zoblogical Society. He gave much attention to humming birds, and collected more than 2,000 specimens, illustrating 320 species. Among his publications are:A Century of Birds From the Himalaya Mountains (1832); The Birds of Europe (1837); Birds of Australia (1848); The Mam- mals of Australia (1859) ; Monograph of The Trochilz'- dae (1850); Odontophorinae, or Partridges of America (1850); The Birds of Great Britain (1873); and The Birds of New Guinea (1875). GOULD, Tnorms R., sculptor, born in Boston, Mass., in 1818, died in Florence, Italy, Nov. 26, 1881. He early engaged in mercantile business, and did not devote himself to art until later life, his first work being done in 1851. He followed his profes- sion in Boston until 1868, when he went to Italy and settled in Florence. In 1878 Mr. Gould visited Bos- ton. Among his most celebrated statues are The West Wind, Cleopatra, Timon of Athens, and Ariel. He also executed several portrait statues, and a number of busts. GOUN OD, CHARLES Fnaxgors, a French com- poser, born at Paris in 1818. He received his musical education at the Paris Conservatory, where he enjoyed the instruction of the celebrated com- posers Halévy and Lesueur. In 1839 he gained the prize, and was thereby enabled to go to Rome for further study. At Rome he entered a priests’ sem- inary for the purpose of devoting himself to old Italian church music. In 1843 he returned to Paris, and became there the musical director of a church, which position he held for six years. In 1851 he pro- duced the Messe Solennelle. After that he gave his attention more to secular music, producing first the lyric drama Sappho, and several pastorals, which were not much appreciated. But his Faust, which appeared in 1859, captivated the French. and in some degree also the Germans. Afterwards Gounod composed other operas, less popular than Faust. Among them La Reine de Saba; Mireille; Romeo and J uliet-—all from 1862 to 1867. The war of 1870 drove him to London, but he returned to Paris in 1875. In London he produced the opera Polyeucta and a cantata, Gabia. After his return to Paris the opera Le Tribut de Zamora (1881), and the oratorios Redemption (1882), and Mors et Vita (1885), have been his chief productions. He has lately been elected a member of the French Insti- tute. GOURD. See Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 4-5. GOURKO, J osnrn VLAD1MInov1'roH, CoUN'r, a Russian general, born in 1825. He served as cap- tain in the infantry during the Crimean war. In 1861 he became colonel, in 1873 brigade comman- der, and in 1876 division commander. At the out- break of the war with Turkey in 1877, he com- manded the Russian vanguard. At the Shipka Pass he joined the Russian main army after the Turks had compelled him to retreat. At the head of a corps of cavalry he invested Plevna, where Cs- man Pasha maintained a gallant struggle. Gourko compelled him to surrender, Dec. 10, 1877. After this Gourko crossed the Balkans in midwinter with 75,000 men, captured Sophia, Philippopolis, etc. At the end of the Turkish war he was made general of cavalry, and in 1883 military governor of \Varsaw 7% GOUVERN EUR, a town of St. Lawrence county, N. Y., situated on the Oswegatchie River, and on the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad, -36 miles northeast of Watertown. It contains a seminary and several large mills. GOVAN, a police burgh of Lanark and Renfrew -shires, on the south bank of the Clyde, outside the municipal boundaries of Glasgow, but connected with the city by continuous rows of buildings. Its leading industry is shipbuilding. GOVERNMENT (see Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 9-2l),the ruling power in a political community. It governs the community by means of laws, de- crees, ordinances, rules, orders, etc. Every law, decree, etc., is a command issued by the ruling power to those who are bound to obeg, and every such command restricts somebody’s iberties. In some of the Swiss cantons all the citizens of the state assemble on stated days, and enact then and there the laws for the community. The “ Landam- mann” executes the laws. These are pure de- mocracies, and represent the ideal government. In all other republics of the present day the people elect representatives to make the laws for them. A “president” or “governor” executes the laws. These are representative republics. In most Eu- ropean monarchies the people elect delegates to make the laws for them, and a “ monarch ” executes theselaws. These are constitutional monarchies. In Russia, China, Persia, etc., the monarch makes the laws and enforces them also. These are absolute monarchies. In some of the ancient republics the nobility (aristocrats) ruled absolutely. These were oligarchies. As none of these exist now, we shall not further consider them in this article; and since pure democracies are only possible in very small communities, we shall also dismiss this form from further consideration. VVe have then only three forms of governments to consider: (1) The repre- sentative republic; (2) the constitutional mon- archy, and (8) the absolute monarchv. The principal republican governments are the United States, France, Switzerland, Mexico, the -Central American Republics, Hayti, Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Chili, Venezuela, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic. The principal constitutional monarchies are the British Empire, the German Empire, the Austro- Hungarian Empire, the Kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden and Norway; Holland, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Servia, Roumania, and in Germany the Kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Wiirt- emberg and Saxony, besides several duchies and grand duchies; in Asia, the governments of Japan, Afghanistan and Beloochistan. The principal absolute monarchies are: Russia, Turkey, Egypt, Persia, China, Abyssinia, and M0- rocco. A federal government rules over several states united for national purposes as for common offense and defense, for establishing mutual free trade, for common representation before other governments, etc. Such governments are those of the United States of North America, of Mexico, of Colombia, of Brazil, the Swiss government, the German Em- ire, etc. This form secures to each portion a ocal government for its domestic purposes, famil- iar with its habits and sympathizing with its peculiar wants. At the same time, it secures to the united nation a common government suffi- ciently powerful for its protection against foreign nations, and clothed with authority to provide general regulations for the welfare of the whole. But the powers of the federal and state govern- ments must be clearly defined and distinctly lim- ited; and the citizens of such states must be polit- GOUVERNEUR—GOVERNMENT ically well educated, and in order to exercise their political rights intelligently, each state of such a union must be independent in those matters which concern itself only. On the other hand, all the members of the union must be subject to the fed- eral power in those matters which concern all the states collectively. In such matters as these, the sovereignty of each state must cease. Among the subjects included in this latter category are the making of peace and war; the sending of ambas- sadors and ministers to other governments and the reception of their diplomatic agents; the levying of imports, internal revenues, etc., and the mainte- nance of a standing army and navy, and also of a postal service. In relation to other nations a fed- eral union forms one state only. All those rights that are not distinctly delegated to the federal power belong to the several states individually. Every good government is divided into three de- partments or branches—the legislative, executive, and judicial. The constitution of the United States carries out this principle with the clearest distinctness. In the first sections of its articles I, II, and III, it is respectively declared, that “all legislative power shall be vested in a Congress of the United States,” etc. ; “the executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States ;” “the judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time or- dain and establish.” Each of these departments aids the other two and acts as a check upon them. Together they work out most beneficial results. The Congress of the United States consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The for- mer represents the States, for the Senators are appointed by the State governments. The latter represents the people directly, because the repre- sentativcs are elected by the voters of their dis- tricts. The President can veto any bill passed by the Congress. But if it afterwards receives the vote of two-thirds of each house, it becomes a law in spite of the President’s veto. And if any law is subsequently brought into the Supreme Court to investigate its constitutionality, the Supreme Court has the power to decide whether it is con- stitutional or not. All these arrangements are well calculated to prevent hasty and inconsiderate legislation. Similar arrangements exist in the several States. After a State legislature has passed a bill, the governor of the State can veto it, but the legisla- ture may subsequently pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote. And if, after a bill has become a law, it is carried into the Supreme Court of the State, this court has the power to declare the law unconstitutional. These restraints upon legisla- tion are necessary, because, under popular govern- ments like ours, where the people are in close con- tact with the legislators, all the petty grievances, wants and wishes are taken to the latter for re- dress, and there is always danger of too much legis- lation, of overdoing the thing by passing numer- ous private or s ecial laws to the detriment of the majority of t e citizens. Our government is often called a “ government of the people,for the people and by the people.” This is a figurative expression. For the “people” of the United States do not govern directly. They only elect their ruling officials very frequently; and by this means, and the public press, they exert a powerful influence over them. Never- theless the laws and constitutions are enacted in the name of the “people.” As an example, we insert here the opening words of the Con- stitution of the United States, which read as GOVERNMENT’S ISLAND-—GRAFTING follows: “We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish jus- tice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and -our posterity, do Ordain and Establish this Consti- tutionfor the United States of America.” This sen- tence gives us a clear and forcible answer to the question, “Why do people voluntarily surrender their natural liberty and equality, constitute gov- ernments and obey their commands, laws and de- crees?” “The social compact” is to secure safety, tranquility, justice and the general welfare. GOVERNMENT’S ISLAND, in Rock Island county, Ill., lies in the Mississippi River, between the cities of Rock Island, Ill., and Davenport, Iowa. It belongs to the United States government, has fine armories and arsenals, and is connected by bridges with either shore. During the civil war it was used as a militar prison. Area, 960 acres. GOVERNOR’S IS AND, a fortified island of Suffolk county, Mass., forming part of the defen- sive system of Boston harbor. It lies on the north side of themain ship-channel, opposite Castle Island. GOVERNORS’ ISLAND, a small island in New York harbor, owned by the U. S. Fort Columbus and Castle 'William are here, and the ordnance department has a depot. The general recruiting service of the army has its rendezvous here. GOWAN, OGLE Rosnar, born in County Wex- ford, Ireland, in 1796, died in Toronto, Can., Aug. 21, 1876. He received a good education, and early became editor of the “Antidote,” a newspaper of Dublin. Removing to Canada in 1829, he resided for a time in Escott, and afterwards in Toronto. He served with distinction against the insurrec- tionists of 1837-39; was a member of the Canadian Parliament (1834-41), and was for a time postoifice inspector and subsequently a license-ofiicer in To- ronto. He was the founder of the Orange lodges of North America, and was for 20 years their grand master. GOWVANDA, a village of New York on Cattarau- gus Creek, the boundary line dividing Cattaraugus and Erie counties. It has manufactories of flour, ggricultural implements, carriages and cheese- oxes. GRACE, an expression frequently used in Scrip- ture and in theological discussion. Its distinctive meaning is the idea of free and unmerited favor. According to Aristotle this is the proper meaning of charis (Gr., grace), even when applied to man. It is a benefit springing out of the liberality and free-heartedness of the giver, and bestowed without any hope or expectation of reward. Applied to God in the New Testament and in theology, it de- notes the free outcoming of his love to man; and when man, on the other hand, is said to be in a state of grace, it implies that he is in the enjoy- ment of the divine love and favor. St. Paul draws a sharp contrast (Rom. xi, 6) between charis and erga (Gr., works), as mutually excluding one an- other. “And if by grace, then it is no more of works: otherwise grace is no more grace. But if it be of works, then it is no more grace: otherwise work is no more work.” Theologians have dis- tinguished grace into common or general, and special or particular. Common grace is supposed to denote the love which God has to all his crea- tures, and the light of nature and of conscience which they all enjoy. Special grace is the love which God has for his elect people, and by which he saves them from their sins. GRACKLE, the common name of many birds of the Starling family (Sturnidae‘ See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. E. 771 GRADIENT, a term used, chiefly in connection with railways, to signify a departure of the line from a perfect level. HRADIENTIA, a group of reptiles which com- bines in one order all hving ambulatory amphib- ians. It is represented by numerous species in temperate and tropical parts of the globe. \Vith the exclusion of such amphibians as newts and sal- amanders, Gradientia is sometimes used as equiva- lent to Lacertilia. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 732; and Vol. XX, pp. 439, 444. GRADUAL PSALMS, or Sones or Dsonnns. a name given by the Hebrews and in the Christian service-books to the fifteen psalms, 120-34 (119-33 in the Vulgate). The origin of this name is un- certain, but the most probable conjecture supposes that the psalms were sung by pilgrims when going up to Jerusalem for the great annual feasts. In the Roman Catholic church they are recited on all Wednesdays in Lent, except the last. GRAFEN BERG, a village in the northwest cor- ner of Austrian Silesia. It is celebrated as the spot where the water-cure was introduced in 1826 by Vincenz Priessnitz (1799-1851). It still is visited early by some 1,500 persons. GRAFFITI (Ital., grajjito, a scratching),or WALL SCRIBBLINGS, the name given to certain classes of mural inscriptions and drawings found at Pompeii, Rome, and other ancient cities in Italy. They are generally scratched with a sharp instrument, or scrawled with red chalk or charcoal, on walls, door- posts, and portico-pillars, and seem to be the work of idle triflers; but some were executed with more serious intention. The subjects that oftenest oo cur are doggerel verses, quotations from the poets. amatory effusions, rude caricatures, especially of gladiators, etc. The more serious examples are electioneering admonitions, play-bills, and similar public announcements, philosophic apothegms, no- tices of household events, etc. These scribblings serve as an admirable index to the current life of the people, especially in Pompeii. Without them we should have a far less adequate idea of the street life of the ancient Roman people, and of the phraseology and idiom of the vernacular spoken toward the end of the first century A. D. in South- ern Italy. Three alphabets were used-—Latin, Greek and Oscan. In Rome grafliti have been found on some of the great buildings, as the palace of the Caesars, Nero’s golden house, and in the cata- combs. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 450. GRAFTING: in horticulture, the uniting of a shoot or scion, containing one or more buds, to a stock or root with a view, by their union, to pro- duce a superior fruit. There are a number of ways of grafting; for an account of some of which the reader is referred to the article on HORTICULTURE, in Britannica,Yol. XII, pp. 236-37. On farms cleft- grafting is the form generally adopted, and the only tools required are a sharp saw, a keen pocket-knife, a butcher-knife and a mallet, for splitting the stocks, and grafting wax for spreading over the mutilated parts. The stock is sawed off square, split, and two scions inserted, one on each side, tapered down to a wedge shape, and so placed that the inner bark of the stock and the scion will just meet. Old orchards may be renewed and the fruit improved by grafting the limbs with desirable va- rieties, the thorough pruning involved infusing new life; and new varieties can sooner be brought into bearing when thus top-grafted than if planted as nursery trees. Fine results have been attained by grafting a third of the limbs of a tree at once, and the remaining two-thirds at intervals of a year. Tgventy-eight and one-half bushels of choice apples are reported to have been gathered, in Con- 772 necticut, in the sixth year from the first graftin , from a single tree that was seventy - five years old, and had previously borne inferior fruit. Another common mode of grafting is by in-arch- ing. A modification of this may be practiced where the bark of a valuable tree has been injured. The injury is pared smooth at the edges of the bark down to the live wood, and a piece of healthy bark fitted accurately thereto, and covered with grafting wax until it is healed, or scions set close together, and brought fresh bark to fresh bark, at top and bottom, and securely fastened. In root-grafting experience proves that a perfect union of the root and scion may be efiected at any point of the root, and that cuts of roots of one or two years’ growth, smooth and straight are best. These should be taken up from the seed-bed in the fall, selected, tied in bundles, and stored in a cellar or buried in the soil, where they will remain fresh. After the roots have been cut into pieces 2 to 4 inches in length, and the scions prepared, the work of grafting may be taken up at any time during the winter. In performing the work the grafter takes up a stock, cuts the slope near the collar, and also the tongue, if that style of grafting is to be done. The tongue and slope of the scion have been previously cut and the scions laid ready to hand. The grafter then picks up a scion and adapts it to the root-stock, the tongues of the two keeping them together. The process of grafting is completed by applying melted wax with a brush, and wrapping the grafts with waxed strips of mus- lin or paper, or tying them with waxed thread. By a division of labor immense numbers of grafts may be turned out. Machinery has also been applied to the business, and grafting apparatus facilitates the work. One mac‘hine consists of a frame or gauge which regulates the angle of the slope, which is cut with a broad chisel, while others consist of shears to cut the slope and tongue at one operation. The grafting of grapevines has never been suc- cessful until quite recently. For this operation the earth is removed from the old vine as far as the root will permit, exposing the collar. The vine is cut off 3 or 4 inches below the surface of the earth. Cuts are then made in the stub about half an inch deep or a little more. These clefts are made with the “ Wagner saw,” which has two thin saw-blades % inch apart, with a sharp chisel blade between them, and the scions of the grape to be propagated about 6 inches long, are in- serted into these clefts in the stump, letting their lower ends extend into the soil below the incision. In order to effect this the cuts are made obliquely downward into the bark and wood of the root. The earth is firmly pressed about the cutting and the stock, and only one or two eyes of the scions left -exposed. This method of grafting the grape-vine permits the use of strong-growing va- rieties as stocks for those that grow less vigorously. If, for instance, the Delaware vine, which is a slow grower, is grafted upon a Concord stock, which is a strong grower, a more vi orous Delaware vine is secured, inclined to pro uce larger berries and more of them, and less inclined to drop the leaves. Where phylloxera has devastated vineyards, it has been found necessary to graft the desired varieties upon the roots of varieties that are not affected by the destructive insect. GRAFTING: in surgery, is the transplanting of a portion of flesh, bone or skin to supply a defi- ciency caused by disease or wounds. The material may be taken from another part of the same body, as in the case of skin-graftin is usual, or from an- other person or animal, whic is the usual method in bone or flesh-grafting. This system has grown GRAFTING-GRAFTON in favor as the structure of the body has become better understood—the construction of the tissues, and the methods by which the process of repair can be assisted. Under the titles of ANATOMY, PATHOL- oev, and SURGERY, in Britannica, Vols. I, XVIII, XXII, the subjects are well considered. At first applied in repairing injuries to the nose, ears, and lips to render deformity less conspicuous by Tagliacossi (see Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 20), skin-grafting is now used also in cases where large surfaces of the skin are abraded, or where burns or scalds have taken off the cuticle. This is called Re- verdin’s operation. Small pieces of skin are planted over the exposed surface. which become fixed and extend toward each other and toward the exten- sions put out by the sides of the wound. Although the result is not true skin, it is a healthy tissue, and prevents, where it is successful, the sloughin g of a wound and dangerous complications. A case reported as having recently occurred in New York has caused much comment. A prominent member of a club was unfortunate enough to lose a large patch of the skin of his face, whereupon a number of his club associates volunteered to have small patches of their respective skin, generally from the left arm, removed for his benefit. All these small patches were transplanted to the bared surface of the patient, and made up a complete covering of the denuded part. The operation was reported to have been successful. BONE-GRAFTING has also been tried with varying success. In a case lately reported in New York, where the shinbone of a boy had been injured, the defective part of the bone was carefully removed, but leaving a portion of the osseine intact, and a similar portion of a bone of a dog’s fore-leg was fitted into the vacated space without detaching it from the live dog. The boy and dog were kept im- movably connected for some time, in order to in- duce the two joined bones to grow together. But the operation appears to have been only a partial success. Prof. A. F. McGill, of Leeds, England, reported in 1889 the successful treatment of a case of “non- unitecl bone fracture,” by the use of a bone-graft taken from a rabbit. The patient, a young man of twenty, had been suffering for a year from a frac- tured forearm. The fracture was compound, the wound being on the radial side. Through the wound the broken ends protruded. The ulna united perfectly, but the fragments of the radius would not join. Three months after the accident a surgeon exposed the ends of the bone refreshed them, and wired them together. The wound healed, but the fragments did not unite. Several months later the patient applied to Dr. McGill for relief. The bones were bared for the space of three inches, and the ends found rounded, with no signs of union, but covered with a thick membrane resembling periosteum. This was filed away and the bone tissue again bared, and an in-. terval of three-fourths inch left between the punc- tured ends. Then small fragments of the femur of a freshly-killed rabbit (six months old) were taken, having been chiseled out of the femur-13 pieces of one or two lines in length; and with these the in- terval between the ends of the bones was filled, and the inserted pieces were held together by the replaced skin, which was carefully stitched, and the whole held in place by numerous catgut sut- ures. No drainage tube was used. In about a month the Patient left the hospital fully cured, and with the arm as useful as ever. GRAFTON, the county-seat of Walsh county in the northeastern part of N. Dak., about 110 mile!- north of Fargo. GRAFTON-GRAND PRE GRAFTON, the county-seat of Taylor county, W. Va., on Valley River. The chief industries are lumber and coal. The village has railroad shops, foundries, fiouring-mills, planing and saw mills. GRAHAM, SYLVESTER, vegetarian, born in Suf- field, Conn., in 1794, died in Northampton, Mass., Sept. 11, 1851. In 1823 he entered Amherst College, intending to prepare for the ministry, but did not complete the course. He began to preach in 1826, and in 1830 engaged in the temperance work. Be- coming convinced that intemperance could be cured by the adoption of a purely vegetable diet, he afterwards applied the theory to other forms of disease. He published Essay on Cholera in 1832, and in 1839 delivered a course of lectures entitled Graham Lectures on the Science of Human Life. He also published Bread and Bread-making; A Lecture to Young Men, and one volume of The Philosophy of Sacred History. GRAHAM, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, an American statesman, born in Lincoln county, N. C., in 1804, died at Saratoga, N. Y.. Aug. 11, 1875. He became a lawyer, and in 1833 was elected to the legislature of North Carolina. Several times he was chosen speaker of the assembly of that State, and in 1841 he was elected United States Senator. From 1845 to 1849 he was governor of North Carolina. When Fillmore became President, he appointed Graham Secretary of the Navy. In June, 1852, the Whig party nominated him for Vice-President, but he was defeated. After this he remained in private life until 1864, when he became a Senator in the Con- federate Congress. GRAHAME, JAMES, historian, born in Glasgow, Scotland, Dec. 21, 1790, died in London, England, July 3, 1842. He graduated at St. J ohn’s College, Cambridge, and in 1812 was admitted to the Scot- tish bar. He subsequently removed to the south of England. In 1827 he published the first two vol- umes of a history of the United States, and in 1836 a new edition in four volumes was published, bring- ing the history down to the year 1776. The work was highly praised by the historian Prescott and others, but was not popular in England, because of its thoroughly American spirit. A Philadelphia edition was published in 1845. GRAMOPHONE. Emile Berliner, of Washington D. C. announced in 1891 that he had prefected his invention, the gramophone. He claimed that it is the greatest sound producing machine in existence. Mr. Berliner is the inventor of the transmitter used on the telephones of the Bell Company, and is still retained by the company as one of its elec- tricians. He first exhibited the gramophone, not then brought perfection, in Philadelphia, May 16, 1888, before the Franklin Institute. The process of reproduction is short. A disk of polished zinc is covered with a fatty film for an etching ground. It is placed on a turntable, and as one talks in a tube the disk is revolved, and the vibrations caused by‘ the sound are traced in the film by a small pen. T e etched plate is put in chromic acid, and in fif- teen minutes is ready for use. It is put on another . turntakle and revolved by the turning of a crank. A stiff pen traces the etched lines and reproduces the vibrations on a ruber or vulcanite diaphragm, by which the original sound is carried into the tube. The pitch o the reproducted voice can be made high or low aecording as the crank is turned rapidly or slowly. There is practically no limit, Mr. Berliner says, to the number of reproductions that can be made from one plate, and any number of plates can be made from one original. More- over the plate can be printed from a photo-engrav- mg made from the print and the sounds reproduced from this plate with one of the machines. 773 GRAIN ELEVATOR. See Lmrs, Britannica,Vol. XIV, p. 574. GRAND BANK, a fishing village and port of entry on the south side of Fortune Bay,N. F. It has considerable trade. GRAND BANK, a submarine plateau in the Northern Atlantic, extending about 350 miles east- ward from Newfoundland. Its formation is at- tributed to the deposit of stone and earth from ice- bergs melted by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. The grand bank is the headquarters of the cod-fishery. GRAND BAY, or HA-HA Bay, an inlet from the Saguenay River in Chicoutimi county, Quebec, Can. It is a beautiful sheet of water, averaging a mile in width and about 100 fathoms in depth, and is a source of attraction to summer tourists. At its head the largest vessels load with lumber. GRAND CROSSING, a village of Cook county, Ill., at the intersection of the Illinois Central, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, New York, Chicago and St. Louis, and Pittsburgh, Ft. VVayne and Chi- cago railroads, nine miles south of Chicago. It has manufactures of sewing-machines and furniture. GRAN DEES (Span., grandes), since the 13th cen- tury the most highly privileged class of nobility in Castile, the members of the royal family being in- cluded. Their honors were hereditary; they held lands from the crown on the tenure of military ser- vice, were exempted from taxation, could not be summoned before any civil or criminal judge with- , out a special warrant from the king, and could leave the kingdom, and even enter the service of a foreign prince at war with Castile, without incur- ring the penalties of treason. They had also the right of being covered in the presence of the king. In the national assemblies they sat immediately behind the prelates and before the titled nobility (titulados). Under Joseph Bonaparte their privi- leges were entirely abolished, but they were par- tially regranted at the subsequent restoration. Grandees are still members of the Senate in their own right. GRAND FORKS, the county-seat of Grand Forks county, N. Dak., on the Red River of the North. It contains the University of North Dakota. GRAND ISLAND,a city, railroad junction and county-seat of Hall county, Neb. Shipping grain is the chief industry. GRAND JUNCTION, the capital of Mesa county, Colo., on the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, at the confluence of Grand and Gunnison Rivers. GRAND JUNCTION, a town of Greene county, Iowa, on the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad, where it crosses the Des Moines and Fort Dodge Railroad, 38 miles south of Ft. Dodge. The princi- pal business in the vicinity is farming and stock- raising. GRAND LEDGE, a village of Eaton county, Mich., 12 miles west of Lansing. It has a min- eral spring, is a health resort, and has good water- power. GRAND MANAN, an island in the Bay of Fundy, 22 miles long and from 3 to 6 wide, belonging to New Brunswick. It is fertile and has many good harbors. The chief settlement is Grand Harbor. The cod, herring, and haddock fisheries are impor- tant. The island is a summer resort. GRAND MONADNOCK, or Mormnnonx, a soli- tary mountain peak of Cheshire county, N. H., sup- osed to be a detached member of the White ountain group. It is 3,718 feet high. GRAND PRE (post-oflice Lower Horton), 8 vil- lage lying in the basin of Minas, Kings county, N. S., 15 miles from Windsor. It is the scene of Long- iellow’s E rangeli ne. The village contains a seminary. 774 GRAND RAPIDS, a city and county;-seat of Kent county, Mich., at the head of steam oat navi- gation on Grand River, and at the junction of six railroads. It is 60 miles west-northwest of Lan- sing. The sawin and planing of pine and hard- wood lumber, an the manufacture of furniture, cooperage, and wooden-ware, are the leading in- dustries. Farm implements, iron goods, wire, leather, flour, machinery, beer, chemicals, white bricks, cement, stucco-plaster, and land-plaster are also extensively manufactured. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 47. Population in 1860, 8,025 ; 1870, 16,- 507; 1880, 32,016 ; 1890, 64,147. GRAND RAPIDS, a city and county-seat of Wood county, Wis., on Wisconsin River. Lumber- ing and agriculture are the chief occupations. There are lumber mills, machine shop, and foun- dry in the city, and pure kaolin is found in the vicinity. GRAND RIVER, of Michigan, rising in the lower peninsula, flows westerly into Lake Michigan after a course of about 280 miles. Large steamers can ascend it for 40 miles. GRAND RIVER, Missouri, an aflluent of the Missouri River. Its course is southeasterly and its length about 300 miles. GRAND TRAVERS BAY, an arm of Lake Michi- gan, extending into the lower peninsula of Michi- gag. It is about 30 miles long and 12 miles W1 e. GRANGER, GIDEON, born in Sufiield, Conn., July 19, 1767, died in Canandaigua, N. Y., Dec. 31, 1822. He graduated at Yale in 1787, was admitted to the bar, and soon became prominent in his pro- fession. He was a member of the legislature of Connecticut, and was instrumental in the estab- lishment of the school fund; became Postmaster- General of the United States in 1801; in 1814 re- turned to Canandaigua, and in 1819 was elected to the State Senate. GRANGER, GoRDoN, born in New York in 1821, died in Santa Fé, New Mexico, Jan. 10, 1876. He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1845, engaged in the Mexican war, and at the commencement of the civil war was assigned to duty on the stafl of Gen. Sturgis. In September he was appointed colonel 2d Michigan cavalry, in 1862 commanded the cavalry in the operations that led to the fall of Corinth, and commanded various districts in Kentucky and Tennessee. He was in command of the 4th army corps at the bat- tle of Missionary Ridge; of a division at Fort Gaines, Ala.,in 1864; and commanded the 13th army corps in the Southwest, engaging in the siege of Fort Morgan, and throughout the operations that resulted in the fall of Mobile. He was brevetted first-lieutenant and captain for services in the Mexi- can war, and for gallant conduct in the civil war, the brevets from major to that of major-general were conferred upon him. In January, 1866, he was mustered out of the volunteer service; in the following July was promoted to colonel, and at the time of his death was in command of the district of New Mexico. GRANGERS, an American national association of agriculturists, founded in 1867 under the title of “Patrons of Husbandry.” See SECRET SocIE'.rIEs IN THE UNITED Srxrns, in these Revisions and Ad- ditions. GRANITE. See Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 48-50. GRANT: in English law, the conveyance of prop- erty by deed. Movables are granted when they are comprised in a bill of sale or deed of gift. The Real Property act of 1845 enacted that the immedi- ate freehold might be conveyed by deed of grant. In the United States generally livery of seizin is GRAND RAPIDS—-GRANT dispensed with, and the term “grant” applies to all transfers of real property. GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER (1826-84), a Scotch edu- cator. He was educated at Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford, and was elected to an Oriel fellow- ship. He succeeded as baronet in 1856, was ap- pointed inspector of schools at Madras, India, in 1858, and became professor of history in Elphin- stone College there; then its principal, and after- wards vice-chancellor of Elgin College, Bombay. GRANT, ULYssEs S. General of the United States Army, and eighteenth President of the United States, was born at Mt. Pleasant, O., April 27, 1822, and died on Mt. McGregor, near Saratoga N. Y., July 23,1885. He was the son of Jesse R. and Hannah S. Grant, of Scottish ancestry. Gen- eral Grant was the oldest of six children. His father was a tanner, as well as farmer, but Ulysses spent his early youth in aiding in the farm work. In the spring of 1839 he was appointed to a cadet- ship in the United States military academy at West Point, N. Y. As a student he was specially characterized by proficiency in mathematics and in cavalry drill, but gained a fair standing in all his studies. In horsemanship he held the highest standing in his class. At his graduation in 1843 his general average was marked 21 in a class of 39. Receiving his commission as brevet Second Lieutenant he was attached to the 4th Infantry, and was assigned to duty at Jeflerson Barracks near St. Louis. Early in 1844 he accompanied his regiment to Camp Salubrity, La. In September, 1845, he was commissioned Second Lieutenant, and was transferred with his regiment to Corpus Christi, Texas, to aid the army of occupation under General Zachary Tay- lor. He participated in the battles of Palo Alto, May 8, 1846, Resaca de la Palma, May 9, 1846, (and in the latter commanded his company,) and Mont- erey, Sept.23, 1846. In the last battle, when the troops had gained an advanced position, a volun- teer was called for to make his way to the rear under heavy fire and order up the ammunition wagons. Lieutenant Grant instantly volunteered and successfully accomplished the perilous work. He took part under General Scott in the siege and capture of Vera Cruz in March, 1847, and later in the battle of Cerro Gordo, San Antonio, Churn- busco, Molino del Rey, and Mexico. In all of them his conduct was characterized by the highest and most intelligent bravery. On the withdrawal of the troops from Mexico he was granted leave of ab- sence, and visited St. Louis where, on Aug.22, 1848, he married Miss Julia B. Dent, sister of one of his classmates. Soon after, he returned to his regiment, and in the spring of 1851 was transferred to Sackett’s Harbor, N. Y., and later to Detroit, Mich; and again to Sackett’s Harbor; and from the latter place he sailed July 5, 1852, with his regiment, via Panama, for California, and thence to Fort Van- couver, Oregon. On Aug. 5, 1853, he was promoted to a Captaincy in the Regular Army. On July 31, 1854, he resigned his commission and settled on a small farm near St. Louis. He remained on the farm and in real estate, until April, 1860, when he removed to Galena, Ill., and there became a clerk In the hardware and leather store of his father. The attack on Fort Sumter in Charleston and the opening of the great civil war, in 1861, restored to the army General Grant, who instantly and warmly espoused the Union cause, and presided at the first Union meeting held in Galena. On June 17, 1861, he was appointed Colonel of the 21 st Regi- ment of Illinois Volunteers and was soon in the field and a little later in charge of a sub-military GRANT district in Missouri under Gen. Pope, his command consisting of three regiments of infantry and a section of artillery. He was appointed a brigadier general Aug. 7, 1861, his commission dating from May 17. He was ordered to Ironton, Mo., where he reported a day later. Ten days after he was or- dered to St. Louis, and thence to Jefferson City, and eight days later was directed to report in person at St. Louis, where he found that he had been assigned the command of the military district of Southeast- ern Missouri, embracing all the territory of Mis- souri south d St. Louis and all Southern Illinois, with permanent headquarters at Cairo. Instantly he was at the work assigned him. He arrived at Cairo Sept. 4, and the next day hearing that the Confederates were about to seize Paducah, Ky., he moved the same night and early next morning was in possession of the place, and issued his famous proclamation to the citizens, in which he said: “I have nothing to do with opinions, and shall deal only with armed rebellion and its aiders and abet- tors.” Gen. Grant’s first engagement was on the morning of Nov. 7, when having learned that the enemy had established a camp at Belmont, oppos- ite Columbus, he resolved to attack it and with a force of about 2,500 moved down the river and land- ing about three miles above the place, moved rap- idly forward and led the attack in person. In the spirited engagement his horse was shot under him, but the enemy was routed and his camp captured, after which Grant returned to his boats with 175 prisoners, and two guns, and having spiked four other guns of the enemy. The whole force of the enemy was about 7,000, of whom 642 were lost. General Grant’s loss was 485 men. The capture of Fort Henry came next, followed by that of Fort Donelson. In the latter Grant captured 65 guns, 17,600 small arms and 14,623 prisoners, with an ad- ditional loss to the enemy of 2,500 killed. Grant’s loss was 2,011 killed, wounded and missing. The remaining story of General Grant’s life is that of the great civil war itself—the record of great battles, great achievements, and great suc- cesses over a gallant and powerful foe. A few ad- ditional dates only are needed in this outline sketch of the great General. The grade of Lieutenant- General was revived by act of Congress in Febru- ary, 1864, and General Grant was nominated by President Lincoln for the post on March 1, and the nomination was confirmed by the Senate on March 2. He left March 4, in obedience to the order of the President for IVashington, where he arrived on the 8th, and on March 9, received his commission as commander of all the Union armies. On April 9, 1865, the surrender to General Grant of General Lee, the commander in chief of the Confederate arm- ies, with his whole forces composing the army of Virginia, took place at Appomattox Court House, and the war virtually ended. Gen. Grant returned to Washington, April 10, to supervise the work of disbanding the armies. President Lincoln was assassinated on the even- ing of April 14, and it is believed that Gen. Grant would have shared the same fate had he not been out of the city on that date. On the accession of Vice President Johnson to the presidency immedi- ately following the death of Mr. Lincoln, he (J ohn- son) indicated a purpose to have Lee and others punished for the crime of treason, under an in- indictment found by the United States Court in Virginia. Gen. Lee appealed to Gen. Grant asking to be permitted to enjoy the priviliges of amnesty extended by presidential roclamation to others of the Confederate army. rant endorsed the ap- plication as follows: “ Respectfully forwarded, through the Secretary of War, to the President, 775 with the earnest recommendation that the appli- cation of Gen. Robert E. Lee for amnest and par- don be granted him.” But President J obnson em- phatically denied the petition. Lee then ap- pealed to Gen. Grant for protection and the latter endorsed the letter by a strong statement in which he said: “ In my opinion the officers and men paroled at Appomattox Court House, and since upon the same terms given to Lee, cannot be tried for treason so long as they preserve the terms of their parole . and I would ask that he (Judge Underwood) be ordered to quash all indictments found against paroled prisoners of war, and to desist from further prosecution of them.” The result was the abandonment of the prosecution. But the estrangement between the President and Gen. Grant continued. On July 25, 1866, in accordance with an act of Congress pre- viously passed creating the rank of General, a rank higher than any previously existing in the United States, Lieutenant General Grant received the commission of GENERAL. In the latter part of 1866 President Johnson, finding that General Grant would not support some of his measures ordered him out of the coun- try on a special mission to Mexico; but General Grant declined the mission on the ground that it was outside of the military service. Various other efforts were made to remove General Grant. but he was promptly sustained by Congress and by the great body of the people, and in 1868 he was nominated and elected President of the United States, carrying the electoral votes of 26 out of 34 states, and 214 electoral votes out of a total of 294. Four years later he was re-elected, carrying 31 states with a popular vote of 3,597,070, and an electoral vote of 286 out of a total of 352. During his two presidental administrations the taxes were reduced over $300,000,000 and the public or national debt over $450,000,000. After retiring from the Presidency March 4, 187 7 , Gen. Grant decided to visit foreign countries and on May 17 of that year he sailed from Philadelphia for England accompanied by his wife and son. He was everywhere received with “royal greetings” by the sovereigns and peoples of the old world. After leaving Great Britain he visited the conti- nental countries of Europe and then journied through Egypt and Palestine; thence he sailed for India, visiting Calcutta and other places of inter- est. In the latter part of March, 1879, he sailed for Burmah and later visited the Malacca penin- sula, Siam, Cochin China, and Hong Kong, reach- ing the last named place April 30th. Next he made a tour into the interior of China. At Pekin Prince Kung requested him to act as arbitrator in settling acontroversy between China and the Loo Choo Islands. In this matter, while prevented by his plans from acting in a formal arbitration, he studied the question in controversy, and gave such advice as to aid in a settlement without war. Next he visited Japan where the honors showed him were even greater than those received in any other country. He sailed from Yokohama Sept. 3, 1879, reaching San Francisco on Sept. 20 and received the heartiest of greetings everywhere on the Pa- cific coast, and on his journey eastward through the states to his former home in Galena. Early in 1880 he visited some of the southern states and Mexico. The enthusiasm of General Grant’s receptions in the old and new worlds, the favorable impression made upon the public by his brief, prudent, and practical speeches while abroad, together with the high estimate of his military genius and his civil administration as President of the United States, led many of his friends to seek for him the 7% nomination for a third presidential term. At the Republican nominating convention held in Chi- cago in J une, 1880, the name of General Grant was presented and during the first thirty-six ballots se- cured votes ranging from 302 to 313; but many of his best friends were opposed to a “third term” nomination, believing that the precedent might prove harmful to the country, and therefore se- cured the withdrawal of his name and the substi- tution therefor of the name of Gen. James A. Gar- field, one of General Grant’s most devoted friends. In 1881 General Grant purchased a house in New York, which he subsequently made his home, spending a part of his summers in a cottage pre- sented to him at Long Branch near the city. The great interest taken by the public in a series of articles furnished by General Grant to The Century induced his friends to urge him to write his own biography down close of the Civil War. He consent- ed to do this, especially as the contract he was able to make with the publishers of his books promised him such large financial returns, as would relieve his family from much of the embarrassment caused by the losses of his property through the fraudulent conduct of some of his former partners in business. His contract for his biography, two volumes octavo, was signed Feb. 27, 1885, the work appearing about a year later; and so large was the patronage of an appreciating public, that the share of the profits insuring to Mrs. Grant and family from the first two years’ sales, reached the large sum of nearly $400,000! In the summer of 1884 General Grant began to suf- fer from what soon proved to be acancer at the root of the tongue. The sympathy of the whole nation was aroused in his behalf, and on March 4, 1885, Congress passed a bill making him General on the retired list, thus restoring him to the rank from which he resigned after the close of the war. In the meantime General Grant knowing that his disease was rapidly shortening his life, diligently worked on his biography, in the midst of almost continuous and intense suffering, heroically per- sisting in the task even after he became speechless, and until its completion, only four days before his death! A few weeks before his death General Grant ac- cepted the occupancy of an amply furnished cottage on Mount McGregor generously tendered to him by Mr. Joseph W. Drexel, of Philadelphia. There, in the quiet of that unpretentious, rural summer home, surrounded by his family, and enjoying the sympathy of the whole nation, and the respect and admiration of the nations of the world, he passed away, July 23, 1885. His remains were soon after taken to New York City where a great public funeral took place-the most magnificent in the history of the country-and where the body was deposited in a beautiful spot in Riverside Park, over which at this writing, December, 1891, a fitting and imposing monument is in process of erection.* Mrs. Julia. Dent Grant, widow of the late Gen. U. S. Grant,‘ was born in St. Louis, Mo., Jan. 26, 1826. She‘first met Lieut. Grant, then of the 4th Cavalry, at St. Louis in 1844, and was married to him on Aug. 22, 1848. She was often with him during his military career, and accompanied him on his vic- torious return to Washington at the close of the war. She presided over his home during his presidential official terms accompanied him in his journey around the world, and was * For a more extended biography, the reader is referred to the followin : Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant, Written by Himself, 2 yo s., 1885-6; Militar History of Ulysses S. Grant, by Adam Badeau, 3 vols., New ork, 1867-81: Life and Public Services of General U. S. Grant, by James Grant Wilson, 1868; The Ancestry of General Grant and their Contemporaries, by Ed- ward C. Marshall. 1869: and Around the World Willi General Grant, by John Russell Young, 1880. GRANT—GRASSE ever the faithful and beloved “ queen ” of his home circle. After his death she was granted a yearly pension of $5 000. similar pension has been granted to t ree other widows of Presidents-—Mrs. Polk, Mrs.T ler, and Mrs. Garfield. At this writing, Mrs. Grant still resi es in New York City, surround- ed by her children Frederick Dent, Ulysses S., Jesse. and Nellie) and her gran children. Frederick Dent Grant, oldest son of the late Gen. Grant, was born in St. Louis, May 30, 1850. He accompanied his father during the civil war, and was in five battles before he was thirteen ears old. He graduated at West Point at the age of 21, an was assigned to the 4th Cavalry. In 1871 he accompanied Gen. Sherman to Europe. A year later he was detailed to command the military escort to the parties mak- ing the survey for the Southern Pacific Railway. In 1873 he was assi ned, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel,to the staff of Gen. herman, holdin the osition for eight years, when he resigned. He was wit his ather during his trip round the world, and was his father’s constant assistant during his closing years. GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEvEsoN- GowER, EARL, an English statesman, born in Lon- don in 1815, died March 30, 1891. After being edu- cated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he entered public life in 1835 as an attaché to the embassy at Paris, where his father was the ambassador. In 1836 he was elected to Parliament. In 1846 he suc- ceeded to the title. Granville was under-secretary for foreign affairs, 1840-41 ; vice-president of the board of trade, 1848-51; foreign secretary, 1851-52; lord-president of the council, 1852-54; again 1855- 58; and 1859-66. He was colonial secretary, 1868- 70, and secretary of state for foreign affairs, 1870-74, and again from 1880 to 1885. When Gladstone be- came prime minister, in 1886, Granville was made secretary for the colonies. He held several other ofiices and positions of honor—as, for instance, when he represented Great Britain at the coronation of Czar Alexander, at Moscow in 1856. As to his politics, Granville was one of the most out spoken Liberals in the House of Lords. GRANVILLE, a village of Washington county, N. Y. Its industries are agriculture, uarrying, and the manufacture of roofing slate, an mantels and other articles made of marbleized slate. GRANVILLE, a village of Licking county, Ohio. It is the seat of Denison College, two female colleges, and has several manufacturing establish- merits. GRAPE, the berry of climbing shrubs called vines, indi enous to warm latitudes, and much cultivated in al ages and in both hemispheres. See HoRTI- CULTURE, Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 277-28; VINE. Vol. XXIV, pp. 237-38; WINE, Vol. XXIV, pp. 601- 11; and VITICULTURE, in these Revisions and Ad- ditions. GRAPPLE-PLANT (Uncaria proeumbens), a pro- cumbent plant of the same genus with the Gambir, a native of South Africa. The seed vessel has many hooked thorns, and clings most tenaciously to any animal-a provision for the distribution of the seed. When it lays hold of the mouth of an ox, Livingstone says, the animal stands and roars with pain and a sense of helplessness. GRAPTOLITES, a name given to a group of fos- sils. commonly supposed to be hydrozoans, and allied to the living sertularians. They usually applpar as impressions on the shales of the Silurian roc s. GRASS-CLOTH, a name sometimes given to dif- ferent kinds of coarse cloth, whose fiber is rarely that of a grass. Cloth is made from bamboo, and a coarse matting is made from esparto, both true grasses. A fine cloth is woven from the fiber of a species of Boehmeria, popularly called China-grass, but the plant is really a nettle. To the nettle order also belongs the so-called Queensland grass-cloth 1ptant (Pipturus argenteus), which yields a fine strong er. __ GRASSE, J OHANN GEQRG THEODOR, an eminent German biographer, was born at Grimma. in Saxony, GRASSE—-GRASSES in 1814, died at Dresden at September. 1885. He studied philology at Leipsic, was afterwards en- gaged in teaching at Dresden. but in 1843 was made librarian of King Friedrich-August II. In 1871 he became sole director of the “ Green Vault.” With its celebrated collection of jewels, gold, sil- ver and curios. From 1837 to 1860 he published a large work entitled Lehrbuch einer allgemeinen Literaturgeschichte aller belcannten Viilker der Welt, wherein he collected and arranged a great mass of bibliographical material. His Handbuch der allge- meinen I/iteraturgeschichte is a compendium of the larger work. He also very diligently studied the myths and legends of the Middle Ages, and wrote several books on these subjects. Besides these works he published treatises on hunting, on beer on porcelain. on ancient coins, on surnames and Christian names, on Latin names, etc., and pub- lished in 1876 a popular history of Saxony. GRASSE. FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL, COMTE DE, a French admiral, born at Valette, Provence, in 1723. died at Paris, Jan. 11, 1788. He was first in the navy of the Knights of Malta (1734), when he fought against the Turks. In 1749 he passed 777 into the service of France; but. while on a con- voy to the East Indies. he was captured by a British admiral and imprisoned in England for two ears. In 1762 he became a captain, and when rance came to the assistance of America in 1778 he was made a rear-admiral. In March, 1781, De Grasse set out from Brest with a large fleet, con- voying also a large land force to the United States. In June he assisted at the taking of Tobago, and then sailed to the mouth of the Chesapeake. in order to assist in the operations against Lord Corn- wallis. The British admirals endeavored in vain to drive him from his position; and Cornwallis, shut up in Yorktown. was obliged to surrender to Washington, Oct. 19, 1781. De Grasse received the thanks of Congress for his share in this decisive victory. In January, 1782, he captured from the British the island of St. Christopher, in the West Indies. But on April 12 of the same year, after a gallant fight with Rodney near Jamaica, De Grasse was taken prisoner and conveyed to London. There he assisted in the negotiations relating to the peace of 1783, by which the Independence of the United States was acknowledged. GRASSES AND OTHER Fonaan PLANTS. For an elaborate botanical description of Gnassns, see Britannica. Vol. XI, pp. 53-30. Grasses ( Gramineaae) are widely distributed from equatorial to arctic regions. some genera being especially abundant in the tropics, but the majority belonging to the tem- perate zones. In the number of individuals they probably exceed all other flowering plants, while in the number of s ecies the family stands third, the first and secon places belonging to Compos- ttae and Leguminosw. In usefulness to man they easily take the first rank, as they are the founda- tion of all agriculture, their herbage affording the larger share of the food of animals, while their seeds supply, in the cereal grains, the chief food of the world. Rice, durra, maize, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and sugar-cane need only to be mentioned to show the economical importance of the family. It is a singular fact that the most useful, those which furnish the cereal grains, are none of them known with certainty in the wild state, even their native countries being in doubt. But few grasses gpresent marked properties. Anthrorcanthum, Hiero- chloe and a few others have a pleasant vanilla- like odor, due to a principle like coumarin. Some Oriental species of Andropogon afford in their foliage the oils of lemon-grass, citronella and geranium, and from the roots of another species is obtained the perfume “vettiver.” The rhizomes of Triticum repens and of Cynodon dactylon have long had a reputation for usefulness in diseases of the bladder. The many uses which the stems of species of Bambusa, the bamboos, are made to serve in China and other Eastern countries give them ahigh ra-nk among the ‘useful grasses. In ornamental gardening, besides furnishing the car- et of verdure without which our gardens would ose much of their attractiveness, grasses play an important part. From the humble Festuca glauca, the striking blue foliage of which is used for edg- ings, up to the stately Gynerium argenteum, the pampas-grass, the list of ornamental species and varieties is a long one (BOTANY or Canrronma, Britannica, Vol. II, p. 254). The term grass is applied to all those plants which are used for pastures and meadows—a class- ification founded upon use alone, disregarding the distinctive features of the plants. A true grass is an endogenous plant having simple leaves, a stem generally jointed and tubular, the husks or glumei in pairs, and the seed single. This definition in- cludes, wheat, rye, oats, etc., and excludes clover and some other plants commonly called by the name of grass. In this article, however, the prin- cipal forage plants, other than true grasses, which are employed in agriculture, are treated of. IVith respect to grasses and forage plants adapted to different sections of the United States little is known. There are many climates, many kinds of soil, and many degrees of aridity and moisture; and consequently one species of grass cannot be equally adapted to all parts of this extensive territory; yet hardly a dozen species have been successfully introduced into agriculture. This number answers with a tolerable degree of satis- faction the wants of quite an extensive portion of the country, chiefly the northern and cooler re- gions; but in other localities the same kinds of grasses do not succeed equally well. This is par- ticularly the casein the southern and southwestern States, the arid districts of the ‘Vest and in Cali- fornia. The grasses which are in cultivation were once wild, and are still such in their native homes. Undoubtedly some kinds could be selected from the wild or native species which would be adapted to cultivation in those portions of the country which are not provided with suitable kinds. The solution of the question is largely a matter of ex- periment and observation. The kinds of grasses now cultivated in this country are generally (1) red clover (Trifolium pratense); (2) white or Dutch clover (T. repens); (3) timothy (Phleum pratense); (4) blue grass (Poa pratensis) ; (5) wire grass (Poa compressa); (6) red top (Agrostis oulgaris); (7) orchard grass (Dac- tylis glomerata); (8) fowl meadow grass (Poa sero- tina); and (9) meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis). For feeding during droughts, Indian corn, sown at the rate of two bushels per acre, in drills two feet apart, cultivated thoroughly, once or twice, and cut when in blossom will make a good reliance. as also will German millet (Ponicum Germanicum), and common millet (P. miliaceum). Above are des- ignated nine species of forage plants that do well 7% generally. One, two,three,four, five and six con- stitute the bulk cultivated for pasture; and one and three for hay. Number seven is one of the most valuable in the whole list, and should be tried everywhere‘, on land not wet. Eight and nine are also well worthy of trial; fowl meadow grass es- pecially has been found to take the place of blue grass in those sections of the Northwest where blue grass does not succeed. The hay is especially val- uable for horses, it having all the advantages of wild hay, being free from the dust that infests tim- othy and clover, while it possesses all the nutri- ment of the best tame hay; and those dairymen who are acquainted with it pronounce it valuable hay for milch cows. Meadows of timothy alone are also very common, and when well managed are very satisfactory and profitable. It is also very common to combine red clover with timothy in various proportions. In low, wet meadows redtop is considerably employed, and it is a common con- stituent of pastures in all the Northern States. Some species of grass are adapted to clay lands, some to sandy soils, some to loam, some to dry up- land, and some to low land; but for land of uni- form quality it is believed that a mixture of five or six suitable varieties will yield a larger crop than one alone. The mixture of several varieties is perhaps‘ most valuable in land that is designated for pasturage, as then they reach maturity at dif- ferent times and furnish a succession of good feed, and also cover more completely and uniformly the ground. For a permanent pasturage under most circumstances the following kinds in proper pro- portions make a good mixture: June grass (blue grass), fox-tail (Alopecurus pratensis), redtop (bent grass), timothy, tall fescue, and perennial rye grass. For an immediate pasture the following mixture is generally satisfactory: Blue grass, 8 pounds ; orchard grass, 4 pounds ; timothy, 4 pounds ; red clover, 6 pounds. In all new countries the dependence must, of course, be first upon the wild grasses. As a rule these have not been sufiiciently appreciated. Many of them are of exceeding value, but unfortu- nately are, as a rule, sparse seeders, and hence are apt to be neglected. The trouble is that farmers, as a class, do not investigate and experiment enough for themselves. Thus they are content with the most meager list of grasses, and, as a re- sult, for a good part of the season their stock find insufficient food of proper succulence, and often- times are really distressed for subsistence. There are man native and indigenous grasses in the West. There are sixty- ve true grasses, excluding cereal grains and clovers, found on the Michigan A ricultural Farm, the most of them indigenous. In Illinois t ere have been found 105 native grasses (none peculiar to the State), eleven intro- duced, and twelve that are known as they are cultivated; a larger number, in proportion to the whole number of flower- ing plants in the State, than is usual in the same climate. This is owing to the extent and shape of Illinois, stretching from Lake Michigan to Kentucky. It has all soils, woods, prairie, and borders of lake and river. On the native prairies may be found many species inter- mingled, each doing its art, some preferring low, wet situa- tions, others growing on y on wet ground: some prefer the shade of forest trees, while others flourish best on the most exposed plarts of the broad prairies; some grow only in the water, ot ers along the margins of lakes and streams; some attain their maturity early in the season, others late in autumn. Only through strenuous investigation and numer- 0us trials will the farmer succeed in discovering the best species of grass for his farm and the support of his stock. The clover family (order Leguminosa) embraces an im- mense number of plants of varying character, some small and insignificant, some trees of large size. Many of the most use- ful vegetable products are obtained from this order, which is characterized by having alternate, usually compound leaves, with stipules; flowers, polypetalous, the calyx mostly five lobed, the corolla generally with five irregular petals, usually sen stamens, sometimes five, or many, usually united by the filaments, or nine united and one free, or sometimes al dis- GRASSES tinct; the ovary, a one-celled carpel, becoming a legume or pod with few or many seeds, the pod sometimes marked into joints called loments. The genus Trifotium 1s one of the most useful of the order, and embraces a large number of splecies, several of which are well known 1n cultwatron. T e genus is characterized by having the leaves mostly tr1- foliate; that is, made up of three leaflets at the end of the leaf-stalk; some s ecies have five or more leaflets, either close together at t e end of the leaf-stalk or somewhat scattered in op osite pairs. The flowers are collected in roundish or ob ong heads, with or without a general in- volucre. The calyx is five-toothed, the petals five, irregular, persistent; nine stamens united and one free; the pods small, mostly inclosed in the calyx, and one to four seeded. Amon the specimens of this genus are: Trifolium pratense (red c over; common clover); T. medium (mammoth clover); T. hybridum (pl—; alsike clover); T. incarnatum (pl-; French clover); T. repens (white clover; Dutch clover); and T. stole- niferum (pl- runnin Buffalo clover). Other enera are Onobrychis (pl-), Me ica_ o (pls-{, Desmodium an Lcspedem (pl-). As regards the va ue of c over, we quote a para raph from the report on the agricultural grasses and forage p ants of the United States for 1889: “ No matter how mismanaged, clover is a benefit; and whatever else he may do, the farmer who grows clover is making a farm better. It does not need cultivating; the long deep-reaching roots mellow and pul- verize the soil as nothing else can. If it grows thriftily the top acts as mulch, seeding the round and keeping it moist. A crop of two tons or more of c over plowed under or cut for hay can hardly fail to leave the ground better than it was before. It should be the farmer’s aim to grow the largest possible crop of clover.” CHEMICAL Conrosrrron or AMERICAN GRASSES.—— Of late years considerable attention has been given to the chemical composition of grasses, and much information has been gained concerning their nutritive value. The determinations of the grasses given in the above list of those commonly culti- vated in the United States will be found in the table on the following page. The specimens are from various parts of the country, and grown under several conditions of soil and environment. The development in nearly every case was full bloom or shortly after, that being the period at which the grasses as a whole seem to be cut for hay. The analyses have been calculated for “ dry substance,” and also for fresh grass, where the amount of water in the fresh grass had previously been determined; otherwise for the amount of water in hay. The great varia- tion in composition of grasses becomes apparent on examining a table of one hundred and thirty-six analyses given in the special bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture on the agricul- tural grasses and forage plants of the United States for 1889. The highest and lowest determinations, selected from this table, are shown in the following list of extremes: Dry Substance. H1gh' Low‘ est. est. Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19.24 3 57 Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 77 1 48 Nitrogen-free extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66 01 34.01 Crude fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37.72 17 68 Albuminoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23 13 2.80 Nitro en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 70 .45 Non-a buminoid nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 64 .00 Per cent. of nitrogen as now albuminoid .... .. 60 70 .00 Water 1n fresh grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76 50 60 00 The highest ash is undoubtedly owin to the presence 0? adherent S011, and the lowest carbohy rates are dependem relatively on the same cause. The wide variations in fiber and album1no1ds must be regarded, however, as being en- tnrely due to physiological causes which are difficult to ex- plain. _Spec1es are not in themselves at all fixed in their composition, there being as large variations among speci- mens of the same as between specimens of different species. For illustration, several analyses of Phleum pretense in full bloom from widely separate localities are given in the fol- lowing tables: GRASSE-TILLY-GRASSWRACK 779 . 5». .5 m . o . . 3-3 +2 3 Q 4: 8 O M Q Q 0 C3 :1 £10 ‘3 1-4 O H E 33 *6 is I: E Q , Q‘ '6 0 Soil and Stages of Growth. 8 3 L: pg; 30 5 “rd 3 L: U3 *=' Q 7 35 "5 8 E °'§ if s 12’ :1 "‘ Q <= .9, .2 ,9 .5-H Q <= :1 O B 30 Q) E Q '3 E‘, 8 Li $9 0 E :1 gm :3 . 8 ‘U '-'S '5 5 0,2 2 ,5 . 2 “U :1 g 6 <0 *3 2 E’. :3 8 Q -:5 8 °’ *5 5 E -'3 g 111 < m z 0 <1 H z ,3 3 4 .4. z 0 4 Good soil: Spike invisible . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 1 42 8 68 4 56 54 31 19 91 12 54 2 01 1 70 35 0 70 7 2 54 1 34 15 92 5 83 3.67 Spike visible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 1 62 6 41 3 40 57.26 21 03 11 90 /1 86 .55 29 5 71.9 1 80 96 16 09 5 91 3 34 Before bloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 23 45 9 82 3 63 54 19 22 03' 10 33 ‘1 65 .36 21 8 67 5 3 19 1.18 17.61 7.16 3.36 In early bloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 23 60 6 04 3 85 57.21 22 70 10 20 1 63 .30 18 4 64.9 2 12 1 35 20 08 7 97 3.58 In full bloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 18 58 5 66 3 58 58 93 21 93 9 90 1 58 .38 24 0 67.2 1 86 1.17 19 33 7.19 3.25 Early seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 18 52 10 53 3 40 51.07 22.90 12 10 1 93‘ .51 26.4 77.8 2 34 76 11.34 5 08 2.68 Poorer soil: In bloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 4 60 6 56 3 95 57.48 23.53 8.48 1 36 .30 22 0 63.4 2 40 1 45 21 04 8.61 3.10 In full bloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1 70 5 64 2 98 61 08 22 84 7 46 1.19 .36 30 3 71 9 1 58 .84 17.16 6 42 2 10 GRASSE—TILLY, Fnxncors J osnrn PAUL, Councr DE, born in Valette, Provence, France, in 1723, died in Paris, Jan. 11, 1788. He entered the French navy, and had become renowned as a captain when, at the beginning of 1781, he was appointed to com- mand a French fleet to assist the Americans in the war with Great Britain. He contributed essentially to the reduction of Yorktown, sharing with IVash- ington and Rochambeau in the honors voted by Congress. At the close of the campaign Grasse embarked for the West Indies, where he served with distinction, but being defeated by a superior British force April 12, 1782, he lost the favor of the king. At the time of his death he held the rank of lieutenant-general of the naval forces. GRASSHOPPER (see Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 60; Vol. XIV, p. 765, and Vol. XV, p. 450). GRASSMANN, HERMAN Giinrnna (1809-77), a German mathematician, born at Stettin in 1809. At Berlin he studied theology, philology and math- ematics, and in 1852 succeeded his father as pro- fessor of mathematics in the gymnasium of Stettin. He held this post till his death, Sept. 26, 1877. His mathematical works are: Die lI’issenschaft der Ex- tensiven Gr'o'sse; Geometrische Analyse; Die Ausdeh- nungslehre; and Lehrbuch der Arithmetflc. These works are valuable contributions to modern mathe- matics. He also prepared a Sanskrit dictionary to the Rigoeda (1875), and a German translation of this work, with notes (1876-77). GRASS-MOTH (Crambus), a genus of small moths, allied to the clothes- moth. The species, Which are numerous, inhabit pastures. Their form, when their wings are closed, is long and nar- row, pointed at the head, abruptly cut off at the opposite end. They are often brown and white, sometimes silvery and golden. GRASS OF PARNASSUS (Parnassia), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Saxifra- gtceze. It is a native of bogs and moist heaths in ritain, Northern Europe and Russian Asia, be- coming a mountain plant in Southern Europe and West-central Asia. The calyx is deeply five-cleft, the petals white, five in number, and there are five perfect and five imperfect stamens, the latter bear- l ing instead of anthers a tuft of ten to twelve globular-headed hairs. There are several other species, natives of Asia and North America. GRASS-OIL, a name under which several vola- tile oils derived from widely different plants are grouped. The grass-oil obtained from the leaves of Andropogon warancusa is used for rheumatism. Ginger-grass oil is obtained from A. nardus, a native of India. Geranium oil, derived from Pelargonium radula, is used like ginger-grass oil. Turkish-grass oil is obtained from A. pachnodes, in- digenous to India, Persia and Arabia. Lemon- grass oil, or citronella oil, is derived from A. solace- nanthus, indigenous to India and cultivated in Ceylon. It is largely used for scenting soap. Cyperus-grass oil is extracted from the tubers of Cyperus esculentus, indigenous to Southern Europe, and is used as a table oil and in the manufacture of soap. GRASS—TREE (Xanthorrluea), a genus of plants of the natural order Liliaceze, natives of Australia. They have shrubby stems, with tufts of long, wiry foliage at the summit, a long cylindrical spike of densely aggregated flowers shooting up from the center of the tuft of leaves. The base of the inner leaves of some species is edible. All the species abound in a resinous juice, which, on exposure to the air, hardens into a reddish-yellow inodorous substance, soluble in alcohol, and useful as a tonic in dysentery, diarrhoea, etc. The common grass- tree (X. hastilis) has a stem about four feet high, but sometimes a foot in diameter. It is of ex- tremely slow growth. Several species are found in Eastern Australia and also in New Zealand. GRASSUM: in the law of Scotland, a sum paid 011 taking a lease of landed property. In England the words “premium” in some cases, and “fine” in others, mean the same thing. GRASS VALLEY, a post-town of Nevada county, Cal. It contains two orphan asylums, several schools, foundries and quartz mills. This place is the center of the chief gold quartz-mining district of California. GRASSWRACK (Zostera), a genus of plants of the natural order Naiadaceae, belonging to the 780 genera found at the bottom of the sea. The leaves are narrow and grass-like, and the flowers consist of stamens and pistils, without any perianth, in- serted on the central nerve of one side of a flat, thin linear spadiw, with a leafy spathe. The pollen is confervoid. The common grasswrack (Z. marina) is a perennial plant, which forms green meadows on the bottom of almost all European seas. It becomes white by exposure to air. The rush-like coverings of Italian liquor flasks are made of it, and it is used for packing glass bottles. The plant is now an article of commerce under the name of Alga marina. GRATIAN, a Benedictine monk, who at Bologha, between 1139 and 1142, compiled the Decretum Gratiani. GRATIOLA, a genus of plants of the natural order Scrophulariaceee. G. oflicinalis, sometimes called hedge hyssop, is found in pastures in most parts of Europe. It is extremely bitter, acts vio- lently as a purgative, diuretic and emetic, and in overdoses is an acrid poison. It was formerly so highly esteemed as a medicine that the name of Gratia Dei (“Grace of God”) was given to it, and for the same reason it is known as Herbe-au-Pauvre Homme (“Poor Man’s Herb”). G. Peruviana, a South American species, has somewhat similar properties. These properties are supposed to de- pend upon a resinous principle called Gratiolin. GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE, ABBE', a French theologian, born at Lille in 1805, died at Montreux, Switzerland, Feb. 6, 1872. After being educated at the Ecole Polytechnique he became an ecclesiastic, and was in 1841 appointed director of the College Stanislas, Paris. In 1846 he was made chaplain of the normal school, Paris. In 1852 Gratryjoined the Abbé Petetot in reorganiz- ing the order of the Oratorians of the Immaculate Conception, having previously resigned his posi- tion in the normal school. In 1861 Bishop Dupan- loup appointed him vicar-general of Orleans, and in 1863 he was made professor of Christian morals at the Sarbonne, Paris. Gratry had then already published a course of philosophy entitled De la Oonnaissance de Dieu; De la Connaissance de l’Ame; Logigue, and several other philosophical works. He wrote and spoke against M. Renan in defense of the authenticity and truth of the Gospels, and his eloquence procured his election to the French Academy in 1867. Being censured by the superior of his order for his connection with Pere Hyacinthe and the League of Peace, which advocates re- ligious tolerance, Gratry retired from the Orato- rians. La Morale et la Loi dc l’Histoire is his latest work of importance. He declares therein that the French Revolution is a true regeneration of human society. GRATTAN,Tnoivms COLLEY, British author, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1796, died in London, Eng- land, July 4, 1864. He studied law in Dublin, but afterward devoted himself chiefly to literature. In 1828 he went to Belgium and settled in Brus- sels, where he actively supported the pretensions of King Leopold to the throne of Belgium. He was British consul at Boston in 1839-53, and subsequently held an office in the Queen’s house- hold. He published a pamphlet on the boundary question between Great Britain and the United States, and an attack on American society and institutions, entitled Civilized America (2 vols.,Lon- don, 1859). He also published The Woman of Color; ?.{r8c(l51)England and the Disrupted States of America GRATUITOUS DEED: in the law of Scotland, a deed granted without any value received. Such GRATIAN-GRAY deeds, if made after the contracting of debt and in favor of a near relation or confidential friend, are presumed to be fraudulent and so null. In En land gratuitous deeds are styled gifts. RAY, ALBERT ZABRISKIE, born in New York city, March 2, 1840, graduated at the University of New York in 1860, and at the general theologi- cal seminary of the Protestant Episcopal church in 1864. He served as chaplain of the 4th Massa- chusetts cavalry during the civil war; subsequently held various pastorates, and in 1882 was elected warden of Racine College, Wisconsin. He was en- ga ed in the work of churchmeform in Europe, and was a delegate to the general convention in 1886. Among his writings are The Land and the Life (1876); Mexico As It Is (1878); Words of the Cross (1880); and Jesus Only, and Other Sacred Songs (1882). GRAY, Asa, an American botanist, born in Paris, Oneida county, N. Y., Nov. 18, 1810, died in Cambrid e, Mass., Jan. 30,1888. He received his degree 0% M. D. in 1831, but soon devoted himself to the study of botany with the late Professor Torrey, of New York. In 1834 he received the ap- pointment of botanist to the United States explor- ing expedition to the Southern seas, but declined the post. In 1842 he became Fisher professor of natural history at Harvard, from the active duties of which position he retired in 1873. In 1874 he succeeded Agassiz as a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. Gray was recognized throughout the scientific world as one of the leading botanists of the age, and was a member of the principal learned societies of both America and Europe. He was the first in America, in conjunction with Dr John Torrey, to arrange the heterogeneous assem- blage of species upon the natural basis of aflinity; and he was an influential supporter of the Dar- winian theories of evolution. Professor Gray pub- lished an admirable series of text-books, which are used extensively throughout the United States, and have passed through many editions. In 1838 be commenced, with Dr. Torrey, the unfinished Flora of North America. Others of his works are: Genera Flora; Americas Boreali-Orientalis Illustrata (1848- 50) ; A Free Examination of Darwin’s Treatise (1861) ; Darwinia (1876); and Natural Science and Religion (1880). He also wrote biographical sketches of a number of eminent scientists, and contributed largely to scientific periodicals, and to the tran- sactions of learned societies. GRAY, ELISHA, an American inventor, born at Bamesville, Ohio, Aug. 2,1835. He studied at Ober- lin College, meanwhile supporting himself by work- ing as acarpenter. His patents number about 50, a large number of which relate to the telephone, and the remainder to telegraphic apparatus. Among them are a speaking telephone, and a mul- tiplex telegraph. RAY, HENRY PETERS, born in New York city, June 23, 1819, died there Nov. 12, 1877. He com- menced the study of art with Daniel Huntingdon in 1838,and in the following year went to Europe, remaining abroad until 1843. He made a second trip to Europe in 1846, but returned a few months later and settled in New York. He was president of the National Academy of Design, 1869—71, when he went to Italy, remaining two years. Among h1S paintings are: Wages of War; Hagar and the Angel; Cleopatra; Charity; Greek Lovers; Normand Girl; Pride of the Village and The Apple of Discor . He also executed a large number of portraits. GRAY, Ronnnr, discoverer, born at Tiverton, R. I., in 1755, died in Charleston, S. C., in 1806. In September, 1787, he sailed from Boston in command of the sloop Washington, for the purpose of trading GRAYDON—GREAT BASIN with the natives of the northwest coast, and re- turned in 1790 by way of Canton, China; thus being the first man to carry the American flag around the globe. He made a second voyage, and on May 11, 1791, discovered the mouth of the great river which is now called Columbia. GRAYDON, ALEXANDER, born in Bristol, Pa., April 10, 1752, died in Philadelphia, May 2, 1818. He was educated in Philadelphia, and studied law, but in 1775 received the appointment of captain and engaged in raising recruits for the army. He was in the battle of Long Island, and was taken prisoner in a subsequent action. He was ex- changed in 1778, but did not rejoin the army. He was rothonotary of Dauphin county, Pa., 1785-99, resi ed for some years near Harrisburg, and re- moved to Philadelphia in 1816. He was a contrib- utor to literary and political journals, and pub- lished Memoirs of a Life, Chiefly Passed in Pennsyl- wania, Within the Last Sixty Years (Harrisburg, 1811, reprinted in London and Edinburgh). GRAYLING. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 78. GRAYLING, the capital of Crawford county, Mich., situated on the Au Sable River and on the Mackinaw division of the Michigan Central Rail- road. It has several lumber mills. GRAY’S INN, one of the four inns of court in London. GRAY’S PEAK, Rocky Mountains, in Summit and Clear Creek counties, Colo., 12 miles west of Georgetown. It is the twin of Torrey’s Peak and of the same height, 14,466 feet. It was named in honor of Dr. Asa Gray. GRAYVILLE, a town of VVhite county, Ill., situated on the Wabash River at the mouth of the Bonpas River, and on the Cairo and Vincennes Railroad. The surrounding country is fertile, and considerable grain is shipped at this point. GRAYWACKE: in geology, a sort of conglomer- ate rock, found chiefly in the Palaeozoic series. The term has been little used since the establishment of the Silurian system. GREASE, a term of general application to all fatty matters, but generally to those having some degree of solidity. It is mostly applied to fatty substances so deteriorated by dirt or other impuri- ties as to be unfit for candle-making and other manufactures requiring some degree of purity in the material. Grease is largely employed as a lubricant for heavy machinery. The grease em- ployed for the axles of wagons and carts consists of inferior kinds of grease mixed with a little tar. GREASE—WOOD, a name applied to various chenopodiaceous shrubs growing abundantly in saline localities in the ‘Western United States. GREAT BARRINGTON, a village of Berkshire -county, Mass., beautifully situated and noted as a summer resort. It has manufactories of woolens, -cotton goods, paper, brick, pig-iron and lumber. GREAT BASIN, a vast elevated plateau stretch- ing 500 miles between the Sierra Nevada and Cas- -cade Mountains on the west, and the Wahsatch Range of the Rocky Mountains on the east. It is ‘crossed by about one hundred short mountain ranges, which traverse it mostly in a southerly di- rection. North of it the country is drained by the ‘Columbia River into the Pacific Ocean, and east of it by the Colorado River into the Gulf of California. The Great Basin itself has no outlet whatever. The whole country is a desert like the Sahara, but more mountainous, rocky and desolate. Months ass without any rain. In most parts the entire year- y rainfall amounts to scarcely 4 inches. On account of the exceeding dryness no part of this region can be cultivated without irrigation, except some small 781 strips of land along the Humboldt and Carson Rivers. Most of its valleys, which are as a rule wide and open, have no rivers, except the small, narrow rivulets that rush down from the melting snows of the neighboring mountains. Tnese rivu- lets rapidly disappear on reaching the plains, either by evaporation from the soil or by finding their way into one of the many small lakes and sinks which dot the surface. The waters of these lakes are generally salt, bitter, and unfit to drink for man or beast. The area of the Great Basin is as large as France, and nearly five times as large as the State of Penn- sylvania. It reaches from the northern boundaries of the States of Nevada and California down to the northern end of the peninsula of Lower California, a distance of nearly 600 miles. Most of it belongs to the States of Nevada and California and the Territory of Utah. A portion of this basin, north of the Mud Lake, reaches up into the State of Ore- gon, as far as 440 N. lat. Almost the whole State of Nevada lies in the Great Basin. The northern portion of the Great Basin is the more mountainous and elevated. Here the valleys are usually 5,000 feet above sea-level, while the mountains rise to 10,000 or 12,000 feet. They be- come gradually lower as we go south; larger patches of country become fiat, until we find in the southern portion valleys that are even lower than the level of the sea. Such are the Death and Coahuila Valleys. MoUN'rAINs.—Most of the mountain ranges of the Great Basin are composed of huge blocks which have been lifted by subterranean forces, broken in various directions, and tilted up on one side or the other. They have one steep face, exposing the broken edges of the original rock strata, and one gently sloping side, the slope conformable to the ip of the strata. The Wahsatch Range in Utah, which forms the eastern boundary of the Great Basin, has a north and south direction, like most of the basin ranges. On its western side it presents a bold, abrupt escarpment facing Great Salt Lake, while on the more gently sloping eastern side it is covered by tertiary deposits. Its highest peaks are 12,000 feet high. South of the Wahsatch Mountains is a region of high plateaus—-the highest in Amer- ica. Their drainage is carried by the Sevier River into the Great Basin. To the west of the Sevier Valley lies a range of three high tables, the south- ernmost, the Markagunt Plateau, about 11,000 feet high. On the opposite side of the Sevier Val- ley are the Sevier and Paunsagunt Plateaus, the former a table 60 miles long. East of this is the long stretch of Grass Valley, the waters of which burst through a deep gorge in the Sevier Plateau and join the Sevier River. East of this are the Wahsatch Plateau, a southerly extension of the Wahsatch Mountains. the Fish Lake Plateau, the Awapa and Aquarius Plateaus. All of these are over 11,000 feet high, and the Aquarius Plateau is partly covered by a forest of pine and fir trees. The main range of Central Nevada is the East Humboldt Range, a single bold ridge 80 miles long, terminating at the Humboldt River, with many rugged summits over 10,000 feet high. Mount Bonplant at the northern end rises even 11,320 feet above sea level. Its long slopes carry pine forests. Westward of the East Humboldt lie the Augusta, Carson Sink and West Humboldt Ranges, the latter culminating in Star Peak, 9,920 feet high. and the Virginia Range, which latter is the first of the north and south ranges lying east of the Sierra Nevada. The Virginia Range is 150 miles long. Besides the mountain ranges named there are nearly one hundred smaller ranges in the Great 782 Basin. In Southern Nevada and Southeastern Cal- ifornia there are the Amargosa and Funeral Moun- tains, east of Death Valley ; the Panamint Range west of that valley, and the Inyo Range just east of the Sierra Nevada, which it almost rivals in grandeur and exceeds in dreariness. South of the Inyo and Panamint ranges are the Opal, Payute and Dead Mountains, which are scarcely 5,000 to 6,000 feet high, and south of ese the Chocolate, Chuvavalla and Riverside Mou ains, which hardly average 4,000 feet. VALLEYs.—The valleys between the ranges are more barren and desolate than the mountains. They are generally destitute of trees, because they are mostly destitute of water in summer. In some places we find sage-brush, more seldom bunch- grass, covering large level patches of ground. Here and there we find a snow-white alkaline fiat with- out any vegetation whatever. The soil in these valleys is formed by alluvial deposits, and can very often be identified as the beds of ancient lakes of large extent. Some parts of these mud plains be- come so baked by the solar heat in summer that horses’ hoofs leave no tracks, and so cracked in all directions as to look like mosaic-work. The alka- line dust, caught up by the wind, sometimes forms hollow columns two to three thousand feet high, and is at all times most vexatious to the eyes of travelers. The Carson and Black Rock Deserts of Northern Nevada and the desert west of great Salt Lake exhibit the extreme of desolation and dreariness, but they are surpassed in area by the Mohave Desert in Southern California. Amargosa Desert, or Death Valley, lies in the southeastern part of Inyo county, Cal., and is 60 miles long and from 10 to 15 miles wide. Its lowest point is known as Ben- netts Wells, It is 300 feet below the level of the sea, while the highest point of the Telescope range, just west of the valley, rises 11,000 feet above sea evel. Furnace Wash, a small stream, enters Death Valley near its northern end. As it descends it forms a great swamp that spreads over a large por- tion of the valley, and gives off a fearful odor of sulphureted hydrogen. One sinks down to one’s knees in walking over this swamp. Right above it is a salt crust a foot thick, “surmounted by rough pinnacles of saline efflorescence. As we move away from this marsh and up the mountain side we meet a growth of salt grass so strongly saline that the horses will not eat it. Then comes the mosquito brush, consisting of big bushes covered with long poisonous thorns. A sage brush is next in order, and finally on the mountain tops grows a sort of stunted pine. The animal life of Death Valley is very small. Besides the coyote we find rattlesnakes, lizards, scorpions and tarantulas. No birds are to be seen, except once in a while a few crows looking for per- ishing travelers. Rains are almost unknown to this region. The air is so dry that men venturing into the valley without carrying a large supply of water in barrels will soon die of thirst. This hap- pened to parties of immigrants and explorers, and has given the valley its name. In 1850 thirty pioneers left Salt Lake City for California. They attempted to pass this valley at the north end. Soon their water gave out. They abandoned their teams and wandered for days without finding a stream of drinkable water. Then, parched with thirst, physically exhausted and mentally de- ranged, they lay down beneath the blazing sun and died. The thermometer rises in summer often to 1300 F. in the shade, so that this region is the hottest spot on earth, as it is the most desolate and for- GREAT BASIN bidding. Wet clothes wrung out of water and hung up to dry in summer will have every stitch dried in 25 minutes. This excessive dryness makes it impossible for any vegetation to exist in Death Valley. LAKES AND RIvERs.—Numerous small lakes in the mountains are fed by springs and melting snow. Their water is pure and fresh. The finest of these is Lake Tahoe, a beautiful sheet of water, which lies amid the peaks of the Sierra Nevada over 6,240 feet high. Its outlet, the Truckee River, flows northward into the Pyramid Lake, which is less than 4,000 feet high. Lake Tahoe is one of the deepest lakes in this country (1,645 feet), and abounds in fish. It is 21 miles long by 12 miles wide. On the eastern side of the Great Basin lie Utah Lake, which discharges its waters through the Jordan into great Salt Lake, Utah, and Bear Lake, whose surplus waters are conveyed by Bear River into the same reservoir. Great Salt Lake is ex- ceedingly saline and bitter. It is nearly 90 miles long by 32 miles wide at its greatest width, cov- ering a surface of 2,360 square miles. Its great- est depth is 50 feet, but the greater part is scarcely 10 feet deep. The Bear, Ogden, Weber and Jordan Rivers feed this lake; but it has no outlet whatever. Its water contains about 15 per cent. of mineral matter, and is therefore so dense that the human body floats on it like a cork. Common salt forms nearly four-fifths of the solid contents; the remaining fifth is made up by chlo- ride of magnesium as the principal ingredient, and the sul hates of sodium and potassium, with a trace 0 sulphate of lime. The lake is slowly ris- ing since 1861. Lake Mono is in California, a little south of Vir- ginia City. It is 14 miles by 10, and has no out- et Its water is strongly charged with sodium carbonate, and contains smaller quantities of lime carbonate, common salt and borax. Masses of tufa surround Lake Mono. They have been de- posited from the lime carbonate formerly held in solution by the water. Near the center of the lake is a group of volcanic islands. Prof. Le Conte, upon his visit to this lake in 1872, found ample proof that it had risen 10 or 12 feet in about as many years. Pyramid and Willamucca Lakes, although they have no outlets, are only slightly saline. Both of them are rising, the latter as much as 22 feet in as many years. Owen’s Lake is between the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Inyo range. Its saltness is about twice that of sea-water. Sodium carbonate and common salt, in equal parts, are the chief salme ingredients, but potassium and sodium sul- phates are also present. The Humboldt and Carson Rzvers feed the Humboldt and Carson sinks or lakes which have no outlets. They are the remains of the former Lake Lahontan. Silver Lake, north of Lake Lahontan, is the only fresh-water lake in the central part of the Great Basin. It is small, only 10 feet deep, and has no outlet. The numerous other lakes are alkaline and brackish; only a few of them contain water fit for stock to drink. Summer and Albert Lakes are strong solutions of potash and soda salts, the potassium salts of the latter lake amounting to 70 per cent. of the total mineral contents. Millions of brine-shrimps live In these two lakes. Alvord, Guano, Massacre, War- ner and Christmas Lakes, as well as those of Sur- prise and Long Valleys, are very shallow, and most of them evaporate to dryness in summer. Goose Lake, the deepest, does not exceed 20 feet. Quaternary Lakes.-—-During the Glacial period, Wh1Ch covered the Eastern and Northern States GREAT BEND—GREA'l‘ with ice, the greater part of the Great Basin was occupied by a number of lakes. Twenty-four of these lakes have been explored, the largest being Lakes Bonneville and Lahontan, both in the north- ern half of the basin, and that which occupied Death Valley, in the southern half of it. Lake Bonneville was the largest of the quaternary lakes. It covered the regions now occupied by the Great Salt Lake and the broad desert west of it, in- cluding the Utah and Sevier Lakes. The highest water-line of Lake Bonneville is 1,000 feet above the present level of Great Salt Lake, and is conspicu- ously marked, but the most prominent water-line is 400 feet lower, and has been named the Provo shore-line. The outlet of this lake was found at the northern end of Cache Valley, through which the water escaped into the Snake River, and by the latter into the Columbia River and Pacific Ocean. Lake Lahontan included the regions of Pyramid, Willamucca, Humboldt, VValker and the two Carson Lakes, all in Nevada, and Honey Lake in Califor- nia; also the Truckee and Humboldt Valleys, and what is now called the Carson and Black Rock Deserts. The shore-lines of this ancient lake are clearly defined throughout, and its coasts are scored by several horizontal terraces, each cut by the waves at a period when the lake maintained about the same height. A terrace 200 to 300 feet wide on the south side of the Carson Desert marks a level at which Lake Lahontan stood for a long period. A hundred feet above the present level of Pyramid Lake is a distinctly cut terrace. Tufa deposits rise from the alluvial beds of the lake bottom to va- rious heights. Remains of fresh-water shells prove that the water of Lake Lahontan was fresh at its earlier periods. But salts, chiefly common salt, BRITAIN 783 but including borate, sulphate and carbonate of soda, and also borate of lime, are contained in the lake-beds in quantities suflicient to pay for their being worked for salt and borax. These deposits provedthat the lake was strongly saline at its later perio . The most important rivers are the Jordan, in Utah, flowing northwards into Great Salt Lake; the Serier and Bear Rivers, also in Utah; the Hum- boldt River, in Nevada, which flows 350 miles in a southwesterly direction, and disappears in the shallow and brackish waters of the Humboldt Lake and sink; the Truckee River, which connects Lake Tahoe and Pyramid Lake; the Carson River, flow- ing from the Sierra Nevada Mountains down into Carson Lake and sink; and W'aZlcer River, rising in the same mountain range and losing itself in Walker Lake. None of these rivers are navigable. But they are very valuable for the purpose of lI'I‘1- gating the very dry country. Of animals we find only the mountain sheep native, and some fishes'in the mountain lakes. Trouts are found in the upper portions of the rivers. In the southern valley there are many snakes and lizards, but none of these are found in the northern parts. The agriculture of the Great Basin is limited to those few areas that can be irrigated. The grazing of sheep and cattle on the bunch grass, which is found in some of the mountains, is of greater im- portance. The principal source of wealth is mining The silver mines of Virginia City, Nevada, have produced large quantities of silver. There is also a growing industry in mining borax, salt, sulphur and carbonate of soda. GREAT BEND, a city and county-seat of Barton county, Kan., on Arkansas River, near the center of the State. F’ GREAT BRITAIN—BRITISH EMPIRE. For elaborate articles on the geography, history, gov- ernment, literature, and earlier statistics of Great Britain and the British Empire, see in the Britan- nica the countries, severally, which together consti- tute the present British Empire. The total area of the Empire in 1890 was esti- mated at 11,355,057 square miles, with an estimated population of 366,642,105. Capital, London, with a population of 4,421,661.‘-xi SQVEREIGN AND RoYAL FAMILY.—Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress of India, was born May 24, 1819; the daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of King George III, and of Princess Victoria of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, widow of Prince Emich of Leiningen. She ascended the throne at the death of her uncle, King ‘William IV, June 20, 1837 ; was crowned at Westminster Abbey, June 28, 1888; was married Feb. 10. 1840, to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; widow, Dec. 14, 1861. CHILDREN OF THE Q,UEEN.——I. Princess Victoria (Empress Frederick), born Nov. 21, 1840; married, J an. 25, 1858, to Prince Friederich \Vilhelm (Fried- rich I of Germany), eldest son of IVilhelm I, Ger- man Emperor and King of Prussia; widow 1888. II. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, born Nov. 9, 1841 ; married, March 10, 1863, to Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of King Christian IX of Denmark. Five children: Albert Victor, born J an. 8, 1864;‘ George, born June 3, 1865; Louise, born Feb. 20, \_— %See “ Stateman’s Year-book” for 1891, p. 19. -~ ‘ 1867, married to the Duke of Fife, July, 1889; Alex- andra, born July 6, 1868; Maud. born Nov. 26, 1869. Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence, died J an. 14, 1892. III. Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, born Aug. 6, 1844; married, Jan. 21, 1874, to Grand- duchess Marie of Russia, only daughter of Em- peror Alexander II. Five children: Alfred, born Oct. 15, 1874; Marie, born Oct. 29, 1875; Victoria, born Nov. 25, 1876; Alexandra, born Sept. 1, 1878; Beatrice, born April 20, 1884. IV. Princess Helena, born May 25, 1846; mar- ried, July 5, 1866, to Prince Christian of Schleswig- Holstein. Four children: Christian,born April 14, 1867; Albert John, born Feb. 26, 1860; Victoria. born May 3, 1870; Louise, born Aug. 12, 1872. . Princess Louise, born March 18, 1848; mar- ried, March 21, 1871, to John, Marquis of Lorne, eldest son of the Duke of Argyll. VI. Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, born May 1, 1850; married, March 18, 1879, to Princess Louise of Prussia, born July 25, 1860. Three chil- dren: Margaret Victoria, born J an. 15, 1882; Arthur, born J an. 18, 1883; Victoria, born l\Iarch 17, 1885. VII. Princess Beatrice, born April 14. 1857; mar- ried, July 29, 1885, to Prince Henry, third son of Prince Alexander of Battenberg, uncle of Ludwig IV, Grand-duke of Hesse. Three children: Al- exander Albert, born Nov. 23, 1886; Victoria Eugé- nie, born Oct. 24, 1887; Leopold Arthur Lewis, born May 21, 1889. Cousnss or THE QUEEN.-I. Prince Ernest Au- gust, Duke of Cumberland, born Sept. 21, 1845, the grand-son of Duke Ernest August of Cumberland, , fifth son of King George III; married Dec- 21, 784 1878, to Princess Thyra, of Denmark, born Sept. 29, 1853. Six children. II. Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, born March 26, 1819, the son of Duke Adolph of Cam- bridge, the sixth son of King George III ; field-mar- shal commander-in-chief of the British army. III. Princess Augusta, sister of the preceding, born July 19, 1822; married, June 28, 1843, to Grand-duke Friedrich Wilhelm of Mecklenburg- Strelitz. IV. Princess Mary, sister of the preceding, born Nov. 27, 1833; married, June 12, 1866, to Prince Franz von Teck, born Aug. 27, 1837, son of Prince Alexander of Wiirtemberg. Four children: 1. Vic- toria, born May 26, 1867 ; 2. Albert, born Aug. 13, 1868; 3. Franz-Josef, born Jan. 9, 1870; 4. Alexan- der, born April 14, 1874. ROYAL SUPPORT.-—Tl18 civil list of the Queen con- sists in a fixed Parliamentary grant, and amounts to much less than the incomes of previous sov- ereigns. Under George I this sum amounted at times to £1,000,000 sterling, but in 1777 the civil list of the King was fixed at £900,000, and the in- come over and above that sum from the hereditary possessions of the crown passed to the treasury. Under William IV the civil list was relieved of many burdens, and fixed at £510,000. It is established by law (1 & 2 Vict., ch. 2), that during her Majesty’s reign all the revenues of the crown shall be a part of the consolidated fund, but that a civil list shall be assigned to the Queen. In virtue of this act, the Queen has granted to her an annual allowance of £385,000, of which the lords of the treasury are directed to pay yearly £60,000 into her Majesty’s privy purse; to set aside £237,260 for the salaries of the royal household; £44,240 for retiring allowances and pensions to ser- vants; and £13,200 for royal bounty, alms, and -special services. This leaves an unappropriated -surplus of £36,300, which may be applied in aid of the general expenditure of her Majesty’s court. The Queen has also paid to her the revenues of the duchy of Lancaster, which in the year 1888 amount- ed to £86,285, and the payment made to her Majesty for the year was £50,000. On the consolidated fund are charged likewise the following sums allowed to members of the royal family :—£25,000 a year to the Duke of Edin- burgh; £25,000 to the Duke Of Connaught; £8,000 1130 the Empress Victoria of Germany; £6,000 to Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein; £6,000 to Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne; £6,000 to Princess Henry (Beatrice), of Battenberg; £3,000 to the Grand-duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; £5,000 to Princess of Teck, formerly Princess Mary of Cambridge; £12,000 to George, Duke of Cambridge; and £6,000 to Princess Helena of Waldeck, Duchess of Albany. The Prince of Wales, the heir-ap arent to the crown, has (by 26 Vict., ch. 1) settle upon him an annuity of £40,000, and by an act passed in 1889 receives £37,000 annually in addition for the sup- port and maintenance of his children. The Prince of Wales has besides as income the revenues of the duchy of Cornwall, which in the year 1888 was £90,022, exclusive of £855 of arrears, the sum paid to the Prince being £61,971. In the year 1884 the income from the duchy of Cornwall was £103,- 133, exclusive of £10,133 for arrears; in 1889 the in- come from the duchy was £104,188, exclusive of £9,413. The Princess of Wales has settled upon her the annual sum of £10,000, to be increased to £30,000 in case of widowhood. Consrrrurron AND Govnnnmnnr. —-The Queen holds the crown both by inheritance and election. Her legal title rests on the statute of 12 & 13 GREAT BRITAIN Wm. III, ch. 3, of the English laws, in which it was declared that the succession to the crown of Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Prin- cess Sophia of Hanover, and the “heirs of her body being Protestants.” The supreme legislative power of the British Em- pire is granted by the Constitution to Parliament. The powers of Parliament are politically control- ling not only within the United Kingdom, but also in the colonies and dependencies. The Parliamentary authority extends to all “ecclesiastical, temporal, civil and military ” matters, as well as to altering the Constitution of the realm. Parliament is the highest court of law. The present form of Parliament, which dates from the middle of the 14th century, is that of two houses of legislature, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. For the order of rank or precedence in all the de- partments of government under the prevalent con- ventional rules in English society, see an exhaus- tive article on PRECEDENCE, Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 660-68. THE Housn OF Lonns.—-The House of Lords con- sists of peers who hold their seats—1. By virtue of hereditary right; 2. By creation of the sovereign; 3. By virtue of of‘fice—bishops of the English estab- lished church; 4. By election for life-—Irish peers; and 5. By election for duration of Parliament-— Scottish peers. The number of peers named on the “ roll” in 1890 was 551, 12 of whom were recorded as minors. About two-thirds of these hereditary peerages were created in the present century. Excluding the royal and ecclesiastical peerages, the four oldest existing peerages in the House of Lords date from the atter part of the thirteenth century, while five go back to the fourteenth and ten to the fifteenth century. In 1888 two new peerages were created, one in 1889 and one in 1890. There are be- sides five peeresses of the United Kingdom in their own right, and three Scotch peeresses, and 18 Scotch and sixty-three Irish peers who are not peers of Parliament. The crown is not restricted in its power of creat- ing peers, and this power has been liberally used to fill up the House of Lords. In consequence of certain provisions of the Act of Union, limiting the right of election of the Scottish representative peers to the then existing peers of Scotland, it is understood that the sovereign cannot create a new Scottish peerage, and such peerages are in fact not created except in the younger branches of the royal family, though extinct or forfeited peerages may be restored. The sovereign is restricted to the creation of one new Irish peerage on the extinction of three of the existing peera es; but when the number of Irish peerages are re uced to 100, then, on the extinction of one peerage, another may be created. SPEAKER or THE HOUSE or Lonns.—-The lord high chancellor, who is appointed by mere de- livery of the “ reat seal” to him by the sovereign, and who is t e principal legal adviser of the crown, is by prescription speaker of the House of Lords, and may act in that capacity even though he be not a peer. He is b virtue of his office a privy councillor, and as the rst existing great oflicer of state he takes precedence of all but royal dukes and the archbishop of Canterbury. He presides, if present, when the House of Lords is sitting as an appellate court. He is president of the chancery division of the high court and of the court of ap- peal, and is one of the judicial committee of the nvy Council. In the absence of the sovereign he reads the Queen’s speech at the opening and proro- GREAT BRITAIN gation of Parliament, and he is always one of the commission for giving the royal assent to bills. He is visitor of all ospitals of royal foundation, the general guardian of all infants, idiots and lunatics, and has the general supervision of all charitable trusts. His patronage is very extensive. He nomi- nates the puisne judges and county court judges; and, except for Lancashire, he appoints the county magistrates, generally accepting the nominations of the lords-lieutenant and the boron h justices. He is the patron of twelve canonries an over six hun- dred livings. On retiring from oflice he receives a pension of £5,000 a year, but in such a case he com- monly assists the lord chancellor and the lords of appeal in ordinary in the transaction of the judi- cial business of the House of Lords. While in ofl‘ice he receives a salary of £10,000—£4,000 as speaker of the House of Lords and £6,000 as judge. His attorney-general receives a salary of £7,000 and fees (in 1886-87 £5,109), and the solicitor-gen- eral a salary of £6,000 and fees (in 1886-87 £2,553). THE Honsn or CoMMoNs.—-The Lower House of Parliament consists of knights of the shire, or rep- resentatives of counties; of citizens, or representa- tives of cities; and of burgesses or representatives of boroughs, all of whom vote together. The Rep- resentation act of 1884 and the Redistribution of Seats act of 1885-—the former extending to house- holders in counties the suffrages which previously had been conferred upon householders and lodgers in boroughs, while the latter made a new division of the United Kingdom into county and borough con- stituencies. Thus a uniform household and lodger franchise was conferred on counties and boroughs. The Representation act of 1884 also introduced a “service franchise,” and placed the three kingdoms on a footin of equality as regards electoral qualifi- cations. T e new Reform bill has added nearly three million of electors to the roll, and there is now one elector to about every six of the popula- tion. The present total number of members is 670, against 652 who sat before the passing of the Re- distribution act. The classified lists showing the relative representation of England, Scotland and Ireland in the Lower House of Parliament from the counties, boroughs, and Universities in 1891 are as follows: Te1'1‘it°1'ia~1- Co. Bor. Univ. England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 237 5 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 31 2 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 16 2 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 284 9 All elections for members of Parliament must be by secret vote and ballot—-an act being passed annually to this effect. The sole qualification required to be a member of Parliament is to be twenty-one years of age. All clergymen of the church of En land, ministers of t e church of Scotland, and oman Catholic clergymen are disqualified from sitting as mem- bers; all government contractors, and all sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act are disqualified both from voting and from sitting as members. No English or Scottish peer can be elected to the House of Commons, but non-representative Irish peers are eligible. In order to preserve the independence of the members of the Lower House of Parliament, it was 785 long since enacted that if any member shall accept any office of profit from the crown, his election to Parliament shall be void, and a writ for a new elec- tion must issue; but he is eligible for reelection if the place be “not a new ofiice created since 1705.” SPEAKER or THE HoUsE OF CoMMoNs.-—-On the first day of the meeting of a new Parliament mem- bers of the House of Commons are summoned from their own chamber to the House of Peers, where her Majesty’s pleasure is signified by the lords-commissioner that they shall proceed to the choice of some proper person to be their speaker. On their return the Commons proceed to the elec- tion accordingly, the clerk acting the while as chairman. On the following day the speaker- elect, with the House, is summoned to the House of Peers, and one of the lords-commissioner signi- fies her Majesty’s approval of the choice made by the Commons. The speaker then, in the name and on behalf of the Commons, lays claim to their an- cient and undoubted rights and privileges, which being confirmed he and his fellow-members re- turn to their own chamber and the ceremony of taking the oath is proceeded with, he being the first to go through it. The speaker may hold ofiice until a dissolution. Should the office become vacant during a session, the new speaker then elected is presented for the royal approbation, but does not claim the privileges of the House. This great ofiicer has a residence in the palace of ‘Vest- minster, and receives a salary of £5,000 per an- num; he ranks as first commoner, and is usually awarded upon retirement a pension of £4,000 and a peerage. There has been no contested election for speaker since 1839. THE CABINET MINrs'rRY.—-The Executive Gov- ernment of Great Britain and Ireland is vested nominally in the crown; but practically in a com- mittee of ministers, commonly called the cabinet, whose existence is dependent on the possession of a majority in the House of Commons. The member of the cabinet who fills the position of first lord of the treasury is, as a rule, the chief of the ministry; at present it is the foreign secre- tary who is prime minister. It is at the premier’s recommendation that his colleagues are appointed; “ and he dispenses the greater portion of the patron- age of the crown. His salary is that of the chair or oflice which he holds as head of a de- partment. The present premier (1891) is foreign secretary, receiving £5,000. The present cabinet (June, 1891) consists of the following members: Secretary of State for Forei n Affairs; Lord High Chancellor;+ Lord Presi ent of the Council;t Chancellor of the Exchequer; Secretary of State for the Home De- partment;* Secretary of State for War ;* First Lord of the Treasury ;* Secretary of State for the Colonies ;* Secretary of State for India;* First Lord of the Admiralty ;§ Lord Chancellor for Ire- land; Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland;|| Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster;; President of the Board of Trade;t Lord Privy Seal ;t President of the Local Government Board ;I President of the Board of Agriculturei (Board created in 1889)—a total cabinet membership in 1891 of 17. Although the cabinet ministry is not the off- spring of any formal election, it is virtually de- pendent upon the House of Commons, as an adverse majority in that body on any of its acts requires its immediate resignation. As its acts are liable to be questioned at any time in such manner as to require immediate explanation, it is deemed neces- sary that its members should be also members either of the Upper or Lower House. 786 The following is a complete list of the premiers, or heads, of all the cabinet administrations of the British government from accession of the house of Hanover to 1891, with the dates of their appoint- ments: Prime Dates of Ministers. Appomtment. Robert Walpole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Oct._10, 1714 James Stanhope. .. ... .... . ... . . . April 10, 1717 Earl of Sunderland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..March 16, 1718 Sir Robert Walpole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Apr1l 20, 1720 Earl of Wilmington. . . . . . . . . . . .. . Feb. 11, 1742 Henry Pelham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 26, 1743 Duke of Newcastle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Apr1l 21, 1754 Earl of Bute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..May_ 29, 1762 George Grenville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Apr1l 16, 1763 Marquis of Rockingham... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..July 12, 1765 Duke of Grafton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,. .August 2, 1766 Lord North . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 28, 1770 Marquis of Rockingham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 30, 1782 Earl of Shelburne. . . . . . . . . . . July 3, 1782 Duke of Portland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Apr1l 5, 1783 William Pitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Dec. 27, 1783 Henry Addington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1801 William Pitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..May 12, 1804 Lord Grenville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. an. 8, 1806 Duke of Portland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..March 13, 1807 Spencer Perceval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . une 23, 1810 Earl of Liverpool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..June 8, 1812 George Canning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . April 11, 1827 Viscount Goderich. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. August 10, 1827 Duke of Welhngton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 11, 1828 Earl Grey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Nov. 12, 1830 Viscount Melbourne....... . .. . . . . July 14, 1834 Sir Robert Peel. . .. . . . . . . Dec._10, 1834 Viscount Melbourne. . April 18, 1885 Sir Robert Peel . Sept. 1, 1841 Lord John Russell . . . . .. July 3, 1846 Earl of Derby. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Feb. 27, 1852 Earl of Aberdeen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 28, 1852 Viscount Palmerston Feb. 1855 Earl of Derby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Feb. 26, 1858 ‘Viscount Palmerston. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . June 18, 1859 Earl Russell . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .Nov. 6, 1865 Earl of Derby. July 6. 1866 Boniamin Disraeli . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Feb. 27, 1868 William Ewart Gladstone.. . ec. 9, 1868 Benjamin Disraeli (Earl of Beaconsfield) Feb, 21, 1874 William Ewart Gladstone.. . . pr1l 28, 1880 Marquis of Salisbury . . . . . . June 24, 1885 William Ewart Gladstone... . . .. . . . . .. . Feb. 6, 1886 Marquis of Salisbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .August 3, 1886 Of the present cabinet ministry those marked with an asterisk (*) receive £5,000; +, £10,000; * £2,000; 5, £4,500; ll, £8,000; Tl’, £4,425. The Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland, formerly a member of the cabinet, but now a cabinet ofiicer, receives a salary of £20,000. SESSIONS OF PARLIAMEN'r.—Parliament is sum- moned by the writ of the sovereign issued by ad- vice of the Privy Council, at least thirty-five days previous to its assembling. On a vacancy occur- ring in the House of Commons while Parliament is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued upon motion in the House. If the vacancy occurs during the recess, the writ is issued at the instance of the speaker. It has become customary, during recent years, for Parliament to meet in annual session extending from the middle of February to about the end of August. Every session must end with a proroga- tion, and by it all bills which have not been passed during the session fall to the ground. The royal proclamation which summons Parliament in order to proceed to business must be issued fourteen days before the time of meeting. A dissolution is the civil death of Parliament: it may occur by the will of the sovereign, or, as is most usual, during the recess, by proclamation, or finally by lapse of time, the statutory limit of the duration of the exist- ence of any Parliament being seven years. Formerly, on the demise of the sovereign, Parliament stood dis- solved by the fact thereof ; but this was altered in the :;Zgn of William III to the effect of postponing the dissolution till six months after the accession of GREAT BRITAIN the new sovereign while the Reform act of 1867 settled that the Parliament “in bein at any future demise of the Crown shall not be etermined by such demise.” Both Houses of legislature must be prorogued at the same time. The prorogation takes place either by the soverei n in person, or by commission from the Crown, or y proclamation. The Lower House appears at the bar, and if the sovereign be present, the speaker reports upon the labors of the session; the royal assent is then given to bills of the closing session, and a speech from the sovereign is read; whereupon the chancellor prorogues the Parlia- ment to a certain day. Parliament resumes busi- ness, however, as soon as it is summoned by royal proclamation on a certain day, which may be at a date earlier than the original date of prorogation appointed. Should the term of prorogation elapse, and no proclamation be issued, Parliament cannot assemble of its own accord. The following is a table of the duration of Parlia- ments of the United Kingdom during the present century : .Parliament. When met. When dissolved. Existed. Y M 1) 1st Sept. 27, 1796 Jan. 29, 1802 5 4 3 2nd Aug. 31, 1862 Oct. 24, 1806 4 1 25 3rd Dec. 15, 1806 April 29, 1807 0 4 15 4th June 22, 1807 Sept. 24, 1812 5 3 7 5th Nov. 24, 1812 June 10, 1818 5 6 16 6th Aug. 4, 1818 Feb. 29, 1820 1 6 25 7th April 23, 1820 June 2, 1826 6 1 9 8th Nov. 14, 1826 July 24, 1830 3 8 10 9th Oct. 26, 1830 April 22, 1831 0 5 28 10th June 14, 1881 Dec. 3, 1832 1 5 20 11th Jan. 29, 1833 Dec 30, 1834 1 11 1 12th Feb. 19, 1835 July 18, 1837 2 5 0 13th Nov. 14, 1837 June 23, 1841 8 7 9 14th Aug. 11, 1841 July 28, 1847 5 11 12 15th Sept. 21, 1847 Ju y 1, 1852 4 8 11 16th Nov. 4, 1852 Mar. 20, 1857 4 4 11 17th April 30, 185 April 23, 1859 1 11 23 18th May 31, 1859 July 6, 1865 6 1 6 19th Feb. 6, 1866 July 31, 1868 2 5 25 20th Dec. 10, 1868 Jan. 26, 1874 5 1 16 21st Mar. 5, 1874 Mar. 24, 1880 6 0 17 22nd April 29, 1880 Nov. 18, 1885 5 6 20 28rd Jan. 12, 1886 June 26, 1886 0 5 14 24th Aug. 5, 1886 Pres’t ses’n AREA AND POPULATION or THE Bnrrrsn EMPIRE BY OOUNTRIES.———Tl16 following figures are from the official census returns of 1881—the latest published 'i1&13;91;1he date of sending these pages to press, June, Name of Country. sg_1§?iié1S_ Population. Great Britain and Ireland . . . . . .. 121,115 88,609,500 Indian Possessious, etc 1,648,944 273,583,000 Other Eastern Possessions . 104,441 4,169,800 Austr_alas1a, etc . . 8,171,978 4,200,000 Amor_1ca (North).. 8,572,457 5,200,000 America (South). . 115,419 850,000 Africa _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 295,000 2,900,000 West Inches, etc . . . . . . . . . .. 13,750 1,450,000 European Possessions . . . . . . . . . . . 121 162,000 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,043,225 330,574,800 Whittier’s Almanack (London, 1891). referring to these figures, says: “ If to these figures we add the recent ‘ Annexations,’ ‘Influences,’ or perhaps the truer and more expressive word ‘grabbings,’ in Afri- ca, the area will be extended to 11,190,513 sq. miles, and population to 364,004,000.” GREAT BRITAIN The area and population of the divisions of the United Kingdom in 1881 were as follows: Subdivisions. S‘(;*'r§f’i11gs' Population. En land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50,823 24,613,926 Wa es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,363 1,360,513 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,417 3,735,573 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32,583 5,174,836 Isle of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 220 53,558 Channel Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75 87,702 Army, Navy, and Seamen abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215,374 Totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121,481 35,241,482 Of the total population, 17,254,109 were males, and 17,987,373 were females. In England and Wales the decennial increase was 14.36; in Scotland 11.18; in Ireland, a decrease of 4.40; in the other Islands, a decrease of 2.34. In England the density of population per square mile was 484; in ‘Vales, 184; in Scotland, 122; in Ireland, 159. In 1890 the emigration from the United Kingdom to British North America was 31,930; to the United States, 233,571; to Australasia, 21,604; total, 287,105. EDUCATION AND RELIGION.-—Elementary educa- tion is now compulsory in the United Kingdom, and in 1889 it was made free in Scotland. On April 1, 1890, there were in England and Wales 2,274 school boards embracing a population of 16,481,753. Eng- land and \Vales reported in 1890 a total of 58 Uni- versities; Scotland, 6; Ireland, 3; total, 67 ; with 1,263 teachers, and 23,648 students. The total grants to primary schools in Great Britain (for ex- amination and attendance of scholars) in 1890 was £5,162,307. _ In England the Protestant Episcopal continues to be the established church, but all other churches are fully tolerated, and civil disabilities do not at- tach to any class of British subjects. There are 2 archbishops and 31 bishops. At the last census the population claiming membership in the State church was estimated at about 13,500,000, leaving about 12,500,000 to other creeds. There are many Protestant dissenting religious bodies,the most numerous being Methodists of va- rious branches, Independents or Con gregationalists, Baptists, and Presbyterians. The Methodists re- ported about 14,000 chapels with 760,000 members; the Independents, 360,000 members; the Baptists, 3,700 chapels with 300,000 members. There are re- corded in Great Britain 180 different religions de- nominations. The number of Roman Catholics in England and Wales in 1887 was estimated at 1,354,000, with one archbishop and 14 bishops. In December, 1890, there were 1,335 Roman Catholic chapels and sta- tions, with 2,478 oificiating clergy. The number of Jews in Great Britain and Ireland in 1883 was estimated at 70,000, of whom 40,000 re- sided in London. The number of ' parishes of the established (Presbyterian) church in Scotland in 1890 was 1,332, with 1,663 chapels and stations and about 1,700 clergy. The number of Scotch Presbyterians not members of the established church is also large. The Free church in 1890 reported a total of 1,165,000. There ‘are also Baptists, Independents, Methodists, and Unitarians. The Episcopal church in Scotland reported 7 bishops, 286 churches, 266 clergy, with an adhering population of about 80,000. 787 The Roman Catholic Church in Ireland in 1890 was under the supervision of 4 archbishops, and 23 bishops. In 1881 the census showed a total Roman Catholic population of 3,963,891. The Church of Ireland (Protestant Episcopal) had in 1889, 1,500 churches, with 620,000 members. There were also in Ireland at the census of 1881, 470,734 Presbyterians, 48,839 Methodists, 6,210 Inde- pendents, 4,879 Baptists, 3,645 Quakers or Friends, and 472 Jews. REVENUE AND Ex1>ENnr_rUREs.—The Budget for the year ending March 31, 1891, reported the esti- mated government income at £90,406,000 and the expenditures at £86,627,000. The sources of in- come and the branches of expenditure are shown in the following recapitulatory lists: Souacns or INCOME, 1891. Customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . £20,695,499 Excise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,282,635 Stam s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 15.475824 Property taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,279,125 Postal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ,747 .594 Telegra hs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,642,329 Crown ands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 507,311 Suez Canal shares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 279 ,15o Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.416.663 Total income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. £95,326,135 BRANCHES or EXPENDITURE, 1891. National debt charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $625,000,000 Interest on railwa bonds, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 214.000 Naval defense fun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,430,000 Other consolidated fund charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,664,000 The army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,728,000 The navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13,787,000 Civil services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,661,000 Collections and inland revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,668,000 Postofiice service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,548,000 Telegraph service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,244,000 Packet service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 683,000 Total expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . £86.627,000 Of the amount received from customs in 1890, the sum of £9,214,626 was for duties on tobacco; £4,490,694 for duties on tea; and £5,985,707 for duties on liquors. Of the receipts from excise the sum of £24,960,043 was for spirits, beer, and license duties, making a total government income in 1890 from spirits, liquors, and license duties of £30,945,- 750 or over $150,000,000. The item “ property taxes” embraces the follow- ing: “Land tax,” £1,065,537; “house duty tax,” £1,978,596; and the “income and property tax,” £13,234,992; a total of property taxes of £16.27 9,125. As English statisticians regard the first four items of income recorded above as “ taxes,” the total in- come from taxes in the United Kingdom in the year ending March 31,1890, must be set down at £77,733,083, or about $388,000,000. This is nearly Eve-sixths of the total income of the United King- om. The national expenditures fall substantially under three categories: (1.) The consolidated fund charges (£28,2-89,524), mainly applied on the na- tional debt; (2) the army and navy (£31,203.152), and (3) the civil service, including expense of col- lection of revenue (£26,590,638) for year ending March 31, 1890. The income tax is regarded as-the most impor- tant of the direct taxes. This tax since 1881 has been from 5d. to 8d. per pound. In 1881 the rate was 6d. ; in 1882, 5d. ; in 1883,6}§d. ; in 1884, 5d. ; in 1885,6ol.; in 1886 and 1887, 8d.; in 1888, 7d.; in 1889 and 1890, 6d. Since 1877 only incomes of and over £150 are charged, and with an abatement of £120 on those under £400. THE NA'rIoNAL DEB'r.—The national debt was greatest at the peace of Paris, 1815. The increase 788 during the war with Napoleon had been £323,386,- 041. At the commencement of the Crimean war in 1854, it was £769,082,549; during that war, about three years, it grew to .£808,108,722, an increase of .-‘$39,026,173. On March 31, 1890, the debt was £689,- 944,026. The net total of the national debt, after deducting assets and balances, was at that date .£679,733,889, or about $3,398,669,445. THE Barrrsn ARMY.——During the year ending March 31, 1891, the army of the United Kingdom consisted of 7,475 commissioned oflicers; 991 “ war- rant” officers; 15,958 sergeants; 3,670 drummers, trumpeters, etc.; and 125,381 rank and file; a total of 153,483 men of all ranks——an increase of 1,201 over the previous year. The oflicial returns for 1890 showed a register of 12,470 oflicers and men in the cavalry; 17,584 in the artillery; 5,370 engineers, 68,682 infantry and spe- GREAT BRITAIN cial corps; and 821 in miscellaneous establish- ments. The maintenance of a standing army in time of peace without the consent of Parliament is for- bidden by the bill of rights of the United King- dom. Parliament must act on. this question every year. There are two royal military academies or colleges——at Woolwich and Sandhurst. The above figures include ’only those of the standing army. In addition there were four classes of reserves, or auxiliary forces, viz.: re- serves, 63,980; militia, 141,395; yeomanry, 14,086; volunteers, 260,627. These with the standing army at home, and‘ a force of 72,429 in India, make a grand total of 696,048 officers and men. The daily pay of the staff and oflicers and also of the regimental lists is shown by the subjoined table, as furnished in the oflicial reports of 1891: Lieutenant-General, £5 10s.; Major-General, £3; Brigadier-General, £2 10s.; Colonel 011 Staff, 22 and £2 10s.; D_eputy_-Adju- tant and Quartermaster-General, £2; Assistant ditto,.-£1 5s.; Deputy Assistant ditto, 21s.; Brigade-Majors, _Sen1or A1ds-de- Camp, and Assistant Military Secretaries, 21s.; Aids-de-Camp, 15s. and 18s.; Staff-Captains, 15s.; Garrison and Camp Quartermasters, 9s. to 15s. REGIMENTAL DAILY PAY (BRITISH ESTABLISHMENT). :>. F- . 3 . QDA >~ in 05 >» : - Royal - 1- I-4 rd ‘DE E?’ Eng‘ eer %-E E 3 ' 3:: fl‘: §° 5 Q’ ‘E if 3 a fi 3 s n: on tn 1-1 in .5 s. d. s d. s. d. s. d. s d. s. d. s. d. Colonel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 0 26 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 9 . . . . . . . . .. Lieutenant-Colonel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 9 18 0 18 0 23 6 21 6 23 0 18 0 Major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 6 16 0 16 0 15 6 15 0 15 6 13 7 Captain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 0 11 7 11 7 13 6 13 0 11 7 11 7 Lieutenant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 810 610 6 0 9 0 7 8 6 6 6 6 Second-Lieutenant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 8 5 7 5 7 6 8 6 8 5 3 5 3 Ad'utant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17 6 14 1 2 6+ 12 6 15 6 10 0 14 1 Ri ing-Master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 6 9 6 9 6 10 6 10 6 . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Quartermaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 6 9 6 9 6 10 6 10 6 9 0 9 0 * * Sergeant(Corporal) Major ....................... .. e 0 5 10 6 0 ii 0 510 5 4 5 2 5 0 Bandmaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 0 6 0 . . . . . . . . .. 6 0 5 6 5 6 5 0 5 0 Quartermaster Ser eant(Corporal Major) . . . . . . .. 4 4 4 2 3 4 6 4 6 4 2 4 0 4 0 Sergeant(Corpora)Instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 2 4 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Battery Se1'ge8Jlt-M8J01‘,d0-Q--M-Sergt ......... .. 4 4 4 2 .......................................................... Armorer Sergeant (Corporal) . . . . . . . . . .._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4 6 Troo and Company Sergt.(C0rporal) Major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 4 3 9 4 0 310 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Farmer QuartermasterSergeant(Corp.). . . . . . . .. 4 5 4 3 4 6 . . . . . . . . .. 4 3 4 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Wheeler Quartermaster Sergeant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 311 3 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Collar-maker and Saddler Q. M.Sergt. (Corp.)... 3 11 3 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 0 3 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Orderly-room Sergeant(Corporal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 8 2 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 0 2 8 2 6 2 6 Serg.§Corp.) Trumpeter, Sergt. Bugler . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 4 3 2 . . . . . . . . .. 4 6 3 2 2 8 2 6_ 2 4 Serg. Corporal) Cook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 4 3 2 . . . . . . . . .. 3 3 3 0 2 8 2 6 2 4 Sergeant (Corporal of Horse) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 4 3 2 3 6 3 3 3 0 2 8 2 6 2 4 Sergt.(Corp.) Farrier and Carriage Smith . . . . . . .. 3 9 3 7 3 8 . . . . . . . . .. 3 4 2 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Paymaster-Sergeant (Corporal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 0 2 8 . . . . . . . . .. 2 6 Kettle-Drummer, Sergeant-Drummer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 4 . . . . . . . . .. 2‘ 6 2 4 Corporal Artificer,Co1or-Sergeant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 2 3 0 Corpora1._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 8 2 6 2 9 2 6 2 8 2 0 1 9 1 8 Bombardier, Second-Corporal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 5 2 3 2 5 2 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collar-maker Wheeler, Saddler, Artificer . . . . . . .. 2 5 2 3 1 11 1 11 2 41/2 1 91/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Shoeing and arri e Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 2 2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 3 1 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Trumpeter, Bugler, rummer and Fifer . . . . . . . . .. 2 0 1 2% 1 4 1 1? 1 11 1 4 1 2 1 1 Gunner, Sapper, Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 4 1 2{ 1 4 1 1 2 1 9 1 2 1 1 1 0 Driver .............................................. .. 1 s 1 22 1 4 ...................................... ........ .. * Mounted. ** Dismounted. THE Bnrrrsrr N .4vY.—The navy of the United King- dom is a perpetual establishment, and the statutes under which it is governed have been fixed with precision. We have stated above that for the army, the first vote of Parliament sanctions the number of men to be maintained; the second, the -1- Additional to regimental pay. charge fortheir gay and maintenance. For the navy, no vote is ta en for the number of men; the first vote is for the wages of the stated number of men and boys to be maintained; and, though the result may be the same, this distinction exists both in practice and principle. GREAT BRITAIN The number of seamen and marines provided for 789 Included in the number of 41,730 seamen of the the naval service in the estimates for 1889-90, and fleet were 13 flag of-‘ficlers, and 2,584 COI11II1lSSlOI16d also for the previous year, was as follows: officers, on active service. Provision was also made for 19,700 men of the royal navy reserves. 2,210 , 9 , 0 seamen and marine pensioner reserves, and 2,000 Branches of service. 1888-8 1889-9 naval artillery volunteers. The following table is taken from the official re- For tlgfie fleet (idncluding Indian troop-ships) : 39 57 41 30 turns : O cers an seamen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ,5 7 - - - Boys (including 1,950 under training)..... 5,089 4:514 The total cost of the addltlon ls calculated‘. at Marines afloat and on shore .............. .. 12,766 13,874 £22,669,000. Of the armored turreted battle ships, For the coast guard....._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,000 4,200 three, the Inflewible’ the T»,-afalgaa and the Alile’ Ofiicers for various services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 988 1,082 have each a tonnage of nearly 12,000’ and an armor thickness of 20 to 24 inches. The Inflerible is 320 Total, all ranks ....................... .. 62,400 65,400 feet long and 75 feet breadth, with atotal weight of 3,275 tons. No. ships afloat Jan. 1, 1889. Proposed standard in 1894. Class of Ships. Number. Tonnage. Number. Tonnage. Armored. Battle ships, first class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17 165,330 30 333.950 “ “ second class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 97,010 17 115,010 “ “ Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 55.663 6 55.660 Coast defense ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 37,230 12 37,230 Cruisers. first class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 76,650 12 76,650 ' “ second class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Total armored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62 431,880 77 618,500 Protected. Cruisers, first class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 84,150 “ second class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 39,000 51 169,625 ‘=‘ third class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 36.900 24 46,880 “ others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Torpedo depot ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 6,620 Torpedo ram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 2,640 1 2,640 Total protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29 78.540 88 309,915 Unprotected. Cruisers, second class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 40,470 10 40,470 Corvettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1,970 1 1,970 Sloops ................................................................ . . I7 17.570 19 20,210 Gun vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 6,302 8 6,302 Torpedo cruisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 17,320 10 17,320 Torpedo gunboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 2,125 31 21,970 Gunboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 24,326 71 31,571 Torpedo boats, first class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80 4.178 86 4,538 “ “ second class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51 612 61 732 Dispatch vessels._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 3,350 2 3,350 Torpedo depot ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 6.400 1 6,400 S ecial service ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14 9,419 14 9,419 iscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 34,38‘ 22 84,382 Total unprotected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-1 ... 282 163,724 336 198,634 Total.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 679,144 501 1,127,049 CoMMERoE AND INTERNAL CoMMUNIoA'rIoN.-The United Kingdom is classed as a free-trading coun- try, the only duties levied being chicory, cocoa, cofiee, dried fruits, plate, spirits, tea, tobacco and wine, the bulk of all the levies being spirits, to- bacco, tea and wine. In 1889 the total imports were valued at .£427,637,595; the duties levied were on goods valued at 850,078,748, or about 7 per cent. of the total imports. The total imports in 1890 were estimated at .£420,885,695_. _In 1889 the railway mileage aggregated 19,943 miles; on Jan. 1, 1890, there were in England and Wales 14,034 miles; in Scotland, 3,118 miles; and in Ireland, 2,791 miles. In April, 1890, the telegraph mileage aggregated 31,440 miles in length, with 190,027 miles of wire, iii- cluding 17,211 miles of private wire. For the statistics of the colonies and depend- encies of Great Britain, see those countries sev- erally. SUPPLEMENTAL HISTORIC OU'rLINE.—Tlie historic record in the Ninth Edition of Briteinnica closed with the events of 1875. The following is an abbre- viated outline of the principal later events: 7% Queen of England proclaimed “Empress of India,” 1876. Cyprus taken possession of by Great Britain,1878. Burmese empire entirely annexed to Great Britain; Decem- ber 31, 1885 Gladstone ministry resigns (succeeded by Lord Salisbury’s cabinet), August 8, 1885. Salisbury ministry defeated (succeeded by Gladstone min- istry), January 26, 1886. Great Socialist riot in London, February 8,1886. In English elections Gladstone defeated by Conservatives and Unionists, July 20, 1886. Gladstone resigned and was succeeded by Lord Salisbury, July 23, 1886. Socotia Island in Indian Ocean annexed to Great Britain, November 22, 1886. 8é)est1‘11ctive storm throughout Great Britain, December 8, 1 6. British government introduced a new Coercion bill for Ire- land, March 28, 1887. Cyprus ceded to England by Turkey, June 1,1887. Queen Victoria's jubilee celebrated, June 19-25, 1887. Parnell commission began its sittings in London, Septem- ber 17, 1887. Bill legalizing marriage with deceased wife’s sister passed, April 18, 1888. Henry M. Stanley and Miss Tennant married in Westmin- ster Abbey, July 12, 1890. SEmperor of Germany visited Queen Victoria, August, 4, 8 O. I-Ieligoland transferred to Germany, August 9, 1890. British torpedo cruiser Serpent wrecked (173 lives lost), November 10, 1890. Parnell reélected party leader, resulting in withdrawal of 44 M. P.’s, who elected McCarthy, November 25-Dec. 6, 1890. Conference-of Irish leaders at Boulogne, France, December 0 O, 1890. 0 Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, eld- .est son of the Prince of Wales, and presumptive heir to the -throne, died January 21, 1892. GREAT FALLS, a village in Somersworth town- .-ship, Stafford cou,nty, N. H., on Salmon River. It .is a business center of York county, Me., and its prosperity largely arises from its cotton mills, -seven being operated here. The village contains .a woolen mill, bleachery-and foundry. GREAT FISH RIVER (1), in Cape Colony, Africa, rises in the Sneeuwberg Mountains, and after a general southeasterly course of 230 miles -enters the Indian Ocean. 'which connects Port Elizabeth and Port Alfred with Kimberley, skirts part of the river. The Midland railway, (2) Great Fish River, or Back’s River in North America, -enters an inlet of the Arctic Ocean in 950 VV. long., .-after passing through Lake Pelly. Sir George Back traced its course to the ocean. GREAT KANAWHA, called New River in the »upper part of its course, rises in the Blue Ridge of .'North Carolina, and is an aflluent of the Ohio ‘River. It has a course of 450 miles through West ~Virginia, and is navigable to a fall 30 miles above rr2'-ce. See Pours REGIONS, Bri- tannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 326-27. _move, and act on each other as in real life. 792 GREEN, ASHBEL, D. D., LL. D.,born at Hanover, N. J ., July 6, 1762, died in Philadelphia, May 19, 1848. He entered the Revolutionary Army in 1778, and served as sergeant until 1782; graduated from Princeton College in 1784; soon after graduating was appointed tutor, and in 1785 became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. Licensed to preach in 1786, he became pastor of the Second Presbyterian church of Philadelphia the following year; in 1792 was appointed chaplain to Congress; and in 1812 became president of Princeton College. In 1822 he resigned the presidency and removed to Philadelphia. Author of A History of Presbyterian Missions; Sermons on the Assembly’s Catechism; and other works. He was editor of the “ Christian Ad- vocate ” from 1822 to 1834. GREEN, HORACE, M. D., LL. D., born at Chitten- den, Vt., Dec. 24, 1802, died in Sing Sing, N. Y., Nov. 29, 1866. He graduated at the University of Penn- sylvania, and at Middlebury College; began prac- tice in Rutland, and afterwards spent several years abroad, studying in the hospitals of Edinburgh, London and Paris. On his return he became pro- fessor in the Medical College of Castleton, Vt., and remained there until his removal to New York city in 1850. He was soon afterwards chosen professor of the theory and practice of medicine in the New York Medical College, which position he held until obliged by failing health to resign in 1860. Author of A Treaties on Diseases of the Air-Passages (1846); Pathology and Treatment of Croup (1849) ; Report of A Hundred Cases of Pulmonary Diseases (1858), and other works. GREEN, JACOB, son of Ashbel, born in Philadel- phia, July 26, 1790, died there Feb. 1, 1841. He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1806; in 1818 became professor of chemistry, exper- imental philosophy, and natural history at Prince- ton, and in 1822 professor of chemistry at J efi‘erson Medical College, which position he held until his death. Author of Chemical Diagrams; Chemical Philosophy (1829); Astronomical Recreations (1829); A Syllabus of a Course of Chemistry (1835) ; Trilobites (2 vols., 1832) ; The Botany of the United States (1833); Notes of a Traveler (1831); and Diseases of the Shin (1841). GREEN, J OHN RICHARD, an English historian, born at Oxford in 1837, died at Mentone, Italy, March 7, 1883. After being educated at Ma da- len College School and Jesus Colle e, he took or ers in 1860, and became curate of St. arnabas church, a poor parish in the east of London. In 1862 he had charge of Hoxton, and in 1865 was made vicar of St. Philip’s, Stepney. Overwork during the cholera time in 1868 obliged him to retire, and Archbishop Tait made him librarian at Lambeth. His health remained delicate, and his winters were spent usually on the Continent. He had been a fre- quent contributor to the “ Saturday Review "’ before, and now he began to work on his Short History of the English People, which book he had ready for pub- lication in 187 4. This work was received with great enthusiasm all over England. The University of Edinburgh conferred on the author the degree of LL. D. In 187 7 Green gathered a number of his es- says into a book under the title Stray Studies, and in 1882 published a masterly work on The Malnng of England, wherein he went deeply into the founda- tion of England’s greatness. In continuation of this he was preparing another work, to be called The Conquest of England, when his labors were cut short by death. In all his writings Green showed a lively imaginative faculty. His characters l]1)ve, 1S- tant places and times are made to appear distinct and perfectly natural. ~ 1 GREEN--GREENCASTLE GREEN, SAMUEL ABBOTT, physician, born at GI\r ton, Mass., March 16, 1880, graduated at Harvard College in 1851, and took his medical degree in 1854. After spending several years in Europe he returned and settled in Boston. At the commence- ment of the civil war he was commissioned assistant surgeon of the 1st Massachusetts regiment of volunteers; was surgeon of the 24th Massachusetts regiment 1861-64, and for his services in the field during the latter year was brevetted lieutenant-col- onel of volunteers. He was city physician of Boston in 1871-80, and was elected mayor in 1882. Author of A History of Medicine in Massachusetts ; Groton Duriw g the Indian Wars (1883); Groton Historical Series (20 numbers, 1883-87); and other works. He has. also published a large number of papers on scientific and historical subjects. GREEN, SETH, American pisciculturist, born in Rochester, N. Y., March 19, 1817, died there Aug. 20, 1888. He received a common-school education, and for some years was proprietor of a fish and game market near his home. Having a passion for hunt- ing and fishing, and being a close observer, he be- came interested in the habits of fish, and from his personal observations conceived the idea of artificial propagation. From that time he turned his atten- tion to methods of increasing and protecting the yield of fish as a business. In 1868 he was appointed one of the fish commissioners of New York, and was soon afterwards made superintendent of fisheries in that State. He was the inventor of important hatching appliances, and the reat advancement made in pisciculture is largely ue to his efforts. GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY, D. D., LL. D., born at Groveville, Burlington county, N. J ., Jan. 27 , 1825, graduated at Lafayette College in 1840, and studied theology at Princeton. Ordained to the Presbyte- rian ministry in 1848, he became pastor of the Cen- tral Presbyterian church of Philadelphia in 1840, and since 1851 has held the professorship of He- brew and Old Testament literature in Princeton Sgninary. He was chairman of the Old Testament eflmpany of the American committee of revision. He declined the presidency of Princeton in 1868. Author of Hebrew Grammar (1861) ; Hebrew Chresto- mathy (1863) ; The Pentateuch I/indicated from the Aspersions of Colenso (1863); The Argument of the Book of Job Unfolded (1874); Moses and the Proph- ets (1883); and The Hebrew Feasts (1882). GREENBACK PARTY, a political party organ- ized in 1876, and the outgrowth of the Granger and Labor Reform movements. See POLITICAL PARTIES OF THE UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Ad- ditions. GREEN BAY, a city and county-seat of Brown county, Wis., situated at the head of Green Bay, and on the right bank of Fox River, at its mouth. 65 miles north-northeast of Fond du Lac and 1.13 miles north of Milwaukee. It is on three railroads, and has a good harbor and great facilities for trade and navigation. Large quantities of lumber are procured in Brown county, and exported from Green Bay. This city has extensive iron-works, and also several saw mills and factories. Population in 1860, 2,275; 1870, 4,666; 1880, 7,464 ; 1890, 9,069. GREEN BRIER MOUNTAINS, a rid e in ‘Vest Virginia lying northwest of the main Elleghanies. They are about 2,000 feet in height. .G_REENBRIER RIVER, a river of ‘Vest Vir- g1n1a. It rises in the Allegheny Mountains in the northeastern part of the State, and flows southwest, entermg the Great Kanawha River in Summers county, near Hinton. It is about 175 miles in length. GREENCASTLE, a city, railroad center, and county-seat of Putnam county, Ind. Block coal, l timber. sandstone,limestone, and some iron ore are GREENCASTLE——-GREEN RIVER found in the vicinity. There are excellent schools, and De Pauw University is located here. Among the manufactures are iron and nails. GREENCASTLE, a post-borough of Franklin county, Pa., 63 miles south of Harrisburg. It has agricultural machine works, a woolen mill, and a high school. GREEN COVE SPRINGS, the county-seat of Clay county, Fla., on St. John River, 30 miles south of Jacksonville. It is thought to be the “Fountain of Youth” referred to in Spanish and Indian leg- ends. It contains a large sulphur spring, whose waters are eflicacious in rheumatic troubles. GREENE, a village of Butler county, Iowa, on the Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northern Rail- road, 35 miles northwest of Cedar Falls. It has a good graded school, and several churches and grain warehouses. GREEN EARTH, a mineral of a green color and earthy character, often found in the vesicular cavities of crystalline igneous rocks, sometimes also disseminated through highly decomposed basic eruptive rocks. It consists principally of silica, alumina, magnesia,and protoxide of iron. Glauco- nite is the name given to the green earth which is not infrequently met with in sedimentary rocks. In such rocks glauconite occurs in the form of grains, which in many cases are the casts of minute shells. There is also a green earth used as a pig- ment by painters in water-colors, who know it by the name of .Mountain Green. For their use it is mostly brought from Monte Boldo, and from Cyprus. GREENE, GEOEGE iVAsHINe'roN, grandson of Gen. Nathaniel Greene, born at East Greenwich, R. 1., April 8, 1811, died there Feb. 2, 1883. He was educated at Brown University, resided in Europe from 1825 till 1847, and was United States con- sul at Rome from 1837 to 1845. Returning to this country, he was appointed professor of modern languages at Brown University. In 1852 he re- moved to New York and devoted himself to litera- ture. In 1872 he became professor of history at Cornell. Author of Historical Studies (1850); Bio- graphical Studies (1860) ; Historical View 0]‘ the Ameri- can Revolution (1865); A Short History of Rhode Isl- and (1877); and other works. GREENE, SAMUEL STILLMAN, LL. D., born at Belchertown, Mass., May 3, 1810, died in Provi- dence, R. I., Jan. 24, 1883. He graduated at Brown University in 1837 ; was the first superintendent of ublic schools in Springfield,Mass.; instructor in nglish and grammar high-schools of Boston, 1842- 49; and first agent of the Massachusetts board of education. He became superintendent of public schools in Providence, R. I., in 1851, and was at the same time called to the professorship of didactics in Brown; was professor of mathematics and civil engineerin in that University, 1855-64; and of me- chanics an astronomy from 1864 until his death. Professor Greene was president of several educa- tional societies, and author of Analysis of the Eng- lish Language (1848), and of a series of English grammars. GREEN EVILLE, the county-seat of Greene coun- ty, Tenn., 75 miles northeast of Knoxville. It was the home of President Andrew Johnson. Greeneville and Tusculum College is near the village. REENFIELDT the county-seat of Hancock coun ll.,,21’miles east of Indianapolis. It con- tains an/e '-v school building, and manufac- tgr-ies of flour and fu '=t~u~se. GREENFIELD, the capital of Hancock county, Ind., situated on the Columbus, Chicago and In- diana Central Railroad, 21 miles east of Indianapo- lis. It has large flouring-mills, planing-mills, a fur- niture factory, and graded school. 793 GREENFIELD, the capital of Adair county, Iowa1 situated on a railroad about 20 miles from Creston. GREENFIELD, the county-seat of Franklin county, Mass., located in the valley of the Connecti- cut. It is an important market for cattle, sheep, and butter, and has manufactories of children’s carriages, bolt-cutting machines, and planes. A soldiers’ monument is here and also a young ladies’ semmary. GREENFIELD, a railroad junction of Highland county, Ohio, situated in the southwestern part of the State, and on a branch of the Scioto River. GREEN ISLAND, a railroad junction of Albany county, N. Y., is an island lying in the Hudson River between Troy and West Troy, with which places it is connected by bridges. Machinery, cast- ings, iron, and many railroad cars are here manu- factured. GREEN LEAF, HALBEET S., of Rochester, N. Y., a manufacturer, born in Guilford, Vt., April 12, 1827. He received a common school and academic edu- cation, was a justice of the peace in 1856, and served as private and officer in the Union army during the civil war. In politics he is a Democrat, and was elected a Representative from the thirtieth Con- gressional district of New York to the 48th Con gress. In 1890 he was elected from the same dis- trict to the 52d Congress. GREEN MOUNTAINS, a range of the Appa- lachian system of mountains, extending through Vermont from Canada to Massachusetts. The highest point, Mount Mansfield, has an altitude of 4,430 feet. Other summits are Killington Peak, 4,221 feet, and the Camel’s Hump, 4,188 feet in height. The mountains are mostly covered with forests of pine, hemlock, fir, spruce, and other trees, and contain iron, marble, copper, and some gold. Parts of the southern extension of this range, known as Hoosac or as Taconic Mountains,trav- erse the western part of Massachusetts and enter Connecticut and New York. GREENOUGH, RIoHAED SALToNs'.rALL, brother of Horatio, born in Jamaica Plains, Mass., April 27, 1819, and educated at the Boston Latin School. He began his career as sculptor in Paris, returned to the United States and resided for several years in Newport, R. I., but since 1874 has spent most of his time in Europe. He has been particularly suc- cessful as a sculptor of portrait busts. Among his works are a bronze statue of Franklin, executed in 1853, and placed in the City-hall Square of Boston; a marble statue of Gov. \Vinthrop, finished in Florence, 1855-56; the Boy and the Eagle, owned by the Boston Athenaeum; a Carthagenian Woman; Elaine; Circe; and abust of Shakespeare, from the Chandos portrait. GREENPORT, a village of Suffolk county, N. Y., the eastern terminus of the Long Island Rail- road, 95 miles from Brooklyn. It has ship-yards, and the people are chiefly employed in fishing and coasting. On account of its bathing and fishing facilities it is a favorite summer resort. GREEN RIVER, a river of Kentucky. which rises near the center of the State, pursues a tortu- ous northwesterly course, and enters the Ohio River about 6 miles above Evansville, Ind. It passes near the mouth of the Mammoth Cave, and trav- erses the western coal-field of Kentucky. Its length is estimated at 350 miles, and it is naviga- gle at high water 200 miles by means of locks and ams. GREEN RIVER. a branch of the Colorado. It rises in \Vestern lVyoming and pursues a generally southward course into Utah, uniting with Grand River near lat. 380 16’ N., and long. 1100 W. Its 794 entire length is estimated at 750 miles, but it is not of much importance for navigation. \Vinding through the Great American Desert, bordered by cliffs two or three hundred feet in height, the depth of its cafions gradually increases, and for scores of miles it runs more than 7,000 feet beneath the surface. GREENS, the common name of all varieties of kale or cabbage (Bmssica olemcea), which do not boll, and of which the leaves are used for the table as boiled vegetables. Young unboiled cabbages, and shoots from the stocks of cabbages, are often also called greens. The leaves of German greens are very much curled. This herb is either sown in spring and planted out soon after, or it is sown in autumn and planted out in the spring. GREENSAND, a term applied to a variety of sandstone containing considerable glauconite, a silicate of iron and potash, which imparts to it a greenish color. The greensand of Europe is divided into the Upper Greensand, belonging to the Upper Cretaceous, and the Lower Greensand, belonging to the Lower Cretaceous period (see Britannica, Vol. X, pp. 357-59). It is an important formation in the United States, and is in some localities ex- tensively mined for fertilizing purposes. It is often called marl. GREENSBORO, the county-seat of Hale county, Ala., located near the cane—brake region, which be- fore the civil war was noted for its productiveness. Southern University, under Southern 114. E. church control, is located here. GREENSBORO. the capital of Greene county, Ga., situated on the Georgia Railroad, 87 miles from Augusta. It contains a court-house, several churches and two academies. GREENSBORO, a city and county-seat of Guil- ford county, N. C., located 82 miles northwest of Raleigh. It contains spoke and handle manufac- tories, saw and planing mills, and agricultural machine works. Much fruit is raised in the vicinity, and considerable of it is dried and shipped fur- ther south. A Methodist female college is located here. GREENSBURG, a city and county-seat of Deca- tur county, Ind., situated 47 miles southeast of In- ianapolis. There are quarries here where fine stone is obtained and shipped. Among the manu- factures are flour, woolen goods, furniture and car- riages. The city has a pork-packing establishment and a foundry. GREEN SBURG, the county-seat of Westmore- land county, Pa., 31 miles east of Pittsburgh. Grain, wool, coke and farming products are shipped from this point. GREEN SNAKE, a name applied to two different kinds of harmless grass - snakes of the United States, C clophis oernalis, common in the Middle and Northern States, and C’yclophz's xstious, which inhabits the Middle and Southern States. They are slender in form, and of a bright green-color. GREEN’S POND, a town situated on an island of the same name, north of the entrance to Bona- vista Bay, Newfoundland. It is a port of entry, and has importance as a fishing and sealing sta- tion. GREENUP, the capital of Greenup county, Ky., situated on the Eastern Kentucky Railroad, and on the Ohio River, about 20 miles from Portsmouth, Ohio. There are several iron furnaces near the village, and coal is mined in the vicinity.‘ GREENVILLE, a city and county-seat of Butler county, Ala., 45 miles south of Montgomery. It has two colleges, a shingle factory, a boot and shoe fac- tory and other mills. Cotton and timber furnish the chief industries. GREENS-GREGG GREENVILLE, the capital of Muhlenburg county, Ky., situated on the Paducah and Eliza- bethtown Railroad, 92 miles from Paducah. It has a female college, and several tobacco factories. GREENVILLE, a city and county-seat of Bond county, Ill., 50 miles northeast of St. Louis, Mo. Al- mira Female College is located here. GREEN VILLE, a city of Montcalm county, Mich., on Flat River, which has two dams at this point, and thus furnishes the abundant water-power util- ized in the flour, saw, planing, and shingle mills, and the machine shops and woolen mill. GREEN VILLE, the capital of Washington county, Miss, situated on the Mississippi River, 100 miles from Jackson. It is the western terminus of the Greenville,Columbus and Birmingham Rail- road. Considerable cotton is shipped here. GREENVILLE, a post-borough of Mercer county, Pa., on the Shenango River at the head of the Shenango Valley. It has abundant water-power, a rolling-mill and coal works. Thiel College, under Evangelical Lutheran control, is located here. GREENVILLE, the county-seat of Darke county, Ohio, on Greenville Creek. It has planing-mills and a furniture factory. In 1793 a fort was built here by Gen. Wayne, and two years later a treaty was here made with over 1,100 Indians. GREENVILLE, a city and county-seat of Green- ville county, S. C. It is a pleasant summer resort, a railroad center and a great manufacturing city, carriages, wagons and cotton being among its pro- ductions. The United States court meets here semi-annually. The city is the seat of Furman University and Greenville Female College. GREENWEED, a name given to certain half- shrubby species of genista. Hairy greenweed ( G. pt- losa) is sometimes grown in France on light soils as fodder for sheep. GREENWICH, a village of Fairfield county, Conn., in the southwestern corner of the State and on Long Island Sound. The famous ride of Gen. Putnam in 1779 took place in this township. GREENWICH, a village of Washington county, N. Y., situated on a railroad and on the Battenkill River, about 16 miles east of Saratoga Springs, and 30 miles northeast of Troy. It contains several factories. GREENWOOD, a village of Jackson county, Mo., on the Missouri Pacific Railroad. Lincoln College (United Presbyterian) is located ere. GREENWOOD, FRANCIS WILLIAM PITT, D. D., born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 5, 1797, died in Dorches- ter, Mass., Au . 2, 1843. He raduated at Harvard in 1814, studie theology, an in 1818 was ordained and began his ministry in the New South church, Boston. Obliged by failing health to resign in 1820, he spent the following year in Europe, and on his return settled in Baltimore, where he edited the “Unitarian Miscellany ” for two years. In 1824 he accepted an invitation to become Dr. Freeman’s colleague at King’s chapel, Boston, and from 1827 till his death was sole pastor. Dr. Greenwood was an early member of the Boston Society of Natural History, and a frequent contributor to its journal. Author of Lives of the Apostles (1827) ; Sermons to Clzllrlren (1841) ; Sermons of Consolation (1842) ; and other works. GREGG, DAVID MQMURTRIE, an American general born at Huntingdon, Pa., in 1833. After graduat- ing at West Point in 1855, he served against the Indians in Oregon from 1858 to 1860 as lieutenant. At the outbreak of the civil war he was made cap- tain in the Sixth cavalry regiment, and in January, 1862, he was appointed colonel of the Eighth Penn- sylvania cavalry. He served with distinction in the Virginia peninsular campaign, and was made GREGG-GRIERSON brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. From this time on he commanded a division of cavalry, and was engaged at Gettysburg and other important battles. After the Richmond campaign, in which he was engaged with the Second cavalry division, he resigned on Feb. 3, 1865. After his retirement he lived as a farmer at Milford, Del. In 1886 he became commander of the Pennsylvania order of the Loyal Legion. GREGG, JOHN IRVIN, born in Bellefonte, Pa., July 19, 1826, served through the Mexican war, be- coming first-lieutenant of the 11th infantry in Feb- ruary, 1847, and captain in the following Septem- ber. At the commencement of the civil war he was chosen colonel of the 5th Pennsylvania volun- teers, and in May, 1861, was made captain of the 6th United States cavalry. Appointed colonel of the 16th Pennsylvania cavalry in October, 1862, he com- manded a cavalry brigade in the Army of the Poto- mac from 1863 till 1865. He resigned from the army in 1865, and was brevetted major-general of volunteers, and brigadier-general of the United States Army for distinguished services during the war. He was promoted to be colonel of the 8th United States cavalry in 1868. Retired in 1879. GREGG, MAXEY, born in Columbia, S. C., in 1814, died near Fredericksburg, Va., Dec. 13, 1862. He graduated at the College of South Carolina in 1836, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1839. In the war with Mexico, he served as major of the 12th infantry; was a member of the South Caro- lina State convention in 1861, and of the committee that prepared the ordinance of secession. He commanded the 1st regiment of South Carolina volunteers at the beginning of the civilwar, and was subsequently made a brigadier-general. He did gallant service in Virginia, and was killed in the battle of Fredericksburg. GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND, a distinguished German historian, born in East Prussia in 1821. He studied theology, but soon devoted himself to poetry and literature. In 1852 he went to Rome, where he subsequently spent most of his time. His reat work is the History of the City of Rome in the ioldle Ages (8 vols., 1859-72; 3d ed., 1875). He has written also an Italian geography and a history of Corsica (1854), Capri, and Corfu; on the graves of the Popes (1857 ; 2d ed. 1881) ; on Lucrezia Borgia (1874) ; on Urban VIII (1879); on Athens (1881); and on the B zantine Empress Athenias (1882); also a trage y on the death of Tiberius (1851); and an epic, Euphorion (4th ed., 1880). GREGORY, DANIEL SEELEY, educator, born in Carmel, Putnam county, N. Y., Aug. 21, 1832. He graduated at Princeton in 1857, studied theology, and after holding various pastorates became in 1871 professor of metaphysics and logic in IVooster University, Ohio, being transferred four years later to the chair of mental science and English literature. In 1879 he became president of Lake Forest University, Ill. Author of Christian Ethics (1875); lVhy Four Gospels? (1876); and Practical Logic (1881). GRELLET, STEPHEN, born of wealthy parents in Limo s. France, Nov. 2, 1773, died in Burlington, N. J ., ov. 16, 1855. He was educated at the mili- tary college of Lyons, and at the age of 17 entered the body-guard of Louis XVI. During the Revolu- tion he was taken prisoner and sentenced to be shot, but made his escape to Demerara, and in 1795 came to New York. Formerly a Roman Catholic, he now joined the Society of Friends, and removing to Philadelphia ministered to the sick during the prevalence of yellow fever in 1798. He returned to New York in the following year, and was for a short time engaged in mercantile 795 pursuits, but soon after devoted himself entirely to missionary work. He made a tour through the Southern and New England States and Canada, and in 1807 went to Europe, where he traveled ex- tensively. Returning to New York in 1820, he made a second missionary tour to Europe (1831-34). GRENADA, a city and county-seat of Grenada county, Miss. It is a business center and has flour, lumber, planing and rolling mills. GRENADE, a small shell exploded by a time- fuse, about three inch in diameter, of iron or annealed glass, filled with powder, and thrown from the hand. Grenades are chiefly used against the dense masses of troops assembled in the ditch of a fortress during an assault, and then are often rolled over the parapet through wooden troughs instead of being thrown by hand. GRENADIER: originally, a soldier who was em- ployed in throwing hand-grenades. and then a member of the first company of every battalion of foot, in which the tallest and finest men were placed. This company used to be distinguished by tall bear-skin caps, and held the place of honor; namely, the right when in line and the front when in column. In the British army the name is now only used as the title of the first three battalions of the Foot Guards. GRETNA GREEN, a village of Dumfriesshire, near the head of the Solway Firth. After the abo- lition of Fleet marriages, English persons wishing to marry clandestinely had to get out of England, to which alone that act had reference. Thus the practice arose of crossing the border into Scotland, where Gretna Green had by 1771 become “ the re- sort of all amorous couples whose union the pru- dence of parents or guardians prohibits.” The “ priest” might be anyone—blacksmith, ferryman, toll-keeper, or landlord-and “ church” was com- monly the toll-house, where nearly 200 couples were sometimes united in a twelvemonth. GREVY, J ULES, ex-president of the French Re- public, born in 1807 at Mont-sous-Vaudrez. A prom- inent jurist, he became a prominent member of the constituent assembly, and opposed the policy of Louis Napoleon as president. From 1871 to 1873 he was president of the national assembly, and from 1876 to 1879 president of the chamber of deputies, in the latter year succeeding Marshal MacMahon as president of the Republic. At the close of the seven-years term of ofiice he was re- elected, and two years later resigned, Dec. 2, 1887. The unexpected fall of Monsieur Grévy was in- directly due to the Limousin or “decoration” scandals. GREWIA, a genus of East Indian tiliaceous trees, yielding good bast for rope making, etc. Some yield timber, and the leaves of others are used as fodder. GREYLOCK, the chief eminence of Saddle Mountain. Berkshire county, Mass. It rises to a height of 3,600 feet, and is the highest point of land in the State. The sides of the mountain are cov- ered with forests. GRIER SON, BENJAMIN HENRv,born at Pittsburgh, Pa., July 8, 1826; at an early age removed to Ohio, and was afterwards engaged in business at Jack- sonville, Ill. At the beginning of the civil war he served on the staff of Gen. Prentiss; in August, 1861, was made major of the 6th Illinois cavalry, and became colonel in the following spring; b rigs- dier-general of volunteers in June, 1863, he became major-general in May, 1865, colonel of the 10th U. S. cavalry in July, 1866, and in March, 1867, was brevetted brigadier and major-general U. S. Army. He commanded the district of the Indian Terri- tory, 1868-73; from 1875 to 1881 was engaged in ex- 796 ploring parts of New Mexico and Texas, and in campaigns against hostile Indians, and in 1886 was placed in command of the district of New Mexico. GRIFFIN, a city and county-seat of Spalding county, Ga., 40 miles south of Atlanta. Cotton furnishes the chief industry, and there are factories for the making of furniture and carriages. There is a mineral spring here and the place is a summer resort. Male and female colleges are located here. GRIFFIN, CHARLES, born in Licking county, Ohio, in 1826, died in Galveston, Texas, Sept. 15, 1867 . He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1847, entered the army as brevet second-lieutenant of artillery, and served during the Mexican war. In June, 1849, he was promoted first-lieutenant, served on frontier duty, and was instructor of artillery at West Point in 1859-61. In the civil war he commanded the WVest Point bat- tery at Bull Run, and was brevetted major for gallant conduct; in June, 1862, was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers, and commanded a brigade in the Virginia peninsular campaign, win- ning distinction at Yorktown, Gaines’s Mill, and Malvern Hill. He was present at the second bat- tle of Bull Run ; was promoted to the command of a division and engaged in the battles of Antietam and Fredericksburg, and the various battles of the final campai n. As commander of the 5th corps, under Gen. Grant, he was one of the commissioners to carry out the terms of the surrender of Gen. Lee at Appomattox Court-house. In May, 1865. Gen. Griffin was brevetted brigadier and major- general in the Regular Army,was assigned to the command of the istrict of Maine in the August following; in July, 1866, was made colon’el of the 35th infantry, and commanded military districts in Texas and Louisiana. GRIFFIN, EDWARD DoRR, D. D., born in East Haddam, Conn., Jan. 6, 1770, died in Newark, N. J., Nov. 8, 1837. He graduated at Yale in 1790, studied theology, and in 1795 became pastor of the Con regational church at New Hartford, after- war s holding pastorates at Newark, N. J., and Boston, Mass. He was professor of rhetoric in An- dover Theological Seminary from 1809 to 1811, and president of Williams College from 1821 to 1836. GRIFFIS, WILLIAM ELLIoT, D. D., an American author, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 17, 1843; graduated at Rutgers in 1869, and the following year went to Japan. He was superintendent of education in the province of Echizen in 1871, and held the chair of physics in the Imperial Univer- sity of Tokio in 1872-74. On his return to this country Mr. Griffis studied theology at New Bruns- wick, N. J ., and at Union Theological Seminary, New York city, graduating from the latter in 1877. He was pastor of the first Reformed church in Schenectady, N. Y., from 1877 till 1886, and in the latter year took charge of the Shawmut Congrega- tional church, Boston, Mass. Author of Guides to Tolcio and Yohohomct (1874); The Mikado’s Empire (New York, 1876, 5th ed. 1887); Japanese Fairy World (1880); Asiatic History (1881); Corea, the Hermit Nation (1882); Corea, Without and Within (1885); Life of Matthew Calbraith Perry (1887); and Honda, the Samurai (1890). GRIFFITHS, J oHN WILLIs, naval architect, born in New York city, Oct. 6, 1809, died in Brooklyn, N. Y., April 29, 1882. Early apprenticed to a ship- wright, at 19 years of age he laid the lines of the frigate Macedonia. He suggested the clipper model of the fast ships built for the China trade; in 1853 he began the construction of a steamer which when completed made the fastest time on record between Havana and New Orleans. In 1858 he was ap- pointed by the Government special naval con- GRIFFIN-—GRINQNELL structor to build the gunboat Pawnee, and in 1872 built‘ the United States ship Enterprise. Mr. Grif- fiths was the originator of the idea of life-boat steamers; and the inventor of a timber-bending machine, iron keelsons for wooden ships, bilge keels to prevent rolling, triple screws for great speed, and improved rivets. His machines re- ceived two prize medals at the Centennial exhibi- tion in 1876. Author of Treatise on Marine and Naval Architecture (4th ed., 2 VOlS., 1854), which had an extensive sale in Europe; and The Progressive Ship-builder’s Manual (1875-76). GRIGGSVILLE, a city of Pike county, Ill., 4 miles west of the Illinois River. It has manufac- tories of farm implements, carriages, and flour. GRIGORIOPOL, a town of Kherson, South Rus- sia, on the left bank of the Dniester, eighty-two miles northwest of Odessa. Its 7,918 inhabitants cultivate tobacco, wine and fruit, and manufacture leather. GRIMES, JAMEs WILSON, statesman, born in Deering, Hillsborough county, N. H., Oct. 20, 1816, died in Burling.ton, Ia., Feb. 7, 1872. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1836, and soon afterwards settled to the practice of law in Burlington, Ia., in what was at that time known as the “Black Hawk Purchase,” which was attached to the territory of Michigan. After the formation of Iowa Territory, Mr. Grimes was a dele- gate to its assembly in 1838 and 1843, and in 1852 was amember of the State legislature. Elected governor of the State in 1854, he fostered Free-soil sentiments, addressed a remonstrance to President Pierce against outrages perpetrated in Kansas upon former citizens of Iowa, and secured action upon measures which materially promoted the develop- ment of the State. He was elected to the United States Senate as a Republican in 1859, was a dele- gate to the peace convention in 1861, and in 1865 was reélected to the Senate. As a member of the committee on naval affairs he became a recognized authority on matters pertaining to the navy, and was the first in the Senate to suggest the introduc- tion of iron-clad vessels. Mr. Grimes was compelled by Sfgailing health to resign his seat in the Senate in GRIMKE, SARAH MooRE, born in Charleston, S. C., Nov. 6, 1792, died at Hyde Park, near Boston, Mass., Dec. 23, 1873. Becoming convinced of the evils of slavery, she left her home and in 1821 went to Philadelphia, where she became one of the most prominent members of the Anti- Slavery Society and an advocate of woman’s rights. She lectured in New England, and after- wards tau ht in the school of her sister’s husband, T. D. Wel , in Belleville, N. J . Author of an Epis- tle to the Clergy of the Southern States (1827), which was considered one of the most effective anti-slav- ery documents of the day; and Letters on the Condi- tion of Women and the Equality of the Sexes. GRIMKE, THoMAs SMITH, LL. D., born at Charles- ton, S. C., Sept. 26, 1786, died near Columbus, Ohio, Oct. 11, 1834. He graduated at Yale Colle e in 1807, studied law in Charleston, and attaine dis- tinction at the bar. As a member of the State Senate he made a notable speech in support of the general government on the tariff question, and an argument on the South Carolina test-oath question. He was a strong advocate of the temperance cause, a distinguished member of the American Peace Society, and a fine classical scholar. Author of Addresses on Science, Education and Literature (1831). GRINNELL, a city of Poweshiek county, Iowa, 120 miles west of the Mississip i River. It is the seat of Iowa College, and has a oundry. flour mills, and a glove factory. GRINNELL—-GROOTE EYLANDT GRINN ELL, HENRY, born in New Bedford, Mass., in 1800, died in New York city, June 30, 1874. He graduated at the academy in his native place in 1818, and going to New York became a clerk in a commission house. In 1825 he was made a partner in the firm of Grinnell, Minturn & Co., retiring from business in 1852. He was greatly interested in Arctic exploration, and in 1850 fitted out two vessels at his own expense to aid in the search for Sir John Franklin and his companions. He also contributed freely to subsequent expeditions. Mr. Grinnell was throughout life a generous advocate of the interests of sailors, and was the first presi- dent of the American Geographical Society. GRINNELL. Mosns HICKS, brother of Henry, born in New Bedford, Mass., March 3, 1803, died in New York city, Nov. 24, 1877. He was educated at private schools and at the Friends’ Academy, and in 1818 entered a New York counting-house. He became a member of the firm of Fish & Grinnell in 1825; was a member of Congress, 1839-41 ; collec- tor of the port of New York, 1869-70, and president of the chamber of commerce in 1843. He contrib- uted toward Dr. Kane’s Arctic expedition of 1853, and was a liberal supporter of the national cause during the civil War. GRINNELL LAND, a barren mountainous Polar tract on the west side of Kennedy channel, the northern continuation of Smith’s Sound. It was discovered by Dr. Hayes of Kane’s expedition in 1854, and named after Henry Grinnell, of New York, Who had fitted out the expedition. It was thor- oughly explored by Greely in 1882. North and south it is covered with ice caps; between them lie val- leys that are free of snow in summer and sup- port herds of musk oxen and the usual Arctic fauna. In the interior he discovered Lake Hazen, 60 miles long, and two ranges of mountains, one containing a peak, Mount Arthur, 5,000 feet high. GRIPING, 0R GRIPES, a popular name for all painful affections of the bowels, whether attended with constipation or diarrhoea. \Vhen pains of this kind are spasmodic they are termed colic. The ac- tion of purgative medicine is often attended by more or less griping pain, which may be averted in certain cases by the careful choice of the medicine, or by the combination of it with carminatives, or with a little opium. GRIPPE, LA. See INFLUENZA, in Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 73; also, in these Revisions and Addi- tions. GRIQUAS, a South African race of half-castes, the offspring of Hottentot and Bush-women by colonists of Dutch descent. They form a distinct community in a region known as Griqualand, an- nexed to Cape Colony in 1874. Many of the Griquas are considerably civilized, have adopted the Chris- tian religion, and are successful agriculturists and cattle-breeders. GRISCOM, JoHN HASKINS, M. D., born in New York city, Aug. 14, 1809, died there April 28, 1874. He graduated from the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1832; was professor of chemistry in the New York College of Pharmacy from 1836 to 1840, and in 1843 became visiting phy- sician of the New York hospital. Author of Animal Mechanism and Physiology (1839); Uses and Abuses of Air (1850); Prison Hygiene (1868) ; and other works. He also contributed largely to the medical journals. GRISEBACH, Auousr HEINRICH Runonrn, a German botanist, born at Hanover in 1814, died May 9, 1879. He studied botany and medicine at Gdttingen and Berlin ; was employed by the govern- ment in 1839 to explore the flora of Turkey; trav- eled extensively in pursuit of this mission, and in 797 1841 was appointed professor of botany at G6 tting- en and director of the botanical garden. He pub- lished Reisedurch Rumelien (2 vols.,1841) ; Spici legi um Flora Rumelicee (2 vols., 1843-45) ; Ueber die Bildung des Torfs (1846); and Die Vegetationslinien des noroZ- rwestlichen Deutschlands (1846), etc. GRISI, GIULIA, a celebrated singer, born at Milan in 1810, died at Berlin in 1869. Her fame spread rapidly over Europe; in 1832 she appeared in Paris in Semiramis, where the purity, melodious- ness and volume of her voice, as well as her classi- cal beauty of features, secured general admiration. Bellini’s Puritani and other operas were written for her, but Norma always remained her greatest part. London was the scene of her grandest and most successful performances; and here she married, in 1836, the Marquis de Melce, after whose death she became in 1856 the wife of the tenor, Mario, with whom she sang in America. GRIS—NEZ CAPE, a headland in the French de- partment of Pas-de-Calais, opposite Dover, and the point of land nearest to the English shore, the distance being barely 20 miles. About equally distant from Calais on the northeast and Boulogne on the south, the cape marks the dividing line be- tween the North Sea and the English Channel. It is surmounted by a light-house. GRISWOLD, ALEXANDER VIETS, D. D., born at Simsbury, Conn., April 22, 1766, died at Boston, Mass., Feb. 15, 1843. He first studied law, but, dis- liking the profession, prepared for the ministry, and was ordained in 1795. He had charge succes- sively of the parishes of Plymouth, Harwinton, and Litchfield, Conn., and in 1804 accepted a call to the rectorship of St. Michael’s church, Bristol, R. I. In 1811 he was consecrated first bishop of the eastern diocese of the Protestant Episcopal church, and on the death of Bishop VVhite in 1836 became the presiding bishop. He published Discourses on the llfost Important Doctrines and Duties of the Chris- tian Religion (1830) ; The Reformation and the Apos- tolic Qfiice (1843) ; and various special sermons and addresses. GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT, D. D., born at Ben- son, Vt., Feb. 15, 1815. died in New York city, Aug. 27,1857. In early life he traveled in the United States and Central and Southern Europe; was ap- prenticed to a publisher, but tiring of the business studied theology, and became a successful minister of the Baptist denomination. Leaving the minis- try for journalism, he edited “Graham’s Magazine,” Philadelphia, from 1841 till 1843; was afterwards as- sociate editor of several weekly papers in Boston and New York city, and in 1852 became editor of the “International Magazine.” His works include Poets and Poetry of America (1842); Poets and Poetry of England in the 19th Century (1845) ; lVashingt0n and the Generals of the Reoolittion, in connection with other writers (1847); Sacred Poets of England and America (1849) ; and a number of other works. He also complied Curiosities of American Literature, edited the first American edition of Milton’s prose works, and was one of the editors of the works of Edgar A. Poe. GRISIVOLDVILLE, a village of Jones county, Ga., on the Central Railroad, 10 miles from Macon. Before the civil war it was noted for extensive manufacture of cotton-gins. Here a sharp engage- ment occurred between the Confederate and Union forces, Nov. 22. 1864. GRODEK, a town of Austrian Galicia, 20 miles from Lemberg, in the center of a flax-growing region. Population (1880), 10,116; nearly one-third Jews. GROOTE EYLANDT (Dutch, “ Great Island ”) ; an uninhabited island on the west side of the Gulf 3 798 GROS-VENTRE of Carpentaria, in North Australia. It is sur- rounded by reefs, and its interior is hilly. In ex- treme length and breadth it measures about 40 miles each way. GROS—VENTRE INDIANS. See INDIANS, AMERI- CAN, in these Revisions and Additions. GROSS, SAMUEL DAVID, M. D., born near Easton, Pa... July 8, 1805, died in Philadelphia, May 6, 1884. He graduated at Jefferson Medical College in 1828, in 1835 became professor of pathological anat- omy in the Cincinnati Medical College, Ohio; in 1840 accepted the professorship of surgery in the University of Louisville, Ky., and in 1850 was chosen Dr. l\Iott’s successor in the University of New York. Six years later he became professor of surgery in Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, which position he held until within two years of his death. Dr. Gross was a member of the Royal Medical Society of Vienna; of the Royal Medico- chirurgical Society of London, and of the British Medical Association. He was president of the American Medical Association in 1867, and presi- dent of the International Medical Congress held in Philadelphia in 1876. He received the degree of D. C. L. from the University of Oxford, England, and that of LL. D. in this country. He commenced in early life to contribute to medical literature, and was the author of a number of well-known pro- fessional works. GROSSULARIACE/E, or Rrsnsraonas, a sub-or- der of Saxifrcigczcezc, including about a hundred species, mostly all palaearctic or nearctic. GROTTA DEL CANE (“ Grotto of the Dog”), a small cave near Naples, in the vicinity of Lake Agnano and of Puzzuoli, contains carbonic acid gas with 77 per cent. of carbonic acid. This cave was known to the ancients. It derives its name from the practice of introducing into it small dogs, which are soon almost deprived of life by the gas that, owing to its density, clings to the floor of the cave; but they recover upon being restored to the open air. GROTTE, LE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti. Population, 8,775, mostly employed in the sulphur works of the district. GRO UND—AN N UAL: in the law of Scotland, an annual payment made for land. It is little known where the law allows the constitution of a feu- duty. Thus, when a vendor sells his land, and in- stead of taking a lump sum for the price prefers a sum by way of a perpetual annuity or rent, he con- veys the land in fee to the disponee or purchaser subject to this ground-annual, which is the burden on the lands transferable and extinguishable like other real burdens. The vendor is then called the ground-annualer. and if the ground-annual is not paid he is entitled, as a remedy, to poind the ground—that is, seize all the goods whether of the owner or his tenants, which are found on the lands, and pay himself, and raise action of mails and duties against the tenant, or he may sue the debtor. GROUND DOVE, a dove or pigeon, which lives chiefly upon the ground. In the United States it is one of several small pigeons of the genus Colum- bigollina, especially 0. passerina of the Southern States. It is less than seven inches long, has short broad wings and tail, and naked tarsi. The plumage of the male is varied with tints of purplish- red and grayish-olive; the female is gray in color. It usually nests on the ground. GROUND—-IVY (Glechoma h€d6’)"ClCf’&2), a plant of the natural order Lrrbiatzc, a native of Britain and other parts of Europe, growing in hedges, etc., in a dry soil, and naturalized in America. It has a creeping stem, kidney- INDlANS——GROWLER shaped crenate leaves, and axillary blue flowers growing in threes. A tea prepared from the leaves is in great repute among the poor in many places. and the plant is supposed to be stimulant, aro- matic,and of use in pectoral complaints. The leaves were formerly used in England for clarifying and flavorin ale. GROUNDLING (Cobitis tzenia), the spinous loach, a little cyprinoid fish resembling the loach, from which it is distinguished by a forked erectile spine beneath the eye, and by its more compressed form. It is rare and very local in Britain, frequenting the muddy parts of rivers, habitually keeping close to the bottom. The genus is known to include only two other species. GROUND PARRAKEET, one of several Aus- tralian parrots, living mainly upon the ground, and belonging to the genus Pezoporns, or the genus Geopsittacus. GROUND SQUIRREL, one of the various spe- cies of burrowing rodents of the genera Tamias and Spermophilus, especially applied in the United. States to the Eastern striped squirrel or chipmunk, Tcmnias striatus. The genus Spermophilus includes the Prairie squirrel and many allied 'Western species, commonly called gophers. GROVE, SIR GEORGE, an English author, born in 1820. He was trained as an engineer, and erected in the West Indies the first two cast-iron light houses built. He was next employed on the Chester general station and the Britannia tubular bridge. From 1849 to 1852 he was secretary of the Society of Arts, and to the Crystal Palace com- pany from 1852 to 1873. He was knighted in 1888 on the opening of the Royal College of Music, Ken- sington Gore, of which he was made director by the Prince of \Vales. He assisted Dean Stanley in some of his works on the Bible and the East, and was founder of the Palestine Exploration Fund. He was an editor of “Macmillan’s Magazine,” a contributor to Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, and an editor (and part author) of the great Dic- tionary of Music and Musicians. GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT, an English lawyer and physicist, born in 1811. In 1835 he was called to the bar; in 1871 was raised to the bench, re- ceiving knighthood in 1872; and in 1875 became a judge in the high court of justice. He retired from the bench in 1887. In 1839 he invented the powerful voltaic battery known by his name, and from 1840 to 1847 was professor of natural science at the London Institute. He has contributed ex- tensively to scientific journals, and published sev- eral very important lectures. He was president of the British Association in 1866. GRO‘W, GALUSIIA A., born at Ashford, Windham county, Conn., Aug. 31, 1824, graduated at Amherst College in 1844, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1847. He was member of Congress from Pennsylvania in 1851, and represented his district for twelve successive years. Elected as a Demo- crat, he severed his connection with his party on the repeal of the Missouri compromise. During his period of office he rendered important services on various committees, and was Speaker of the House in 1861-63. He was a delegate to the National Re- ublican conventions of 1864 and 1868. GROVVLER (Gr;/stes salmonoidcs), afish of the perch family, abundant in many of the rivers of~ North America. It attains a length of two feet, and is much esteemed for the table. It is of an olive color. The genus Grystes has small scales, and only fine villiform teeth. Nearly allied is the genus Oligorus, including the valuable murray cod -((). nmcquaricnsis), which may attain a length of three feet and a weight of a hundred pounds, and a GRUB-—GUERRILLA New Zealand coast form, the hapuku (O. gigas), also valuable as a food-fish. GRUB, the name generally applied to the worm- like larvae of insects when they have a distinct head but no legs, as bees and some beetles. The economic importance of many grubs, especially those of some beetles. is well known. GRUNDY CENTRE, the capital of Grundy county, Iowa, situated on a railroad, about 22 miles from Cedar Falls. GRUNDY, FELIX, born in Berkeley county, Va., Sept. 11, 1777, died in Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 19, 1840. He was educated by Dr. Joseph Priestly at Bardstown Academy, studied law, and achieved a great reputation as a criminal lawyer. He was chosen a member of the Kentucky constitutional convention in 1779, was a member of the legislature from 1799 till 1806; in the latter year was appointed a judge of the supreme court of errors and appeals, and in 1807 became chief justice. This position he soon after resigned, removing to Nashville, Tenn. He was a member of Congress (l811—15), United States Senator (1829-38), and Attorney-General in Van Buren’s Cabinet. I11 1840 he resigned his po- sition in the cabinet and was reélected to the Senate. GUACHOS, a name given to descendants of the early Spanish colonists and native Indians, inhabit- ing the pampas of South America. They live in mud huts. and are solely occupied in rearing cattle. GUADALUPE RIVER rises in the southern part of the State of Texas, and flows in a southeast direction, emptying its waters into Espiritu Santo Bay. Its length is estimated at about 200 miles. GUADALUPE—Y—CALVO, a town of Mexico, situated in a mountainous district in the State of Chihuahua. It derives importance from the rich silver-mines in its vicinity. Population, 10,000. GUANARE, the capital of the State of Zamora, in Venezuela. It stands on a river of the same name, and has a population of 10,390. GUANO, or VILLA Guano, a town of Ecuador, province of Chimborazo, situated on the Rio Guano, 100 miles southwest of Quito. It produces various manufactures. Population, 9,000. GUAPORE, a navigable river of South America, rising in Brazil, and for some distance forming the boundary between Bolivia and Brazil. It unites with the Mamore to form the Madeira. GUARANTY, a term in international law ap- plied to the promise given by the third power of a treaty to aid in case of the violation of its pro- visions by either of the others. It requires that the degree and amount of aid promised shall be given unless the p1-omisee decline to receive it. The promiser differs from a surety in not being bound to make good a debt, but only to do his best to induce the party owing it to make payment. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 236. GUARDAFUI, CAPE, the most eastern point of the African continent, and the extremity of an immense promontory (the Somali country), stretch- ing seaward in an east-northeast direction, and washed on the northwest by &the Gulf of Aden and on the southeast by the Indian Ocean. The cape is in 11° 50' N. lat., and 510 14' E. long. GUARDIAN: in law, the legal representative and custodian of infants, that is. persons under the age of 21, and various species are distinguished. Guardian by nature is rather a popular than a legal term, especially when used with reference to a father or mother, who are often called guardians by nature. In its technical sense, it is confined to an ancestor, who is said to be guardian of his heir- apparent. Guardian by nature, is the name given in English law to a father, or after his death to the 799 mother, who. as such, has the custody and control of children under the age of 14. Guardian in socage is the name anciently given to the next of blood. Guardia/i ad Zitem is a person appointed by a court of justice to defend an action brought against an infant. See INFANT, Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 1-3. GUATEMALA. The last presidential election in this republic began on Jan.10, 1892. The results in the capital up to the 17th gave 1,182 votes to General Reina Barrios, 532 to Senor Enriquez Barrios, 341 to Senor Lainflesta, and 241 to Doctor Montufar. It is seen that in the capital the can- didature of the General Barrios was the most favorably received. The “Diario de Centro-Amer- ica” affirmed meanwhile that, in the other parts of the republic, Senor Don Francisco Lainfiesta was getting an immense majority of votes. The elec- tions in the city of Guatemala have gone on in perfect quiet. and we have not seen either that there have been any disturbances in the Depart- ments. Some days before the elections Senor Lain- 1’-lesta issued a manifesto, declaring that he would accept only the votes given freely and spontane- ously in his favor. This declaration was evidently intended as an answer to those people who pre- tended that some oificial pressure might be exer- cised over the election in the interest of Senor Lainflesta, as against General Reina Barrios, the nephew of the late Dictator Rufino Barrois, killed in 1885, at the battle of Chachualpa, when he tried to force Salvador and the other small Republics into a Central American Union, under the direc- tion of Guatemala. GUELPH, a post-town of Ontario, Canada, coun- ty-seat of the county of lVellington, on the Speed, at a railway junction, 48% miles west of Toronto. The Speed here falls about 30 feet, furnishing water- power to several large mills and factories. The town has also manufactories of iron castings, ma- chinery, sewing-machines, musical instruments. leather, agricultural implements, soap and candles, boots and shoes, and wooden-ware. Guelph is an inland port of entry. Population in 1886, 10,216. GUELPHIC ORDER, an order of knighthood for Hanover, instituted by George IV, when prince- regent, in 1815. It is a military and civil order, and is unlimited in numbers. GUERANDE, a town of France, in the depart- ment of Loire-Inférieure, near the sea. It contains a mediaeval church, and has manufactories of salt and linen. Population, 6,912. GUERARA, a town of Algeria, in the oasis of lVady-l\Izab, 42 miles from Gardaia. It is the ren- dezvous for the tribes of the desert to buy and sell horses, sheep. and asses, and to exchange ivory, gold dust, and ostrich feathers for cottons, wool- ens. silk, and cutlery. Population estimated at 12,000. GUERICKE, HEINRICII ERNST FERDINAND (1803- 78), a German theologian belonging to the Old Lutheran school. He was professor at Halle, and is the author of a Ilandbuclz derKz'rchengeschzelzte (1853); of a C’72rz'sz‘Zz'che S3/mbolik (1839); and of a Lelzrbue/2 der (‘72/'2'sIZiel2e2z Arclzaologie (1847). GUERRERO, VICENTE, President of Mexico. born in Tixtla, Mexico, in 1783, died in Cuilapam. Feb. 14, 1831. He took part in an insurrection in 1809; subsequently gained several victories over the Spaniards, and in 1818 became a leader of the patri- otic troops. In 1829 he was declared President of Mexico. He was soon afterwards deposed in favor of Santa Anna and fled to the south, but was after- wards captured and shot. GUERRILLA, properly an armed band carrying on an irregular, unauthorized warfare on occasions %0 of invasion or civil war, but now commonly an in- dhidual member of such a band. The word first came into popular use in Spain, where it was ap- plied to the bands of peasants and shepherds who opposed Napoleon’s armies in 1808-14; and they were active partisans of the Carlist cause in the civil wars of Spain. The name was brought to Spanish America, and thence introduced into the United States. In the late civil war there were numerous guerrillas in the border States. GUESS, GEORGE, or SEQUOYAH, a Cherokee half- breed, inventor of the Cherokee alphabet, born about 1770. died in San Fernando, Northern Mex- ico, in August, 1843. He knew no language but his own, and was only known as an ingenious silver- smith previous to his invention of the alphabet. This alphabet is considered to be the most perfect one ever devised, and consists of eighty-five char- acters, each representing a single sound. It has been employed in printing with complete success. Guess went with his tribe beyond the Mississippi, and emigrated with other Indians to Mexico in 1842. GUEUX, or “THE BEGGARS,” the name assumed by the confederated nobles who opposed the intro- duction of the Inquisition into the Low Countries by Philip II. of Spain. Forming themselves into an association, they presented a formal protest to the regent, Margaret of Parma. They represented the national feeling of the country, and maintained a long and vigorous contest against the despotic pro- ceedings of Philip, but were compelled to succumb to superior force. “The Beggars of the Sea” seri- ously harassed the Spanish fleet, and succored be- sieged places along the coast. Their capture of Briel in April, 1572, was the beginning of the war which terminated in the independence of the Neth- erlands in 1648. GUIANA, or GUAYANA, a region of South Amer- ica comprised between the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers (see Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 249-55). The name is now usually confined to the European provinces, British Guiana, Cayenne, or French Guiana, and Surinam, or Dutch Guiana. Guiana was the “El Dorado” of Sir 1Valter Raleigh, and formerly supposed to be rich in gold. Gold is still found in the interior, iii the Sierra Parime, but the true wealth of Guiana lies in its fertile soil and its boundless capabilities in regard to tropical prod- uce. Much of the interior is still unexplored. BRITIsH GUIANA has an area of 109,000 square miles, and a population (1890) of 282,066. In 1889 there were 81,660 acres under cultivation, as fol- lows: Sugar, 78,110 acres; village acres, 12,833; and 92 cattle farms. The exports and imports for five years (1885-89) were as follows: Goods. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. ;£ £ £ .£ £ Exports. 1,800,823 1,842,585 2,190,592 2,024,733 2,310.141 Impol ts.. . . 1,467,400 1,436,297 1,603,175 1,586,055 1,803,776 The chief exports in 1889 were: Sugar, £1,914,- 143; rum, £165,854; molasses, £66,020; timber, £18,- 978: gold, 28,282 oz., valued at £109,234. The chief imports were: Flour, £136,899; rice, £192,065; pork, £56,888; butter, £18,868; lumber, £38,538. In 1889 there were 23 miles of railway, 275 miles of post- office telegraphs, and a telephone exchange in George Town of 240 miles, with 200 subscribers. GAYENNE, or FRENCH GUIANA, has an area of 46,- 697, and a population of 26,502. The capital and GUES&—GUIGNIAUT chief city is Cayenne. The exports to France amount to about $3,750,000 annually. Cayenne was selected as a station by the Royal Astronomical Society as a point of observation of the total solar eclipse, Dec. 21 and 22. 1889. SURINAM, or DUTOH GUIANA, has an area of 46,060 square miles, and a population (1889) of 57,365. The capital and chief city is Paramaribo, with 27,752 inhabitants. The superior administration and ex- ecutive authority is in the hands of a governor, as- sisted by a council composed of the governor as president, the attorney-general as vice-president, and three members, all nominated by the king. The colonial states form the representative body of the colony. Four members are chosen every year by the governor; the others by electors, in proportion of one in 200 electors. Entire liberty is granted to the members of all religious confessions. The local revenue is derived from import, export and excise duties, taxes on houses and estates, per- sonal imposts, and some indirect taxes. A subven- tion from the mother-country is necessary. For 1890 the estimated revenue was 13,408,130 guilders, and the expenditures 1,647,153 guilders. The following table shows the value of imports and exports dur- ing the years 1885-89: \. Imports. Exports. 1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,808,603 guilders. 3,113,270 guilders. 1886 . . . . . . . . . 4,592,714 “ 3,036,633 “ 1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,052,621 " 3 539,509 “ 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,346,840 “ 3,316,377 “ 1889 .. 4,893,355 “ 3,521,867 “ In 1888 sugar was produced on 17 plantations of 1,668 hectares to the amount of 6,206,553 kilo- grammes. Cacao on 83 plantations and 370 small properties of 8,787 hectares, to the amount of 1,543,- 019 kilogrammes. The other productions were ba- nanas, 516,799 bundles; coffee, 5,560 kilogrammes; cotton, 720 kilogrammes; rice, 15,197 kilogrammes; fruits, 186,812 kilogrammes ; rhum, 315,306 litres ; and melasse, 1,104,389 litres. The export of gold in 1888 was 1,029,777 grammes, valued at 1,410,795 guilders. The declared value since the beginning of the gold industry ( 1876) to the end of 1888 is 11,347,572 guilders. GUIANA BARK, FRENCH, the bark of Portlandia hexandra, also called Conteria speciosa, a tree of the natural order Cinchonaceae, with opposite ovate leaves, and corymbs of very large purple flowers, anative of Guiana. The bark is esteemed avery powerful febrifuge. GUIDES, in military affairs, are usually persons drawn from the country in which an army is oper- ating, one or more being sent with every detach- ment of troops. A guide should be intelligent, ex- perienced in the topography of the country, and faithful. As, however, guides must on many occa- sions be drawn from a hostile population, their con- duct is always watched with the utmost jealousy, death being the punishment for the least depart- ure from trustworthiness. GUIGNIAUT, J OSEPII DANIEL, a French scholar and antiquary, born at Paray-le-Monial, May 15, 1794, died in Paris, March 12, 1876. In 1818-22 he held the position of maitre des conférences in history at the normal school, and the corresponding chair in Greek letters, 1826-28. He was chosen to the Academy of Inscriptions in 1837; in 1847 received the cross of an officer of the Legion of Honor, and in 1862 became honorary professor of history, com- mander of the Legion of Honor, and perpetual sec- GUILANDINA—GUNBOAT retary of the Academy of Inscriptions. He wrote much u'pon Greek literature and antiquities. GUILANDINA, a genus of shrubs of the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order Ceesalpineae. G. bonduc and G. bonducella are the best known species. Both are natives of the warm parts of the East Indies, Arabia, Africa and South America. The shell of the seed is remarkable for its flinty hardness. The kernel is very bitter. Ground to powder and mixed with black pepper, it is administered in India in ague; mixed also with castor-oil it is applied ex- ternally in hydrocele. The roots in Amboyna are considered a good tonic. GUINEA FOWL. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 264; also POULTRY, Vol. XIX, pp. 646-47. GULES (gueules, the French heraldic term for “red,” is the plural of gueule, “the mouth,” Lat. gala), the term by which the color red is known in eraldry. GULFWEED (Sargassum), a genus of seaweeds (Algae), of the sub-order Fucacew, of which two species are found in immense quantities in some parts of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. They are tropical plants, although sometimes carried by winds and currents to northern coasts. The frond is long, and is furnished with distinct stalked nerved leaves, and simple axillary stalked air-vessels. The receptacles are linear, in small axillary clusters or racemes. The gulfweed is gen- erally found floating, but there is reasbn to think that it is at first attached to the bottom of shallow parts of the sea. ‘Where the Gulf Stream is de- flected from the banks of Newfoundland eastward, and\sends off its northern branch toward the Azores, is situated the Sargasso Sea, where the quantity of floating seaweed is often such as to im- pede the progress of ships. GUM—BOIL, an abscess near the root of a tooth, usually discharging itself toward the mucous mem- brane of the gum, but sometimes making its way more deeply towards the skin, and if allowed to burst there causing considerable deformity. Gum- boils should be treated in the first instance by pro- tection against cold and external injury, and free washing of the mouth with hot water; but as soon as the presence of matter can be ascertained, it is usually a good practice to give vent to it by a pretty free incision. Com- plete cure follows the removal of the tooth at the root of which the inflammation has begun. If the abscess threaten to burst through the skin, ex- traction of the tooth is imperative. GUMMING (in vegetable pathology, Gummosis), a disease which attacks the plum, cherry, peach, and other stone-fruit trees, often proving fatal to the tree. Recent observations seem to prove that the cause of the disease is a fungus named Coryneum Beijerinchii. The mycelium of the fungus develops a ferment which transforms the cell-walls, starch granules, and other contents of the cells into gum. The fungus cann_ot penetrate sound, healthy bark; there must be some wound or abrasion before the germ-tubes can enter the cellular tissues in which alone they can spread; probably insects are the chief agents in carrying the contagion from tree to tree. Wounds as soon as they are observed should be coated with a thick paste of quicklime or coal- tar. Gummed branches should be cut away with- out delay and burned, and the wounds dressed at once with coal-tar. GUM—PLANT (Grindelia robusta). This plant is one of-a genus of the order Compositaz, named in honor of Dr. Grindel,a German botanist. It in- habits the dry regions of the American continent from the Mississippi River to the Pacific coast. There are about 25 species of Grindelia. Some are 2——l4 801 found as far north as the Saskatchewan, in the British possessions, while Patagonia seems to be the limit on the south. The chief home of the gum-plant seems to be in Texas and Mexico. It has a pappus composed of 2 to 8 rigid, hornlike awns, which are early deciduous. The leaves are rather thick, and often covered by a viscid exudation, or gum. Cal- ifornia has four species of this genus. In medicine it has gained popularity in the West as a remedy for poisoning by species of Rhus, as the poison-oak of California, and in asthma and bronchitis. GUM—TREE, a name applied in the United States to various important trees. The sour gum, black- gum, pepperidge, or tupelo (Nyssa multiflora), is a large tree producing a firm timber, which is used for hat-blocks, windmill shafts, hubs, etc. The Nyssa capitata bears a sour edible fruit. The Nyssa uniflora and aquatica have soft light wood, and their roots are used somewhat as substitutes for cork. The Liquidambar styraciflua, the sweet gum, is a large tree with star-like leaves. The firm and fine-grained wood is used in furniture-making. It yields a balsamic resin, called American storax. L, orientale and L. altingia also yield storax, and the latter has a hard,heavy, fragrant red timber. Gum- trees are common in nearly every quarter of the o e. GUN BOAT, a small boat armed with one or more guns of heavy caliber. It is capable of running close inshore or up rivers, and has little chance of being hit by a larger vessel at the long range which the carrying power of its guns enables it to main- tain. Gunboats in their more modern form are all small mastless vessels mounting one large gun in the bow, and propelled by an engine with single or twin screws. The gun is pointed by means of the helm or the screws, and the gunboat is in fact a floating gun-carriage. At the beginning of the cen- tury the United States had over 250 of these ves- sels; but the “gunboat” system was soon aban- doned. In a wider sense all the naval vessels armed with guns may be called “gunboats.” For the last 30 years iron-clad war ships have been built with ever-increasing thickness of armor, and—in compe- tition therewith—the guns used on these ships are made more powerful year after year, in order to penetrate the armor. At first, all the armor was made of iron plates. UNITED STATES NAvY.—From 1862 till the close of our civil war a large number of armored gunboats were in this country. The Galena was armored with 2%-inch iron plates, and on the New Iron- sides the armor consisted of 4%-inch plates. In the world-famed Monitor the hull was of iron. Its side armor consisted of five 1-inch plates, the deck was formed of two 1-inch plates, and the turret was made up of 11 thicknesses of 1-inch plate. The iron-clad gunboats Comanche, Catskill, Ja- son, Lehigh, Montauk, Nahant, Nantucket, Passaic, Weehawken, and Patapsco came next. The Southern Confederacy built the Merrimac, noted for her fight with the Monitor; the Atlanta and the Tennessee. The Atlanta was converted from an iron-hulled steamer. To carry the addi- tional weight of her armor, logs were secured to her sides and iron plates fastened to these logs. A central citadel with sloping sides carried the bat- tery. The Tennessee was a similar vessel. Her armor on the side of the casemate was in three thicknesses of 2-inch iron plate. In 1864, two moni- tors then being built for the Confederacy were seized by the United States, and subsequently sold to the British government. Since the close of the war the building of gun- boats for the United States Navy has been most. SM vigorously carried on, especially during the last few years. VVe take the following data from a re- port of the Secretary of the Navy dated Nov. 26,1890. He says, in substance, that, since March 4, l889,nine new vessels, which were at that time in various stages of progress, have been completed and put in commission. These are the Chicago. Yorktown, Petrel, Charleston. Baltimore, Cashing, Ve- suvius, Philadelphia and San Francisco. During the coming winter four more would be added to the list; namely, the Newark, Concord, Bennington and Miantonomoh. Of the other vessels which had been authorized prior to March, 1889, the following four monitors were at that time more or less advanced: the Puritan, Antphitrite, Monadnock, and Terror; and the Maine had been fairly begun. Thirteen other gunboats and armored cruisers, which had been authorized from 1886 to March, 1889, were well ad- vanced in construction, two of which, the Texas and Monterey, were nearly ready for launching. Of torpedo boats there is only the Cushin placed in commission. She is built of steel, an has developed a speed of 28 knots. A second tor- pedo boat has been authorized. Twenty more tor- pedo boats like the Cashing, which stands near the head of her class, ought to be built and equipped with effective torpedoes. To illustrate the extensive use of torpedo boats by foreign nations, the Secretary subjoins the fol- lowing list of torpedo boats built, building, or pro- iected in 1890 by the governments here named: ‘rance 210, England 206, Germany 180, Italy 152, Russia 143, Austria 61, Greece 51, Holland 50, Den- mark 34, China 32, Norway and Sweden 31, Turkey 30, Japan 24, Spain 15. Brazil 15. On June 30, 1890, the Congress of the United States authorized the construction of three first- class sea-going battle-ships. They are required to be built within three years. Their names are: the Indiana, the Massachusetts, and the Oregon. As fighting ships they are calculated to eclipse any ship now used for coast-line defense. Their bat- teries are the heaviest and most effective of any ship afloat or projected. Although there are now ships of greater size in existence, yet none of them has greater power or eflioiency than these three battle-ships. Protected Cruiser No. 12, of 7,400 tons displace- ment, was authorized by the same act of Con- gress and will be finished by May 19,1893. This vessel will have a sea-speed and a coal endurance hitherto unknown in ships of war. She will be a match for the swiftest trans-Atlantic liner afloat to-day, so that no merchant vessel that she meets can escape from her. Her armament will be 3 rifled guns, 8 rapid-firing guns, 18 machine guns, and 6 torpedo tubes. The heavy protective deck, 4 inches thick on the slopes and 2% inches else- where, covers her vital parts completely. The navy of the United States contained on July 1, 1890, sixty-five war vessels and 402 arma- ment guns. THE IRON-CLAD FLEET or GREAT BRITAIN was in- creased while Sir E. J. Reed was chief constructor of the British navy, 1862-69. At and since that time a large number of armored ships were con- structed. Twelve battle ships and 82 cruisers and gunboats are completing or building at present, 29 of which are already launched. Seven of the bat- tle ships under construction are of 14,000 tons,dis- lacement. These include the Royal Sovereign, oyal Oak, Revenge, Resolution, Repulse, Renown and Ramillies. THE BRITISH NAVY is, in “ Hazell’s Annual,” 1891, given as comprising 9 battle-ships of 10,000 tons and upward; 12 battle-ships of 9,000 to 10,000 tons; l GUNBOAT 8 battle-ships of 8,000 to 9,000 tons; 8 battle-ships of 6,000 to 8,000 tons; 8 coast-defense ships of 3,000 to 6,000 tons; and 10 harbor-defense ships of 1,000 to 5,000 tons; 12 armored cruisers of 5,000 to 9,000 tons; and 9 protected and 59 unprotected cruisers. This array of vessels shows that the British navy is a very formidable one. In fact, it presents the most powerful naval equipment of any nation in the world. Great Britain has at present 203 ar- mored and unarmored ships and 183 gunboats. The initiation in armored naval construction was, however, taken by France. During the Crimean war Napoleon III ordered the construction of float- ing batteries protected by iron armor. Five of these batteries were launched in 1855. Each car- ried 16 uns. The armor consisted of 41/Z-inch iron plates fastened to an oak backing 21/3 feet thick. They were successful in quickly silencing some forts at Sebastopol. After some experiments with iron armor France constructed the iron-clad Couronne, La Gloire, and two other vessels of like design. In 1865 the French built the iron-clad Ocean, protected at the water-line with 8-inch armor on 32%-inch oak backing. Her armament consisted of four 23-ton guns and four 15%-ton guns. Three other ships, the Richelieu, Colbert and Trident, plated ~.with 9- inch armor, were built in 1868-69. After the Franco-German war, France decided to construct 16 first-class, 12 second-class, and 20 coast-service vessels, all of steel. The Redoubtable was first begun. She was armored with 14-inch plates, and carried six 23-ton guns. The De’vasta- tion has an armor of 15 inches, and carries four 123/L-inch guns in the central armored battery; two 10%-inch guns are mounted on half-turrets, and six 5%-inch guns are distributed along the upper deck. She was begun in 1876. The Ad- miral Duperré, begun the same year, is larger than the Dévastation. She has an iron belt 21% inches thick, and an armored deck. On her upper deck are four armored barbettes, each carrying a 48-ton gun. Besides these guns, there are four- teen 5%-inch rifles between decks, and 20 Hotch- kiss machine guns. The second class sea-going iron-clads are repre- sented by the Duguesclin, of a similar type with the Admiral Duperré, though smaller. The first-class coast-defense vessels are repre- sented by the Tonnerre. She has a complete armored belt, and is covered by an armored deck, above which rises a revolving turret at the fore- end, mounting two 10%-inch guns. The second-class coast-service vessels such as the Tempéte, are much the same, only of less dis- placement and draught. Previous ships had been armed with a great number of light guns. The new guns being much heavier, they were fewer in number, and could be protected with a smaller area of armor, though the armor was of a thickness corresponding with the size of the guns. THE FRENCH NAYY contains at present 70 ar- mored ships and gunboats, and 184 unarmored ships and gunboats. THE ITALIAN NAVY comprises at present 61 armored and unarmored ships and 26 gunboats. Five of her first-class warships are of tonnages from 12,000 to 15,000. These are the Italia, Lepanto, Re Umberto, Sicilia, and Sardegna. The Italia is the largest warship in the world. Of the smaller ones, the Duilio. Dandolo, La'uria, Morosini, and Doria have a displacement of 11,000 tons. GERMANY has 54 armored and unarmored ships, and 54 armored and unarmored gunboats. Ex- cepting the Kiinig Wilhelm, the two most powerful ships of the German navy are the iron-clads Kaiser and Deutschland. They are constructed after the ~GrUNDUCK-—GrUNS AND GUNNERY designs of Sir E. J. Reed, and are protected by armor- belts of steel. Each carries 15 guns. The K0'nig Wilhelm carries 29 guns made of Krupp’s ham- mered steel. Her armor is 12 inches thick. The turret-ships, Friedrich der Grasse and Preussen, have each two turrets, with armor of the thickness of 9 and 10 inches. They carry 6 guns each. THE AUSTRIAN NAVY contains 30 armored and un- armored ships, and 27 unarmored gunboats, while the Russian navy has 89 armored and unarmored ships, and 54 armored and unarmored gunboats. The Russian circular iron-clads are an interesting but not very successful type of vessels. Many of them carry turrets. GUNDUCK, or GANDAK, a river of India, rises at the foot of the Dhwalagiri, traverses Nepaul and Bengal, and fiows into the Ganges opposite Patna. It is about 400 miles in length, and the lower portion is serviceable for irrigation and boat trafiic. 803 GUNNISON, the capital of Gunnison county, Gol., situated on a river of the same name. It is a railroad junction, and is connected by branch roads with Crested Butte and with Baldwin mines GUNNY-BAGS, bags made of a coarse jute fab- ric, and largely exported from India to various parts of the world. American cotton is largely packed in these. They are manufactured at a low price, hence the great demand for them. The name gunny is applied to the cloth as well as to the made-up bags. About 1850 the peasant hand-looms of Lower Bengal met the demand for Indian-made gunny-bags. At the present time the number made at the great steam factories, of which there are now twenty-three in India, far exceeds wh'at is produced by hand-looms. In India gunny-bags are employed for agricultural and internal trade pur- poses, but many are also sent out of the country filled with grain and other produce. Cloth and bags of the same kind are made in Dundee, Scotland. GUNS AND GUNNERY. See Britannica. Vol. XI, pp. 297-315. In speaking of guns we under- stand the large pieces of ordnance called cannons. Modern uns and armored ships have been mostly develope during and since our late war. The 300-pounder rifled Parrot gun and the 450-pounder smooth-bore Rodman gun were produced during the war. The latter had a bore of 15 inches, was 16 feet long, and weighed 20 tons. In 1886 a gun weighing 115 tons was produced, which throws an elongated projectile of 2,800 pounds, weight to a distance of nine miles. This was constructed by Alfred Krupp, in Essen, Prussia. He and Sir ‘Vil- liam Armstrong, of Newcastle, England, con- structed most of the heavy ordnance now used in Europe. Guns weighing 120 tons, and one of the latest even 139 tons, were constructed at Krupp’s works since 1886. The last-mentioned gun dis- charges a projectile of 2,814 pounds, which pene- trates wrought-iron plates nearly 4 feet in thick- ness when fired by a charge of 1,069 pounds of pris- matic powder. For a description of this powder and the mode of its manufacture, see Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 329. Still larger guns, capable of firing shells weighing over a ton, are projected by Krupp’s successor. The Krupp guns are now all “built up” by shrinking red-hot steel hoops over a central tube of crucible steel. There is a single layer of hoops around the tube for guns below 9-inch caliber; while the guns of 9-inch caliber and upwards have two layers of hoops protecting the after-parts. The tubes and hoops are forged without weld. The chambers of the guns are slightly larger than the bores. Their rifling consists in shallow grooves, widening a little toward the breech of the gun. Sir J . Whitworth’s guns are made of tubes of fluid- compressed steel, over which massive steel hoops are forced either by hydraulic pressure or by shrinkage. In Sir ~William Armstrong’s system of gun-mak- ing, wrought-iron coils are shrunk over a central tube and over one another, so that the central tube is strongly compressed and the outer coils in a state of tension. VVrought iron being twice as strong in the direction of the fiber as across it, the hoops made up of wrought iron bars welded together can resist great circumferential strains. GATLING’S CAST-STEEL Gux.—Dr. Gatling has in- vented a new steel gun, which he claims W111 be far superior to the built-up gun, and can be made at half the cost. The patents consist of making guns cast from the highest grade of steel to shape around a central core. This central core is utilized for the purpose of cooling the casting from the interior while the exterior is still hot. The cooling process thus begins from the interior and works out. di- rectly the reverse of the ordinary way. The metal is forced, as it were, from the interior outwardly, thereby avoiding the creation of a hard, resisting arch on the exterior of the casting, at which point the full intensity of the high-power force exercised by the exploding ingredients within the gun exerts itself. It makes the interior of the gun. where the greatest strain is felt, the toughest and hardest part, and the soft and spongiest part the exterior, which thus acts somewhat after the manner of a cushion. This is directly the reverse of the old style guns, in which the spongiest part is on the in- terior. Another important point is the method in which the metal is cast. A revolving motion is given it, which makes the grain spiral. lVith regard to “ quick-firin g guns,” we insert the following article from “ Engineering :” QUICK-FIRING GUNS.-T136 application of the “ uick-firing” principle to guns which may fairly be classe as armor- piercing will robably do more to govern the tactics of naval comman ers in any war which may arise in the imme- diate—if not the d1stant—future than any other phase of >roduction of warlike materiel. For service on shore it has een said that: “By the aid of quick-firing guns and the position-finder we are enabled to carry out the ideal system of defense; viz., few guns in dispersed emplacements con- cealed by natural features. The system has -ong been advo~ cated by Sir Andrew Clarke, and it is difiicult to see how any further opposition can consistently be offered to it.” For the protection of mine fields the quick-firing gun would be invaluable; indeed, the authority we have just quoted considers the operations of sweeping, creeping, or counter- minmg might be rendered absolutely impossible by the fire of quick-firing-suns. “The only reliable defense against an assailant’s in-s ore squadron,” continues Captain Stone, “will be the extensive em loyment of quick-firing guns of sufiicient caliber not mere y to annihilate landing or board- 1ng parties, or to send_ a torpedo boat to the bottom, but equa to the task of puttmg a gunboat hors de combat, and either wrecking her or making it possible for the active har- bor defense to capture her.” The use of shells charged with explosives more powerful than gunpowder has given additional importance to these projectiles of smaller natures, and with the increased de- velopment of higher explosives a corresponding develo - ment of shell fire may be anticipated. This has alrea v taken effect in the science of war-ship design, and naval con- structors are now lookmg with less favor on large unar- mored surfaces; and indeed the older battle-ships With com= paratively thin armor, which a year or so ago were consid- ered all but obsolete, are now considered as of some impor- tance in view of the development of quick-firmg guns and hlQ,'l1 explosive shells. 1 _The part which the Elsw1ck firm has taken in the introduc- t1on o quick-firing guns 1s well known. We give two views 804 pfaquick-firing gun, of which the following is a descrip- son: This weapon is the 4.7 in. simultaneous loading breech- loading gun, caliber 4.724 in., or 12 cm., firmg a shell of 45 1b., with 12 lb. of P. or S. powder. The gun is entirel ‘of steel its total length 16 ft. 2 in., length of bore,-10 ca 1ber; an weight, 41 cwt. The breech 1s closed on the interrupted screw system, and to render the closing and openmg more easy and rapid, the breech block is formed in two steps, both of which have por- tions of an interrupted screw on their surfaces, the threads on one ste standing lon itudmally opposite to the blank s aces on he other. This s well shown In Fig. 12, the breech b ock being there swung back. The breech block swings rapidly into place, and is secured by_ a small turning move- ment. The gun is fired by electricity. In the base of the GUNS, AND GUNNERY \ . cartridge case is screwed an electric primer, against which presses an insulated steel pin, carried 111 the axis of the reech block. This pin is In communication with the elec- tric wires, which carry the current to fire the primer, only when the breech block is closed, and secured b turn- ing the lever downward against the rear of the bloc . The circuit is closed, and the charge fired by pulling the trigger 01131 a pisfigl handle arranged In a convenient position close to t es1g s. In case of the failure of the electrical firing ear, each gun is also fitted with apercussion lock; the elec ric primer in the base of the cartridge is replaced by a percussion rimer of the same form, and the steel pm,which in the ormer case supplied the electrical contact, now serves as a firing needle. The percussion firing gear also has a safety appli- ance tc prevent the charge being fired till the breech is / / yl /----’ // /’ _/n/’/;’/'/ /_/¢.4f/;’%’,~--'r,..:'_. ._ _ 1111!! ll Hlhll J . I4- I I lil I M1 1 , . "I>1I|:-|r:nH"1;r:>lM:_~Fuhm I‘ ~ ~ f'- "'.~1-I. ":1 '11 .110 1 ll"'~'!l.~"l~'il§!l » I ~ closed and locked. In this manner all danger of accidental discharge is avoided, and complete security gained. The un is mounted in a rockin slide, in which it can onl move 11 the direction of recoil. ixed to this rocking sli e is a combined spring and hydraulic buffer arrangement, which serves both to check the recoil and also to run the gun out again after discharge. An arm projects downward from the arm to the recoil press, where it is absorbed; the spring in the second cylinder is at the same time compressed. As soon as the recoil is absorbed the s rin begins_ to act, and pushes the gun back along the rock ng s ide to Its first position. The lower art of the mountin is formed by a strong tranverse stee plate or transom, w ich rigidly sup- ports the mounting, an at the same time forms a substan- breech of the gun, and is attached by a nut to the ram of the hydraulic recoil press. The gun itself has no trunnions, but slides in the rocking slide to the extent of the recoil, which is only 9 inches. The action on firin is as follows: The gun slides back withm the rocking sl do, the recoil being transmitted by the tial protection or shield to the base of the structure and the men working behind it. Above this is a lighter steel shield, covering the detachment from rifle fire, the upper portion being arranged to hinge back, so as to admit of a more ex- tended view when using the gun at night. . The under carriage is carried on live rollers runnmg on a GUNS AND GUNNERY bed- late, so as to insure great freedom of training. which is e ected either by means of a shoulder-piece rigidly con- nected to the under carriage or by a worm-wheel training gear, worked by a hand-wheel at the sighting or firing posi- tion. A clamp on the bed- late is provided, so as to fix the gun at any desired point 0 training. The elevation and de- pression of the gun require very little power, as the gun and working slide are accurately balanced on their trunnion bearings. The rack and pinion gear for this purpose is worked by an elevated hand-wheel close to the training- wheel, and thus also at the sighting or firing position. This description ap lies equally to the quick-firing guns and mountings of the arger natures. On account, however, of the increased weight of the ammunition, the cartridge and projectile are often handled separately. The quick-firing gun is an extension, or, at any rate, the outcome of the smaller machine guns of the Hot kiss, Nordenfeit, and Gardner type. The Hotchkiss are, ho ever, now made up to 3.94 in. bore, and throw a projectile of 33 lb. This class of gun is useful a ainst torpedo boats and un- armored structures, but coul hardly be used with effect upon any protection which could be dignified with the name 0 armor. The ideal gun has been described as that which possesses high penetrative power, and a capacity for firing shells with the most effective bursting charges, while it could. _when re- quired, be fired with great rapidity to repel aflotilla of at- tacking vessels. These points are secured with the weapons we are now con- sidering. With the 4.7 in., 5.5 in., and 6 in. guns the projectiles are 45 lb., 70 1b., and 100 lb., or even 120 lb. The rate of fire has been found in actual practice to be from six rounds per min- ute with the 6-in. gun to fourteen rounds per minute with the 4.7-in. gun. If we compare the rate of fire of these guns with that obtained from the ordinary breech-loading guns in the service, we find that some experiments carried out on shipboard by the admiralty gave ten rounds in 47 seconds from the 4.7-in. qyick-firing gun, while the 5-in. ordinary breech-loader too 5 minutes 7 seconds to discharge the same number of rounds. It is unnecessary to dwell on the advantages of rapidity of fire in action. It was this feature which contributed so much in times past to naval victories. In this epoch of mechanism, however, we must depend on the brains of our inventors rather than the muscles and nerves of our seamen to give like results: although we by no means wish to say that the day for nerve and muscle is past. Indeed, the value of cool and disciplined courage was never more apparent in the past than it will be in the next great naval war. Hardly any superiority in personnel could compensate for the disadvantage in materiel of a gun requiring over five min- utes for what another would accomplish in 47 seconds; and it is obvious, therefore, that we must have quick-firing guns in spite of minor objections that may be raised against them, such as difficulties on account of smoke—when smokeless powder is not used—or in getting the ammunition to the gun with sufficient rapidity. Naval authorities have not been slow to acknowledge the advantages of the new principle, and large orders for the navy for 4.7-in. and 6-in. Armstrong, the results 0 g which are very plainly visible just now in the Elswick shops. We have already described the mechanism of this 0un, but there are some points in the design ut forward by the mak- ers to which attention may be cal ed. By the interrupted screw s stem of breech-closing two advantages are secured. First, t e action of opening and closing the breech is much simplified, as the breech piece need not be withdrawn before hinging away; and, secondly, the coned shape of the breech screw enables it to take_ho d, not only of the inner surface of the metal of breech piece or jacket, but also distributes the engagement, and therefore the strain and support, throughout a considerable thickness of the gun. The breech screw is further arranged so that the threads of the smaller end of the cone correspond longitudinally with the interrupted s aces of the larger end, and -vice versa, so that the strain an support are also distributed throughout the entire circumference of the breech screw, instead of, as formerly, half the circumference beinglost by the interrupted spaces. In the mounting the labor of training and elevating is reduced to a minimum. A shoulder crutch and a pis- tol trigger is provided, and the piece can be handled by a single man with the same case as the small Hotchkiss 6- pounden The recoil is so arranged that the man aiming_can alter the position of the gun up to the very instant of firing, and also 'eep control of the gun working and sighting gear during the actual discharge, or throughout any number of rounds. Naval ofiicers will not be slow to appreciate the advantage secured by this arrangement under the varying conditions of actions at sea. The carriage allows the gun to recoil always in the line of fire, and the fixings a.nd deck are thus to a large extent re- lieved of the ordinary recoil strains. After discharge the gun returns instantly and automatically to firing position. A substantial shield of steel, 4% in. thick, is provided in front, and protection is thus given to the men serving the gun. _ In the ammunition the grinci le of the ordinary rifle cart- ridges has been extende to t ese guns; the pi'oJectile and uns have been given t-o the Messrs. ‘ 805 powder charge forming only one piece. The powder is put into a solid-drawn brass cartridge, in the mouth of which the progectile is fixed, so that the whole can be handled to- gether. rigreat saving of time and labor is thus effected, and the incidental advantages of increased saftey and the immunity of the powder from climatic deterioration are also secured. To the fact of the projectile and charge being thus placed in the gun at the same time is due the title of “sim- ultaneous loading” which has been applied to these guns. To. the improvement in the ammunition the quick rate of firing is very largely to be attributed. The solid‘-dr wn cart- ridge cases, owing to their great size, have presented difficul- ties in manufacture; but these have been now surmounted, and it is found in-, practice that they can be fired as many as ten times over without need of reforming. _ In apportioning the ammunition for these guns. penetrat- ing shel will constitute a very large proportion of the whole equ_i ment, _ _ Si e by side with the improvement in the guns and mount- 1ngs have gone new_ discoveries and developments of gun powder. That specially designed for use in these guns is practically smoke_less—an inestimable advantage where rapid firing is an essential-fand the hanging smoke which makes good aiming impossible is thus almost entirely avoided. The pressures obtained with it are very uniform, and the velociéies very high, ranging up to 2,450 ft. or 2,500 ft. per secon . One of the princi a_l reasons that led to solarge an em- ployment of quick- ring guns in naval services was the necessity of being able to cope instantly and effectually with the attack of torpedo boats. The very high rate of speed possessed b the modern torpedo boat, while increasing its powers of o ense, has at the same time diminished the risk of its being hit. It not only remains amuch shorter time exposed to fire when making its attack, but its rapid motion necessitates a great alteration of aim between each round fired at it, and a corresponding likelihovcl of error. Suppose a torpedo boat to be sighted at a distance of 1.500 yards by a war vessel having a broadside armament of three service 5-in. breech-loading guns, each capable of firing two rounds a minute. _It is estimated that the torpedo boat could not hope to discharge a torpedo with much certainty at alonger range than 200 yards; and would, therefore, have to traverse a distance of 1,300 yards under fire before she could begin the attack. Assuming the speed of a first-class torpedo boat to be twenty knots an hour, which is certainly a hi h figure, the time occupied in_ traversing 1,300 yards wonl%l be. roughly speaking, two minutes. The war vessel, therefore, armed with a_ broadside of three 5-in. guns, each firing two rounds per minute, would be able to discharge twelve shots at the torpedo boat before there was a chance of her being torpe- doed. If, however, in lieu of the three service 5-in. guns, she was armed with three of the improved Armstrong 4.7-in. 45 pounders, she could in the same time fire no less than seventy-two shots, each gun being capable of firing twelve shots a minute. _Besides the advantage .of being able to fire six times as often, there is the collateral one of a very slight alteration of aim being required in one case and a very considerable one in the other. Between t‘he rounds of the 5-inch breech-load- ing orun, the torpedo boat would move 340 yards, and the aim would have to be comes ondingly altered- while between the rounds of the 45-poun er gun she would only move thirty yards, and a very sli ht alteration would be re uired, and a successful shot coul thus be instantly repeate3. But although it was the torpedo boat which first gave such an impetus to the introduction of the uick-firing gun, the weapon has been so largely develops in the progress of time that it now holds a much higher position, and cannot fail to play an important part in encounters between im- portant war vessels in the future. ' DYNAMITE Guxs.—Concerning the dynamite guns which form the equipment of the fast cruiser Ve- suvius, we append the following remarks: An oflicial test of these guns was made under the direction'of Commodore Goodrich in November, I889, and the commodore reported that the test was suc- cessful beyond anticipation. According to an ac- count in the “ Army and Navy Gazette,” by one who has been present at the test, these trials have dem- onstrated that the Vcsum'us can fire 80 shells--all she ca_n carry——without stopping to fill the air res- ervoirs. The shells were about 7 feet long, and 10 inches in diameter, holding 200 pounds of explosive gelatine, and weighing respectively 488, 5()l and 505 pounds. The performance of these guns as to range and rapidity of flight of the projectiles was nearly twice as great as was demanded by the contract. The eye-witness concludes by saying, “A vessel that can deliver and explode three tons of high- class dynamite a distance of a mile with any ap- 806 proach to accuracy is a most formidable agent for attack and defense.” GUNTHER, ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILE, 3. German-British naturalist and author, born in 1830. In 1858 he became connected with the zo- ological department of the British Museum, and since 1875 has been director of that department. He is the author of many valuable works on fishes, reptiles, and batrachians, and from 1864 to 1870 edited the Record of Zoological Literature. GURLEY, RALPH RANDOLPH, born at Lebanon, Conn., May 26, 1797, died at Washington, D. C., July 80, 1872. He graduated at Yale in 1818; went to Washington, and was there licensed to preach as a Presbyterian. He was agent and secretary of the American Colonization Society from 1822 till his death, and was one of the founders of Liberia. He delivered addresses throughout the country in the interests of the society, went to England and vis- ited Africa three times. He was for along time ed- itor of “The African Repository.” Author of Life of Jehudi Ashmun (1839); Mission to England on be- half of the American Colonization Society ( 1841) ; and Life and Eloquence of Rev. Sylvester Larned (1844). GURNEY, JOSEPH JOHN (1788-1847), an English philanthropic Quaker. In 1818 he became a minis- ter of the Society of Friends, and then devoted his life to the prosecution of benevolent enterprises, including the prison reforms of his sister, Mrs. Elizabeth Fry. Among his numerous works are Notes on Prison Discipline (1819) ; Observations on the Religious Peculiarities of the Society of Friends (1824) ; and .4 Winter in the West Indies (1840). GU RNEY, SIR GoLnswoR'rIIY (1793-1875), an English chemist and inveintor. In 1822 he lectured on chemistry at the Surrey Institute. Among his im- portant inventions are the lime light, the magnesi- um light, the Bude and the oil-gas light, a high pres- sure steam-jet and the tubular boiler, and a steam carriage. His high-pressure steam-jet was subse- quently used to ventilate coal mines, and in 1849 to exhaust the poisonous gases of the sewers of Lon- don. In 1852 he took charge of ventilating the new house of Parliament, and accomplished it by methods of his own. He was knighted in 1863. GUROVVSKI, ADAM, COUNT, born at Kalisz, Po- land, Sept. 10, 1805, died at Washington, D. C., May 4, 1866. Expelled from the gymnasia of lVarsaw and Kalisz for participating in revolutionary dem- onstrations, he continued his studies at German Universities. In 1825 he returned to Warsaw, as- sisted to organize and took part in the unsuccessful revolution of 1830, and at its close escaped to France. In 1835 he published La Vérité sur La Russie, which was favorably received by the Russian gov- ernment, and he was recalled and employed in the civil service. In 1844 he went to Heidelberg, and devoted himself to study; afterwards he lectured in the University of Berne, Switzerland, spent some time in‘ Italy, and in 1849 came to the United States. He was translator in the State Depart- ment at Washington from 1861 to 1863. Among his works published in the United States are: Russia as It Is (1854); The Turlcish Question (1854) ; A Year of the War (1855) ; America and Europe (1857) ; Slai- ery in History (1860); and My Diary, notes on the civil war (3 vols., 1862-66). GUTHRIE, JAMES, born in Nelson county, Ky., Dec. 5, 1792, died in Louisville, March 13, 1869. He was educated at Bardstown, Ky., studied law, and in 1820 commenced practice in Louisville. He was a member of the State legislature from 1827 to 1840, and was president of the convention that framed the present constitution of the State; was secretary of the United States Treasury in 1853-57, and United States Senator in 1865-68. GUNTHER-GUY’S HOSPITAL \ GUTHRIE, SAMUEL, chemist and inventor, born at Brimfield, Mass., in 1782, died at Sackett’s Har- bor, N. Y., Oct. 19. 1848. He invented and first manufactured a lock which took the place of the old flint-lock in fire-arms, and was one of the original discoverers of chloroform. His pro- cess of producing chloroform, which he termed “spirituous solution of chloric ether,” was tested by the elder Silliman at Yale College in 1831, and a committee of the Medico-chirurgical Society of Ed- inburgh awarded him the merit of having first pub- lished an account of its effects as a diffusible stim- ulant. GUTTIFERZE, or OLUSIACEJE, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, na- tives of tropical countries, generally secreting an acrid yellow resinous juice. A few are epiphytes. The leaves are opposite, destitute of stipules, leath- ery and entire. This order is allied to Hypericinaz. It contains about 150 known species, the greater part of them South American. The resinous secretions of some are valuable, and a few species afford valu- able timber. The flowers of some are very fragrant; those of Messua ferrea are found in a dried state in every bazaar in India, and used as a perfume. The fruit of some is very highly esteemed. GUYOT, ARNOLD, geographer, born in Switzer- land in 1807, died at Princeton, N. J., Feb. 8, 1884. He took the degree of Ph. D. at Berlin in 1835; was the colleague of Agassiz at Neuchatel in 1839-48, and in the latter year accompanied him to America. He delivereda course of lectures at Lowell Institute. Cambridge, which were translated and published as Earth and Man, in 1853; in 1854 was appointed pro- fessor of physical geography and geology at Prince- ton, which position he occupied until his death, be- ing for some time senior professor. He had the management of the meteorological de artment of the Smithsonian Institution, where 1e delivered several courses of lectures, and in connection with which he published Meteorological and Physical Tables (revised ed., 1884). His other works include: A Treatise on Physical Geography (1873) ; Creation, or the Biblical Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science (1884) ; and a number of valuable biographical me- moirs. GUYSBOROUGH, a seaport town, capital of Guysborough county, N. S., situated near the head of Chedabucto Bay, about 120 miles east-north- east of Halifax. It has a commodious harbor, and important industries of fishing and gold-mining. It is also the seat of a large academy. GUY’S HOSPITAL, London, England, was founded by Thomas Guy (see Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 341), who leased from the governors of St. Thomas’s hospital, a large piece of ground for a term of 999 years, at a ground-rent of £30 a year. The hospital admitted its first patient in 1725, a few days after the death of its founder. In 1829 Mr. Hunt be- queathed to the hospital £190,000, and additional bequests to the amount of £10,000 have since been received. There was at first room for about 400 pa- tients; now 700 can be accommodated. The yearly average of patients is over 5,000; the out-patients relieved may amount to above 80,000. The annual income is about £40,000. Students enter the hos- pital for study, attending clinical practice, lectures, etc., and paying annual fees. A library and valu- able museums are attached to the hospital. New wards. with tall towers for ventilation, were built in 1852, and a chemical laboratory in 1872. A den- tal school for complete instruction in dental sur- gery and mechanics and a residential college for the accommodation of fifty students and the junior medical staff have recently been added. In the chapel is a fine marble statue of Guy, by Bacon-, GUZMAN-BLANCO-—-GYPSY-WORT which cost $5,000. Sir Astley Cooper, the eminent surgeon, is buried in the chapel. GUZMAN-BLANCO, Azvronro, born in Caracas in 1830, was banished for his share in political dis- turbances, and, after taking a prominent part in two invasions, became vice-president of Venezuela in 1863. Driven from ofiice in 1868, he headed a revolution which restored him to power in 1870, and for many years he was virtual dictator of the country, though not continuously occupying the po- sition of president. In 1889, however, popular dis- content was aggravated by reports of corrupt con- tracts made in Paris; and Blanco, who was then acting as envoy to all the European powers, was practically deposed by Congress, which refused to accept the resignation of his former protége’ and present rival, Dr. Rojas Paul. GVVIN, WILLIAM MCKENDREE, born in Sumner county, Tenn., Oct. 9, 1805, died in New York City, Sept. 3, 1885. He received a classical education, took his degree of M. D. in 1828 at Transylvania University, and removing to Clinton, Miss., ob- tained an extensive practice. He was appointed United States Marshal for the district of Missis- sippi in 1833, and in 1840 he was elected to Congress as a Democrat. In 1849 he removed to California, where he took an active part in favor of the forma- tion of a State government. He was elected United States Senator for the long term; was reélected, and served till March 3, 1861. In 1863 he went to Paris, and becoming interested in a scheme to colo- nize Sonora, Mexico, with Southerners, spent the two following years in an unsuccessful attempt to carry out his plan. He afterwards returned to his home in California, and continued to take an ac- tive part in politics. GIVINNETT, BUTTON, born in England about 1732, died in Georgia, May 27, 1777. He received a good education, was for a time engaged in mercan- tile pursuits in Bristol, England; emigrated to Charleston, S. C., and in 1770 purchased a planta- tion on St. Catherine’s Island, Ga., and engaged in agriculture. He took an active part in the polit- ical questions of 1775, was elected a representative to the General Congress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independence. He was reelected for the ensuing year, was appointed a member of the State government, and president of the provin- cial council. His death resulted from a duel with Gen. McIntosh, fought May 15, 177 7. GYMKHANA, a Hindoostanee word, meaning “variegated sports,” used in the United States to indicate a peculiar kind of pony races. Pony rac- ing as an organized sport was introduced into the United States in 1890, and at once became very popular. In the first year of its existence eight as- sociation races meetings were held in New York and New Jersey, and at these the gymkhana races furnish/id a great deal of amusement. Although the American gymkhana consists only of pony races, the conditions are somewhat novel. Thus, in one, called a “ saddling and dressing race,” the ponies are held in position by the grooms, while beside them on the turf are the saddles, and the coats and Waistcoats of the riders. Wl1en the starting signal is given, the grooms let go the horses’ heads, and the riders are re uired to saddle and girth the rearing animals, an put on and button up their coats and waistcoats before getting away. In an- 807 other, the “cigar and umbrella race,” each rider is supplied with a cigar, a box of sulphur matches and a brightly colored umbrella. Each must light his cigar and raise his umbrella after the starting signal is given, and before mounting, and the win- ner must finish with his cigar alight and with his umbrella still open and uninjured. In the “egg and spoon race,” each rider is required to carry an egg in a large wooden spoon from start to finish. If he drops the egg he must return to the starting point, secure a fresh egg, and start an-ew. In one of these races contested on Long Island in 1890, the winner dropped no less than six eggs, winning the race with the seventh. In the “ manikin race,” the manikins are men of straw, with pale canvas faces, weighing eighty pounds each. After the starting signal is given each rider must pick up a manikin, mount with him, and carry him to the finish. In the “ polo ball and bucket race,” each contestant at various places along the course drops a polo ball into a bucket being required to drop a ball into each bucket before passing to the next. In the “ball and mallet race,” each rider is required to drive his ball from start to finish as in polo. But perhaps the most amusing of all the gymkhana races is the “ginger beer and bath bun race,” in which, after the starting signal is given, each con- testant rides up to a high table upon which a bottle of ginger beer and a hard dry bun are placed for each rider, who must eat the bun and drink the beer before proceeding with the race. GYMNOCLADUS, a genus of trees of the natural order Legamhzosae, sub-order Czrsalpiozea. G. Cana- clensis is a North American tree, found both in Can- ada and over a great part of the United States, at- taining a length of fifty to sixty feet, with upright branches and a rough bark. The leaves of young trees are very large, three feet long, bipinnate, and armed with thorns. The flowers are white. in short spikes, the pods five inches long by two broad. It is some- times called the Kentucky C'ofl"ee-tree, because the seeds were formerly roasted and ground as coffee in Kentucky. It grows well in Britain. The wood is used both by cabinet-makers and by carpenters. It has very little sap-wood. The pods, preserved like those of the tamarind. are said to be wholesome and slightly aperient. GYHNODONTS, a group of plectognath fishes, distinguished by having teeth united into an ivory- like substance resembling a beak. The different species are eccentric in form; most of them can dis- tend themselves into a more or less globular shape. Some are covered with spines or prickles, and in others the body is truncated behind. The group contains several families, as Tetrodontidae, Dz'odonti- dze, 111' olz'dee, etc. GYMNOGENS, Lindley’s term, now obsolete, for the Gymnosperms. GYPSUM. See Britannica. Vol. XI, p. 351. GYPSY-IVORT (Lg/eopus Europaeus), sometimes also called water horehound, a perennial plant of the natural order Labiatae. It is a tall erect branch- ing plant, slightly hairy, with acreeping root-stock. It is found in Britain, on the Continent, in Russian and Central Asia, and North America, and is re- garded as a febrifuge and stringent. It dyes a per- manent black. The bugle-weed of North America (Lt._rz'rgz'm'cus) has more powerfully astringent prop- er 1es. 808 H HABAKKUK—HEl\/IATEMESIS HABAKKUK, Old Testament prophet. Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 356. HABIT AND REPUTE, a phrase used in Scotch law to denote something so notorious that it afiords strong and generally conclusive evidence of the facts to which it refers. The best-known example of this is where a man and woman cohabit as hus- band and wife, and are reputed by the neighbors to be married, in which case the law of Scotland accepts the cohabitation and the proof of public opinion as evidence that a marriage has been con- tracted by the parties by the interchange of con- sent. In England no such doctrine prevails, and the marriage would have to be proved in the usual way, if called in question, by a suit which directly raises such question. There is also in Scotland an application of the doctrine of habit and repute to persons when convicted of stealing; for if the in- dividual is a habit and repute thief-—that is, a no- torious thief—the repute that the accused gets his livelihood or supplements it by thieving is techni- cally an aggravation of the offense, and may be charged and proved as such. HABITATION: in Roman law, a servitude by which a person could only use a house as a habita- tion or dwelling-house, and for no other purpose. HACKBERRY, fruit of the nettle-tree; some- times called “sulga -berry.” See Britannica, Vols. XI, p. 360; XVI , p. 360. HACKEN SACK, a railroad center and the county-seat of Bergen county, N. J ., located on the Hackensack River, 13 miles from New York. It has several factories, gas, and water works. HACKETTSTOWN, a railroad junction of VVar- ren county, N. J ., situated on the Musconetcong River. It contains the Newark, M. E. Conference Seminary, a car manufactory, foundries and sev- eral carriage manufactories. HACKLANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM voN, Ger- man novelist and comedy writer, born at Burts- cheid, near Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 1, 1816, died at Munich, July 6, 1877. He commenced his literary career with the publication of Bilder aus dem Sol- datenleben (1841), and three years later followed up his success with Das Soldatenleben im Frieden (9th ed., 1883). He accompanied Baron von Tauben- heim on his travels to the East, and in 1843 was appointed private secretary to the crown-prince of Wiirtemberg, with whom he traveled in the suc- ceeding years. In March, 1849 he went to Italy, and was present with Radetzky’s army during the campaign in Piedmont. From 1859 he lived chiefly in Stuttgart. The best of his longer novels are Handel und Wandel (1850); Eugen Stillfried (1852); and Namenlose Geschichten (1851). His best come- dies are the Geheimer Agent (1850), which has been performed throughout Germany, and translated into several European languages; and Magnetische Curen (1851). HADDAM, one of the county-seats of Middlesex county, Conn., on the west bank of the Connecticut River. It has extensive granite quarries. HADDOCK, a species of codfish. See Britannica, Vols. XI, p. 363; XII, p. 691. HADDON HALL, an old English baronial man- sion, the seat successively of Avenells, Vernons, and the Rutland family. It stands on a slope See overlooking the Wye in Derbyshire, 23 miles north- northwest of Derby. The styles of architecture range from Norman to the 16th century. Reference is made to it in Scott’s Peoeril of the Peak. HADES, the Greek name for the under-world. SegS léritannica, Vols. VIII, p. 536; XX, p. 114; XIV, . 4 . HADROSAURUS, the name given to a very large Dinosaurian of the cretaceous epoch, whose remains have been found in the United States, especially in New Jersey. HAECKEL, ERNsT HEINRIOH, a German natu- ralist, born at Potsdam, Feb. 16, 1834. He studied natural science and medicine at Wiirzburg, Berlin, and Vienna, and soon became distinguished for his enthusiasm and originality in zoblogical studies. After working for a time at Naples and Messina, he became a privatdocent in the University of Jena in 1861, a professor extraordinarius in 1862, and an ordinary professor of zoblogy in 1865. In this posi- tion he has remained, working indefatigably in his zoblogical institute, and by his lectures renderin the University a very famous school for biologica science. Haeckel has devoted his life to applying the doctrine of evolution, and has brought forward many interesting facts in support of the theory. The most important of his numerous systematic works are : Die Radiolarien (1862) ; Die K alkschwd mm (1872); System der Medusen (1879); and his contri- butions to the Challenger Reports on Dee -Sea Me- dusa (1882); Siphonophora (1888); and adiolaria (1887). Among general works may be noted Generelle Morphologie (2 vols., 1866) ; and Perigenesie of the Plastidules (1876). His most important ex- pository works are his Natural History of Creation (Natilrliche Schiipfungsgeschichte (1868); The Evolu- tion of Man (Anthropogenic (1874); and lectures on development and evolution, Gesammelte Populoire Vortréige auf dem Gebiete der Entwiclcelungslehre (1878-79). HZEHNEL, ERNST JULIUS, a German sculptor, born at Dresden in 1811. He studied architecture. but in 1830 he went to Munich and became a sculptor. Being recalled to his native city in 1838, he made many sculptures for the new theater there. Among these are the statues of Sophocles, Aristophanes, Moliere and Shakespeare, and s. bas-relief of Bacchus. Afterwards he prepared a statue of Beethoven, now in Bonn; a statue of Charles V, for the University in Prague; and for the new museum at Dresden he made six statues: Alexander the Great, Lysippus, Michel Angelo, Dante, Raphael, and Peter von Cornelius. After 1858 he made statues of the four Evangelists for the cathedral tower in Dresden, an equestrian statue of Prince Schwartzenberg for Vienna; a bronze statue of Leibnitz for Lei zig; and many other statues for his native city. aehnel has been a member of the academy at Dresden since 1842, and a professor since 1848. HJEMATEMESIS (Gr. haima, “blood,” and eme- sis. “vomiting”), the ejection of blood from the stomach by vomiting. Its most common causes are gastric ulcer, congestion of the stomach or the neighborin portions of the alimentary canal, and certain con itions of the blood, as in yellow fever, purpura, and sometimes in typhus. HZEIVIATOZOA-—HALE HZEMATOZOA (Gr. haima, “blood,” and zobn, an “animal”), parasites occurring in the blood. See PARASITISM, Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 258-71. HJEMODORACE./E, an order of monocotyledons, consisting of herbaceous plants with fibrous roots and sword-shaped leaves, differing from Iridaceae in habit, and in having the stamens six in number, or, if only three, opposite to the petals. There are about 50 known species, chiefly natives of America, South Africa and Australia. Some of them have beautiful liliaceous flowers. A red color exists in the roots of some; hence the name blood-root has been given to them. In this order are ranked the vellozias, or tree-lilies. HEMOPTYSIS, expectoration of blood. See PHTHIsIs, Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 857. HZERETICO COMBUREN DO, DE, an old writ in English ecclesiastical law for burning a heretic. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 737. HAG HERMANN Aueusr, a Prussian ento- mologist, born in 1817. In 1840 he received a med- ical degree from the University at Kbnigsberg, and later studied in Paris, Berlin and Vienna. He de- voted much attention to entomology, and in 1834 published a paper on Prussian Odontata. For some time from 1843 he practiced medicine at Konigs-- berg, and for three years was the first assistant at the surgical hospital. From 1863 to 1867 he was vice-president of the city council. In 1870 he was made professor of entomology at Harvard Uni- versity, Cambridge, Mass. He has written up- wards of four hundred articles on scientific sub- jects. HAGERSTOVVN, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Md. It lies in the fertile Cumberland valley, 86 miles west of Baltimore. It is the terminus of the Shenandoah Valley Railroad and of a branch of the Baltimore and Ohio system. The Cumberland Valley Railroad and the Western Maryland Railroad run through the town. Hagers- town has a fine court-house, a jail, and an academy of music; also a free library, public water works, banks, hotels, churches, seminaries and public schools. Several newspapers are published here. This town is a local center of high social refine- ment, the population being mostly of American birth, many of German descent. The chief manu- factures are furniture, wheels, doors, sashes, cast- ings, farm tools, brooms, cigars and fertilizers. Population in 1890, 11,698. See Britannica, Vol. Xl, . 370. P HAGGAI. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 370; Vol. XIII, p. 418. HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER, English novelist, born at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk, June 22, 1856, and ed- ucated at Ipswich Grammar School. At the age of nineteen he accompanied Sir Henry Bulwer to Natal as his private secretary, and subsequently served in a similar capacity under Sir Theophilus Shepstone, commissioner to the Transvaal. On his return to England he settled down to a literary life. He published Cetewayo and His White Neigh- bors (1882); Dawn (1884); and The Witch’s Head (1885). The publication of King Solomon’s Mines (1886) won for him great popularity, which was further increased by the appearance of She in 1887. Jess, Allan Quartermain, Maiwa’s Revenge, Mr. Mee- son’s Will, Cleopatra, Allan’s Wife, and Eric Bright- eyes, are among Mr. Haggard’s recent writings. HAHN-HAHN, IDA MARIA LOUISA FREDERIKA GUSTAVA, CoUNTEss, a German author, born at Tressow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, June 22, 1805, died at Mainz, Jan. 12, 1880. At the age of twenty-one she married a relative; was divorced three years later, and subsequently traveled much in Europe and the East. In 1850 she em- 809 braced Roman Catholicism, and two years later entered a convent at Angers. The best known of her novels are Grdfin Faustine, Ulrich and Clelia Conti. Her later writings were on religious sub- 'ects. HAIMHALDARE, an old Scotch law term meaning to recover one’s goods and bring them home again—now disused. HAIMURA (Erythrinus macrodon), a large fresh- water fish of Guiana. It measures from 31/2 to 4 feet in length; its flesh is well flavored, and at times it forms the principal article of food with the Indians. It is very voracious. The jaws are pow- erful, and the teeth are large and can inflict serious wounds. HAIR GRASS (Aira), a genus of grasses having delicately panicled inflorescences, bearing spikelets with two unequal glumes and two perfect flowers, each with two thin membranous bracts, of which the outer is generally awned. The species are na- tives of temperate and cold climates. Five species are natives of Britain, and are chiefly found in sit- uations‘ where the soil is unfertile. The tufted hair-grass, or tufted grass (A. ceespitosa), common in better pastures and meadows, is a beautiful grass when in flower. It attains a height of 2 to 4 feet, and is sometimes used for thatching ricks of hay or corn. It grows luxuriantly in moist situ- ations, and indicates a badly drained soil. This grass is sometimes sown to form cover for game, particularly hares. HAIR-POIVDER, a pure white powder made from pulverized starch, scented with violet or some other perfume, and in the 17th and 18th centuries largely used in England for powdering over the head. The fashion became universal among the higher and middle classes, and by ladies as well as gentlemen. To make the powder hold, the hair was usually greased with pomade, and accordingly the fashion was extremely troublesome. An act of Parliament fixed that the powder should be made from starch alone, and on November 20, 1746, fifty- one barbers were fined £20 each for keeping hair- powder not made fnom starch. In 1795 a tax was put on hair-powder, and it was not repealed until 1869. At the time of its abolition it was paid by about 800 persons, and yielded a revenue of about £1,000 a year. HAIR-TAIL, a long thin sea-fish. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 377. HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN (1812-80), an American naturalist. From 1837 to 1842 he was engaged on the Pennsylvania geological survey, and during that time prepared five annual reports. In 1842-43 he was engaged in delivering lectures on zoology at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, and in 1851 was made professor of natural sciences in the University of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he be- came professor in Delaware College. From 1869 to his death he was professor of comparative philology in the University of Pennsylvania. Besides many articles on philology, conchology, entomology, geology, chemistry, and palaeontology,he published Fresh-Water Unioaloe Mollusca of the United States (1840); Zoiilogical Contributions (1842); Elements of Latin Pronunciation (1851) ; Tours of a Chess Knight (1865) ; Aflires in their Origin and Application (1865); Rhymes of the Poets (1868) ; Pennsylvania Dutch (1872); Outlines of Etymology (1877); and VVord- Building (1881). HALE, BENJAMIN (1797-1863), an American edu- cator. In 1822 he was licensed to preach as a Con- gregationalist, and in 1823 became tutor in Bow- oin, but subsequently became principal of the Gardiner Lyceum. From 1827 to 1835 he was pro- , fessor of chemistry and mineralogy at Dartmouth: 810 from 1836 to 1858 he was president of Hobart Col- lege, Geneva, N. Y., resigning in the latter year on account of feeble health. He wrote Introduction to the Mechanical Principles of Carpentry (1827); and Scriptural Illustrations of the Liturgy (1835). HALE, EDWARD EVERETT, an American author and Unitarian divine, born in 182.2. He was licensed to preach in 1842; from 1846 to 1856 was pastor of the Church of the Unity in VVorcester, Mass., whence he was called to the South Congre- gational (Unitarian) church in Boston. He has been a constant contributor to periodical liter- ature, and has edited the Boston “ Daily Adver- tiser,” the “Sunday-School Gazette,” the “Christ- ian Advertiser,” the “Old and New,” and the “Lend a Hand ;” a Record of Progress and Journal of Or- ganized Charity. Besides numerous other writings he has published The Rosary (1848) ; Margaret Per- cival in America (1850) ; Sketches of Christian His- tory (1850); Letters on Irish Emigration (1852); If, Yes, and Perhaps (1868); Ten Times One is Ten (1870); Our New Crusade (1875); and The Kingdom of God (1880). HALE, EUGENE, a United States Senator, born in 1836. He was admitted to the bar in 1857; was for nine successive years county attorney for Hancock county, Maine; was a member of the State legislature in 1867, 1868 and 1880; and was a member of the 41st, 42d, 43d, 44th, and 45th Con- gresses. He was elected to the United States Senate as a Republican; took his seat March 4, 1881, and was reélected in 1887. His term of ser- vice expires March 3, 1893. HALE, Jonx PARKER (1806-73), an American statesman. He was admitted to the bar in 1830, and in 1832 was elected to the New Hampshire leg- islature. From 1834 to 1841 he was United States district attorney, and from 1843 to 1845 was a mem- ber of Congress. In 1847 and again in 1855 he was United States Senator, and in 1865 was minister to Spain. In 1852 he was the Free-soil party’s candi- date for President, and received 157,685 votes. HALE, NATHAN (1755-76), an American soldier. He graduated at Yale in 17 73,and then taught school in East Haddam, and later in New London, Conn. At the beginning of the Revolutionary war he en- listed as a volunteer, and became a lieutenant in Col. Charles Webb’s regiment. In January, 1776, he was made a captain, and a little later held a similar post in a company in the “Connecticut Rangers.” On Gen. Washington’s call for a volun- teer to enter the British lines and procure intelli- gence Capt. Hale responded, and disguised as a schoolmaster and loyalist, he visited all the British camps in New York and on Long Island. He ob- tained the needed information, but when about to return he was arrested and condemned to be ex- ecuted before sunrise on the next morning. The ex- ecution took place in C01. Henry Rutgers’ orchard, near the junction of East Broadway and Market Street, New York city. Capt. Hale’s last words were: “I only regret thatl have but one life to lose for my country.” HALE, NATHAN (1784-1863), an American journal- ist. He was admitted to the Connecticut bar in 1810, and in 1814 became an editor of the “Boston \Veekly Messenger.” The same year he purchased the “Boston Daily Advertiser,” and continued as its chief editor until his death. He was a founder of the “ North American Review” in 1815, and of the “Christian Examiner” in 1828, and in 1840 he edited and published the “Monthly Chronicle.” For nineteen years he was president of the Bos- ton and 1Vorcester Railroad, and in 1846 was chairman of the commission for introducing water into the city. He was at various times . HALE--IIALEVY a mefnber of the legislature, and held impor- tant oflices in various literary organizations. He published Journal of Debates and Proceedings in the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention (1821), besides numerous pamphlets on public improve- ments. HALE, SARAII J OSEPHA (BUELL) (1788-1879), an American authoress. From 1828 to 1887 she edited the Boston “ Ladies’ Magazine,” and when this peri- odical was united with “ Godey’s Lady’s Book,” published in Philadelphia, she became editor of this magazine. In 1877 she retired from editorial work. Mrs. Hale was the author of W oman’s Record, or Sketches of All Distinguished Women from the Creation to the Present Day (1853); Northwood (1827); Sketches of American Character (1880), and a number of other useful and entertaining works in prose and verse. Among her fugitive pieces M'ary’s Lamb is one of the most widely known. Her exertions in behalf of the Bunker Hill Monument Fund, her interest in seamen, in foreign missions, and in the higher edu- cation of women were untiring and effective. For more than twenty years she advocated the keeping of Thanksgiving Day as a national festival, to be held on the same day throughout the country, as it has been observed since 1864. HALES, J onn, M. A., “the Ever-memorable,” English divine and critic, born at Bath, April 19., 1584, died at Eton, May 19, 1656. At the age of thir- teen he entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, obtained a fellowship at Merton College in 1605, and in 1612 became professor of Greek in his Univer- sity. In 1618 he went to the Hague as cha lainn to the ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, for w om he made a report of the proceedings at the famous Synod of Dort. He was there converted to Armin- ianism, and was subsequently appointed to a can- onry at "Windsor. The Puritan supremacy deprived him of this oflice and reduced him to poverty. Hales was one of the oldest of what is now called the Broad Church school—a rare example of a pro- found student without pedantry, a ripe theologian with an altogether untheological clearness of mind and directness of phrase. His writings were col- lected and published as the Golden Remaines of the Ever-memorable Mr. John Hales, of Eton College (1659 ). HALEVY, JOSEPH, a French orientalist, born at Adrianople, Turkey, in 1827. He studied the Sem- itic languages, and afterwards taught Hebrew in Adrianople and Bucharest. He became widely known through his Hebrew poems. The Alliance Israelite Universelle commissioned him in 1868 to ex- amine the condition of the Fallashas of Abyssinia, which he did. His report attracted much atten- tion. In 1869 the French government sent him to the southwestern part of Arabia, called Yemen (Ara- bia Felix of the Romans), to explore it archaeolog- ically. Here he deciphered 68 inscriptions. He has published several volumes on oriental antiquities and epigraphy. HALEVY, LEoN, a French poet and dramatist of Jewish extraction,born at Paris, in 1802, died at St.- Germain-en-Laye, Sept. 3, 1883. He was educated at the Charlemagne Lyceum, where he became a proficient Greek scholar. Afterward he was a fol- lower of Saint-Simon; assisted the latter in found- ing “Le Producteur ;” issued the Poésies Européennes; wrote a Résumé de l’I-Iistoire des Juifs; and in 1888 the Histoire Résume’ de la Litérature Frangaise. From 1838‘ to 1853 he was employed in the bureau of his- toric monuments in the department of public in- struction. In 1855 he published the Fables Nouvel- les, and in 1861 finished La Gréce Tragigue. Besides he published numerous poems, novels, tales, and translations from ancient and modern languages. His dramatic works cover a wide field. They in- HALEVY—HALL clude the tra edies Le Czar Demetrius, and Electra, the comedy e Duel, and many dramas. HALEVY, Lunovro, born at Paris, Jan. 1, 1884, and in 1861 became secretary to the Corps Lég- islatif. He first became known as the writer of the librettos to Oifenbach’s burlesques: Orphée aux Enfers (1861);La Belle Helene (1865); La Vie Parisienne (1866); La Grande-duchesse cle Gérolstein (1867); Les Brigands (1870). He wrote, besides, a. large number of vaudevilles and comedies, among them La Périchole (1868); Frou-frou (1869 ) ; Tri- coche et Cacolet (1872); La Petite Mere (1880). His Madame et Monsieur Cardinal (1878) and Les Petits Cardinal (1880) are humorous sketches of Parisian theatrical life. In 1882 he published the charming idyllic story, L’Abbe Constantine, which was followed by Criquette and Demo Mariages in 1888. Halévy was admitted to the Academy in 1886. In many of his plays he had the collaboration of H. Meilhac. HALF-BLOOD, related through one parent only. When two persons have the same father, but not the same mother, they are called brothers or sisters consanguinean; when they have the same mother only, they are called brothers and sisters uterine. HALFORD, SIR HENRY, an English physician, born at Leicester, Oct. 2, 1766, died in London, March 9, 1844. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, took his degree of M. D. in 1791, and three years later settled in Lendon, where he became very pop- ular. He was made a baronet in 1809, and was court-physician throughout the greater part of his career. Author of Essays and Orations (1881); The Death of Some Eminent Persons (1835); and Nugw M'etricze (1842). HALF—PAY, an allowance given in the British army and navy to commissioned ofiicers who are not actively employed, and corresponds to the French clemi-solde. In the navy officers are ap- pointed to a ship to serve for the period during which she is in commission. At the end of that period, or if promoted or otherwise removed from her, they are placed on half-pay until again called upon to serve. In the army permanent half-pay, first granted in 1698, was abolished in 1884, retired pay being substituted for it. Under the provisions of the ro al warrant of 1887 lieutenant-colonels who have hel command for four years are placed on temporary half-pay (11 s. a day) until promoted. Majors of seven years’ regimental or five years’ stafl‘ service in that rank may claim promotion to half- pay lieutenant-colonelcies ; and these or any ofificers of lower rank may be placed on the half-pay of their rank while incapacitated through illness, or as a punishment for inefficiency. Seconded ofiicers are those who are extra-regimentally employed, but whose names remain on the rolls of their regiments, additional ofiicers being appointed in their places. On the termination of such employment they are absorbed into the regiment as soon as vacancies occur in their proper rank. Ofilcers on retired pay are liable to be called upon to serve in case of na- tional peril or great emergency. ALL, ASAPH, an American astronomer, born in 1829. From 1857 to 1862 he was assistant in the Ob- servatory of Harvard University, and then became aid in the United States Naval Observatory in VVashington. He has been connected with all the important astronomical expeditions sent out under the United States Government since 1868, and has won great distinction by his discovery of the moons of Mars, which he named Deimos and Phobos (Ter- ror and Fear). Prof. Hall is a member of numerous Scientific societies, both in this country and in Europe. HALL, DARWIN S., an American Congressman, born in 1844. In 1866 he settled in Minnesota, and 811 in 1869 and 1871 was elected county auditor of Ren- ville county. He edited the Renville " Times” for several years, and was clerk of the district court in 1878 and 1877. In 1876 he was elected to the legisla- ture;was appointed register of the United States land office at Benson in 1878 and 1882, and was chosen to the State Senate in 1886 for a term of four years. He was elected to the 51st Congress as a Republican. HALL, DOMINICK AUGUSTINE (1765-1820), an American jurist. He was district judge of Orleans Territory from 1809 to 1812, and, when Louisiana was admitted to the Union, became one of its United States judges. He remained in the United States court until his death. HALL, J AMES, an American palaeontologist, born in 1811. From 1882 to 1886 he was assistant professor of chemistry and natural sciences at the Rensselaer polytechnic institute, and then became professor of geology. In the same year he was appointed assistant geologist of the geological survey of New York, and in 1887 was made State geologist in charge of the fourth district. He made his full re- port on the survey in 1848, and was then placed in charge of the palaeontological work. In 1855 he was State geologist of Iowa, and in 1857 of Wisconsin. In 1866 he was appointed director of the New York State museum, still retaining the office of State geologist. He has written numerous important reports on geological and palaeontological subjects. HALL, J OHN, an Irish-American Presbyterian clergyman, born in 1829. He was licensed to preach in 1849, and engaged in missionary labor in the west of Ireland. In 1852 he became pastor of the First Presbyterian church at Armagh, and in 1858 of St. Mary’s, Dublin. In 1867 he visited the United States as a delegate from the general assem- bly of the Presbyterian church in Ireland to the Presbyterian churches in the United States, and the same year was summoned to take charge of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian church in New York. For several years he was chancellor of the University of the City of New York, resigning in 1891 because of the pressure of other duties. He is the author of Family Prayersfor Four Weeks (1868) ; Papers for Home Reading (1871); Familiar Talk to Boys (1878) ; Questions of the Day (1878); Foundation Stone for Young Builders (1880); and A Christian I-Iome; How to Make and How to Maintain It (1888). HALL, LYMAN (1725-90), a Signer of the Declara- tion of Independence. In 1752 he settled in Sun- bury, Ga., and acquired a large medical practice. He was amember of Congress from 1775 to 1780, and governor of Georgia in 1788. He was a mem- ber of the pre-Revolutionary conventions held in Savannah in 177-1 and 1775. HALL, NEWMAN, an English clergyman,born in 1816. From 1842 to 1854 he was pastor of the Al- bion Congregational church in Hull, and then went to London to take charge of Surrey Chapel, Blackfriar’s road. I11 1867 and again in 1878 he visited the United States,lecturing in the principal cities. Dr. Hall’s publications include: The Christ- ian Philosopher (1849) ; Italy, the Land of the Forum and the Vatican (1858); Lectures in America (1868); Sermons and I-Iisiory of Surrey Chapel (1868); From Lirerpoolto St. Louis (1869); Prayer, its Reasonable- ness and Efiicaey (1875); The Lord’s Prayer (1888); and Songs ofEarth and Heaven (1885). HALL, SAMUEL CARTER, author and editor, born at Geneva Barracks, County \Vaterford, Ireland, May 9, 1800, died March 16,1889. In 1822 he went to London, studied law, and became a reporter for the “New Times.” In 1825 he established the “Amulet,” which he edited for several years; after- wards succeeded the poet Campbell as editor of the SH “New Monthly Magazine.” and did other journal- istic work before founding the “Art Journal,” which he edited from 1839 till 1880. He was an industrious worker and skillful compiler, the joint works writ- ten and edited by Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall exceed- ing 500 volumes. Among these were: Ireland (1841-43); The Book of Gems; British Ballads, one of the fine-art books of the century; and Baronial Halls. In 1880 he received a civil-list pension of £150 a year. HALL, S. C., MRS.,(ANNA MARIA FIELDINGJ an Irish author, born in Dublin Jan. 6, 1805, died Jan. 31, 1881. At fifteen years of age she went to Lon- don, where her education was completed, and in 1824 married Samuel Carter Hall, whom she as- sisted in many of his works. She established a rep- utation of her own by her Sketches of Irish Charac- ter (1828); Uncle Horace (1837); Lights and Shadows of Irish Character (1838) ; Marian (1839) ; Midsaninier Eve (1843); The Whiteboy (1845); and numerous shorter stories. She also contributed to the “Art Journal” and other periodicals, edited the “St. James’s Magazine” for a year, and wrote various books for the young. She assisted in the formation of the Governesses’ Benevolent Institution, and the Nightingale fund, the latter resulting in the endowment qf a training-school for nurses. HALL, SIR Jornv B., K. C. M. G., a New Zealand statesman, a member of Parliament since 1856 and premier, 1878-82. He was a member of the Federal conference held in Melbourne, Australia, in Feb., 1890. HALLAMSHIRE, an ancient manor of the West Riding of Yorkshire,with Sheflield for its capital. It now gives name to a parliamentary division. HALLE, SIR CHARLES, pianistiborn in 1819, near Elberfeld, Germany. He studied chiefly in Paris. The revolution of 1848 drove him to London, where he soon came prominently into notice. He sub- sequently settled in Manchester as a classical pianist. Hallé has edited Classical Composers, and has done much for the culture of a high descrip- tion of music. He was knighted in 1888. HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD, F. R. S., an English antiquary and philologist, born at Chelsea in 1820, died at Brighton,Jani 3, 1889. He studied for a time at Cambridge. and in 1839 began his long career as editor and publisher of old Eng- lish authors and manuscript texts. His earlier work embraced plays, ballads, popular rhymes and folklore, chap-books, and English dialects, but he gradually Shakespeare alone. In 1872 he succeeded to the property of Thomas Phillipps. This wealth he made use of in the accumulation of an unrivaled collection of Shakespearean books, manuscripts, and rarities of every kind, in the entertainment of scholarly visitors, and in gifts of valuable books to Edinburgh University, Stratford, and Birming- ham. Among his works are: Shakespeariana (1841) ; A History of Freemasonr (1842); Dictionary of Provincial and Archaic orcls (1844-45); and Out- lines of the Life of Shakespeare (1848). HALMALILLE (Berrya arnonilla), a tree of the natural order Tiliaoew, closely allied to the linden tree of Europe; a native of Ceylon, valued for its light timber, which is thought to resist the attacks of marine worms. HALORAGIACEE, or HALORAEEE, a natural order of exogenous plants, closely allied to Ona- graceee. There are about seventy known species, erbaceous or half-shrubby, almost all aquatic. The stems and leaves often have large air-cavities; the flowers are enerally small. HALLC ELL, a city of Kennebec county, Me., on the west bank of Kennebec River, two miles south came to concentrate himself upon! HALL—HAMBURG of Augusta. Cotton goods, oil-cloth, carriages, soap and candles are manufactured, and in former times ship-building was carried on. Granite of a superior quality is quarried. HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD, a criminal lawyer of England, born in 1825. He be- came a queen’s counsel in 1865. As such he was engaged in most of the celebrated criminal trials of his time, including the Overend, Gurney and Tichborne cases. In 1875-80 he was solicitor-gen- eral. On the accession to oflice of the Salisbury government in 1885 he was made lord chancellor of England. This is a remarkable exception to the rule of the English bar—that no criminal practi- tioner ever reaches the woolsack. HAMBURG, FREE CITY AND STATE or, a repub- lic, constituting a part of the German empire. For its history, government and earlier statistics, see Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 404-50. The State reported in the census of Dec. 1, 1885, area of 160 square miles, and a population of 518,620. Included in the census returns were two battalions of Prussian soldiers, forming the gar- rison of Hamburg. The State consists of three divisions, the population of each of which was as follows on Dec. 1, 1885: City of Hamburg, with suburb, 305,690 (estimate for 1888, 315,033); 15 ru- ral districts (Vororte), 165,737 (estimate for 1888, 201,057) ; Cuxhave;n, Rit/zebiittel, etc., 47,193. In the four years from 1867 to 1871 the population of the State increased at the rate of 2.51 per cent. per annum; from 1871 to 1875 at the rate of 3.41; 1875-80 at 3.10, and in 1880-85 at 2.66 per cent. yearly. A large stream of emigration, chiefly to America, flows through Hamburg. Of the popula- tion in 1885, 252,853 were males and 265,767 females, i. e., 105.1 females per 100 males. There were 13,563 foreigners resident in Hamburg in 1885; of these 3,060 wer_e.Austrians, 2,403 Swedish and Norwegians, 1,825 Danes, 1,735 British, 2,674 other Europeans, 1,531 non-Europeans, and 335 unclassified. The jurisdiction of the Free Port was on Jan. 1, 1882, restricted to the city and port by the in- clusion of the Lower Elbe in the Zollverein; and on Get. 15,1888, the whole of the city, except the actual port and the warehouses connected with it (population 152 ,in 1885), was incorporated in the Zollverein. The alterations in the port necessi- tated by this step have involved an expenditure of six millions sterling, to which the imperial gov» ernment contributes two millions. The following table shows the number of emi- grants for 1885 to 1889, inclusive,via Hamburg: From Ham- Bound for the Year‘ burg itself. Total‘ United States. 1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,868 69,403 63,966 1886 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,450 88,633 83,504 1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,632 71,007 66,545 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,821 88,737 83,615 1889 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,393 74,343 68,481 Hamburg is the principal port of Germany. In 1889 the number of ships which entered the port was 8,079, with a tonnage of 4,819,892. The public debt of Hamburg Jan. 1, 1890, was 236,767,784 marks. HAMBURG, a village and railroad junction of Fremont county, Ia., situated near the Missouri River, 12 miles from Nebraska City. It has flour mills and a foundry. HAMBURG, a post-borough of Berks county, Pa., L at the foot of Blue Mountain and on the east bank HAMERTON-—HAMLIN of the Schuylkill River. It has a rolling-mill, foundries, tanneries and steam mills, and several German weekly newspapers are published here. HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT, an English au- thor, born at Laneside, near Shaw, in Lancashire, Sept. 10, 1834. He began his career as an art-critic by contributing to the “Fine Arts Quarterly,” the “Fortnightly” and the “ Saturday Review.” Since 1869 he has edited the “ Portfolio,” an art journal which gives special prominence to etchings. Author of Isles of Loch Awe. poems (1855); A Painter’s Camp in the Highlands (1862); Thoughts About Art (1862); Etching and Etchers (1866); Contemporary French Painters (1867); Wenderholme, a novel (1869) ; The Unknown River (1870) ; The Intel- lectual Life (1873); The Life of Turner (1878); The Graphic Arts (1882); Landscape (1885); and French and English (1889). HAMILTON, a city of Hancock county, Ill., op- posite Keokuk, 1a., on the Mississippi River, and at the foot of Des Moines Rapids. It is in an excellent fruit region, has abundant water-power, and several manufactories. HAMILTON, a post-village of Caldwell county, Mo., 50 miles east of St. Joseph. It has machine shops, flouring-mills, and is a shipping point for grain, cattle, horses and hogs. HAMILTON, a city and capital of Butler county, Ohio, located on both sides of the Miami River. In 1890 more than 800 new houses were completed, with nearly as many more in process of construc- tion. The city controls and operates its own gas and water works, and there is a private gas and electric company. Street cars traverse the princi- pal streets. North of the city the river is turned from its channel into an immense reservoir, which feeds a system of hydraulics, and gives fine power to the factories. The city is connected by four railroads with all parts of the country. There are several national and other banks. The public schools are of a high order, and occupy fine build- ings. There is a free library and charitable insti- tutions, such as a children’s home and the county infirmary. The county court-house, completed in 1890, is a noble edifice, which cost $30 000. Green- Wood cemetery, with its beautiful lak , is well sit- uated. Safe and lock works, stove foundry, buggy factory, carriage factory, Corliss engine works, canning-factory, a hosiery mill, autographic regis- ter factory, shop for making laundry machinery, and many others have been established during the last year. The Niles tool shop is well equipped, and the Hamilton tile factory is on a large scale. There are woolen mills, fiouring-mills and six paper mills. Population in 1880, 11,000; 1890, 17,519. HAMILTON COLLEGE. See Comnens, in these Revisions and Additions. HAMILTON, FRANK HAsTiives (1813-86), an American surgeon. He was licensed to practice medicire in 1833; was chosen professor of surgery in the Western College of Physicians and Surgeons, in Fairfield, N. Y., in 1839; and in 1840 was called’ to the Medical College in Geneva, N. Y. In 1846 he became professor of the Buffalo Medical College, and in 1859 was elected to fill the chair of principles and practice of surgery in the Long Island College hospital. From 1861 to 1863 he served as surgeon in the army, and attained the rank of lieutenant- eolonel. From 1868 to 1875 he was professor of surgery in the Bellevue Hospital Medical College, and was surgeon to the hospital from 1863 to his death. Besi es numerous contributions to medical journals, Dr. Hamilton wrote Treatise on Stralrismus (184-l); Treatise on Fractures and Dislocations (1860): Practical Treatise on Milz'tary Surgery (1861); and The Principles and Practice of Surgery (1872). S13 HAMILTON, JAMES (1786-1857), an American statesman. He was admitted to the bar; practiced in Charleston, S. C.; served in the war of 1812 as a major; and for several years was mayor of Charles- ton. He was several times a member of the legis- lature, and from 1822 to 1829 was a member of Con- gress. Subsequently he removed to Texas, and at the time of his death was a United States Senator- elect from that State. HAMILTON, JAMES (1819-78), an American ar- tist. He was born in Ireland, emigrated to Phila- delphia, Pa., and in 1856 began furnishing illustra- tions for books. He illustrated Dr. Kane’s Arctic Explorations, the Arabian Nights, the Ancient Mari- ner, and other popular works. Among his pictures are Capture of the Serapis, Old Ironsides, Wrecked Hopes, Egyptian Sunset, Morning Of Atlantic City, and Moonlight Scene Near Venice. HAMILTON, JOHN CHURCH (1792—1882). an Amer- ican lawyer, son of Alexander Hamilton. He prec- ticed law for a time in New York city, alnd in 1814 joined the United States Army, but resigned the same year. During his active service he was aid- de-camp to Gen. VV. H. Harrison. He wrote Mem- <{t'/71_~s if Alexander Hamilton, and edited his father’s I or ‘s. HAMILTON, Loan GEORGE FRANCIS, an English statesman, born at Brighton in 1845. In 1868, and again in 1874, he was elected to Parliament; became under-secretary for India, and 4 years later suc- ceeded Lord Sandon as vice-president of the Com- mittee of Council on education. In 1885 Lord Salisbury nominated him first lord of the admi- ralty, which office he holds also under Salisbury’s present administration. Lord George is a powerful political speaker. HAMILTON, SCHUYLER, an American soldier, son of John Church, born in 1822. He entered the United States Army in 1841: served on the plains; was assistant instructor at lVest Point; distin- guished himself several times during the Mexican war, (1 from 1847 to 1854 was aid-de-camp to Gen. infield Scott. In 1861,he volunteered as a private in the 7th New York regiment; acted as military secretary to Gen. Scott; was commis- sioned brigadier-general of volunteers; partici- pated in several important undertakings, and was made major-general in September, 1862. On account of feeble health he resigned in 1863. He published a History Qf the National Flag of the United States (1852). J» HAMLEY, GENERAL SIR EDWARD BRUCE, K. C. B., K. C. M. G., M. P., born in 1824. He served throughout the Crimean war, and in the Egyptian campaign (1882); was commandant of the Stafl' College 1870-77, and has held other important posi- tions. He has received the Crimean medal with four clasps, the Egyptian war medal, and eight other decorations. In 1854 he produced a charming tale called Lady Lee’s Widowhood. His Operations of War, of which several editions have appeared, is a recognized text-book for military examina- tions. He has written several other books and pamphlets on various subjects. In 1890 The War in the Crimea appeared from his pen. He has rep- resented Birkenhead in Parliament since 1885. HAMLIN, HANNIBAL, an American statesman. born in 1809. He was admitted to the Maine bar in 1833, and from 1836 to 1840, and again in 1847. was a member of the legislature. In 1842 he was elected to Congress. and reélected in 1844. In 1848 he was elected United States Senator, but resigned in 1857 to be inaugurated governor. Less than a. month later, however, he resigned the governor- ship to accept a full term in the United States Sen- ate. He held this last position until 1861, when he 4 814 again resigned and became Vice-President with Mr. Lincoln. His term expired in 1865. Mr. Ham- lin was United States Senator from Maine from 1875 to 1881. He died in 1891. . HAMLINE, LEONIDAS LENT ( 1797 - 1867), an American M. E. bishop. For several years he prac- ticed law at the Ohio bar, and in 1828 was united with the M. E. church. Shortly afterward he was licensed to preach, and in 1834 was stationed at Wesley Chapel, Cincinnati. In 1836 he became assistant editor of the “VVestern Christian Advo- cate,” and in 1841 became editor of the “ Ladies’ Repository.” In 1844 he was elected bishop. He re- signed the oflice in 1852, and, by his own request, was placed on the list of superannuated preachers of the Ohio Conference. HAMMER-BEAM, a portion of an open timber roof, forming a truss at the foot of the rafter, which gives strength and elegance to the construction. HAMMER-CLOTH, a cloth which covers the driver’s seat in some carriages. HAMMOND, a railroad center of Lake county, Ind., 20 miles from Chicago. It has large steel works and an extensive slaughter-house. HAMMOND, JAMES HENRY (1807-1864), a United States statesman. He was admitted to the bar in 1828, and in 1830 became editor of the “Southern Times,” published at Columbia, S. C. In 1835-36 he was a member of Congress, and from 1842 to 1844 was governor of South Carolina. From 1857 to 1860 he was a United States Senator, retiring on the secession of South Carolina. HA3/IMOND, SAMUEL (1757-1842), an American soldier. He served in the Indian wars of the American colonies, and in the Revolution was pres- ent at the battle of Stone Ferry, S. C., at the siege of Savannah, at Blackstocks, at the siege of Au- gusta, and at the battles of King’s ll/Iountain, Cow- pens and Eutah. He was twice wounded, and at- tained the rank of colonel of cavalry. After the war he was appointed surveyor-general of Georgia, and from 1803 to 1805 was a Democrat in Congress. From 1805 to 1824 he was military and civil com- mandant of Upper Louisiana, and from 1831 to 1835 Secretary of State. HAMMOND, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, an American physician, born in 1828. He entered the United States Army in 1849 as assistant surgeon, and in 1860 accepted a professorship of anatomy and physiology in the University of Maryland. At the beginning of the civil war he again entered the army, and in 1862 was appointed surgeon-general. In 1867 he became a professor in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, and then a member of the faculty of the University of the City of New York medical department. In 1882 he lectured on diseases of the nervous system in the New York Post-Graduate Medical School. Among his published works are Physiological Memoirs (1863); a Treatise on Hygiene, with special reference to the military service (1863); Sleep and Its Derangernents (1869); Diseases of the Nervous System (1871); Lal (1884); A Strong- Minded Woman (1885); On The Susquehanna (1887). HAIWIMONTON, a village of Atlantic county, N. J., on the Camden and Atlantic and the Philadel- phia and Atlantic City railroads, half way between Philadelphia, Pa., and Atlantic City, N. J. Much fruit is grown here, and the village has manufac- tories of boots and shoes. HAMPDEN-SIDNEY COLLEGE. See CoLLEeEs, in these Revisions and Additions. HAMPTON, a village of Franklin county, Iowa, situated on the Central Railroad of Iowa, 29 miles south of Mason City. It is the county-town, and contains a court-house, several churches, and a high school. HAMLINE—-HANDS HAMPTON, the county-seat of Elizabeth City county, Va., two miles from Fortress Monroe. The principal trade is in oysters, fish, and garden prod- uce. The village contains a famous normal and agricultural school, organized in 1868, for Indians and colored youth. A national cemetery is here, and an asylum for disabled soldiers. The small harbor opens into Hampton Roads. HAMPTON ROADS, the deep, broad channel opening from Chesapeake Bay into the James River. It was the scene of important operations during the civil war. HAMPTON, WADE (1754-1835), an American soldier. He served with distinction in the Revolu- tionary war; was a member of Congress from 1795 to 1797 and from 1803 to 1805, and in the war of 1812 was a major-general. At the time of his death he was the wealthiest planter in the United States, and the owner of 3,000 slaves. HAMPTON, WADE (1791-1858), an American sol- dier, son of the preceding. He was a lieutenant of dragoons in 1813, and acting inspector-general and aid-de-camp to Gen. Jackson at New Orleans in 1815. He succeeded to his father’s estate. HAMPTON, WADE, a United States Senator, born in 1818. He served in both branches of the South Carolina legislature; was a member of the Senate when the State seceded; was a member of the Confederate army during the war; was elected Governor of the State in 1876; and again in 1878, and was chosen to the United States Senate in December, 1878. He took his seat in 1879, and in 1884 was re-elected. His term of service ex- pired March 3, 1891. HANCHINOL (Heimia salicifolia), a Mexican plant of the natural order Lythaceze, with lanceo- late leaves, and flowers on one-flowered stalks. It is esteemed as a medicine. HANCOCK, a village of Houghton county, Mich., situated on Portage Lake, opposite Houghton. It is connected with Lake Superior by a ship-canal, is a terminus of the Mineral Range railroad, and de- rives prosperity from its location in the copper re- gion. The village contains several smelting-fur- naces and stamping-mills. HANCOCK, W INFIELD SooTT (1824-86), an American soldier. See under UNITED STATES, Bri- tannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 789. HANDFASTING (in Old English, merely “ be- trothal ;” A.-S. handfeestan, “to pledge one’s hand”), a custom prevalent at one time in Scotland, by which a man and woman entered into conjugal re- lations on the strength of a verbal contract of mar- riage. Persons so handfasted were bound to each other for a twelvemonth and a day, after which they could either separate or be formally married. The custom had its great evils in society; and the clergy, both of the pre-Reformation and the post- Reformation churches, directed many injunctions against it. HAND-GLASSES, useful implements of arden- ing, for the protection of tender plants. T ey are of various kinds; some of them consist of metal frames filled with panes of glass, sometimes large enough to cover tender shrubs. HANDS, IMI>esITIoN or, a ceremony which has been employed in ancient and modern religious use as symbolizing the conferring of certain spirit- ual gifts. In the consecration of Aaron and his sons, they are directed to lay their hands upon the heads of the victims which were to be offered in sac- rifice (Ex. xxix, 10, 15, 19). The gift of the Holy Ghost was imparted by the same ceremony (Acts viii, 17). In the early church the right of impo- sition of hands was employed in the receiving l of catechumens and the reconciliation of penitents; HANDSBORO——HARBORS AND DOCKS It existedl in two forms: the actual laying on of hands, which was called ehirothesia; and the extend- mg of the hand over or towards the person, which was styled chirotonia. In the Roman Catholic church the former is retained as an essential part of the sacraments of confirmation and holy orders; the latter is employed in the administration of the priestly absolution. The rite of imposition of hands is used in the Episcopalian and Presbyte- rian churches in the ordination of ministers. HANDSBORO, a small village and summer re- sort of Harrison county, Miss, one mile north of the Gulf of Mexico, on Bayou Bernard. It has saw mills, machine shop, carriage shop, and a ship- ard. HAN DSELL, sometimes used to denote earnest money, or part payment, by way of binding a bar- gain. In Scotland it popularly signifies a first transaction in trade, as the first sale effected in the da or week. HA1 D-TREE (Cheirostemon plantanoides), a large tree of the natural order Sterculiacezr. The flowers have no corolla, but a large five-lobed, angular, colored calyx—bright red within—from which pro- ject the five stamens, united by their filaments into a column, and separating and curving at the summit, where they bear the anthers, so as to have some resemblance to a hand or claw. It is related to the famous baobab, or monkey-bread tree (Adan- soma digitata) of Senegal, Guiana, and other coun- tries of the west coast of Africa. HANGED, DRAVVN AND QUARTERED, the capital sentence executed in the Middle Ages on a traitor. The executioner sometimes mercifully de- layed the cutting down and mangling of the body till the sufferer was dead. HANNIBAL, a city of Marion county, Mo., on the west bank of the Mississippi River. The popu- lation and business have had a steady and healthy growth during the last decade. It has 8 railroads, being the terminus of 6 trunk lines, which, with competitive river steamers, afford excellent facili- ties for shipping. The city has broad and hand- some streets, well paved, and lighted by electricity. Gas is used chiefly for private lighting. A new elec- tric motor line of street railway recently com- pleted gives rapid transit to residence portions of the city. The water supply is taken from the river two miles above the city, is passed by gravity through a system of filters, and then pumped into . reservoirs. In 1890 the Public sewer was com- pleted, extending to all parts of the city. At that date there were seventeen churches,5 excellent modern school buildings, and a free public library, with 10,000 volumes. There are also several good private schools. The banks are in good condition. Hannibal has a number of factories, such as found- ries, machine shops, lumber mills, flour mills, lime kilns and brick yards. Population in 1890, 12,816. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 4-15. HANOVER, a post-village of Jefierson county, Ind. It contains Hanover College, which is under Presbyterian control. HANOVER, a post-village of Grafton county, N. H., on the Connecticut River. It is the seat of Dagtmouth College, and has considerable lumber tra e. HANOVER, a post-hamlet of York county, Pa., situated in a country abounding in iron ore. The articles manufactured are carriages, cigars, fiavin and leather. HANSBROUGH, HENRY C., a United States Senator from North Dakota; an editor, born in Prairie du Rocher, 111., Jan. 80, 18-18. received a common-school education, removed to California and in 1866 became a printer; was connected with 815 newspapers in San J osé and San Francisco, Cal., Chicago, 111., and Barbaroo, IVis. Removed to Dakota in 1882, and in 1883 established a newspaper in Devil’s Lake. In politics he is a Republican. Served two terms as mayor of Devil’s Lake; was a delegate to the National Republican convention of 1888; was elected to the 51st Congress as the first Representative at large from the State of North Dakota. In 1891 he was elected by the North Dakota legislature to the United States Senate to succeed Gilbert A. Pierce. HANSI,a town of the district of Hissar, in the province of Punjab, India, about 80 miles northwest of Delhi. It was a British cantonment from 1802 down to the mutiny of 1857. Population, 12,656. HARA-KIRI (“ belly-cut ”), a system of ofiicial suicide formerly practiced in Japan, obsolete since 1868. Military men, and persons holding civil ofiices under the government, were bound, when they had committed an offense, to disembowel themselves. This was performed, with elaborate formalities, in the presence of ofiicials and other witnesses. Personal honor having been satisfied by the suicide’s self-inflicted wound, his head was struck off by his second, often a kinsman or friend of gentleman’s rank. This mode of suicide was also resorted to by persons who had suffered unen- durable affront which could not otherwise be satis- fied, the hara-kiri being regarded not only as an‘ honorable expatiation of crime, but as a blotting out of disgrace. HARBAUGH, Hsxnv (1817—67), an American. clergyman of the German Reformed church. He was ordained in 18-18, and sent to Lewisburg, Pa. From 1850 to 1860 he was pastor in Lancaster, Pa., and then went to Lebanon- In 1863 he became professor of theology at the Mercersburg Semi- nary, and occupied this chair until his death. He published lifearen, or the Sainted Dead (1848); Heavenly Recognition (1851); The Lfearenly Home (1853); Union with the ¢'hurch (1853); Birds of the Bible (1851); Life of Rev. Richard Sehlatter (1857); The Fathers of the German Refomned Church (1858); The True Glory of llbman, and a Plea for the Lord’s Portion of a Chrz'stian’s Wealth (1860); The Golden Censer (1860); Hymns and Chants (1861); and Clzristological Theology (186-1). HARBOR GRACE, a port of entry and the sec- ond town of Newfoundland, situated on the west: side of Conception Bay, 81 miles by rail from St. John’s. It has a large but somewhat exposed har- bor with a revolving light, carries on a considera- ble trade, and contains a Roman Catholic cathe- dral and convent. Population 7,054. HARBORS AND DOCKS. ‘We confine ourselves in this article to the harbors of the United States, and divide them under the following heads: (1) The Atlantic Seaboard; (2) the Gulf Coast; (3) the Pacific Coast, and (-1) the Lake Harbors. (1.) THE ATLANTIC Snksoxsn.--Calais, Me, is the eastern- most harbor of the United States. It is the center of a con- siderable lumber trade. At 1\Iark’s point, five miles from the town, there is abar or ledge only eightfeet deep at low water. There is no anchorage in the harbor. Eastport, Me., has a harbor free of ice in winter. There are two entrances to it, but they are not free from danger in stormy weather. Rockland, Me.. has an open harbor five fathoms deep within half a mile of the wharves, and three fathoms to the wharves. But it is often closed by ice in winter. Winter Harbor, Me., is in Frenchman's Bay, and one of the best on the east coast. Penobscot Bay can carry six to fourteen fathoms up to the town of Bucksport, where there is a good anchorage butavery strong current. Bangor, at the head of this bay, has an extensive lumber and ice trade. The bay is closed by ice during winter. Fort Knox, at the narrows of the Penob- scot, defends the harbor. The harbor of Wiscasset, near Bath, Me.. can hardly be sur assed by any. Its de th is nine fathoms 1n the channel of t e river. Bath has t e largest shipbuilding and ship-owning interest in the State of Maine. It is 12 miles up the Kennebec River, which has so strong a . close to the shore. But it is frozen over in winter. .816 current that the ice can seldom close it up. The entrance of the river is defended by Fort Poph-am. Portland, Me.. on a peninsula of the Casco Bay, has a harbor which can carry five fathoms to within half a mile of the wharves and 16 feet up to the wharves. There are four entrances to the harbor, three of them rather crooked and shallow. Only the most southern entrance can be used by large vessels. The harbor is defended by Forts Gorges. Preble, Scammel, and a battery on Portland Head. Portland has a large foreign and coast- ing trade, and is the principal shipping port for Canada dur- ing the winter, as the harbor is always free of ice. Richmond Island harbor, near Portland, has agood anchorage of five fathoms’ depth, and can easily be entered when vessels can- not get into Portland. _ Portsmouth Harbor, N. H.. has a good anchorage, and six fathoms can be carried up to the city. A U. S. navy-yard is opposite Portsmouth, distant half a mile_. For vessels not going up to the city or navy-yard the usual anchorage is at Pepperell’s Cove in from six to 11 fathoms. Portsmouth harbor is never closed by ice. It is defended by Forts Con- gtitution, McClary and Sullivan, all in a dilapidated con- ition. Newburyport Harbor, Mass., has a bar with only six feet of water at ow tide, but this obstruction is being removed. Rockport harbor, Mass., on the northern shore of Cape Ann is 8 fathoms deep to the wharf. It is the best harbor of refuge in that nei hborhood. In Massa- chusetts Bay, between the hea lands of Cape Ann and Cape Cod, there are several important harbors, those of Gloucester, Salem, Boston, Plymouth and Provincetown. Gloucester harbor has a good anchorage in five fathoms within 600 yards of the shore, and in three and a half 3}%l3h0I%S e 01 y of Gloucester has the largest fishing industry in the United States. Salem harbor can carry three and-a-half fathoms within half amile of the town of Salem. The inner harbor is often closed by ice during January and February. Forts Lee, Pickering and Sewall efend this harbor. The city of Salem has a considerable coasting and ice trade. Boston harbor can carry 21 feet at any tide through the main chan- nel. There are two other channels. It is defended by Forts Warren and Independence. The U. S. navy-yard is situated near Charlestown, opposite the city of Boston. Avery exten- sive foreign and coastwise trade is carried on here, on sec- ond to that of New York. Plymouth harbor is often rozen over, especially the inner harbor. Only 21 feet can be ‘Ear- ried into the outer harbor. Provincetown has one of the fin- est harbors on the Atlantic coast. It has plenty of water, good holding ground, and is easy of access. Exec t during severe winters this harbor is clear of ice. Sandwic harbor, in the southwestern part of Cape Cod Bay is the proposed terminus to the ship-canal from Cape Cod Bay, to the head of Buzzard’s Bay; now it has a narrow and difhcult entrance. New Bedford harbor can carry 16 feet into the inner harbor through a narrow, crooked channel. The outer harbor is an open roadstead with 41/2 fathoms of water. There are forts at C ark’s Point and Fort Point. Newport, R. I.,has a fine harbor with water enough for the largest ships; 19 feet can be carried into the inner harbor; Block Island Basin is an artificial harbor made by the United tates Government for the shelter of small vessels. It is 7 feet dee and protected by a solid stone breakwater. The United tates Torpedo Station is located at New ort harbor. Fort Adams and some earthworks on Dutch Is and defend it. The town of Bristol, R. I., north of Newport, has a good anchorage in5fathoms of water, and off the lower end of the town the anchora e is 21 feet. Twenty-one feet can be carried through a dre ged channel up to Providence. The nearest anchorage, in 5 fathoms, is four and a half miles distant from the city. New London Harbor, Conn., is on Long Island Sound. It is formed by the lower portion of the Thames River and has a depth of 30 feet. Being three miles in length, it is one of the finest harbors in the United States. The entrance is de- fended b Forts Trumbull and Griswold. New Haven Har- bor is on y 12 feet deep near the city, and even this depth is only found in a narrow channel. But four miles south of New Haven the water becomes 5 fathoms deep. The harbor is defended by Fort Hale. Long Island Sound is very free from dangers throughout its length, and afiords many anchoring places for light-draught coasters. New York Harbor is one of the finest and most eapacious harbors of the world. It is entered from Long Island Sound through the East River; the Upper New York Bay is entered from the ocean through the Narrows, between Staten Island and Long Island. The East River forms a large part of the water front of New York and Brooklyn, and for miles there are docks stretching along its shores. The East River chan- nel was formerly obstructed by dangerous rocks and reefs at Ilell Gate, both in mid-channel and projecting from the shores of small rocky islands; but these obstructions have been removed (see HELL GATE in these Revisions and Addi- tions), and a large foreign trade now takes this route. Eight miles below the Upper Bay is Lower New York Bay. It is in itself a harbor sufliciently large to accommodate all the fleets of the world. The Hudson or North River forms also a large part of New York’s water-front. The defenses of the New York harbor are Fort Schuyler on Throgg’s Neck, at the western entrance of Long Island Sound, and a fort on \Villet’s Point on the opposite shore; Forts Wadsworth and "Tompkins at the Narrows, and several detached batteries on HARBORS AND DOCKS the Staten Island shore; and Fort Hamilton and several batteries on the opposite Long Island shore. The forts in the bay are Fort Columbus, Castle William and some bat- gefiesd all on Governor’s Island, and Fort Gibson on Ellis s an . Perth Amboy, N. J., has a harbor with 11 feet of water up to the town; mean rise and fall of tide, 5% feet. It seldom freezes over. Steamers can generally force their way through the ice when any is formed. The harbor of Wilmington, Del., has only 12 feet of water, while the Delaware River has 20 feet up to near the city of Wilmington. Hampton Roads, Va., is a channel between Chesapeake Bay and the estuary of the James River, where the naval action between the Monitor and the Confederate iron-clad Merrimac took place in 1862. It is defended by Fortress Mon- roe. This channel affords an excellent rendezvous for a fleet. There is plenty of water for vessels of any draught from the entrance of Chesapeake Bay ver near the fortress. Newport News is on the north, and Norfo k and Portsmouth are on the south side of this channel. The United States navy-yard is situated at Gosport, adjoining Portsmouth, and nearly opposite to Norfolk. Vessels drawing 21 feet of water can be carried to any of these cities. At Annapolis harbor,Va., vessels drawing 191/ feet of water can be carried over the bar. The United ‘tates Naval Academy is situated at An- napolis. To the city of Baltimore, Md., 24 feet can be carried through a dredged channel, and 19 feet can be carried to the city of Washington, which is 200 miles from the ocean. Newberne, N. C., is at the head of Pamlico Sound. Ten feet can be carried to the town, but only 8 feet over the bar from the sea into the Sound. The same can be said about Plym- outh, \l. C., which is at the head of Albemarle Sound. These places ship lumber, tar, and turpentine. Wilmington, N. C., is 30 miles above the mouth of the Cape Fear River. Eight feet can be carried over the outer bar at the mouth of the river, and7 feet in the river channel to the city. The town of Wilmington has a considerable trade in lumber, cot- ton, and turpentine. Georgetown, S. C., is 14 miles from the bar at the entrance on Winyaw Bay. Seven and one-half feet can be carried to the town. Georgetown ships some lumber and turpentine. To Charleston harbor, S. C., 21 feet can be carried up the South Channel; but over the bar to the channel only 14 fee‘; can be carried. Charleston has a large foreign trade, shi - ping quantities of cotton, phosphate, and Southern pro - ucts. Port Royal, S. C., at the head of Port Royal Sound, has a fine harbor with 21 feet of water over the bar. Brunswick, S. C., has one of the best harbors on the coast. A deep arm of the sea,twenty miles long, leads to the town and approaches it by a channel 17 feet deep. To Savannah, Ga., 9 feet can be carried,while 17 feet can be carried over the bar at the mouth of the river. The town ships large quantities of cotton, rice lumber, and naval stores St. Mary’s, Ga., on St. Mary's River, has a good har- bor. There are several anchorages inside the bar in from 4 to 7 fathoms of water. Seventeen feet can be carried to the town, 10 miles from the ocean. To Jacksonville, Fla., on the St. J Ohn’s River, nine feet of water can be carried over the bar through a narrow crooked channel. It is 20 miles from the mouth of the river. The Florida harbors ship mostly lumber. St. Augustine has a shifting bar with 10 feet of water, inside of which there is a good harbor north of the town 18 to 20 feet deep. (2.) TIIE GULF COAST.—KGY West, southwest of the southern end of Florida, has a good anchorage for the largest vessels within amile of the town. Three channels, the main ship channel, the southwest and the northwest channels, havin from 12 to 30 feet of water, lead to this harbor. It is defende b‘y Fort Taylor, some batteries, and two Martello towers. Key 1 est ships mostly cigars and s onges. The Dry Tortugas, a group of ten low islets, west of ey West,form a large, deep and commodious harbor. It is of great strategic importance in the case of war with a foreign naval ower, because it will afford its possessor an excellent base or naval operations. This splendid harbor is defended by Fort J eiferson on Gar- den Key. Tampa Ba , Fla., is an estuary from six to ten miles wide and exten ing northeast for 20 miles, where it forms two arms. It affords anchorage in five fathoms of water. Cedar Keys, Fla., has three channels leading to the town. Sea-Horse Key is the deepest of these channels, with nine feet of water on its bar. Cedar Key is the terminus of the Florida Railroad. Appalachee Bay is the seaport of Talla- hassee. It is very shallow, and therefore seldom visited. To Appalachicola, at the mouth of the river of the same nameI 15 feet can be carried over the bar at the entrance of the bay, but only four feet can be carried to the town. It is a shipping port for lumber. St. Jose h’s Bay is a large, deep and com- modious harbor just nort of Cape San Blas. It can be en tered in a ale or hurricane, and afiords excellent anchorage Pensacola ay,Fla., is protected by Santa Rosa Island, and has an entrance 20 feet deep. It is defended by Forts Pick- ens, McRee, and Barrancas, besides a redoubt on the north side. The city of Pensacola is 10 miles from the entrance, and ships large quantities of lumber. The United States navy- yard is within three miles of the city. _ Mobile Bay, Ala., is an estuary 30 miles long. _The Mobile River, a large navigable stream, flows into this ba . The bay’s entrance between Fort Morgan and Dauphin Is and is nearly three miles wide. Eighteen feet can be carried through a dredged channel 21 miles Ong to the city of Mobile. This l HARBORSAND DOCKS harbor is the natural outlet of the greatest cotton region of the United States. 0 _ _ _ New Orleans, La., is 120 miles from the sea. The Mississippi River surrounds the city on three sides. Where the river flows into the Gulf of Mexico it spreads out into four prongs, called the Southwest, Southeast,’ Northeast, and South Passes. The famous jetties of Oaptam James B. Eads are at the entrance of the South Pass.‘ It is 26 feet deep and 300 feet wide. The other three passes are only from 7 to 15 feet deep. The Mississippi delta and the neighboring waters are de- fended by the following works: Forts P1ke, Macomb, LIV- ingston, Jackson, and Philip, Tower Dupré, Battery Bienvenue, and the Tower at Proctersville. New Orleans sh1ps large quantities of cotton and sugar. _ To Galveston harbor, Texas, 11 feet can be carried over_ the outer bar, and 91/ feet to the city wharfs. Appropriations have been made for deepening the entrance. It 15 defended at Fort Point and Bolivar Point. Galveston’s trade 1s similar to that of New Orleans. _ (3.) THE PACIFIC (/‘OAST.—POI‘l3 Townsend, Washmgton,_on the Strait of Juan de Fuca, has a fine harbor, and five to nine fathoms can be carried within 400 yards of the town. Up to the wharfs of Seattle on Puget Sound five fathoms can be carried, and there is lenty of water at the anchorage off the town. Seattle has a arge trade in lumber. _ _ Astoria, Oregon, at the mouth of the Columbia River, has usually over 28 feet of water from the bar to the town. The depth of the bar varies. _ Crescent City, Cal., has a very dangerous harbor with many shoals and rocks. San Francisco has one of the finest harbors in the world. Twenty-three feet can be carried over the bar to the city and in almost any part of the bay. It is connected with the ocean by a strait called the Golden Gate. The en- trance of the harbor is defended by Fort Point, on the south shore of the Golden Gate, and another fort has been con- structed on Alcatraz Island. two miles north of the city. Vallejo is situated 27 miles north of San Francisco Bay, on the opposite side of N apa Creek from the United States navy- yard. To the anchorage between the town and the navy-yard 21 feet of water can be carried at low tide. Santa Cruz, Cal.. has a well-protected harbor with good anchorage in water from 31/2 to 15 fathoms deep. Santa Barbara, Cal., has a har- bor open on the south side, but partially protected by an is- land. It is 19 feet deep at the wharfs. It exports much fruit and some wood. The harbor of San Diego is formed by a project-ing point of land on the west side, which terminates at 817 the south end in Point Loma, and on the east side by a flat peninsula. The entrance to this fine harbor 1s over a bar with 21 feet of water. (4.) For LAKE HAREoRs, see NAVIGATION, INLAND. in these Revisions and Additions. DOCKS are divided into wet docks, dry docks, and floating docks. For the description of the wet and dry docks, see Bri- tannica. Vol.XI. p. 465. " Floating sectional dry-docks” consist of several sections joined together by sliding beams. Each section consists of alarge rectangular tank, at the sides of which are frames formed of four uprights. In each of these frames a float moves up and down in suitable gearings. It rises when a section is being lowered, and goes down when a tank is be- in raised. 11 the “ tubular floating-docks,” both the bottom and ver- tical sides consist of large wrought-iron tubes. The bottom- consists of eight such tubes running longitudinally; and the sides consist of many similar tubes fixed vertically inside of the two outer longitudinal tubes. The tubes are divided into many water-tight com artments, and have water-valves at the bottom. When the ock is to be sunk these valves are opened. When it is to be raised, compressed air is forced into the tubes, and the water is thus expelled through the valves. As soon as the dock and its vessel are fully raised the bottom valves are closed again. By the “' hydraulic lift-dock ” the vessel is lifted bodily out of the water upon a raft-like pontoon, which has suflicient buoyancy to sustain the weight of the vessel. For this pur- pose the pontoon is brought u between two rows of col- umns extending down to the ock below. These columns carry hydraulic lifts. From the heads of these lifts some rods extendand are made fast to lattice girders reaching across to the o posit-e column. Upon these girders the pon- toon rests. W en the pontoon is raised the water is let out by valves in the bottoms of its tubes. As soon as the ship is lifted it may be floated away on its own pontoon; and the dock is left free to he used on another pontoon to raise a sec- ond ship. A “ balance floating-dock ” consists of a large rectangular tank having hollow walls along its two long sides. but no walls at the ends. It is divided into a number of compart- ments. Bv pumping water into these side chambers any part of the dock may be lowered; and by forcing compressed air into them and the water out of them, they may be raised. Thus the dock can be balanced at any desired level. DRY Docxs IN THE UNITED STATES or Mons THAN 58 FEET BREADTH: 3 . Q as -= c: Q) 3 5 L _= E? . :3 ; 7: A -2 :.> ‘-13 Pl 48 Ports. :‘ 7-. :. is Location. cs .3 5 A5 - s - - s S O O z-_. -6 5 .-s s 3 ‘F ? '21 c; E -7-3 s 1.; ° '“ 5 H -’ Q i‘ *4 %ufialo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 60 10 Basin . . . . . . . . etroit ............................................... .. sos cs 13 “ ...... .. 3 . . 9 ............................................. .. ass 75 11.5 “ ...... .. >F°°l Orleans St‘- Albma, Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 400 72 28 “ _ . . .. San Francisco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._ 210 60 20 Floating “ ood “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . .. -450 90 24 I Basin Stone Iiunt-er_’s Point. “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 529 7 26.5 “ " Navy ~lard. Portland, Me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 425 80 24 “ Wood _ _ Portsmouth, N. H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 350 90 ‘.23 Floating " Navy X ard. Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 60 25 Basin Stone “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 365 64 17.5 “ Wood East Boston. New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 330 90 18.5 Balance “ Foot Rutgers St. “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 100 20 Sec tion-‘l “ 1 ‘ _ “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘250 75 16 *~ “ Between Pike and Clmt-on St. “ ............................................ .. 170 05 16 “_ “ 5 Brooklyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 350 66 25 Basin Stone Navy Yard. “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. " 22 K‘ W d - - - “ ........................................... 33:0 1.(s).g as “ 30 i M16 B38111- Jersey City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 62 14 Balance “ Foot Essex St. Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 434 70 21.5 Basm “ C-ramp’s Ship-yard. B 1 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200 62 14 Section’l “ a ti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2“ _ .3‘ “ - -‘“°"‘* / 383 E3 11 Fl‘i.‘Z;tt§- - ELOQ-ust Pom- - - - - Q - - - - - - A . \ . - . Q . - - - - - - - - . - - ~ - . - \ . . - - - - ~ \ - - - '- D ‘ Norfolk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 320 60 . . . . . . .. B-as1_n Stone Gosport. New Orleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 315 90 * 16 Floatmg Wood "" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 75 14 “ “ ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 225 75 16 “ “ M8 HARCOURT, SIR VVILLIAM VERNON, son of the late Rev. \V. V. Harcourt, of Nuneham Park, Ox- ford, and grandson of a former archbishop of York. was born Oct. 14, 1827, and educated at Trin- ity College, Cambridge, where he graduated with high honors in 1851. Called to the bar in 1854, he was made queen’s council in 1866, and in 1868 was returned to parliament for the city of Oxford as a Liberal. In 1873 he was appointed solicitor-gen- eral, and received the honor of knighthood. He held oflice until Mr. Gladstone’s retirement in February, 1874, and when that statesman returned to power in 1880 he was appointed home secretary. Failing to secure reelection at Oxford, he was soon after- ward returned from Derby, for which constituency he has continued to sit up to the present time. In 1886 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer. He is an able speaker and a vigorous debater, and has been conspicuous for his defense of Mr. Glad- stone’s Irish Home-rule scheme. HARDEE, YVILLIAII JOSEPH (1818- 73), an American soldier. He served in Florida for a time as first-lieutenant of 2d dragoons, and in 1844 was made captain. In 1847 he was promoted major for gallantry at the siege of Montercy, and at the close -of the war was brevetted lieutenant-colonel. From 1856 to 1861 he was at \V est Point as commandant of cadets, and then joined the Confederate army with the rank of colonel. He served with distinc- tion during the war, and attained the rank of lien- tenant-general. At the close of the war he retired to his plantation in Alabama. HARDIE, JAMES ALLEN (1823-76), an American soldier. He entered the artillery service in 1843; was an assistant professor in West Point in 1844, and served in garrison, frontier and Indian service till 1861. At the beginning of the civil war he was made lieutenant-colonel of the 5th artillery, and served through the war with distinction, attaining the brevet rank of major-general, United States Army. In 1866 he was senior member of a commis- sion to inspect ordnance and ordnance stores in forts and arsenals. HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866). an American .-artist. He became a house-painter, and later de- voted himself to portrait painting. He established himself in St. Louis, and in 1826 settled in Boston, where he became very popular. Among the dis- tinguished persons who sat before him were James Monroe, James Madison, John Quincy Adams, Chas. Carroll, John Marshall, \Vm. lVirt, Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, “lashington Allston, the dukes of Norfolk, Hamilton, and Sussex, Samuel Rogers, Sir Archibald Alison, Daniel )Vebster, and '\V. T. Sherman. He wrote llIy Egotistography. HARDING, SIR ROBERT PALMER, an English lawyer, born in 1821. He commenced his law practice in 1847, and has since taken part in many important liquidation cases, including the cele- brated case of OV61'E)l1(l, Gurney & Co., in which the liabilities amounted to nearly 20 million pounds sterling. In 1864 he was appointed a commis- sioner to inquire into the working of the Bank- ruptcy act; and in 1883 he reorganized this depart- ment on the basis of the Bankruptcy act of 1883. In January, 1890, he was knighted. At present he is a director in the Imperial British East Africa Co. HARDWOOD TREES, forest trees, of compara- tively slow growth, producing compact, hard tim- ber, as oak, ash, elm, chestnut,walnut, beech, birch, etc. From these willows, elders, poplars, etc., are distinguished as soft-wooded trees. Neither term is of ordinary use extended to firs, pines, cedars or other coniferous trees. HARDY, ARTHUR SHERBURNE, an American au- thor, born in 1847. In 1869 he entered the United HARCOURT—HARE States Army as second-lieutenant, but resigned the following year and became professor of civil engi- neering and applied mathematics in Iowa College, Grinnell. He then became professor in Chandler Scientific School of Dartmouth, and held this posi- tion until 1878, when he became professor of math- ematics in the college proper. Prof. Hardy is the author of Elements of Quaternions (1881); Imagi- nary Quantities (1881); New llfethods in Topographi- cal Surveying (1844) ; a poem entitled Francesca of Rimini, and two novels, But Yet a Woman (1883); and The Wind of Destiny (1886). HARDY, THOMAS, an English novelist, born in Dorsetshire June 2, 1840, commenced his career as an architect and prosecuted his studies in design at London, gaining such professional distinctions as the prize and medal of the Institute of British Architects, and Sir IV. Tite’s prize for architect- ural design, both in 1863. His first literary efiort was a novel published in 1871, entitled Desperate Remedies. His next novels, Under the Greenwood Tree (1872), and a Pair of Blue Eyes (1873), prepared the way for his best work, Far from the Madding Crowd, which was published in the “Cornhill Maga- zine,” in 1874. Other novels from his pen are: The Return of the Native (1878); The Trumpet-Major (1880) ; A Laodicean (1881); Two on a Tower (1886) ; The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886); and The Wood- landers (1887). HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS, born in 1804 at Port Royal, Jamaica, died in London, June 15, 1878. At the age of fifteen he became a junior clerk in the Tower of London, was made deputy-keeper of the public records in 1861, and knighted in 1870. He won great distinction by his editions of ancient manuscripts. Among his important works were two folio volumes of the early Close Rolls (1833-44) ; one of the Patent Rolls (1835), and others of the Norman Rolls and Charter Rolls; William of M almes- bury (1840); a Descriptive Catalogue of MSS. relat- ing to the history of Great Britain and Ireland (1862-71); and other works of much historical value. HARE, a rodent mammal of the family Leporidze. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 476. HARE, Aueusrus JOHN CUTHBERT, an English writer, born at Rome, Italy, in 1834. He received his education at Harrow and at the University College, Oxford. Afterwards he edited Murray’s Hand-books for some English counties. His most interesting books are: Walks in Rome; Days Near Rome; Wanderings in Spain; and Walks in London. His Memorials of a Quiet Life contains charming biographies of various members of the Hare fam- ily. He wrote all the books here mentioned from 1870 to 1877. HARE, ROBERT (1781-1858), an American scien- tist. He early showed an interest in chemistry and physics, and before ‘’he was twenty was a member of the chemical society of Philadelphia. In 1801 he invented the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, and later made many valuable contributions to science. In 1818 he became professor of chemistry in ‘William and Mary College, and also accepted a similar po- sition in the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania. He resigned his position in 1847. Later he became a believer in spiritualism, and lectured in its advocacy. He made numerous con- tributions to scientific literature, and published Brief View of the Policy and Resources of the United States(1810); Chemical Apparatus and Manipulations (1839); Compendium of the Course of Chemical In- struction in the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania (1840); Memoir on the E.vplosiveness of Nitre (1850); and Spiritualism Scientifically Dem- onstrated (1855). HARE—HARNACK IIABE, SILAS, a United States Congressman, bl rn 111 1827. He served one year in the war with Mexico; was admitted to the Indiana bar in 1850, i but shortly afterwards removed to Texas. In 1862 he was chief justice of New Mexico under the Con- federate government, and then served till the close of the war as a captain. In 1865 he settled in Sher- man, Texas, and was criminal district judge from 1873 to 1876. He was elected to the 50th Congress as a Democrat, and reelected to the 51st. HARE, VVILLIAM HOBART, an American P. E. bishop, born in 1838. He was ordained deacon in 1859, and priest in 1862. In 1864 he was elected rector of the church of the Ascension in Philadel- phia; next became general agent of the foreign committe of the board of missions, and in 1872 was elected missionary bishop of Niobrara. His jurisdiction in 1883 was extended over the south- ern part of Dakota. HARELD (Harelda), a genus of the duck family having a short thick bill, and two feathers of the middle of the tail, in the male, greatly elongated. Two species are known; the best known. the long- tailed duck, or hareld (H. glacialis), inhabits the arctic regions of the Old and New Worlds, its winter migrations in America extending to the Carolinas. HARGRAVES, EDMUND HAMMOXD, the discoverer of the gold-fields of Australia, born at Gosport, England, in 1815. At the age of eighteen he set- tle in Australia, and in 1849 was attracted to Cali- fornia, where he tried his luck as a gold-digger. ~While thus engaged he was greatly struck by the similarity in the geological formation of California and Australia, and on his return home he entered upon explorations which resulted in the discovery of the valuable gold-fields of Australia in 1851. He was appointed commissioner of crown-lands, and received from the government of New South Wales a reward of £10,000. In 1855, one year after his re- turn to England, he published Austraha and Its Gold-fields. HARISOHANDRA, one of the more prominent personages in the legendary history of ancient India. According to one poem he was the type of munificence and piety, and after death became ele- vated to the court of Indra. HARIVANSA, a Sanskrit epos, which professes to be part of the Mahabharata, but may be more properly classified with the Puranus. HARLAN, J AMES, an American statesman, born in 1820. In 1853 he was president of Iowa Wesleyan University, and from 1855 to 1865 and again from 1866 to 1873 was United States Senator, In 1865-66 he was Secretary of the Interior under Lincoln’s administration. In 1873 he became editor of the “Washington Chronicle,” and from 1882 to 1885 was presiding judge of the court of commissioners of Alabama claims. HARLEQUIN DUCK, a sea-duck, Histrionicus torquatus, which receives its name from its varie- gated markings, white, gray, black and brown. It inhabits the arctic regions of both hemispheres, migrating southward in winter. , HARLESS, Go'r'rLoB CHRISTOPH Anonrn vo.\’, Ger- man Lutheran theologian, born in Nuremberg in 1806, died Sept. 5, 1879. He studied at Erlangen and Halle; was professor of theology at Erlangen in 1836-45, and at Leipzig from 18-15. In 1850 he be- came chief court preacher at Dresden, and exer- cised much influence on ecclesiastical affairs in Saxony. In 1852 he was appointed president of the Protestant consistory at Munich. His most im- portant works were his Thcologische Encyklopddie }t£18dP))ilIetIt0doI0gie (1837); and Christliclze Ethic 819 HARMALIN, a vegetable base, and I-Iarmin another, both of which occur in the husks of the seeds of Pegcmum harmalas, or Syrian rue, a zygo- phyllaceous, shrubby plant that grows abundantly 111 the steppes of Southern Russia. The seeds have been used in dyeing silk, to which they impart various shades of red. I-IARMAN, Fa.-\.N9oIs JULES, a French explorer, born at Saumar in 18-15, died at Florence, April 14, 1883. As a member of the surgical staff’ in the French navy he took part in various expeditions. He went to Algeria in the campaign against the Kabyles in 1871, then with Garnier to Tonquin. For some time he was governor of Tonquin. In 187-1 he returned to France, but set out for Cambodia the next year, and pushed his explorations far to the north of that country. In 1881 he returned to France seriously ill with consumption, and was made keeper of the colonial museum. HARMER, ALFRED C., a United States Congress- man. In 1856 he was elected a member of the city council of Philadelphia, Pa., and served four years. In 1860 he was chosen recorder of deeds for that city, and held the ofiice three years. He was elected to the 42d, 43d, -15th, 46th, 47th, -18th, -19th, 50th and 51st Congresses. HARMONIC PROPORTION. Three numbers are said to be in harmonic proportion when the first is to the third as the difference between the first and second is to the difference between the second and third. See Britannica, Vol. II, pp. 5.85-- 86; Vol. X, pp. 382-83. HARMONISTS, members of a religious commu- nity organized by George Rapp (1770-18-17), a Ger- man of IViirtemberg. Disturbed by the authorities, they removed in 1803 to Pennsylvania and formed a settlement which they called Harmony. In 1815 they removed to New Harmony, Ind., but returned to Pennsylvania ten years later, and formed the township of Economy, a few miles from Pittsburgh, where they own a large tract of land and carry on important manufactures. They hold all property in common, and strongly discourage marriage and sexual intercourse. HARMONY OF THE SPHERES, a music,im- perceptible to human ears, which the ancients imagined was produced by the motions of the heavenly bodies. These motions were supposed to be governed by fixed laws, the seven planets pro- ducing severally the seven notes of the gamut. By some the sound was thought to be impercept- ible because always heard; others thought it too powerful for our hearing. HARMS, KL.~iUs. a German divine, born at Fahr- stedt, Holstein. May 25, 1778, died at Kiel, Feb. 1, 1855. He studied theology at the University of Kiel, was appointed assistant pastor at Lunden in 1806, and pastor at Kiel in 1817. He exercised a powerful influence on the religious life of Germany and the Scandinavian countries. His memorial WO1‘k,Das sind die 95 Thesen oder Strei'tsiit:e Lutlzm-’s 1817, published in celebration of the ter-centen ary of the Reformation, produced a sensation in Germany. HARMS, Gnone LUDWIG DETLEF Tnnonon, a Ger- man clergyman, born at Walsrode in Liineburg in 1808. After studying theology at G6ttingen he taught a private school till 1844, when he became the assistant of his father, the pastor of Hermanns- burg. In 18-19, after he had succeeded his father, Harms founded an institute for training young men as missionaries for Africa. He died in 1865 HARNACK, ADoLF, born in 1851 at Dorpat. Rus- sia, where he studied in 1869-72. In 1871 me was appointed privatdocent for church history at Leip- zig, extraordinary professor there in 1876, and ordinary professor successivelv at Giessen (1879). 820 Marburg (1886), and Berlin (1888). In critical knowl- edge of the sources of church history he is thought to have no superior. His chief writings are: Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des Gnostizismus (1873) ; Die Zeit d-es Ignatius and die Chronologie der antio- chenischen B'zTsclz6j'e (1878) ; Das M iinchtum, seine Ideale und Geschichte (1882) ; and Lehrbuch der Dogmen- geschiehte (1886). HARNACK, THEODOSIUS, a German Lutheran theologian, born at St. Petersburg in 1817, died in 1889. After studying theology at Dorpat, Bonn, and Berlin,he became in 1843 privatdocent of the- ology at Dorpat. In 1848 he was made professor in the same place. From 1853 to 1866 he was professor at Erlangen, but in the latter year he returned to Dorpat, and in 1873 he retired from the professor- ship. He published Die Idee der Predigt; De Theolo- gia ioractical; Der Ch-ristliche Gemeindegottesdienst; Luther’s Theologie; Die Kirche, ihr Amt, ihr Regi- ment, etc. HARNETT, CORNELIUS (1723-81), an American statesman. He was a promoter of the Revolution- ary cause, and in 1773 was placed on the committee of continental correspondence for the Wilmington, N. C., district. He was president of the Provincial Congress, and a signer of the “articles of confed- eration and perpetual union.” , HARNEY, IVILLIAM SELBY, an American soldier, born in 1800. He entered the army in 1818 as sec- ond-lieutenant of the 19th infantry, and remained in continuous service until 1863, when he was placed on the retired list, having attained the brevet rank of _major-general “for long and faith- ful service.” After his retirement he lived in St. Louis. He died in 1889. HAROERIS, the elder Horus, son of Seb, the Egyptian Saturn, and Nu, or Rhea; the brother of Osirls. He was ruler over heaven, illuminating the world with the brightness of his eyes. See Britan- nica, Vol. VII, p. 717. HARPER, a city of Harper county, Kan., situa- ' ted about 60 miles southwest of Wichita. HARPER, JAMES (1795-1869), the founder of the publishing firm of Harper & Bros._, originally con- sisting of James, John (1797-1875), Joseph \Vesley (1801-70), and Fletcher (1806-77). In 1844 James was elected mayor of New York City. The firm publishes four illustrated periodicals: “Harper’s Magazine,” established 1850; “ Harper’s VVeekly,” established 1857 ; “Harper’s Bazar” established 1867; and “ Harper’s Young People,” established 1881. The members of the firm now are: Philip J. A. Harper, born 1824; Fletcher, Jr., 1828; Joseph \Vesley, Jr., 1830; John Wesley, 1831; Joseph Abner, 1833, and Joseph Henry. , HARPER, ROBERT GooDLoE (1765-1825), a United States Senator. At the age of fifteen he served in the army, and in 1786 became a member of the North Carolina bar. He was elected to the legis- lature, and from 1795 to 1801 served in Congress. He served in the war of 1812, and became a major- general. From 1816 to 1821 he was a United States Senator from Maryland. He published Observations on the Dispute between the United States and France (1797) ; An Address on the British Treaty (1796); Let- ters on the Proceedings of Congress; and Letters to His Constituents (1801). ' HARP-SHELL (Harpa), a genus of gasteropo- dous mollusks of the whelk family (Buccinid:-r), having the last whorl of the shell large, and cov- ered with numerous sharp, smooth ribs, resembling the strings of a harp. The foot is large, and there is no operculum. These shells are much prized for their beauty. Nine species are known, all of them tropical, and living in deep water, on sandy or muddy bottoms. v bishop, born in 1841. American entomologist. 1-lARNACK—HARRlS HARRIS, HOWELL, one of the fathers and found- ers of Welsh Calvinistic Methodism, born in 1713 at Trevecca, Wales, in the county of Brecon. His mind was first seriously ‘awakened to religious questions in 1735, and for seventeen years from that date he spent his time as a lay itinerant preacher, confining his ministrations for the most part to Wales. After his retirement to Trevecca in 1752, he still continued to preach daily at his own home; and in order to accommodate those who came to hear him he built a large house, the inmates of which led a kind of monastic life. HARRIS, ISHAM GREEN, aUnited States Senator, born in 1818. He was admitted to the bar in 1841, and commenced practice at Paris, Tenn.; was elected to the State legislature as a Democrat in 1847 ; was chosen to Congress in 1849, and was re- elected in 1851. In 1853 he moved to_l\/Iemphis, and from.1857 to 1863 was governor of the State. During the last three years of the war he was a volunteer aid on the staff of the commanding gen- eral of the Confederate army of Tennessee. In 1877 he was elected to the United States Senate, and reelected in 1883 and in 1889. His term of serv- ice expires March 3, 1895. HARRIS,'\VILLIAM TORREY, an American edu- cator, born in 1835. In 1867 he founded the St. Louis “Journal of Speculative Philosophy,” and in 1868-80 was superintendent of public schools in St. Louis. In 1884 he becamepresident of the Boston Schoolmasters’ Club. Besides numerous contribu- tions to periodical literature, he has published twelve Annual Reports on the St. Louis schools (1869-81), and Statement of American Education, used. at the World’s Expositions at Vienna and Paris. HARRIS, SAMUEL, an American clergyman and educator, born in 1814. He taught from 1838 to 1841, and then held pastorates at Conway and Pittsfield, Mass.,until 1855. He then became pro- fessor of systematic theology in Bangor Seminary, and held the position till 1867, when he was chosen. president of Bowdoin College. In 1871 he was- made professor of systematic theology at Yale. Among his published works are Zaccheus; the Scrip- tural Plan of Beneficence (1844) ; Christ’s Prayer for the Death of His Redeemed (1863) ; Kingdom of Christ on Earth (1874); and Philosophical Basis of Theism (1883). . HARRIS, SAMUEL SMITII, an American P. E. He was admitted to the bar in 1860, and engaged in the practice of his profes- sion in Autauga county, Ala., until 1865, when he- removed to New York. In 1869 he was ordained priest, and held pastorates at Montgomery, Ala., Columbus, Ga., New Orleans, La., and Chicago, Ill. In 1879 he was consecrated bishop of Michi- gan. He published Bohlen Lectures (1882). HARRIS, TI-IAEDEUS VVILLIAM (1795-1856), an at Milton Hill, Mass., from 1818 to 1831, and then became librarian of Harvard. In 1837 he was ap- pointed a commissioner for a zoiilogical and botan- ical survey of Massachusetts. Besides many papers on antiquarian research he published In- sects Injurious to Vegetation (1841). HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE, an American spiritual- ist, born in 1823. He entered the ministry of the Universalist church at an early age, and later or- ganized an “ Independent Christian Society.” In 1850 he became a convert to the spiritualistic faith, and has since lectured throughout the United States and England. He has published The Epic of the Starry Heavens (1854); of the Golden Age (1.856); Truth and Life in Jesus-' (1860); and The Millennium Age (1861). He practiced medicine Modern Spiritualism _, (1856) ; A Lyric of the Morning Land (1854) ; A Lyric .‘ at. W r‘,F'.r.‘-'.__' ‘_,~..,'. ,... , - HARRISBURG—HART HARRISBURG, the county- seat of county, Ill., situated in a county abounding in salt, iron, coal and lead. Agricultural implements are manufactured here. HARRISBURG, the county-seat of Dauphin county,Pa.. and capital of the State, pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Susquehanna River, which is here crossed by four bridges, each over a mile in length. Besides the State Capitol building, the city contains a court-house, the State arsenal, the State insane asylum, a Roman Catho- lic cathedral, and some forty other churches. The State library contains about 60,000 volumes. The city is well provided with schools and academies, having, besides Harrisburg Academy and Miss I/Voodward’s Seminary, about 20 large and a num- ber oi small public school buildings. The new water-works are extensive; the streets are macad- amized and well lighted. The prosperity of Harris- burg is due chiefly to its facilities for communica- tion with the coal and iron districts of the State; the Cumberland Valley, Northern Central Penn- sylvania, Philadelphia and Reading, and the Van- derbilt or Southern Pennsylvania railroads, all centering here, to which the facilities afforded by the Pennsylvania canal with its outlets may be added. Asaresult of the resources it has large and important manufacturing establishments of iron, steel, boilers, galvanized iron cornices, brick, and tile. Harrisburg is also an important depot for lumber via the Susquehanna River, and has ex- tensive saw and planing establishments. For his- tory, description of capitol building, etc., see Bri- tannica, Vol. XI, p. 494. Population in 1880, 30,762; in 1890, 40,164». HARRISON, a post-village of Hamilton county, ‘ Ohio, 25 miles northwest of Cincinnati. It con- tains tanneries, flour-mills, brush factories, corn- drill factory, railroad shops, woolen and furniture factories. HARRISON, BENJAMIN (1740-1791), a signer of the Declaration of Independence. In 1773 he was a member of the committee of correspondence which united the colonies against Great Britain,and was five times elected to a seat in Congress. He was governor of Virginia in 1782-85, and at the time of his death was a member of the legisla- ture. HARRISON, BENJAMIN, the twenty-third Presi- dent of the United States, great-grandson of the preceding, born in North Bend, Ohio, Aug. 20, 1833. He graduated in 1852 from Miami University, and studied law in Cincinnati. In 1854 he removed to Indianapolis, Ind., and gained a large legal practice. In 1862 he entered the United States army, and served with conspicuous gallantry in the Atlanta campaign, returning to civil life at the close of the war with the rank of brevet bri adier-general. In 1876 he was the Republican candidate for governor of Indiana, and in 1881 was chosen to the United States Senate for six years. In 1888 he was nomi- nated on the Republican ticket for President of the ' United States, with Levi P. Morton for Vice-Presi- dent. The election resulted in favor of Mr. Har- rison, who received 233 electoral votes to 163 for Grover Cleveland, the Democratic nominee. HARRISON BURG. a village, capital of Rocking- ham county, Va., situated in the Shenandoah Val- ley, 25 miles from Staunton. It is a railroad junc- tion, and has various manufactories. Rawley Sprin s are 12 miles east of Harrisonburg. HA RODSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Mercer county, Ky., said to be the oldest town in the State. It enjoys a reputation for its mineral waters; is the seat of Daughters’ College; has a variety of manufacturing establishments, and car- ‘ Saline. ports of 821 ries on an important trade in horses, cattle, and other live stock. HART, the name given to the stag or male deer from the age of six years, when the crown or sur- royal antler begins to appear. HART, JOEL T. (1810-1877), an American sculptor. For a time he was a stone-cutter, and then modeled busts in clay. In 1849 he went to Italy, where he remained until his death. He subsequently mod- eled the statue of Henry Clay, now in Richmond, Va., the bronze statue of that statesman in New Orleans, and the marble statue in Louisville court- house, besides numerous other busts and statues of many distinguished men. Among his best works are Charity, Woman T r-iumphant, and Penserosa. HART, Joan (1708-80), a signer of the Declara- tion of Independence. He served in the provincial legislature for several years, and was a member of the Congresses of 1774, ’75, and ’76. In 1777-78 he was chairman of the New Jersey council of safety, and when the State was invaded by the British his- farm and stock were destroyed and he had to fly with his family to the forest. After peace was re- stored he returned to his farm and passed the remainder of his days in agricultural pursuits. BENJAMIN HARRISON. HART, Joan SEELY (1810-77). an American au- thor. In 1832 he became tutor in Princeton Col- legs, and in 1834 adjunct professor of ancient lan- guages. From 1836 to 18-11 he had charge of the Edgehill School; from 18-12 to 1859 he was principal of the Philadelphia high-school; from 1863 to 1871 of the State Normal School of New Jersey, and in 1872 became professor of rhetoric and the English languages at Princeton. He has edited the Penn- sylvania Connnon School Journal, Sa-rta-in’s Magazine, and the Sunday School Times, and published Re- The Philadelphia. High-School; (18-12-59); Class-book of Poetry and Class-book of Prose (1844); In the School Room (1868); Essay on the Life and Writings of Edmund Spencer (1847) ; Manual of Com- 8% position and Rhetoric (1870); Manual of English Lit- erature (1872) ; Manual of American Literature (1873) ; and Short Course in English and American Literature (1874). HARTE, FRANoIs BRET, an American author, born in 1839. After a connection as editor with various California newspapers, he was appointed, in 1864, secretary of the United States branch mint, hold- ing the position for six years. In 1868 he began the publication of The Overland Monthly, and about this time became widely known as an author. In 1871 he settled in New York City; from 1878 to 1880 he was United States consul at Crefeld, Germany, and from 1880 to 1885 consul at Glasgow, Scotland, Among his publications are: Condensed Novels (1867); Poems (1871) ; Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches (1871); East and West Poems (1871); Poetical Works (1871); Mrs. Slcaggs’s Husbands (1872); Tales of the Argonauts and Other Stories (1875); Thankful Blossom (1876); Two Men of Sandy Bar (1876); Gabriel Conroy (1876); The Story of a _ Mine (1877); Echoes of the Foot Hills (1879); Drift from Two Shores (1878); The Twins of Table Moun- tain (1879); Flip and Found at Blazing Star (1882); In the Carquinez Woods (1883); On the Frontier (1884) ; By Shore and Sedge (1885) ; Maruja, a Novel (1885); Snow-Bound at Eagle’s (1886); A Millionaire of Rough and Ready (1887), and The Crusade of the Excelsior (1881); also his collected Works (1882). HARTE, SoLoMoN ALEXANDER, an English painter of Jewish descent, born at Plymouth in 1806, died in 1881. After studying at the Royal Academy in London, he exibited a miniature of his father, Samuel Hart, in 1826; but his first oil painting, Instructions, was exhibited in 1828. He devoted himself mostly to historical painting. In 1841 he made drawings of many historical places in Italy. In 1857 he was made professor of painting in the Royal Academy, and in 1865 he became its libra- rian. Among his works we mention Wolsey and Buckingham (1834); Coeur de Lion and Saladin; Milton Visiting Galileo in Prison; Raphael and Pope Julius II. HARTFORD, a city of Connecticut, sole capital of the State since 1873, and county-seat of Hartford county. For an account of the site, history, and government of Hartford, see Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 496, 497. The population in 1890 was 53,182, being an increase of 11,167 during the decade, and there had been a corresponding increase in the business and wealth of the city, resulting in the erection of new buildings and the improvement of old ones, and the display of business enterprise. A board of trade has been organized. It held its third annual meeting on Jan. 1, 1891, and has a fine building in process of erection. Hartford Theo- logical Seminary has laid the foundation of the Case Memorial Library. The new buildings of Trinity College are, to some extent, a repro- duction of those of Trinity College in Glenalmond, Perthshire, Scotland; the new post-office building was completed in 1883 and the county court-house in 1884, and many of the insurance companies and banks have very fine and substantial edifices. There are fifteen miles of street railway, and seven railroads enter the city. HARTFORD CITY, the county-seat of Black- ford county, Ind., 40 miles south of Fort Wayne. It contains a hub and spoke factory, aheading- factory, flour-mill, and a stave factory. HARTINGTON, SPENCER CoMPToN CAvENDIsII, MARQUIs or, born July 23, 1833, and graduated at ‘""mity College, Cambridge, in 1854. He entered Parliament in 1857, being first returned for North Lancashire, in 1869, for the Radnor boroughs, in 1880 t" or Northeast Lancashire, and in 1885 for the Ros- HARTE-HARTSHORNE sendale division of that county. Between 1863 and 1874 he held office as a Lord of the Admiralty, under-secretary for war, war secretary, post- master-general, and, from 1871, chief secretary for Ireland. On Mr. Gladstone’s temporary abdication, in February, 1875, he was chosen leader of the Lib- eral opposition, and in the spring of 1880, on the downfall of the Beaconsfield administration, was invited by the Queen to form a ministry. He re- jected the offer, and served under Mr. Gladstone, first as Secretary of State for India, and then as War Secretary from 1883 to 1885. But be wholly dissented from Mr. Gladstone’s scheme of Irish Home Rule, and since 1886, as head of the Liberal Unionists, has firmly supported Lord Salisbury’s Conservative government. HARTMANN, KARL RORERT EDUARD voN, a Ger- man philosopher, born at Berlin Feb. 23, 1842. He was trained at the School of Artillery, and from 1858 to 1865 served as an artillery oflicer in the Prussian Guards. Compelled by an aflection of the knee to abandon his calling, he has since 1867 re- sided in Berlin, occupied with literary and philo- sophical studies. From 1868 to 1877 he was chiefly working out his ideas on methodology, the philoso- phy of the natural sciences, psychology, metaphys- ics, and the theory of knowledge; since 1878 he has been chiefly concerned with ethics, the philoso- phy of religion, and aesthetics. His great aim is the harmonizing and reconciling philosophy with science, by gathering up the varied results of mod- ern scientific investigation into an all-comprehen- sive philosophic conception of the world. Among the books in which his philosophical creed is laid down are: Philosophie des Unbewussten (1869); Ph<'inomen— ologie des sittlichen Bewusstseins (1878) ; Das reli- gibse Bewusstsein der Menschheit i_m Stufengang seiner Entwiclcelung (1882) ; Die Religion des Geistes (1882); Die Deutsche Aesthetih seit Kant (1886) ; and Die Philosophie des Schbnen (1887). He also gives close attention to the public questions of the day in Germany, and writes ably and clearly on such mat- ters as education, politics, etc. HARTOGIA, a genus of trees or shrubs, of the natural order Clestracew. H. capensis, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, is only 10 or 15 feet high, but the trunk is about a foot and a half in diame- ter. The wood is valued, and when polished is superior to mahogany. It is often used for veneering. HARTRANFT, JOHN FREDERICK (1830-89), an American soldier. In 1859 he was admitted to the bar, and at the beginning of the civil war organ- ized the 4th Pennsylvania regiment. He com- manded it during the three months of its enlist- ment, and then organized the 51st Pennsylvania regiment,becoming its colonel. He was present at the battles of Fredericksburg, Campbell s Station, Knoxville, Vicksburg, the Wilderness, and Spott- sylvania, and in 1864 was made brigadier-general of volunteers. The following year he was brevetted major-general. In 1865 he was made auditor-gen- eral of Pennsylvania, and reélected in 1868. From 1872 to 1878 he was governor of the State. He be- came postmaster of Philadelphia in 1879, and in 1880 collector of the port of that city. HART’S FALLS, a village of Rensselaer county, N. Y., situated on: the Hoosac River, near its mouth, and on the Boston, Hoosac Tunnel and Western and the Troy and Boston railroads. It contains paper and woolen mills, and has manu- factories of cassimeres, gunny-cloth, and twine. It was formerly called Schaghticoke Point. HARTSHORNE, EDWARD (1818-85), an Ameri- can physician, son of Dr. Joseph Hartshorne. He graduated in medicine at the University of Penn- HARTSHOR-NE—HASTINGS sylvania in 1840, and eight years later began prac- tice in Philadelphia. For a time he was a surgeon in Will’s Eye Hospital and afterwards in the Penn- sylvania hospital. During the war he served as consulting surgeon in the United States Army hospitals and in connection with the United States sanitary commission. He is the author of Sepa- rate System; notes to Taylor’s Medical Jurispru- dence (1854); and Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery (1856). HARTSHORNE, HENRY, an American physi- cian, born in 1823. He graduated in the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1845. In 1859 he became professor of the prac- tice of medicine, and in 1865 of hygiene, in the University of Pennsylvania. In 1867 he was given the chair of organic science and philosophy in Haverford College. He has also been a pro- fessor in the Pennsylvania College of dental sur- gery, in Girard College, and in the Woman’s Medi- cal College of Pennsylvania. He is the author of Water vs Hydropathy (1846); Essentials of Practical Medicine (1869); Woman’s Witchcraft, or the Course of Coquetry (1854) ; and Summer Songs (1865). HARTSHORNE, JOSEPH (1779-1850), an Ameri- can physician. He graduated in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1805, and after two years of travel settled in Philadelphia. From 1815 to 1821 he was surgeon of the Pennsylvania hos- pita . HART’S—TONGUE (Scolopendrium), a genus of widely distributed ferns, of which one species, S. rulgare, is a native of Britain, and is common in moist woods, on shady banks, in caves on the sea- shore, and other cold and damp situations. Its fronds are in general undivided, although some- times forked, and from a few inches to 2 feet in length and from 1 to 3 inches in breadth. The sori .are in transverse lines on the lateral veins. Fine plants of this fern are ornamental, and are most luxuriant in winter. HARTZENBUSCH, J UAN EUGENIO, a Spanish dramatic poet, born of German parentage, in Ma- drid, Sept. 6, 1806, died there August 3, 1880. He was intended for the church, and was educated by the Jesuits, but his liking for the drama led him to de- vote himself to literature. During the greater art of his life he was employed in the national ibrary at Madrid, of which he became director in 1862. His principal works, all published at Madrid, .are the drama Doria Mencia (1838); the comedies La Redoma Encantada (1839); and La Visionaria (1840); and the dramatic poems Alfonso el Casto (1841); La Coja y el Encogido (1843); and others. He also published several works in prose, and issued good critical editions of the plays of Tirso rde Molina, Calderon, and Lope de Vega. HARUGARI, a German order established in the United States in 1847. This organization com- orises several hundred subordinate lodges, com- bined into State lodges, and these again into one national lodge. The aims of the order are princi- pally benevolent and social. HARVARD, a thriving village of McHenry county, Ill., 63 miles northwest of Chicago. It is a railroad junction, has several elevators, railroad re- pair shops, and manufactories of farm machinery and carriages. HARVARD COLLEGE. See COLLEGES, in these Revisions and Additions. HARVARD, J OHN (1607-38), an American philan- thropist, born in England. He sailed for America in 1637, and the same year was made a freeman of Massachusetts. In 1638 a tract of land in Charles- town was deeded to him, where he exercised his aninisterial functions. At the time of his death his 823 property was worth £1,500, one half of which he left for the erection of the College which bears his name. He also gave a library of 320 volumes. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 500. HARWICH, a village of Barnstable county, Mass., on the south side of Cape Cod. It carries on a good fishing and coasting trade. HASE, KARL AUGUST, a German theologian, born at Steinbach, in Saxony, Aug. 25, 1800, died Jan. 3, 1890. Expelled from Erlangen University for his connection with the political students’ unions, he became in 1823 a University tutor at Tiibingen, but, as the result of another investigation was after- wards imprisoned for ten months. In 1829 he set- tled at Leipzig, and in the following year was called to Jena as professor of theology. Here he remained till his retirement in 1883, when he was ennobled and appointed a privy councilor. He did great ser- vice in the reconciliation of the church’s faith to modern thought, and was an equally resolute and effective opponent of orthodoxy on the one hand and rationalism on the other. His chief writings are: Des alten Pfarrers Testament (1824); Lehrbach der Evangelischen Dogmatilc (1826); Gnosis (1826-28); Hutterus Redivivus (1828); Das Leben Jesu (1829); K irchengeschichte (1834) ; Die beiden Erzbischlife (1839); Neue Propheten (1851); Geschichte Jesu (1876); and Des K ulturkampfes Ende (1879). HASE, KARL BENEDICT, a German philologist, born near Weimar in 1780, died at Paris, March 21, 1864. After studying philosophy and theology at Jena, he went to Paris, and obtained a position in the Imperial library in 1805. In 1816 he became professor of Greek palaeography and of modern Greek at the Ecole des Langues Orientales; in 1830 pro- fessor of the German language and literature at the Polytechnic School; in 1832 keeper of manu- scripts in the Imperial library ; and in 1852 profes- sor of comparative grammar in the University of Paris. Hase edited Leo Diaconus (1819), and was the chief editor of a new edition of the Greek Lexi- con of Stephanus. He was noted for his knowledge of the Byzantine historians. HASSLER, FERDINAND RUDOLPH (1770-1843), an American surveyor. In 1807-10 he was professor of mathematics in the United States Military Acad- emy, and in 1810-11 occupied a similar position in Union College, He then became first superintend- ent of the United States coast survey, and was sent to Europe to procure instruments, but was detained in England till 1815 as an alien enemy. In 1818 the work was discontinued and not resumed until 1832. From this time until his death he was at the head of the survey. He published Analytical Trigonom- etry (1826) ; Elements of Geometry (1828); System of the Universe (1828) ; Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables (1838) ; and Elements of Arithmetic (1843) ; be- sides his annual reports of the coast survey. HASTINGS, according to the French chroniclers, the name of a viking or sea-rover of the 9th centu- ry. The shores and cities of France, Spain, Portu- gal and Italy are said to have been repeatedly wasted and burned by him and his savage com- rades. HASTINGS, a city and county-seat of Barry county, Mich.. on Thornapple River, 32 miles south- east of Grand Rapids. It has a foundry and flour- ing-mills. HASTINGS, a city and county-seat of Dakota county, Minn., on the west bank of the Mississippi River. Carriages, furniture and flour are manu- factured, and the city contains grain elevators, saw mills, and is a wheat and lumber market. HASTINGS, a city and county-seat of Adams county, Neb. With the recent rapid growth in pop- ulation there has been a corresponding growth in 824 all the important institutions of the city. A land company has been organized. Since 1886 railroad facilities have increased; five roads, with eleven outlets, connecting the city with all parts of the country. Street railway lines have increased to 18 miles. The streets are well paved and lighted. The public buildings are the court house, city hall, opera house, Masonic temple, State asylum for the in- sane, city hospital, Hastings College (Presbyterian) and Academy (Roman Catholic) and Young Men’s Christian association. There are six fine public school buildings, public library, three daily and four weekly papers, four national banks, one pri- vate bank and a loaning company. The water plant is owned by the city. There is a good police force and fire department, also free mail delivery. There are five extensive brick-yards, two flour mills, six lumber yards, two foundries, three sash and door factories, a cold storage plant and a packing-house. There are thirty-one job- bing houses, and the wholesale trade in 1890 amounted to $1,250,000. Population in 1880, 4,500; 1890, 13,793. HASI/VELL, CHARLES HAYNES, an American civil engineer, born in 1809. In 1836 he was appointed chief engineer of the United States Navy, and was a member of the board that designed the steam frigates Missouri and Mississippi. In 1844 he was appointed engineer-in-chief of the engineer corps, and held the position till 1850, when he left the ser- vice. In 1877-78 he was a trustee of the New York and Brooklyn bridge. Mr. Haswell is the author of Mechanics’ and Engineers’ Pocket Book (1844) ; Me- chanics’ Tables (1856); Mensuration and Practical Geometry (1858) ; Book-keeping (1871) ; History of the Steam Boiler and its Appendages; and Reminiscences of New Yorkfrom 1816 to 1835. HATCH, WILLIAM HENRY, a United States Con- gressman, born in 1833. He was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1854, and was chosen circuit at- torney of the sixteenth judicial circuit of Missouri in 1858, and reélected in 1860. He served in the Confederate army; was commissioned captain and assistant adjutant-general in 1862; in 1863 was assigned to duty as assistant commissioner of ex- change under the cartel, and continued in this position until the close of the war. He was elected to the successive Congresses from the 46th to the 51st as a Democrat. HAT MONEY, a small duty formerly paid to the master of a ship for his care and trouble over and above the freight. The right to it was regulated by custom of particular ports. HATTEMISTS, a sect founded in the Nether- lands about 1683 by one Pontianus van Hattem, a pupil of Spinoza. They were fatalists, and denied the existence of moral evil, teaching that the whole duty of the elect was to be patient. The sect disappeared in a few years. HAUGIANS. See HAUGE, Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 522. HAUPT, HERMAN, an American engineer, born in 1817. From 1835 to 1839 he was assistant engi- neer on the public works of Pennsylvania, and from 1844 to 18-17 was professor of civil engineering and mathematics in Pennsylvania College. In the latter year he became principal engineer of the Philadelphia and Columbia iailroad; was made superintendent in 1849; and from 1856 to 1861 was chief engineer of the Hoosac Tunnel in Massachu- setts. He served in the civil war as aid to Gen. Irwin McDowell and chief of the bureau of United States military railways. Since 1875 he has been chief engineer of the Tide-water pipe line com- HASWELL—HAVEN pany. Col. Haupt is the author of Hints on Bridge- building (1840); General Theory of Bridge Con- struction (1852) ; Plan for Improoement of the Ohio River (1855) ; and Military Bridges (1864). HAUPUR, HAPOOR, or HAPUR, a town of India, in the N orth-west Provinces. eighteen miles south of Meerut. The western portion is substantially built, and the streets metaled and drained; the eastern half resembles a large agricultural vil- lage, full of cattle. A famous government stud nae formerly maintained here. Population, ,294. HAUSSMANN, GEORGE Eueiznn, BARON, a French administrator, born in Paris, March 27, 1809, died there Jan. 12, 1891. Entering the public service under Louis Philippe he distinguished himself in various parts of France, and under Napo- leon III, in 1853, rose to be prefect of the Seine. He then commenced his great work of improving and embellishing Paris, which con- tinued until 1870 and imposed a financial burden of $175,000,000. He was made baron and Senator in recognition of his services. There was, however, much dissatisfaction with his enormous expenditures, and charges of misman- agement being freely made he was dismissed from ofiice in 1870. The following year he was appointed director of the Crédit Mobilier, and in 1881 was elected a member of the chamber of deputies. “ Haussmannizing” has become a popular term for the destruction of ancient landmarks to make way for improvements. HAVANA, a post-village and county-seat of Mason county, Ill., situated on the east bank of the Illinois River, opposite the mouth of the Spoon River. It is a railroad junction, and has various public build- ings and factories. HAVANA, a village of Schuyler county, N. Y., at the head of Seneca Lake, eighteen miles from Elmira. It contains machine shops, potteries, and mills, where flour, plaster, and woolen goods are made. HAVELOCK, SIR ARTHUR ELIBANK, K. C. M. G.. the present governor of Ceylon, born in 1844. In 1877 he was appointed president of Nevis, a beau- tiful island of the Antilles, with Charlestown as capital, and two years later he became the chief civil commissioner of the Seychelles. His next promotion was in 1881 to the governorship of the West African settlements. In 1885 he became gov- ernor of Natal; after he had been created K. C. M. G., he was appointed to the governorship of Ceylon. in March, 1890. HAVEN, ALICE BRADLEY, an American author- ess, born in Hudson, N. Y., in 1828, died at Mama- roneck, N. Y., in 1863. She wrote sketches for various papers until 1847, when she took editorial charge of the Philadelphia “Saturday Gazette,” on the death of her husband Joseph C. Neal, its editor, her pen-name being ‘ Cousin Alice.” She conducted thisjournal for several years, contribut- ing at the same time to other periodicals. In 1853 she married Samuel L. Haven. Among her books are: The Gossips of Rioertown, with Sketches in Prose and Verse (1850); Helen Morton; Pictures from the Bible; No Such Word as Fail; Patient Waiting No Loss; Contentment Better than Wealth; All’s Not Gold that Glitters; Out of Debt, Out 0 Danger; The Coopers; and The Good Report—- essons for Lent (1867). HAVEN, ERASTUS OTIS, an American M. E. bishop, born in Boston, Mass, in 1820, died in Salem, Oregon, in 1881. In 1848 he entered the Methodist ministry in the New York conference, HAVEN--HAWLUIAN ISLANDS 825 and in 1853 became professor of Latin in Michigan University. From 1856 to 1863 he was editor of the Boston “ Zion's Herald,” during which time he served two terms in the Massachusetts Senate. In 1863 he became president of Michigan University; in 1869 of Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.; in 1872 was made secretary of the M. E. board of education; and from 1874 to 1880 he was chancellor of Syracuse University, N. Y. In the latter year he was ordained a bishop. He published American Progress; The Young Man Advised (1855) ; and Pillars of Truth (1866). HAVEN, GILBERT (1821-80), an American M. E. bishop. In 1846 he became a teacher in Amenia Seminary, N. Y., and in 1851 a member of the New England conference. For the next nine years he preached in churches in Massachusetts, and then traveled in Europe, Palestine, Egypt and Greece. In 1867 he became editor of the Boston “Zion’s Herald," and in 1872 was ordained bishop. He is the author of The Pilgrim/s Wallet, or Sketches of Travel in England, France and Germany; National Sermons; Life of Father Taylor, the Sailor Preacher (1871); and Our Next Door Neighbor, or a Winter in Mexico (1875). HAVEN, JOSEPH (1816-74), an American Con- gregational clergyman. In 1839 he was ordained astor of the Congregational church at Ashland. ass., and from 1846 to 1850 had charge of the Har- vard church, Brookline. In 1850 he was made pro- fessor of mental and moral philosophy in Amherst College, and in 1858 of systematic theology in the Chicago Theological Seminary. He then traveled in Germany, Palestine and Egypt, and from 1873 until his death was professor of mental and moral philosophy in Chicago University. He published Mental Philosophy (1857); Moral Philosophy (1859); Studies in Philosophy and Theology (1869); and Sys- tematic Diyinity (published posthumously, 1875). HAVER,aterm used in Scotch law to denote the person in whose custody a document is. HAVERFORD COLLEGE. See COLLEGES, in these Revisions and Additions. HAVERGAL, FRANCES RIDLEY, an English writ- er, born at Astley, Worcestershire, in 1836, died at Caswell Bay, near Swansea, ‘Wales, June 3, 1879. She displayed great talents as a singer, pianist and organist while a child. NVhen grown up she wrote to give expression to her strong religious feelings. Among her many published books, which are all of a devotional character, we mention: Little Pillows; The Ministry of Song; Morning Bells; Our Work and Our Blessings; Under His Shadow; My King; Kept for the Master’s Use; and Swiss Letters (1882). They are partly in prose and partly in verse. HAVERHILL, a city of Essex county, Mass., pleasantly situated on the Merrimac River, 18 miles from its mouth, and connected with Boston by the Boston and Maine railroad. The principal industry is the manufacture of fine boots and shoes, in the production of which the city ranks third in the country. In February, 1882, a large part of the bus- iness portion of the city was destroyed by fire, in- volving a loss of nearly $2,000,000. Rebuilding was promptly begun. See Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 526- 27, Population in 1880, 18,472; in 1890, 27,322. HAVERHILL, a village and one of the county- seats of Grafton county, N. H., located on the east bank of the Connecticut River. In the township leather, lumber, whetstones, paper, starch and boxes are made. HAVERSTRAW, a post-village and railroad {gnction of Rockland county, N. Y., situated on the udson River, 88 miles from New York city. It has a paper mill, large print works, a rolling mill for copper, and engages extensively in the manufac- ture of brick. HAVILDAR, the highest rank of non-commis- sioned officer among native troops in India and Ceylon. HAVRE DE GRACE, a village of Harford co un- ty, Md., on the south bank of the Susquehanna River. It has a fine harbor, shipyards, a trade in lumber and coal, flour mills, fruit-canning facto- ries, and extensive fisheries. The famous canvas- back ducks are obtained in the vicinity. HAWVAIIAN ISLANDS, a group of 12 islands (8 inhabited and 4 uninhabited) in the North Pacific Ocean. Area, as officially stated in 1891, 6,640 square miles. Population, 80,578. Capital, Honolulu (on the southwest coast of Oahu), with a population of 20,487. For the history, government, productions €51;18(13g3.I‘ly statistics, see Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. REIGNING Mommcn AND FAMILY.-—Queen Liliuo- kalani, eldest sister of the late King Kalakaua I, born Sept. 2, 1838; married to His Excellency John O. Dominis, Governor of Oahu; succeeded to the throne Jan. 20, 1891, on the death of King Kala- kaua. Under Kaméhaméha I the Hawaiian or Sand- wich Islands were united into one kingdom. The second king of the name and his queen died in Eng- land in 1823. Under Kaméhaméha III, the integrity of the kingdom was recognized by England, France and the United States, and subsequently by other governments. This king gave his subjects a consti- tution in 1840, which was revised and extended in 1852, and on his death in 1854 was succeeded by his nephew, Kaméhaméha IV, the husband of Queen Emma, who died in 1863. His brother, Kameha- méha V, succeeded, and proclaimed a revised consti- tution, Aug. 20, 1864. On his death in 1872, without issue, Prince Lunalilo was chosen, on whose death in 1874 the late king Kalakaua was elected, and he was succeeded in 1891 by the present queen. The late king, Kalakaua I, was born Nov. 16, 1836. He was the son of Chiefess Keohokalole and Kapaa- kea; was of pure Hawaiian blood, and akin to the ancient royal family. He was elected king by the Parliament on Feb. 12, 1874, on the death of Luna- lilo I; was crowned February, 1883; was married to Queen Kapiolani (born Dec. 31, 1834, and died in 1888), and died in San Francisco, while on a visit to the United States, Jan. 20, 1891. A new constitution was granted in 1887. The ef- fect of the constitutional changes introduced was to curtail the power of the crown and to extend the popular basis of the government. Under the new constitution, as under the old, there are two houses »—a house of nobles and a house of representa- tives——both consisting of 24 members. Under the former constitution the nobles were nominated by the king. Now both houses are elected by all adult males, subject to the possession of educational qualifications, and, in case of the house of nobles, of a property qualification as well. Representatives (who receive $250 for the term of service) are elected for two years, nobles for six. The two houses sit together, and form the legislature, in which the king’s ministers hold seats ex oflicio, with the right to vote, except on questions of want of confidence in them. There is a privy council, the members of which are appointed by the king; and a cabinet, consisting of a minister of foreign affairs, of the interior, and of finance, and an attorney-general. By an arrangement made in 1889, the Govern- ment of the United States controls the foreign relations of Hawaii. The naval and military forces consist of 250 men, authorized by law, and a volunteer iorce——the Hon- 826 olulu Rifles—of 250 men. All natives are liable to serve if called on. AREA OF THE ISLANDS AND MOVEMENT OF POPU- LATION.-—The areas of the island groups are as follows: Hawaii, 4,210 square miles; Maui, 760; Oahu, 600; Kauai, 590; Molokai, 270; Lauai, 150; Niihau, 97; Kahoowe, 63. According to the census of 1884 there were 51,539 males, 29,039 females. Of the population in 1884, 40,014 were natives, 4,218 half-castes, 2,170 born in Hawaii of foreign parents, 17,939 Chinese, 12,237 foreigners (2,066 Americans, 1,282 English, 9,377 Portuguese, 1,600 Germans, 192 French, 116 Japan- ese, 767 Polynesians). The native population is closely allied to the Maories of New Zealand. At the time of Captain Cook’s discovery of the islands the population numbered probably 200,000. Since then the natives have rapidly decreased, and since the census of 1878 there has been a decrease in the native population of 4,084. The foreign element is, however, rapidly increasing. The total arrivals in 1883 were 11,194 ; departures, 3,535; the immigra- tion in 1884 was 7,654 and emigration 4,941, being an excess of 2,713 arrivals; in 1885 the former 5,410, the latter 1,805, being an excess of arrivals of 3,605; in 1886 there were 3,725 arrivals and 2,189 depart- ures, showing an excess of 1,536 arrivals; in 1887, arrivals 3,250, departures 2,220; in 1888, 5,532 arrivals, 2,890 departures; excess of arrivals, 2,642. Most of the immigrants are Chinese and Japanese. RELIGION, INSTRUCTION, AND FINANCE.—A11 forms of religion are permitted and protected. Nearly all the natives are Christians. The king belongs to the Church of England, of which there is a bishop at Honolulu; there is also a Roman Catholic bish- op, and ministers of various denominations. Schools are established all over the islands, the sum allot- ted for public instruction in 1886-88 being $203,020 yearly. In 1888 there were 189 schools, with 8,770 pupils; of the pupils 5,320 were Hawaiians and 1,227 half-castes. The budget is voted for a biennial period. The following shows the revenue and expenditures in dollars for the last three financial periods: Finances. 1882-84 1884-86 1886-88 Revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,092,085 3,010,655 4,812,576 Expenditures . . . . . . . . 2,216,406 2,988,722 4,712,285 Estimated revenue, 1888-90, $2,618,913; expendi- ture, $3,102,418. The revenue is largely derived from customs ($1,024,365 in 1886-88) and internal taxes ($766,422 in 1886-88), while the largest items of expenditure are for the interior ($1,528,260 in 1886-88), and finances ($727,264 in 1886-88). The debt on June 30, 1888, was $1,936,500. The interest va- ries from 6 to 12 per cent. COMMERCE, Imrorrrs AND Exronrs.—The islands are very productive. Sugar and rice are the sta- ples, while coffee, hides, wool, whale-oil, and bone are also exported. The following figures show the commerce and shipping for 1889: Imports, $5,439,- 000; native exports, $14,040,000; customs receipts, $550,000; ships entered, 288; tonnage, 223,567. Of the exports in 1889 sugar was valued at $13,- 089,302; rice, $451,134; the imports are mainly gro- ceries and provisions, clothing, grain, timber, machinery, hardware, cotton goods. Ninety per cent of the trade is with the United States. Steamers connect the islands with the American continent, Australasia, and China. In the inter- island traffic 20 steamers and a large number of HAWEIS—-HAWKERS schooners are constantly engaged. In 1889 there were 57 vessels belonging to the islands, of 15,403 tons. There are about 56 miles of railway in the islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu. There are tel- egraphs in the islands of Maui, Hawaii, between Hawaii and Oahu, and round the latter island; to- tal length, 250 miles; nearly every family in Hono- lulu has its telephone. In 1887 the total number of letters, etc., transmitted and received by the post- office was 1,574,442 ; there were 54 post-offices. Postal savings banks—depositors, 819; amount, $214,185. Honolulu is lighted by electricity and has lines of tramways. The various islands will shortly be connected by telegraphic cable. HAWEIS, HUGH REGINALD, an English clergy- man and author, born at Egham, Surrey, in 1838. He received his education at Trinity College, Cam- bridge, and graduated in 1859. After being curate of some London churches for six years he was ap- pointed incumbent of St. James church, Marylebone, in 1866. He took a great interest in the welfare of the lower classes, diffused knowledge among them by his Penny Readings, and advocated the opening of the museums on Sundays. In 1868 I-Iaweis was made editor of “Cassell’s Family Magazine,” and in 1885 he visited the United States, where he lec- tured in the larger cities. He has published Music and Morals; Speech in Season; Arrows in the Air; and has contributed articles to several magazines. HAWES, JOEL (1789-1867), an American Congre- gational clergyman. In 1818 he was ordained pas- tor of the first Congregational church in Hartford, Conn., and was sole pastor until 1860, senior pastor until 1864, and pastor emeritus until his death. He published Lectures to Young Men (1828) ; Tribute to the Memory of the Pilgrims (1830); Memoir of Nor- mand Smith ( 1839) ; Character Everything to the Young (1843); The Religion of the East (1845); Washington and Jay (1850), and An Ofiering to Home Mission- aries (1865). HAWESVILLE, the county- seat of Hancock county, Ky., on the Ohio River. Tobacco-raising and coal-mining are the chief occupations. This village is in the center of the Kentucky coal-beds, and eight mines are in operation in the vicinity. HAWKB IT, the Leontodon autumnale, or fall dan- delion, a plant of weedy aspect, belonging to the natural order Composites, closely related to and formerly included with the dandelion, from which it has been separated on account of its feathery pappus. The name is due to the deep tooth-like lacerations of the leaves. The species are natives of Europe, but are naturalized in parts of the United States. HAWKERS, also called PEDDLERS, or, in England, petty chapman, persons who go from town to town, or door to door, selling goods or merchandise, or exercising their skill in handicraft. In the United States hawkers are generally required to take out licenses under the local laws of the several States. In some States and Territories, as Florida and Ari- zona, and in the District of Columbia, commercial travelers must ay alicense-fee of from twenty-five to two hundred) dollars; while in Pennsylvania it is a great misdemeanor to sell goods unless the agent or his principal be a tax-payer of the State. But in many States no such law has ever been en- acted; and in others, as in Montana and Nevada, similar acts, although on the statute-book, are held to be unconstitutional, and are not enforced. In England hawkers who use beasts of burden, and hawkers who go from place to place, hiring rooms or booths for the exhibition of their wares, are by the Hawkers’ act, 1888, required to take out an an- nual or half-yearly license from the excise, which is valid all over the kingdom. These licenses are HAWKESBURY-—HAYES at the rate of $10 per annum. A hawker is not en- titled to sell spirits, but he may sell tea and coffee. He must not sell plated goods without taking out a plate license, nor must he sell by auction without an auctioneer’s license. Any person hawking un- provided with a license, or who refuses to produce the license to any person who calls for it, is liable to penalties. Commercial travelers, book-agents, sellers of fruit, fish, victuals, or coal, also sellers in fairs or markets legally established, do not require either licenses or certificates. HAWKESBURY, a river of New South ‘Wales, which rises in the Cullarin range, and under the names of Wollondilly and N epean flows northeast; then turns as the Hawkesbury southeast, and en- ters the Pacific at Broken bay, about twenty miles northeast of Sydney. Its length is 330 miles, and it is navigable for vessels of one hundred tons as high as VVindsor. The Hawkesbury is crossed by a steel girder bridge (1886-89) on the railway be- tween Sydney and Newcastle. This bridge is one of the largest structures of its kind in the world, and completes the system of railway communica- tion between Brisbane and Adelaide. HAWKESBURY, a Canadian lumbering village of Prescott county, Ont., situated on the Ottawa River, across from Grenville. HAWKINSVILLE, a city and county-seat of Pulaski county, Ga., 40 miles south of Macon. It has cotton ware houses, grist mill, and manufac- tures carriages, wagons and cotton goods. HA\VKES, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866), an Amer- ican Episcopal clergyman. In 1819 he was admit- ted to the North Carolina bar, but after a few years of marked success in the practice of law took up the study of theology, and was ordained deacon in 1827, and priest shortly afterward. In 1829 he be- came assistant rector of Trinity church, New Haven, Conn., and the same year at St. J ames’s, Philadel- ‘ phia. In 1830 he was made professor of divinity in Trinity College, and in 1831 became rector of St. Stephen’s church, New York. From December of 1831 to 1843 he was rector of St. Thomas’s, New York, and from 1845 to 1849 of Christ church, New Or- leans. In the latter year he returned to New York, and became rector of Calvary church. In 1862 he resigned and went to Baltimore, where he became rector of Christ church, but in 1865 returned to New York. He was the author of many important works on legal, ecclesiastical, and other subjects. HAVVKSBEE, or HAUKSBEE, FRANCIS, English natural philosopher, born in the latter half of the 17th century, and died about 1730. He was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society in 1705, and appointed curator of experiments to the society, and in 1723 was elected assistant secretary. He carried further the tentative observations by Dr. Gilbert and Boyle (see Britannica, Vol. VIII, pp. 3-4) on the subject of electricity, and by his exper- iments laid the scientific foundations of that branch of knowledge. He contributed forty-three memoirs to the “Philosophical Transactions,” chiefly on chemistry and electricity, between 1704 and 1713. is chief independent work, published in 1709, was entitled Physico-Mecham'cal Ezrperiments on Various Subjects. He is also well known as the improver of the earlier air-pumps of Boyle, Papin and Hooke, and as the first who used glass in the electrical machine. HAWLEY, a village of Wayne county, Pa., situated on the Lackawaxen River, eight miles southeast of Honesdale. It is a railroad junc- tion, and has a large business in the ‘transfer and forwarding of coal. HAWLEY, Josnrn Roswnnn, a United States Senator, born in 1826. He was admitted to the 82? Connecticut bar in 1850, and in 1857 became editor of the Hartford “ Evening Press,” which was con- solidated with the “ Courant,” of which he is edi- tor, in 1867. He enlisted in the Union army as a lieutenant in 1861; became brigadier and brevet major-general, and in 1866 was mustered out. In April of the same year he was chosen governor of Connecticut, and in 1872 was made a member of Congress. In 1881 he took his seat as a United States Senator, and was reélected in 1887. His term of service expires March 3, 1893. ' HAWSE (akin to Icel. hats, “ the neck”), part of a vessel’s bow, in which the hawse-holes are cut. Through the hawse-holes the cables pass which hold the vessel when she is moored with two an- chors out forward—one on the starboard, the other on the port bow. Hawser is a small cable or a large rope. HAVVTHORNE, JULIAN, an American author, son of Nathaniel Hawthorne, born in 1846. He was engaged in various occupations until 1871, when he decided to devote himself entirely to literature. He has published: Bressant (1873) ; Idolatry (1874) ; Garth (1875) ; Sebastian Strome (1880); Fortune’s Fool (1883); Dust, and Noble Blood (1884); besides numerous novelettes and short stories. He edited his fathers posthumous romance, Dr. Grz'mshaw’s Secret. HAY. See AGRICULTURE and Gnxssns, in these Revisions and Additions. HAY, JOHN, an American author, born in 1838. In 1861 he was admitted to the bar of the Supreme court of Illinois, but immediately afterward became assistant secretary to President Lincoln. He acted also as his adjutant and aid-de-camp, and served for some time under Gen. Hunter and Gen. Gill- more. He was first secretary of legation at Paris, chargé de a fl’aires at Vienna in 1867-68, and then secretary of legation at Madrid. From 1870 to 1875 he was on the editorial staff of the New York “ Tribune,” and from 1879 to 1881 was first assistant Secretary of State. He published Pike County Bal- lads (1871); Castilian Days (1871); and, with John G. Nicolay, History of the Adqm‘m‘stratz'on of Abraham Lincoln. HAYBOTE, an implied right of a tenant to take wood off the land he occupies to repair the hedges, gates and fences thereof. HAYDEN, FERDINAND VANDEVEER (1829-87), an American geologist. In 1853 be explored the “Bad Lands” of Dakota, and in 1854-55-56 was in the basin of the upper Missouri. From 1859 to 1862 he was naturalist and surgeon to the expedition sent out to explore the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers un- der Capt. W. F. Raynolds, and in the latter year became assistant surgeon of volunteers in the United States Army. In 1863 he was promoted full surgeon, and in 1865 resigned with the brevet of lieutenant-colonel. From 1865 to 1872 he was pro- fessor of mineralogy and geology in the University of Pennsylvania. He then became connected again with the government geological surveys. and re- mained in charge of the Montana division until 1886, when failing health compelled him to resign. He was the author of numerous scientific papers and government reports. HAYES, Isxxc ISRAEL { 1832-81). an American ex- plorer of the Arctic regions. In 1853 he sailed as surgeon of the second Grinnell expedition in search of Sir John Franklin, and was the first civilized man to place foot on Grinnell Land. In 1860 Dr. Hayes sailed in command of the United States, and claimed to have reached a point which he called Cape Lieber, in lat 810 35’ N., long. 700 30’ W. Some explorers, however, surmise that his calcula- tions were incorrect, and that he reached Cape 828- HAYES—HAYS Joseph Good, about lat. 80° 15’ N., long. 700 WV. In 1869 Hayes again entered the Arctic Circle in the Panther. During the civil war he was surgeon of volunteers, and attained the brevet rank of lien- tenant-colonel. He published An Arctic Boat Jour- ney (1860); The Open Polar Sea (1867); Cast Away in the Cold: a Story of Arctic Adventure for Boys (1868) ; and The Land of Desolation (1871). HAYES, RUTHEREQRD BIRCHARD, the nineteenth President of the United States, born in Delaware, Ohio, Oct. 4, 1822. He began the practice of law at Lower Sandusky in 1845, and in 1850 removed to Cincinnati, where he was city solicitor in 1859-60-61. At the outbreak of the civil war he was appointed lieutenant-major of the 23d Ohio infantry, and shortly afterward lieutenant-colonel. He distin- guished himself in the campaigns of West Virginia, and in the battles around Winchester. At South Mountain he was severely wounded. In 1864 he was promoted brigadier-general, and the following year was brevetted major-general. From 1864 to 1866 he was a member of Congress from Ohio, and R. B. IIAYS from 1867 to 1875 was governor of the State. In 1876 he was the Republican candidate for President of the United States. At the following election he was chosen over Mr. Samuel J. Tilden, by a major- ity of one vote in the Electoral College, and Mr. Hayes was inaugurated March 5,1877. As Presi- dent his career was marked with moderation,wis- dom, and a sympathy with all true reforms. His independence of character was shown by his vetoes, his steady adherence to principle, and his refusal to pander to more party politics. His term expired March 3, 1881, and Mr. Hayes retired to his home in Fremont, Ohio, to lead a private life. HAYES, WALTER I., a United States Congress- man, born in 1841. He was admitted to the Michi- gan bar in 1863; was city attorney for Marshall; was United States Commissioner for the eastern district of Michigan, and also for Iowa; was city solicitor of Clinton, Iowa, and was district judge of the seventh judicial district of Iowa from 1875 to 1887. He was elected as a Democrat to the 50th Congress, and reélected to the 51st. HAYNAU, JULIUS JAKOB, BARoN voN, Austrian general, born at Cassel, Germany, Oct. 14, 1786, died at Vienna, March 14, 1853. Entering the Aus- trian service in 1801, he became noted during the Italian campaigns of 1848-49 for military skill and ruthless severity. He was engaged in the siege of Venice, when he was summoned by the emperor to Hungary, in May, 1849, to take the supreme command of the forces in that country. The storm- ing of Raab, his victory at Komorn, his occupation of Szegedin, and his victories on the Theiss contrib- uted materially to the final success of the imperial- ists; but his atrocious severity towards the defeat- ed Hungarians excited the detestation of Europe. Appointed governor of Hungary after its pacifica- tion, he was dismissed in 1850 for insubordina- tion. HAYNE, ISAAC, a patriot, born in South Carolina in 1745; was a wealthy planter and iron founder at the beginning of the Revolution, and at the same time was State Senator of South Carolina. He took the field as a captain of artillery. In 1780, when the British invaded his State, Hayne served in a cavalry regiment. At the capitulation of Charleston he was paroled. In 1781 he, with others, was required to join the royal army, and, being as- sured that he would not be made to bear arms against his country he took the oath of allegiance. Afterwards he was summoned to join the army im- mediately, and as this was in violation of the prom- ises made to him he went to the American camp and was commissioned colonel of a militia company. In July, 1781, he captured Gen. Andrew Williamson, a former patriot, who had one over to the British.‘ But the British captured ayne in return, threw him into the provost’s prison, and after a brief ex- amination hanged him at Charleston. HAYNE, PAUL HAMILTON, an American poet, was born at Charleston, S. C., in 1831, and died July 6, 1886, and received his education at the Charleston schools. He published a volume of poems in 1855, a second in 1857, and a third in 1859. During the civil war Hayne wrote some fiery poems which were reprinted in Simms’s War Poetry of the South. In 1872 he published Legends and Lyrics, and in 1873 he edited the Poems of Henry Timrod. HAYNES, WILLIAM E., a United States Congress- man, born in 1829. In 1856 he was elected auditor of Sandusky county, Ohio, and served two terms. In 1861 he enlisted in the Union army, and served till 1864. In 1866 he was appointed collector of in- ternal revenue for the ninth district of Ohio, and held the position one year. Mr. Haynes was a mem- ber of the 51st Congress as a Democrat. HAYS, EDWARD R., a United States Congress- man, born in 1847. He was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1869, and in 1871 removed to-Knoxville, Iowa. He was a member of the 51st Congress. ' HAYS, ISAAC, an American physician, born at Philadelphia in 1796, died there April 12, 1879. He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania and practiced in Philadelphia, especially as an oculist. In 1820 he became editor of the “American Journal of Medical Science,” and had sole charge of it till 1869. In the latter year was associated with him his son, Dr. I. Minis Hays, who still edits the periodi- cal. In 1843 Dr. Hays also established a monthly, called“ Medical News,” and in 1.874 the “Monthly Abstract of Medical Science.” He also edited Wil- son’s American Ornithology, and anumber of medical works. The code of ethics of the American Medical Association was framed by Dr. Hays. It has been adopted by every medical society in the United HAY—HAZEN States. He was president of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences from 1865 till 1869. HAY, SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION or. After a series of very careful experiments, Prof. Cohn, of Breslau, has found that the heating of damp hay to a temperature sufficient to cause spontaneous combustion of it is due to a fungus. He first studied the heat-generating action of Aspergillus fumigatus, which has the bad reputation of heating barley in the course of germination, and of rendering it sterile. Through the effect of the respiration of the little germ, that is to say, through the combus- tion of the starch and other hydrocarburets which the diastasic ferment converts into maltrose and -dextrine, the temperature is raised by about 40 deg. ‘The heating of the germs to more than 60 deg. occurs only through the intervention of the Aspar- gillus, which acts as a ferment. Under these condi- tions, it reaches its greatest development and produces its maximum action. In this state it rapidly burns the hydrocarburets. ' HAYTI, a Republic, formerly a French colony, now governed by a constitution adopted June 14, 1867. Area (embracing the western portion of the island of Hayti), 10,204 square miles. Population (there is no official census) estimated in 1891, by best authorities, at 572.000, about nine-tenths of whom are colored persons. Capital, Port-au-Prince, with a population, in 1891,of about 40,000. For early history, productions, government, and statistics, see Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 543-46. The religion of the Republic is chiefly Roman Catholic. Public elementary education is free. There were in 1891 about 400 national schools, be- sides several private schools, and five public lycées. As a result largely of long-continued civil war, there has been much disorder in financial affairs, and in 1890 there was an external government debt of $4,320,000, and an internal debt of $9,180,000; total, $13,500,000. The army, under a “law of reorganization” passed in 1878, consists nominally of 6,828 men, chiefly in- fantry. There is a special “guard of the govern- ment,” numbering 650 men with 10 generals, who act as aids to the president. In 1890 Hayti had one gun-vessel of 900 tons, a corvette, and two sloops. In 1888 the total imports were valued at 7,543,- 294 piastres; exports valued at 13,250,307 piastres. The chief articles exported were: Coffee, 84,02t,- 583 pounds; cacao, 3,927,089 pounds; mahogany, 39,262 ft.; logwood and cotton, 242,219,476 pounds—— the latter chiefly to France. The following is a list of the presidents of Hayti, from the date of the Republic: Presidents. Assumed Ofliice. Gen. Fabre Geffrard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J an. 23, 1859 Sylvetre Salnave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..March 27, 1867 Gen. NissageSaget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..May 15, 1870 Michel Domin ue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..May 15, 1874 Boisrond Cana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..July 1876 Gen Salomon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Oct. 22, 1879 Gen. Légitime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Oct. 22, 1888 Gen, L. M. L. Hippolyte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Oot. 17, 1889 The present constitutional term is for 7 years; salary of the president, .£4,800—($24,000). The historic outline for the last decade has been largely interwoven with that of San Domingo, which embraces the eastern portion of the island of Hayti. On Jan. 1, 1880, the Republic of Hayti was reported as “tranquil ;” and this state of things continued notwithstanding serious government trouble in San Domingo until 1883, when a negro insurrection broke out in Port-au-Prince; but this was suppressed September 22d, of the same year. In 1886 great troubles arose because of large thefts 829 of funds from the national bank of Hayti, result- ing in convictions of doubtful desert, and imprison- ments against which the English and American governments protested. The prisoners were soon after released. In 1888 a revolution took place in Hayti, and Salomon was deposed. He fled to Cuba August, 1878, and died in Paris, Oct. 19, 1888. A little later an insurrection took place under Gen. Télém- aque, and during the month of October, while en- gaged in an attack on the Palais National at Port- au-Prince he was killed with about 300 of his followers. Gen. Légitime was elected president Oct. 22, 1888, and Gen. Hippolyte was installed as presi- dent at Haytien, Jan. 1, 1889. A conflict of authority and immediate war followed. Légitime was de- feated Jan. 29, 1889, and Gen. Hippolyte was de- feated Feb. 20, 1889; subsequently the latter ad- vanced on Port-au-Prince, and soon became rees- tablished in office. At this writing (June, 1891), another rebellion is reported in progress in Port- au-Prince, and the president is said to have caused many of the leaders to be shot. HAYWARD, the name given in England to one who keeps the common herd of cattle of a town, or of a manor, when the copyhold or other tenants have the right of sending cattle to graze. HAZARD, ROWLANI) GIBSON, an American manu- facturer and philosopher, born at South Kings- ton, R. I., in 1801, died in 1888. Being engaged from his youth in manufacturing pursuits he ac- cumulated a large fortune. In 1841, while in New Orleans, he secured the release from the chain gang of many free negroes who belonged to vessels from the North. He was twice elected to the State legislature of Rhode Island, and in 1866 also to the State Senate. Hazard published a number of phi- losophical treatises. IVe mention his Essay on Lan- guage; Adaptation of the Universe to the Cultivation of the llfind; Decline of Political and Na.tio'no.l1l[oral— ity; Railroad Corporations and the Public; Resources of the United States; Freedom of the Mind in lVilling; and Causation and Freedom. They were written be- tween 1834 and 1869. HAZARD, SAMUEL, an American antiquarian, born at Philadelphia in 1784, died there May 22, 1870. Ebenezer Hazard, the first postmaster-gen- eral of the United States was his father. S. Haz- ard was first engaged in mercantile pursuits, and made several voyages to the East Indies. Inclin- ing toward historical research, he devoted himself to studying and editing documents relating to the early history of Pennsylvania. Among his compi- lations are: Pewnsylrania Register, 16 volumes. fin- ished in 1836; Annals of Peiinsylraizia. embracing the years from 1609 to 1682, published in 1850; and the Pennsylvania Archives, covering the years from 1682 to 1790 (1853). HAZEN, VVILLIAM Banooon, an American general, born at \Vest Hartford, Vt., in 1830, died in 1887. He graduated at West Point in 1855, and served in the eighth infantry against the Indians in Califor- nia, Oregon and Texas. In 1861 he became assist- ant professor of infantry tactics at West Point, and was made a captain in the same year. Soon after this he took command of the forty-first Ohio regi- ment, and joined Gen. Buel1’s army. In 1862 he was appointed to command a brigade. Hazen was with Buell in Alabama, fought bravely at Shiloh, and afterwards drove the Confederates from Dan- ville, Ky. At the battle of Stone River he saved the left wing from being vanquished. After the battle of Chickamauga he deprived the Confeder- ates of the advantages they had gained, and relieved the army at Chattanooga. At Missionary Ridge he captured 18 cannons. During Sherman’s famous march to the sea Hazen commanded a division. 5 830 With this he captured Fort McAllister, Dec.13, 1864, and was promoted major-general of volunteers. Afterwards he took part in forcing Johnston to surrender, and was made commander of the fif- teenth corps, May 19,1865. After the war Hazen was made colonel of the sixth infantry of the Reg- ular Army. In December, 1880, he was appointed chief signal officer, with the rank of brigadier-gen- eral. 1/Vhile in this office he sent Lieut. Greely to Lady Franklin Bay to make meteorological obser- vations, introduced the “cold-wave signals,” pro- moted the use of local and railway weather signals, organized special observations for the cotton-pro- ducing States, established frost warnings, and in- itiated forecasts for vessels coming to this country from Europe. He published: The School of the Army in Germany and France, with a Diary of Siege-Life at Versailles, in 1872 ; Barren Lands in the Interior of the United States, in 1874; and Narrative of lllilitary Service, in 1885. HAZLETON, a city of Luzerne county, Pa. Its location, in the midst of a great coal region, and on two great railroads, the Lehigh Valley and the Pennsylvania roads, has been favorable to its lead- ing industries. Among its manufactures are under- takers’ supplies, pianos and organs, spring guns, iron and flour, and a beef company, established in 1884, does an extensive business. The public schools are excellent. The miners’ new hospital is an ex- tensive and commodious building. There are pub- lic halls and numerous churches. There are two daily, one semi-weekly, and two weekly papers, and three banks in the city. Population in 1880, 7,161; 1890, 11,818. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 549. HEAD BOROUGH, an old Scottish term for the head of a borough, or high constable. HEADLEY. J oEL TYLER, an American author, born at Walton, Delaware county, N. Y., in 1814. After graduating at Union College in 1839 he studied theology at Auburn Theological Seminary, and be- came pastor of a church at Stockbridge, Mass. Ill health soon obliged him to give up pastoral work. In 1842 he went to Europe, and on his return pub- lished Letters from Italy, and the Alps and the Rhine. After this he devoted himself entirely to authorship, and wrote the following biographies: Napoleon and His Marshals; Washington and His Generals; Grant and Sherman (1866) ; Sacred Heroes and llfartyrs; and also the following historical books: History of the War of 1812; The Great Rebellion (1866) ; and The Great Riots of New York (1873). His Sacred Scenes and Characters and Sacred Heroes are of great Bib- lical interest. In 1854 Headley was elected to the State legislature of New York, and in 1855 he was Secretary of State. HEADLEY, PHINEAS CAMP, an American author, born at Walton, N. Y., in 1819. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1847. Afterwards he studied theology in the Seminary at Auburn, N. Y., and held pastorates in the Presbyterian and Con- gregational churches. He published: Historical and Descriptive Sketches of the Women of the Bible (1850) ; Life of the Empress Josephine (1851); popular biog- raphies of Kossuth, Lafayette, Mary Queen of Scots; also Hero Boy, or Life of Gen. Grant; Patriot Boy, or Life of Gen. O. M. Mitchell; Life of Ericsson; also the Life and Military Career of Major-General W. T. Sherman (1865). Among his later works are: Mas- sachusetts in the Rebellion (1866) ; Half-Hours in Bible Lands (1867) ; Court and Camp of David ( 1869) ;Island of Fire (1874); Evangelists in the Church (1875) ; and Public Men of To-day (1882). HEALDSBURG, a city of Sonoma county, Cal., situated on the San Francisco and North Pacific railroad, 66 miles north of San Francisco, and 20 miles from the ocean. It has an academy, a graded HAZLETON——HEARSE school, and manufactories of chairs, baskets and wine. It was incorporated as a city in 1874. HEALY, GEORGE PETER ALEXANDER, an Ameri- can portrait painter, born at Boston, Mass., in 1813. He studied for several years in Paris, and painted afterwards the portraits of Louis Philippe, Marshal Soult, Lewis Cass, Clay, Calhoun, Daniel Webster, Seward, Pierce, Gen. Sherman,.William H. Prescott. H. W. Longfellow, Cardinal McCloskey and Stephen A. Douglas. In 20 years he executed nearly 600 portraits. In 1851 he completed his large histor- ical picture of Webster’s Reply to Hayne, which con- tains 130 portraits and hangs now in Faneuil Hall, Boston. ture representing Franklin urging the claims of the American colonies before Louis XVI, besides a series of 13 portraits. To the Philadelphia centen- nial exhibition he sent portraits of Thiers, the princess of Roumania, Elihu B. Washburn, and Lord Lyons. HEALY, TIMOTHY M., a member of Parliament, born at Bantry, Ireland, in 1855. He took an ac- tive part in the Land League agitation in 1880, and was arrested on a charge of intimidation, but was acquitted at the trial. Elected to parliament without opposition, he took a lively interest in the discussions of the Land bill of 1881, and obtained the insertion of the clause which excluded the im- provements made by tenants from rent. This. clause was since known as the Healy clause. In 1882 he was sentenced to imprisonment for six months for intimidation; but he was released after four months’ service. In 1884 Healy was called to- the Irish bar, and was afterwards one of the coun- sel for the scheduled members before the Parnell commission. In the parliamentary session of 1890* Healy delivered many speeches in Ireland’s cause, and appeared on behalf of the Irish members at Tipperary. - HEARD, J OIIN T., a United States Congressman, born in 1840. He was admitted to the Missouri bar in 1862, and in 1872 was chosen to the State legisla- ture. In 1881 he was elected to the State senate, serving four year s, and then to the 49th, 50th and 51st Congresses. HEARD’S ISLAND, an island in the South Indian Ocean, extending between 530 2' and 530 14' S. lat., and between 730 30’ and 720 30’ E. lon. It is 30 miles long and 10 miles wide, and its highest point, Kaiser Wilhelm Peak, is about 6,000 feet high. The island was discovered by Captain Heard in 1853. HEARING IN PRESENCE: in the law of Scot- land, a hearing of a difficult or important case be- fore the whole of the thirteen judges of the court of session. In England it is not in general com- petent for any court, when equally divided, to order a case to be argued before all the other courts sitting together. HEARING OF A CAUSE, the phrase used in the court of chancery, when the merits of the case and the arguments on both sides are entered u on. PHEARNE, a post-village of Robertson county, Texas, about 3 miles east of the Brazos River,at the junction of the Houston and Texas Central Railroad and the International and Great Northern Railroad. The car shops of the latter railroad are located here. HEARSE, the carriage in which the dead are conveyed to the grave, but originally the term applied to a triangular bar or framework with up- right spikes for holding candles at a church ser- vice, and especially at funeral services. It was originally very simple in form, but in the 15th and 16th centuries hearses or “herses” of great splendor In 1855 he exhibited at Paris a large pic- ' HEARST—-HECKEWELDER came into use, and were erected in the churches over the bodies of distinguished personages. From this the transition to the modern funeral hearse can be easily traced. HE ARST, GEORGE, a United States Senator,born in 1820, died Feb. 28, 1891. In 1865 he was elected to the California State legislature, and in 1886 he became United States Senator to fill the vacancy caused by the death of John F. Miller. In 1887 he was again sent as a Democrat to the United States Senate to succeed A. P. Williams, Republican- HEART’S CONTENT, a port of Newfoundland, beautifully situated on the S. E. side of Trinity Bay, in lat. 470 50’ N., lon. 530 20’ W. It is the landing-place of the Atlantic telegraph cables ex- tending to Valentia, Ireland, and there are over- land wires connecting with St. John’s and Cape Ray. It has a fine telegraph building. Most Of the inhabitants are engaged in fishing. Popula- tion, 900. HEATH, WILLIAM, an American Revolutionary general, born at Roxbury, Mass., in 1737, died there June 24, 1814. He was active in organizing the militia before the Revolution; was a captain in the Suffolk regiment, of which he afterward be- came the colonel, joined the artillery company of Boston, and was chosen its commander in 1770. In 1774-75 he was a member of the Provincial Con- gress, and as provincial brigadier-general he per- formed valuable services in the pursuit of the British troops from Concord on April 19. 1775. He organized and trained the undisciplined forces at Cambridge before the battle of Bunker Hill. Upon the organization of the Continental Army he was commissioned a brigadier-general, and sta- tioned at Roxbury with his command; and on Aug. 9, 1776, he was made a major-general in the Continental Army. In March, 1776, he opposed the evacuation of the city of New York. After the bat- tle of White Plains he took command of the posts in the Highlands. In 1777 he had charge of the prisoners Of Burgoyne’s army at Cambridge. In June, 1779, he took charge of the posts on the Hud- son with 4 regiments, and remained in that v/icinity till the close of the war. After the war he returned to his farm, was a member of the convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, was a State Sena- tor in 1791-92 and probate judge of Norfolk county in 1793. In 1798 he published Memoirs of Major- General William Heatli, containing Anecdotes, and Details of Skirmishes, Battles,etc.,during the American ar. HEAVYSEGE, CHARLEs,a Canadian poet, born at Yorkshire, England, in 1816. After receiving a limited education he became a wood carver, and emigrated to Montreal, Canada, in 1853. There he worked at his trade, but in his leisure hours he studied the Bible and Shakespeare. Frequently he contributed to the daily press, and acquired after a while a reputation as a poet. After his first juvenile effort at poetry, The Revolt of Tar- tarus, and some 50 sonnets, he published Saul, a drama, in three parts, in 1857 ; Count Filippo, or the Unequal Marriage, a drama in 5 acts; Ode on Shakes- peare, and Jephtha’s Daughter (1855). He died in 1876. HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE. See Britannica, Vol. X, pp. 602-07. HECATOMB: in the worship of the Greeks and in other ancient religions, a sacrifice of a large number of victims; properly, although by no means necessarily, one hundred. As early as the time of Homer it was usual only to burn the legs wrapped up in the fat and certain parts of the in- testines,the rest Of the victim being eaten at the festive meal after the sacrifice. In Athens the hecatomb was a most popular form of sacrifice, , 831 while the Spartans limited the number of victims and sacrifices. In the hecatomb, strictly so called, the sacrifice was supposed to consist of one hun- dred bulls, but other animals were frequently substituted. HECKER, FRIEDRICH KARL FRANZ, a German revolutionist, born at Eichtersheim, Baden, in 1811, died at St. Louis, Mo., March 24, 1881. He studied law at Heidelberg, and had afterwards a good law practice at Mannheim, but he entered politics. In 1842 he was elected to the chamber of deputies of Baden. and soon became a prominent member of the opposition. While visiting Berlin he was ar- rested and ordered out of the Prussian domains. This made him popular with the revolutionary class. In 1846-47 he was the leader of the extreme left in the Baden Diet. At Heidelberg he appeared in 1848 as a red-hot republican and socialist-demo- crat, and with the aid of Struve tried to unite the _ South-Germans in a revolutionary movement. Soon he placed himself at the head of columns of armed workingmen, unfolded the banner of the social republic, and advanced into the southern (Black Forest) part of Baden. Gen. Siegel was the military leader. They were beaten by the Baden soldiery at Kandern, May 20, 1848, and had to re- treat into Switzerland. In September of the same year Hecker emigrated to America, but was re- called by the provisional government erected in Baden in 1849. Before his arrival in Baden the new government had, however, collapsed, and Hecker returned at once to America, settling as a farmer near Bellevills, Ill., and became a citizen of the United States. In 1856 he was a prominent speaker in behalf of the Republican party. The first German Illinois regiment was raised by him in 1860. He served in Gen. Fremont’s division as colonel of this regiment, and afterwards as brigadier-general under Gen. Howard. At the battle of Chancellorsville he was wounded. In March, 1864, he resigned, and retired to his farm. In the winters he often delivered popular lectures to German-Americans. During the Franco-German war he hoped that Germany would soon be ripe for a republic, but after visiting Germany in 1873 he felt disappointed by the actual political condition in Germany. HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS, an American clergy- man, the founder of the Paulists, born at New Ydrk in 1819, died in 1889. In 1843 he joined the Brook Farm community, near Boston, where for 9 months he baked the bread eaten by the members. After this he worked with his two brothers in the flour business, and gave the workmen frequent lectures. In 1845 he became a Roman Catholic; went to Germany to study for the priesthood; joined the Redemptorist fathers in Belgium in 1847, and was ordained priest in London in 1849 by Cardinal Wiseman. After being released from connection with the Redemptorists, he founded in 1858 the new congregation of the missionary priests of St. Paul (the Paulist fathers), having their prin- cipal house in New York city. The members take no vows, and any priest can leave the order when he chooses. They are nearly all Americans con- verted from Protestantism. Hecker established “The Catholic World,” a monthly periodical, in 1855; wrote the Questions of the Soul; Aspirations of Nature, and a pamphlet on llfartin Luther (l883)s and many other papers. ’ HECKEWELDER, JOHN GOTTLIEB ERNST, an American Moravian missionary to the Indians, born at Bedford, England, in 1743, died at Bethlehem, Pa.. Jan. 21, 1823. His father brought him to Penn- sylvania in 1754, where he was afterwards appren- ticed to a cooper. In 1762 he visited the Indian 832 11 E C K L E S tribes on the Ohio with Christian F. Post, a colo- nial Indian agent, and in 1771 he became a mis- sionary to the Delaware Indians. In 1792 and 1793 he accompanied the United States commissioners sent to make treaties with several Indian tribes near the Great Lakes. After staying in Ohio for some years as postmaster, justice of the peace, and also of the court of common pleas, he retired to Bethlehem, Pa., where he studied the languages and customs of the Indians, especially the Dela- wares, and wrote a History of the Indians of Penn- sylvania (1819) ; Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren Among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians (1820); and a collection of Names Which the Dela- ware Indians Gave to Rivers, Streams and Localities Within the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Mary- land and Virginia, With Their Signiflcations (1822). HECKLES (Mid. Eng., hekele, from the Dutch helcel, traak, “a hook”), very important parts of various machines employed in the preparation of animal and vegetable fibers for spinning. They consist of a series of long metallic teeth, through which the material is drawn so that the fibers may be combed out straight and so fitted for the sub- sequent operations. Gills are heckles with finer teeth. Heckling is also now the received term for the rough and trying process of catechization to which Parliamentary candidates and members are subjected by their British constituencies. HECTIC FEVER (Gr., hektilcos, “ habitual”), the name given to the fever which occurs in connection with certain wasting diseases of long duration. It is one of the most serious and constant symptoms of consumption, and seems to be directly related to the progressive emaciation which marks the course of that malady. In the morning the pa- tient’s temperature may be normal, but towards evening or after eating he grows hot and flushed, and there is a preternatural vividness of expres- sion, which, with the heightened color, sometimes gives a very fallacious impression of health. The patient retires to bed, has uneasy sleep, and wakens in the middle of the night or towards early morn- ing, bathed in cold perspiration, and in a state of extreme languor. The same exhausting cycle re- peats itself day after day. The only radical way of treating the fever is to cure the disease on which it depends. When the symptom itself must be combated, a pill containing a grain of sulphate of quinine, with half a grain of digitalis and as much of Dover’s powder, taken three times a day, is often serviceable. HEDDING, ELIJAH, bishop in the Methodist Episcopal church, born at Pine Plains, N. Y., in 1780, died at Poughkeepsie, April 9, 1852. He be- came a Methodist in 1799, and was licensed to preach in 1800. He preached in Northern New York, Vermont and New Hampshire, enduring sometimes great hardships. In 1807 he was ap- pointed presiding elder of New Hampshire district, and in 1808 was a delegate to the general confer- ence at Baltimore. After 25 years of itinerant labors he was elected and ordained bishop, and for nearly 28 years longer served his church with great zeal. During his episcopate he lived mostly at Lynn, Mass., but in 1851 he removed to Pough- keepsie, N. Y. Hedding assisted in founding “Zion’s Herald,” the first Methodist Episcopal journal in the United States, subsequently merged in the “Christian Advocate.” He was an eloquent preacher, forcible and convincing, yet pleasant and cheerful in private life. HEDGE, FREDERICK HENRY, an American clergy- man and author, was born at Cambridge, Mass., in 1805, died in 1890. In charge of George Bancroft he was educated in Germany. On his return to --HEIGHTS America he studied theology at the Cambridge Divinity School, and in 1829 became pastor of the Unitarian church at West Cambridge. In 1835 he took charge of a church at Bangor, Me., and in 1850, after spending a year in Europe, he became pastor of the Westminster church at Providence, R. I., from which he removed to Brookline, Mass., in 1856. In|1858 Hedge became professor of ec- clesiastical history in the theological department of Harvard College, and edited at the same time the “Christian Examiner.” In 1872 he assumed the professorship of the German language in the same college. Besides many poems and frequent con- tributions to the “North American Review” and other periodicals, Dr. Hedge published The Prose Writers of Germany (1848); Reason in Religion (1865); The Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition (1870) ; A Christian Liturgy for the Use of the Church, etc. He also wrote hymns for the Unitarian church and published translations from the Ger- man poets. HEDGE—MUSTARD (Sisymbrium), a genus of plants of the natural order Crucifera, annual or rare- ly perennial herbs, with various foliage, small yellow or white flowers, and a long roundish or six-angled pod (silique). Several species are natives of Britain, of which one, the common hedge-mustard (S. ojficinale), was once employed in medicine. It is said to be diaphoretic and expectorant, and has a mild pungency. It is an annual plant, some- times two feet high, branched, with renunciate or deeply-lobed leaves, stem and leaves hairy, flowers very small and yellow, and it is sometimes culti- vated as a pot herb. The pods are erect and closely pressed to the stalk. HEEN, CHOW, TING AND FOO, Chinese geo- graphical terms used to designate the relative rank of cities and districts. Generally speaking, however, the terms designate the rank of cities, from foo, the chief, to heen, the least in size. HEFELE, KARL J OSEPI-I, voN, German theo- logian, born at Unterkochen, in \Viirtemburg, March 15,1809 He studied at Tiibingen, and in 1836 became privatdocent, and in 1840 professor of church history and Christian archaeology, in the Catholic theological faculty of that University. In 1869 he was made bishop. As a member of the Vatican council, he voted against Papal infalli- bility, but afterwards submitted. He became widely known as an eminent church historian through his Apostolic Fathers (1839) ; Review of Wes- senberg’s Church Councils (1841); History of the Christian Councils (1855-74) ; Pope Honorius, Cardi- nal Ximenes (1851); Contributions to Church History, and other works. HEGESIPPUS, the earliest of the Christian church historians. Of his life we know nothing save that he was almost certainly a Jewish con- vert, and that he flourished about the middle of the 2d century. He must have written most of his history previous to A. D. 167, and probably pub- lished it early in the episcopate of Eleutherus. His work was entitled Five Memorials of Ecclesiastical A_fi"airs, and appears not to have been a complete and continuous history, although extending from the death of Christ to the writer’s own age. Unhappily it survives only in a few fragments which Eusebius had embodied in his own history, the most impor- tant of which are his account of the martyrdom of St. James and also of St. Simeon of Jerusalem. HEIGHTS may be determined by four methods: by trigonometry, by leveling, by ascertaining and comparing the atmospheric pressure at top and bottom of the height by the barometer, or by ascer- taining and comparing the boiling point of water at the top and bottom by the thermometer. HEINS1US—HELIOCENTRIC HEINSIUS, Anrnonv, a Dutch statesman, born at Delft, Dec. 22, 1641, died Aug. 13, 1720. He studied law at Leyden ; in 1688 became grand pen- sionary of Holland, and as the close friend of Wil- liam III (of England) guided Dutch politics till his death. HEINTZELMAN, SAMUEL PETER, an American soldier, born at Manheim, Lancaster county, Pa., in 1805, died in 1880. He graduated at West Point in 1826; spent several years in border service as lieutenant, served during the Mexican war as captain, and was on the 9th of October, 1847, bre- vetted major for bravery. He then organized a battalion of recruits and convalescent soldiers at Vera Cruz, and marched them to the City of Mex- ico. After serving in California against the Indians and on the Rio Grande against Mexican marauders, he was brevetted lieutenant-colonel in May, 1861, for meritorious services, and was made inspector-general of the United States forces with headquarters at VVashington. Afterwards he com- manded a division of McDowell’s army at the battle of Bull Run, and was wounded. In March, 1862, Heintzelman was in command of the third army corps; took an active part in the battles of Wil- liamsburg and Fair Oaks; in the seven days’ fight- ing around Richmond; in the second battle of Bull Run, and commanded the defenses of Washington. He was now major-general. After the war he served in New York harbor and Texas as colonel of the 17th infantry. In April, 1869, he was placed on the retired list with the rank of major-general. HEIR AND EXECUTOR, a short phrase to de- note that branch of the law in which a leading dis- tinction is made between the two kinds of property left by a deceased person, real and personal. If real, it goes to the heir-at-law; if personal, it goes to the executors or administrators. In Scotland the same leading distinction exists under the head of heritable and movable, but in Scotland some things are classed among heritable which in Eng- land would not be classed among real property. HEIR-APPARENT, in English law, means the person who is certain to succeed if he outlive his ancestor; thus the eldest son is so, because no other person can ever come between and obtain precedence. HEIR—FEMALE, the female heir through a female. HEIRESS, a female heir when there are no male heirs to succeed. When there are several females, all sisters, who are in that case equally entitled, they are sometimes called co-heiresses. HEIRESS: in heraldry,a lady is accounted an heiress if she has no brothers who leave issue. HEL: in Norse mythology, the goddess of the dead, and daughter of the evil-hearted Loki. The All- father hurled her down into Niflheim, and gave her authority over the lower world. She was of fierce aspect, and to her were assigned the characteristics of insatiable greed and pitilessness. After the diffusion of Christianity the ideas personified in Hel gradually merged, among the races of Scandi- navian and German descent, in the local conception of a hell, or dark abode of the dead. HELENA, a city and county-seat of Phillips county, Ark., situated on the Mississippi River and containing Southland College. HELENA, the capital of Montana and county- seat of Lewis and Clarke county, situated among foot-hills in the Prickly Pear valley, about fourteen miles from the Missouri River, and with the Rocky Mountains rising behind the city to the south. The Northern Pacific Railroad passes through Helena, and the city is connected with the Canada Pacific and the Union Pacific roads, and by branch lines with connected 833 Several mining camps. Many of the streets are wide and straight, shaded with rows of cottonwood trees, and faced with handsome residences and business premises, and well lighted with gas and electricity. There are six street railways. A board of trade was organized in 1887. There are thirty-four graded schools, a high school and a number of private and parochial schools. Montana University, opened in 1890, is located outside the city. Charitable institutions are numerous, in- dustries of nearly every type are pursued, and nearly all religious denomi nations are represented by the churches of the city . Gold was found here in 1864, and the camp was known as Last Chance Gulch until December of that year, when it re- ceived its present name. Population in 1890, 13,834. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 774. HELIACAL RISING( from Gr. helios. “the sun”). A star is said to rise heliacally when it rises just before the sun. When the sun approaches a star which is near the ecliptic, the star becomes for a time invisible; the heavens being too bright in the quarters of sunrise and sunset, at the times of its rising and setting, to allow it to be seen. But when the sun, progre ssing in its orbit, sepa- rates from the star, and the latter begins to rise first, it in time rises so much earlier than the sun as just to be visible before daylight. It is then said to rise heliacally. HELICID./E (Gr. helirr, “a spiral”), a large family of terrestrial air-breathing (pulmonate) gastero- pods, of which snails are fam iliar examples. HELIGOLAND (“Holy Land”), an island thirty- six miles north of the Elbe mouth (see Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 630). It consists of a rock 200 feet high, on which are a village and a light-house. It is the resort of bathers from Hamburg. During 1890 the announcement of its proposed transference, under the terms of the Anglo- German agreement respecting Africa, from Brit- ish to German rule came as a complete sur- prise upon the public of both countries, and various opinions were speedily elicited as to the propriety of the step contemplated. In England the value of the island as a naval station was strongly insisted upon; it was declared that the Heligolanders them- selves were bitterly averse to the change, and Lord Salisbury was loudly reproached in some quarters for not having ascertained more carefully thei1 views upon the subject. The protests, however proved unavailing, and on August 9 the island was formally handed over to Germany; the ceremony being followed by the visit of the German emperor on the next day, when a proclamation was read in which his Majesty promised the utmost care for the rights and wishes of the islanders, and announced that all living males would be exempt from com- pulsory military and naval service, to which they have a remarkable abhorrence. The revenue of the island in 1888 was slightly over $40,000, and the ex- penditure over $35,000. HELLER, STEPHEN, German pianist and musical composer, born at Pesth, May 15, 1814, died at Paris Jan. 14, 1888. He made his début as a pianist when only nine years of age, and before he was sixteen had played in many of the principal cities of Europe. In 1830 he settled in Augsburg, and began the study of composition. In 1838 he re- moved to Paris, where he occupied himself with composing and teaching until his death. His works are distinguished by originality and refine- ent. HELIOCENTRIC: in astronomy, having the sun (Gr. helws) as centre of reference; the heliocentric place of a planet being opposed to its geocentflt (Gr. gé “earth”), its place as seen from the earth. 2-16 834 HELL GATE, named by the Dutch settlers of New York Helle Gat, is a pass in the East River, between New York City and Long Island, formerly very dangerous to vessels from its numerous rocks and its rapid currents. These rocks and reefs were in mid-channel, and projected also from several small rocky islands. The largest were known as the Gridiron, Flood Rock, Hen and Chickens, Negro Head, Bread and Cheese, Hallett’s Point, Way’s Reef, Pot Rock, Frying Pan, Middle Reef, etc. In 1851 attempts were made to blast away the obstructions, and in these operations Maillefert’s process of surface-blasting was em- ployed. This consisted in placing charges of gun- powder, usually 125 pounds, on the surface of a rock and exploding the powder by means of an electric current. The rocks thus operated upon were Pot Rock, Frying Pan, Way’s Reef, Bald- headed Billy, Sheldrake Rock, and Diamond Reef. On all of them the depth of the water was in- creased, in some cases only 2 feet, and in others as much as 10 feet. These improvements consumed over 74,000 pounds of gunpowder, and cost about $14,000. The money was furnished by New York City. In these operations the broken material was not dredged or otherwise cleared away. The depths obtained were not sufficient for first- class vessels. Besides, a number of other obstruc- tions remained in the channel. The U. S. Govern- ment, therefore, appropriated $20,000 in 1852; and Major Frazer, U. S. E., continued the surface- blasting on Pot Rock in the same year, thereby in- creasing the depth of the water over this rock from 18 to 20 feet. By this time it was deemed necessary to adopt other methods of working. Drilling under water through diving-bells was im- possible, because the current runs too fast and the space was too small. The question arose, How can this work be done successfully? No satisfactory lan was devised until 1866, when Gen. John ewton, U. S. E., proposed drilling from a fixed platform through tubes reaching to the surface of the rocks. Congress made now sufficient appropri- ations for the work. In 1869 Newton used a floating scow having a central opening of 32 feet diameter, through which a large hemispherical iron bell, open both at top and bottom, was lowered to the rock below. This dome-like caisson, made of boiler iron, afforded a frame—work for supporting 21 drill tubes. Drills weighing from 600 to 900 pounds worked through these tubes. The bell had legs which could be let out or drawn in to fit the rock. Cams were used to hold the legs in place. After the drilling was completed the drill-holes were filled by a diver, who inserted charges of nitro-glycerine and made the electrical connections with the fuses. After this the scow was floated away and the blasts fired. The broken rock was removed by means of a steam grapple. In 1871 Newton used a steam-drilling scow on the Diamond Reef. He now drilled holes from 7 to 13 feet deep and 4 inches in diameter. He fired them with charges of from 30 to 55 pounds of nitro- glycerine. In 1871 he operated in like manner on Coenties Reef; in 1872 on the Frying Pan and Pot Rock. In that year the scow was struck 16 times by colliding vessels, and four of the latter were sunk by it. One vessel was drawn under the scow and carried off its dome; but the dome was after- wards recovered in a damaged condition. In 1874 Newton reduced Way’s Reef from 17 feet to a depth of 26 feet. The most difficult problem was the removal of the reef at Hallett’s Point. To accomplish this he sank a large shaft on shore in 1869. From this HELL'\GATE shaft 41 radial and 11 concentric galleries of vari. ous cross-sections were driven under the reef. The length of all these galleries together amounted to nearly 1% miles. Diamond drills, Ingersoll drills, Burleigh drills and hammer drills were all used in this work. The excavations were completed in June, 1876. Then holes were drilled in piers and roofs for the charges. From Sept. 11, 1876, till the 20th of the same month was occupied by charging the holes. Twenty-three distinct galvanic batter- ies, aggregating 960 cells of zinc and carbon, were arranged to fire 160 fuses each; 3,680 mines were connected in continuous series with a lead and re- turn wire, so that the circuits of all could be closed with one circuit-closer—i. e., by pressing down a button. After everything was ready the mines were tamped by water run in through a syphon; and on Sunday, Sept. 24, 1876, they were fired at 2.50 P. M. without any hurtful shocks to sur- rounding objects. The water was thrown up to a height of 123 feet. The total expense of this blast was $81,092. Flood Rock, situated in mid-channel, was still projecting above water, and constituted a danger- ous reef. Work tending to its removal began June, 1875, by sinking a shaft 10 feet by 20 feet down through the rock. During the following year the mine was filled with water. Want of appropria- tions caused several suspensions, which added con- siderably to the cost of the work, in consequence of the pumping required to free the mine from the water flowing into it by some large seams. In 1874 the undermined area covered 9 acres. The total length of the galleries, 10 feet square, was 21,670 feet. The drill-holes for breaking up the roof and columns amounted to a total length of 113,000 feet, or over 20 miles. For charging the drill-holes cartridges 2 feet long were inserted and held in place by 4 small wire legs. These cartridges were filled with “ rackarock,” a mixture of 79 per cent. of finely ground chlorate of potash with 21 per cent. of dinitro-benzole. After filling the drill- holes with several rackarock cartridges, a dyna- mite cartridge, 15 inches long, with a fulminate of mercury exploder, was inserted. The mine was fired by primary charges of dynamite placed at in- tervals of 25 feet along the galleries, lashed to some timbers. Their explosion produced a concus- sion strong enough to ignite the fulminate primers in the charges of rackarock. By this “sympathetic” method the entire mine, containin over 120 tons of rackarock and 42,000 pounds 0 dynamite, was simultaneously exploded, on Oct. 10, 1884. The bat- tery contained 60 bichromate cells connected to- gether in series. When the elect ‘ic contact was made a dull thud was heard, the earth shook for a considerable distance, and an immense mass of water was thrown some 200 feet up into the air. But no damage was done except the breaking of a few dozen panes of glass and shaking down some loose brick and plaster in Astoria. NO severe shock was felt anywhere. Yet the entire roof of the mine was shattered, and about 500,000 tons of rock were loosened. The total expense of this blast was $106,509. Immediately after this explosion dredging was commenced with the Government scow, but in October, 1885, a contract was let for the removal of 30,000 tons of loosened rock, and afterwards other similar contracts were let. About 120 tons were re- moved daily for a considerable time. But there are some of the rocky obstructions yet to be re- moved, inasmuch as the mean low-water depth is not quite 26 feet over the Diamond Reef, Coenties Reef, a reef near the North Brother's Island, and the Pilgrim Rock, which have been included in HELMET-SHELL—HENDRICKS the projected improvements. Both the main and Eastern channels, however, now afford passages Wide and dee enough for the largest vessels. HELMET- HELL, the shell of a mollusk be- longing to the genus Oassis, a thick heavy shell, with bold ridges, a short spire, and a long aper- ture, the outer lip toothed, the canal recurved. There are numerous species, most of them found in tropical seas, some in the Mediterranean. The shells are made up of differently colored lay- ers, and are much used for the manufacture of cameos. HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN von, German scientist, born at Potsdam, Aug. 31, 1821 ; studied medicine at Berlin, was at first a surgeon in the army, then assistant in the Berlin anatomical museum. He was professor of physiology at Kbnigsberg, 1849- 55, ,from 1855 at Bonn, and from 1858 at Heidelberg. In 1871 he became professor of physics at Berlin. Helmholtz is equally distinguished in physiology, in mathematics, and in experimental and mathe- matical physics. His physiological works are principally connected with the eye, the ear, and the nervous system. He is the inventor of the ophthalmoscope, and has made discoveries of the first importance in acoustics. He was elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1870, and was ennobled by the Emperor of Germany in 1883. His principal works are his paper on Conservation of Energy (Ueber ol. Erhaltung d. Kraft, 1847) ; Popular Science Lectures (Popultire wissenschaftliche V or- triige, 1865-76) ; his great work on the Sensations of Tone (Die Lehre der Tonempfinclangen, 1862); and his Scientific Treatises ( Wissenschaftliche Abhand- lungen, 1881-83). HELOSTOMIDZE, a peculiar family of acan- thopterygian fishes. The mouth is small, having movable teeth on the lips. In most other respects they agree with the Anabantidw, and are frequently classed with them in the same family. They are represented by the genus Helostoma, peculiar to the fresh waters of Java, Sumatra and Borneo. HEMATOCELE, a tumor containing blood; op- posed to hydrocele, a dropsical swelling. HEMIBRANCHII. an order of teleocephalous fishes, having the palatine bone directly articu- lated with the quadrate, imperfect branchial arches, and a peculiar structure of the shoulder- girdle. Six families are referred to this order: the Gasterosteiolae or sticklebacks, Fistulariidee or pipe- fishes, Aalorhynchiolae, Aulostomiolaz, Centriscidee and Amphisiliolae. HEMITRIPTERID./E, a family of acanthoptery- gian fishes, represented by the genus Hemitripterus. It includes Cottoidea having numerous vertebrae (16 abdominal plus 23 caudal), an elongated spinous dor- sal fin, imperfect ventrals enveloped in a thick skin, and inflated head with prominent orbits. The family is represented on the coasts of the United States by a species known as the deep-water scul- pin, H emitripterus Acadianus. HEMLOCK, or Hnnnocx Srsucn. See FIR, Vol. IX, pp. 222-25. HEMP. See Brittanica, Vol. XI, pp. 647-49. 'HEMPHILL, J onu J., a United States Congress- man, born in 1849. He was admitted to the South Carolina bar in 1870. In 1876 he was elected as a Democrat to the legislature, and reélected in 1878 and 1880. He was a member of the 48th, 49th, 50th, and 51st Congresses. - HEMPSTEAD, a village of Queens county, N. Y., in Hempstead township, situated on the Long Island Railroad, 21 miles east of New York City. It has Hempstead Institute, public halls, a semi- nary, and many fine residences. The township of Hempstead is bounded on the south by the Atlan- 835 tic Ocean, and includes Rockaway, a fashionable bathing-place. Population in 1890, 23,517. HEMPSTEAD, a railroad junction and county- seat of Waller county, Texas. It has a cotton fac- tory, and manufactures cotton-seed oil. HENDECAGON, or ENDECAGON: in geometry, a plain figure of eleven sides and as many angles. The area of a regular or equilateral endecagon is very nearly equal to 9.36564 times that of the square of one of its sides. HENDERSON, a railroad junction and county- seat of Vance county, N. C. Its principal industry is connected with tobacco. HENDERSON, the county-seat of Henderson county, Ky., on the Ohio River, 212 miles southwest of Louisville. It has car works, wagon and car- riage factories. HENDERSON, the county-seat of Rush county, Texas. It is the seat of Henderson College. HENDERSON, DAVID BREMNER, a United States Congressman, born in 1840. He was admitted to the Iowa bar in 1865. In 1861 he enlisted in the Union army, and served until discharged in 1863, owing to the loss of his leg. He re'entered the army the following year as colonel. and served un- til 1865, when he became collector of internal reve- nue for the third district of Iowa. He resigned in 1869, and became assistant United States district attorney for the northern division of the district of Iowa, and served two years. He was chosen as a Republican to the 48th, 49th, 50th and 51st Con- gresses. HENDERSON, JAMES PINCKNEY, an American soldier and statesman, born in Lincoln county, N. C., in 1808, died in Washington, D. C., June 4, 1858. After studying law he moved to Mississippi in 1835, and practiced law there until the Texas troubles began. He volunteered in the Texan army, and was appointed brigadier-general in 1836. When the army was disbanded, President Houston ap- pointed Henderson attorney-general of Texas. Subsequently he was Secretary of State. In 1839 he was sent to England and France in order to procure the recognition of Texan independence. In 1844 he was special minister to the United States to negotiate the annexation of Texas. In 1846 Henderson was a member of the State consti- tutional convention, and when the constitution was ratified he was elected governor of Texas. In the Mexican war he took command of the Texan corps of volunteers, distinguished himself at Mon- terey, an\d received afterwards the thanks of Con- gress and a sword for bravery in action. In 1857 he was chosen a United States Senator, and took his seat in March, 1858. HENDERSON, J onx STEELE. a U. S. Congress- man, born in 1846. He entered the Confederate army in 1864, and served through the war. In 1876 he wasa member of the North Carolina legisla- ture, and of the State Senate in 1878. In 1881 he was elected one of three commissioners to codify the statute laws of the State, and in 1884 became presiding justice of the inferior court of Rowan county. He was elected as a Democrat to the 49th, 50th and 51st Congresses. HENDERSON, Tnonxs J., a United States Con- gressman, born in 1824. In 1852 he was admitted to the Illinois bar, and was a member of the legis- lature in 1855 and 1856, and of the State Senate in 1857, 1858,1859 and 1860. In 1862 he entered the Union army, and served till the close of the war, receiving the brevet of brigadier-general. He was aRepublican member of consecutive Congresses from the 44th to the 51st, both inclusive. HENDRICKS, Tnomas Annnnws, an American statesman, born near Zanesville, Ohio, in 1819, 836 died suddenly at Indianapolis, Nov. 25, 1885. He graduated at South Hanover College, Ind., in 1841, studied law at Chambersburg, Pa., and was ad- mitted to the bar there in 1843. He afterwards practiced law at Shelbyville. Ind., very success- fully. In 1850 he was elected to the State conven- tion to revise the constitution of Indiana. From 1851 to 1855 he was a member of Congress, after which President Pierce appointed him commis- sioner of the U. S. general land ofiice. In 1863 Mr. Hendricks was elected to the U. S. Senate from Indiana, and was one of the leaders on the Demo- cratic side. In 1872 he became governor of Indi- diana. After the expiration of his term, Mr. Hen- dricks continued to practice law at Indianapolis until 1884, when, after the nomination of Grover Cleveland for President at the Chicago conven- tion, he was unanimously nominated for Vice- President, and in November was elected. He was an effective public speaker and an earnest Demo- crat. HENLE, FRIDERICH GUSTAV JAKOB, born at Fiirth, Bavaria, July 9, 1809, died May 18, 1885. He graduated M.D. at Bonn in 1832; was for a time assistant in the anatomical museum at Berlin, be- came professor of anatomy at Ziirich 1840—44, at Heidelberg 1844-52, and in the latter year accepted a similar professorship at Gtittingen. Among his works are: Ueber Schleim and Eiterbildung (1838); Vergleichende Anatomie cles Kehlkopfes (1839); Path- ologische Untersuchungen (1840); Hanclbach der all- gemeinen Anatomic (1841) ; Handbuch der rationellen Pathologie, and Handbuch der Systematischen Anato- rme. HENNEPIN, the county-seat of Putnam county, Ill. It is connected with Chicago by the Illinois River and the Michigan and Illinois canal, and is 114 miles southwest of that city. It contains a flour mill and a planing-mill. HENNEPIN, Lours, a French explorer of Amer- ica, born at Ath, Belgium, in 1640, died in Holland in 1702. He entered the order of Recollets of St. Francis, and was employed by his brethren to solicit alms at different p1aces—among others at Dunkirk and Calais, where the stories related by the sailors stimulated his desire to visit foreign countries. Afterwards he traveled in Germany and Italy, and was regimental chaplain at the battle of Seneffe, between the Prince of Condé and William of Orange. In 1673 he was ordered to Canada, where he preached for some time at Quebec, and founded a convent at Fort Frontenac. Father Hennepin went first to Niagara with La Salle’s expedition (see Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 318, 319), and took part in navigating Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan as far as Mackinaw. Then they sailed down to the Illinois River as far as Peoria, where La Salle built Fort Crévecoeur. Thence Hennepin set out with two men in a canoe in 1680, descended the Illinois to its mouth, and, after sailing up the Mississippi River for some weeks, fell into the hands of a large party of Sioux Indians, who carried him and his men to their country. Here he discovered and named the Falls of St. Anthony. He spent eight months among the savages. Then Daniel Greysolon de Luht, who had come by way of Lake Superior, rescued him, and enabled him to reach Green Bay by way of the Wisconsin River. Hennepin returned to Quebec in April, 1682, and soon afterwards returned to France, where he published his Description de la Louisiane, nouvellement Découverte au Suolouest ole la Nouvelle France (1683). He was appointed guar- dian of the convent of Renty, in Artois, but he soon withdrew to Holland. After laying aside his religious dress he lived in England. where he pub- HENLE-JHENSON . lished his New Discovery of a Vast Country in Amer- ica (1698). His last work is Nouveau Voyage dans un Pays plus Grand que l’Europe entre la Mer Gla- ciale et le Nouveau Meccique (1698). ’ HENNINGSEN, Cnxanns FREDERICK, an Eng- lish soldier and author, born in England of Swedish parents in 1815. He joined the Carlist army in Spain in 1834, and became colonel of cavalry after the battle of Vielas de los Nevarros. He was afterwards taken prisoner and released on parole. Then he served in the Russian army in Circassia, and afterward joined Kossuth in the Hungarian revolution, becoming commander of the fortress Comorn. Coming to America in Kos- suth’s interest, he joined in 1856 William Walker in Nicaragua, where he was given command of the artillery. He distinguished himself by his defense of Granada and in the victory of Queresma. After VValker’s surrender to Com. Davis, U. S. N., in 1857, Henningsen returned to the United States. At the outbreak of the civil war he entered the Confederate army as colonel, but was soon after- wards made brigadier-general. He was an able artillerist. Henningsen published: Revelations of Russia (1845); The White Slave, a novel; Eastern Europe; Sixty Hours Hence, a novel of Russian life; Past and Future of Hungary; Personal Recollections of Nicaragua; and various other works, mostly is- sued in London. He died in 1877. HENRY, a village of Marshall county, Ill., situated on the Illinois River and on a railroad, 120 miles south of Chicago. A combined wood and iron bridge spans the river at this point, and here is a lock and dam of the Illinois River Improve- ment. The village contains a paper mill, a wagon factory, and Marshall College, founded in 1855. HENRY, CALEB SPRAGUE, an American clergy- man and author, born at Rutland, Mass., in 1804. He studied theology at Andover and New Haven, and was ordained as a Congregational minister in January, 1829. He first became pastor at Green- field, Mass., and then in West Hartford, Conn. In 1835 he took deacon’s orders in the Protestant Episcopal church, and was ordained priest in 1836. From 1835-38 he was professor of intellectual and moral philosophy in British College, Pa., and from 1839 to 1852 professor of philosophy and his- tory in the New York University. For some time he also performed the duty of chancellor. He was also rector of St. Clement’s ‘church, New York, from 1847 to 1850. During that period he edited the “Churchman,” and was also for a year the polit- ical editor of the New York “Times.” Before this he had founded the “American Advocate of Peace,” which soon became the organ of the American Peace Society; also the New York “Review,” which he conducted till 1840. Among his many published works we mention: Cousin’s Psychology (1834), translated from the French; Compendium of Christian Antiquities; Moral and Philosophical Essays; Guizot’s History of Civilization, with notes; Ancient and Modern History, revised; Epitome of the History of Philosophy; Dr. Oldham at Greystones and His Talk There; Social Welfare and Human Progress; and Satan As a Moral Philosopher. He died in 1884. HEN SON, J osmn, an American clergyman, born at Port Tobacco, Charles county, Md., in 1787, died in Dresden, Ontario, in 1881. He was a negro, and was born and bred as a slave. Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe took his life as the foundation of her novel entitled Uncle Tom’s Cabin. His arms were crip- pled as the result of blows from a Maryland over- seer. Although he paid $500 toward purchasing his freedom, yet his master’s son took him to New Orleans to be sold. The latter was attacked with yellow fever, and the slave accompanied him back IHEPATITIS——HEREDITY to Kentucky and nursed him through his sickness. He finally escaped with his wife to Canada, carry- ing his two children through swamps and thick forests. “Uncle Si,” as he was called, settled on Sydenham River near the present town of Dresden and prospered as a farmer. He was also the pastor of a church. When 52 years old he began to read and write. In 1858 he wrote and published an Autobiography. He went three times to England, lecturing and preaching in various cities, and was in 1876 entertained by Queen Victoria at \Vindsor Cast e. HEPATITIS (Gr. hepar, “ the liver”), inflamma- tion of the liver. HEPPENHEIM, an old walled town of Hesse, situated on the Main-Neckar Railway, 16 miles from Darmstadt. It is noted for the excellent wine produced in the vicinity, and for the ruins of the castle of Starkenburg. Population, 5,000. HEPTAGON, a plane figure of seven sides and seven angles; when the sides and angles are equal the figure is aregular heptagon. Geometers have hitherto failed to discover a method of inscribing the heptagon in or of circumscribing it about a circle, and the problem is believed by many to be impossible of solution by the ancient geometry. HERBARIUM. See Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 715- 718. HERBERT, HILARY A., a United States Con- gressman, born in 1834. He was admitted to the Alabama bar, and then served in the Confederate army until 1864. He was elected as a Democrat to consecutive Congresses from the 45th to the 51st, both inclusive. HERBERT, SYDNEY, Lord HERBERT, of Lea, Eng- lish statesman, born at Richmond, Sept. 16, 1810, died Aug. 2, 1861. Educated at Harrow and at Oriel College, Oxford, he entered the House of Com- mons as member for South Wilts, which he repre- sented until his elevation to the peerage in 1861. He was secretary to the admiralty 1841-45, secre- tary for war 1845-46, 1852-55, and in 1859. He was an able and popular Conservative leader, his army administration being signalized by great improve- ments in the sanitary condition and education of the army, the amalgamation of the Indian with the royal army, and the organization of the volun- teer force. In 1861 he was called to the Upper House under the title of Baron Herbert of Lea. He was heir-presumptive to the 12th earl of Pem- broke, and his son became 13th earl in 1862. HERCULES BEETLE (Dynastes hercules), a gi- gantic lamellicorn beetle from tropical America. The male bears on the thorax an enormous horn, which is met by a shorter upturned horn from the head. The female is without horns, and decidedly smaller. Another species, D. titigus, about two inches in length, occurs in the United States. The genus Megasoma is nearly allied to Dynastes. HERCULES, PILLARS OF, the name given by the ancients to Calpe (now Gibraltar), and Abyla (now Ceuta), two rocky promontories forming the en- trance to the Mediterranean Sea. According to the fable, they were originally one rock, but were torn asunder by Hercules. HERD-BOOK, a book of record containing the 11st of pedigrees of cattle of choice breeds. HEREDITAMENTS, any species of property that may be inherited. See COPYRIGHT, Britannica, Vol. VI, pp. 356-68; PERSONAL ESTATE, Vol. XVIII, pp. 664-65; REAL ESTATE, Vol. XX, pp. 304-08; TITHES, Vol. XXIII, pp. 410-13. HEREDITARY RIGHT: strictly speaking, the right of succession, as an heir-at-law. The founda- tion of this right is nothing but convenience, the principle being that if a man does not by will ap- 837 point his own heir, the law will do it for him, pro- ceeding according to certain degrees of relation- ship. HEREDITY, the general resemblance of chil- dren or young animals to one or both of their par- ents. In some cases this likeness is very close, so that, but for the difference in age, the offspring could scarcely be distinguished from the parent it resembles most. With children this likeness is, however, much less close than with animals. The most generally observed heredity in man is the re- semblance in the external structure, comprising the size and shape of the body, the features, com- plexion, obesity or leanness, and other minor pe- culiarities. Among the latter may be mentioned the anomaly of six fingers and six toes, which has often been transmitted through several genera- tions; of unusually long canine teeth, etc. As to the internal structure, we find that the proportions of the bones and the organs of the body are transmissible characteristics. In some families the heart and the main blood-vossels are very large, while they are small in others. Some fami- lies are more full-blooded than others. In some the nervous and muscular systems are more developed than in others, and this greater or smaller develop- ment runs through many generations. In conse- quence of this we find certain diseases hereditary in some families, while others are free from them; many families are constitutionally weak in certain organs or tissues, while others are strong. Greater or less fecundity, longevity, immunity from infec- tious diseases, keenness of sight, hearing, or smell, personal idiosyncrasies, powers of voice, etc., are all transmissible characteristics. There are also on record many cases of the inheritance of special habits, graceful movements, bodily activity, and great muscular strength. In regard to the intellectual and moral qualities the instances of heredity are too evident and well known to be dwelt upon here. Children resemble their parents very frequently in their passions, pro- pensities, likings or dislikings, in their pride or humility, in their capability and love for music, painting, acting, dancing, etc. The same may be said of their literary or scientific tendency; of their logical, mathematical, and poetical or practical tendencies. There are also cases on record where lunacy was transmitted through many generations; the tend- ency to commit suicide has been traced through four generations; and the alcohol habit has been transmitted through entire communities for cen- turies. Distinctive characteristics—mental as well as bodily ones—of isolated peoples, as the Gypsies, Jews, Chinese, are transmitted through entire nations for thousands of years. This persistent inheritance of peculiarities can- not be the result of chance. It is altogether too general for that. We find it most strikingly exhib- ited in the instincts of the lower animals. Ants, bees, beavers, birds, etc., will now build their habi- tations exactly the same as ants, bees, beavers, birds, etc., built theirs thousands of years ago. The habits, modes of living and the methods of attack- ing their enemies, or of self—defense, etc., remain forever the same in the same genus of animals. We must, therefore, conclude that heredity is a law of nature. As to particular phases of heredity, it is impos- sible that a child should resemble both parents if they are unlike. It will resemble one or the other, or else be intermediate between them in form and character. In most cases it strongly deviates to- wards one of the arents, and shows a less marked influence of the ot er. We find that the character- 838 istics of the father sometimes descend to the son, at other times to the daughter. So the character- istics of the mother reappear as often in her sons as in her daughters. In other, but rarer cases, chil- dren resemble one of their grandparents, or even some remoter ancestor. This indirect heredity is called " atavism.” There are cases on record where characters have appeared that are traceable to some very remote ancestor. Resemblance to an uncle or aunt occurs once in along while also. We call this collateral atavism. When a child is intermediate between its two un- like parents, yet shows the influence of both, this is no exception to the law of heredity, but a proof of it. Sometimes it is very diflicult to trace this or that particular characteristic of the child to either of the parents, and then we speak of excep- tions to heredity with more justification. These exceptions are apparently as numerous as the ac- cordances. They are partly due to the combined influence of both parents upon the child, since a compound of two unlike elements must necessarily differ from either of the elements. The offspring of two markedly different parents, if it is strongly individualized, cannot resemble either. If the two parents are too greatly unlike in organization, de- scent, or color, the offsprin will very likely be an infertile hybrid. And if t ey are too much alike in organization and descent, as branches of the same family sometimes are, then the offspring will be defective in some of the mental faculties or in some bodily development. Too much similarity of the parents causes partial arrest of develop- ment. The other general cause of heterogeneity is the acquirement of new habits and mental tendencies during the life of the individual parent. Such new- gained characteristics are often transmissible. and may produce in the children marked deviations from the general family characteristics. The future parent, even while an embryo in its mother’s womb, may be subject to disturbing influences which pro- duce changes even in its structural organization. Many instances are on record where the uterine development of an embryo has been warped so as to produce permanent changes from the family type. Later on we observe individual variations produced by physical and mental influences acting upon the body or mind of a person during his ado- lescence. These variations are quite marked- much more so than those produced during the ma- turity of the person. There are other causes of individual variations and deviations from the family resemblance- causes which act upon the germinal cells of both parents even before the procreation of the offspring. These warping causes are and will remain a mys- tery. We know only their effects. Thus we find good-sized parents be etting dwarfs, medium-sized parents begetting chi dren who grow into giants, parents of very ordinary intellects begetting chil- dren who develop great genius; but in no instance can abnormally great mental powers be traced for more than two or three generations. The descend- ants of great thinkers and great actors in the World’s theater generally return easily to the com- mon plane. The all-powerful influence of heredity makes itself felt in this return to the average con- dition of mankind. Individuals are incessantly di- verging from the normal condition of body or mind, and they often make a lasting mark in his- tory, yet the force of heredity acts in such a way as to straighten out such divergences. Divergent individuals are ever isolated and ephemeral. But heir peculiarities may be sustained by close breed- ing. as it is practiced with domesticated animals, HERING-HERITABLE\ AND MOVABLE as horses, cattle, dogs, pigeons, etc. The same thing takes place where peoples are strictly sepa- rate into castes or classes; where the members of the nobility, for instance, are not allowed to inter- marry with those of the bourgeois or peasant class, the former become gradually thinned out, and physically and mentally degenerated. National differences in physical and mental characters do not oppose the law of heredity. They are mostly due to the influence of circumstances on individual persons, families and communities, such as climate, food, education, occupation, etc. These influences produce transmissible characteristics, which, by their accumulation through centuries, constitute a new national character or type. The physical and mental characters of nations are therefore very different. In ancient times a Greek was mentally as different from a Roman as a modern Yankee is now different from a Briton. The physical characteristics of races are very per- sistent, because heredity acts more vigorously upon the body than upon the mind. A child re- ceives his body complete from his parents, but with respect to his mind he receives only a germ; an undeveloped faculty of thinking and willing. This faculty is very plastic. He must mold it himself and gather his mental stores himself. Yet the germinal mental tendencies are very tenacious, and yield but slowly to transforming influences. The child of a savage can, therefore, not attain the intellectual superiority of a Shakespeare or a Goethe; neither can the average child of a Mongo- lian, Papuan or Negro attain the intellectual de- velopment of an average Caucasian. Heredity is, therefore, an all-pervading agency or force in or- ganic nature, that has produced the racial, national, and family characteristics, but it is coun- teracted by several opposing agencies which pro- duce divergences from the eneral types, varieties, species, genera, and indivi ual changes and modi- fications. While heredity instills an inherent tendency to repeat the characteristics of the par- ent, these opposing agencies tend to produce char- acteristics in the offspring not existent in either parent. Heredity alone would produce homoge- neity, a tiresome sameness; while the op osing agencies differentiate the general types, an thus produce heterogeneity. HERING, CoNsTANTINE, a German ph sician, born at Oschatz, Saxony, in 1800, died at P iladel- phia, July 23, 1880. Having studied medicine and graduated as M. D., he was engaged in writing a book confuting homoeopathy. He read Hahne- mann’s works, became a convert, and, after per- sonal acquaintance with Hahnemann his admiring friend. The king of Saxony sent him to Surinam , to study the flora and fauna of that country. In 1833 he arrived at Philadelphia, wher he founded the first homoeopathic school in this countr;,. From 1845 to 1869 he filled the chairs of homoeopa- thic materia medica and medicine in this school. He edited several homoeopathic papers, as the “ Homoeopathic Quarterly,” the ‘Homoeopathic News,” and the “American Journal of Homoeopa- thic Materia Medica.” He published many books in both English and German on his favorite doc- trine, as the Rise and Progress of Homoeopathy, Ef- fects of Snake Poison, Condensed Materia Medica, Her- ing’s Domestic Physician, and American Drug Prov- ’!/fl 8. TIERITABLE AND MOVABLE, a Scotch law- phrase denoting the distinction of things which go to the heirs and to the executors respectively. Movables include such property as passes to the executor in succession, or is movable by the tenant on leaving his farm, or as comes under the oper- HERITOR—HERO’S FOUNTAIN ation of the law of the owner’s domicile in bank- ruptcy and succession. Money and household furniture may be taken as examples. Heritable subjects are such as go to the heir in succession, or go with land to a buyer, and are regulated by the territorial law. The best examples are land and houses. The gearing of engines and all machinery fixed to the floor are also heritable. Heritable bond, in Scotch law, is a personal bond for a sum of money, with a real right of annual rent payable out of land, and accompanied by a conveyance of the lands themselves in security. The usual deed is now a bond and disposition in security, correspond- ing to the English mortgage. Heritable securities is the name given,in the law of Scotland, to what in England are called mortgages and charges on land. By the constitution of a heritable security, the debt secured becomes a burden on the land, en- titling the creditor to appropriate the rents until the debt is paid. This right of the creditor re- mains entire against the land, no matter into whose hands it passes. In Scotland the principal heritable security is called the bond and disposition in security, which consists of an obligation to pay the debt, and a disposition to the creditor by way of security till the debt is paid. Power is given to the creditor to sell the estate if the principal or interest is not paid, in which case the creditor must gcsgount for the surplus after paying himself the e t. HERITOR: in the law of Scotland, the owner of land in a parish liable to public burdens. The heri- tors, collectively, have vested in them the fee of the church and churchyard; they repair the parish church and manse, or rebuild them where nec- essary. HERKIMER, the county-seat and a railroad junction of Herkimer, N. Y. It is a thriving village, and has good schools, a flour mill, and a paper mill. HERKIMER, NICHOLAS (c. 1725-1777), an Ameri- can Revolutionary soldier. In 1758 he became lieutenant of militia, and commanded Fort Herki- mer, on the Mohawk, during the attack of the French and Indians in that year. In 1775 he be- came colonel and chairman of the committee of safety of Tryon county, N. Y. A year later he was made brigadier-general in the New York militia. When Colonel St. Leger, sent out by General Burgoyne, besieged Fort Schuyler (now Rome, N. Y)., Herkimer marched to its relief with 800 militia. He proceeded cautiously at first, but his younger oflicers urged him to proceed more rapidly. As they advanced through a wooded ravine near Oriskany, the British regulars attacked him in front and the Indians on both sides, Aug. 6, 1777. He was soon wounded, but continued to direct the fight for five hours longer. A sortie from Fort Schuyler relieved his men after a loss of 200. He died from the effects of the amputation of his leg. Congress and New York united in erecting a monu- ment to his memory in 1884. HERKOMER, HUBERT, an English painter, born in 1849. In 1869 he exhibited two pictures in the Dudley gallery, and his success was immediate. His two most popular oil-paintings are Chelsea Pen- sioners, and the companion piece, Eventide, the iatter showing a group of old women at the work- ouse. HERMANN, the county-seat of Gasconade county,Mo., eighty-one miles from St. Louis. It is a noted wine-producing town, and its inhabitants are mostly Germans. HERMANN, BINGER, a United States Congress- man, born in 1843. In 1866 he was admitted to the Oregon bar, the same year was elected to the legis- 839 lature, and two years later to the State Senate. In 1868-71 he was deputy collector of United States internal revenue for Southern Oregon, and from 1871 to 1873 was receiver of public moneys at the United States land office at Roseburg. He was a member of the 49th, 50th and 51st Con- gresses. HERMETIC BOOKS, the sacred canon of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of forty-two books, divided into six sections. They constitute what is virtually an encyclopaedia of Egyptian wisdom, in that they treat of religion, the arts and science. The name “hermetic” comes from Hermes Trismegistus (“Hermes Thrice-greatest”), Greek name of the Egyptian god Thoth, regarded as the originator of Egyptian culture. These books are evidently based upon the Egyptian mythology, but at a time when it was beginning to feel the influence of Hellenistic culture. The Greek and Latin texts of the hermetic books exist only fragmentarily, in the writings of Stobaeus, Cyrillus,Suidas and Lactantius. The teachings of Thoth were at first regarded as esoteric doctrines, and as such jealously guarded by the sages, and from them transmitted to their pupils. Thoth was also the inventor of magic and alchemy, whence the latter was sometimes called the hermetic art, and whence are derived the terms hermetic medicine, hermetic freemasonry and hermeti- cally sealed. HERMODACTYL (“Hermes’s finger”), a bulbous root, formerly brought from Turkey, and much esteemed as a cathartic, but entirely discarded in modern times. It is probably obtained from Col- chicum yariegatum. HERNANDEZ—VELASCO, GREGORIO, a Spanish priest and poet, born at Toledo about 1550; trans- lated the AE'nez'd of Virgil into Spanish verse (1585). Though the style is rather inflated, the version is correct and presents some elegant passages. HERNDON, VVILLIAM LEWIS (1813-57) an American naval oflicer, born at Fredericksburg, Va. He served in the American navy and in the Mexican war. In 1851 he was sent to explore the Amazon River. He crossed the Andes from Lima to the headwaters of the Amazon, and then sailed down the river in a canoe. The United States Gov- ernment published two volumes of Herndon’s Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon. In 1857 he was captain of the steamer Central America, which with 580 persons on board, sailing from Havana for New York, sank in the Gulf-stream. The wom- en and children were saved, but Herndon with 426 men sank with the vessel. HEROIC AGE : in Greek history or mythology, the age preceding the true historic period. The heroes of that time were regarded by the , ancients as intermediate between gods and men, and were venerated much as the saints of Christianity are now. The heroic age furnished abundant material for dramatic and epic poetry of later times, and afforded noble examples of cour- age, purity and justice. HEROIC VERSE, the form of verse adapted to heroic or epic poetry. In classic poetry it is the common hexameter verse; in Eng- lish, German and Italian the iam- bic of ten syllables; and in French the iambic of twelve syllables. HERON. See Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 760-62. , HERO’S FOUNTAIN. HERO’S FOUNTAIN, a pneumatic apparatus named from its inventor, Hero of Alexandria. 840 This instrument, through the elastic force of a con- fined body of air, increased by hydraulic pressure and reacting upon the surface of water in a closed reservoir, produces a jet which may rise above that surface to a height equal to the effective height of the pressing column. An open basin connected with two closed reservoirs on different levels below constitutes the instrument, a simple mode of constructing which is shown in the an- nexed figure. The column of water in the tube a compresses the air in b; this presses on the surface of the water in c, and causes it to gush out at d. , HERRERA, Y CABRERA, DEsIDERo (1792-1856), a Cuban writer and educator, born in Havana, Cuba. After studying in his native city he devoted himself to teaching and journalism. He published Agrimensura Cubana, Observaciones Cientificas,which Arago translated into French; Huricanes de la Isla de Cuba, Topografia Medica de Cuba, Lecciones de Agrimensura, a treatise on meteorology, and a number of scientific pamphlets. HERRING. See Britannica,Vol. XI, 764-65. HERRING SILVER, money paid in lieu of sup- plying a religious house with a certain number of herrings. See Trrrrns, in Britannica, Vol. XXIII. HERRISON: in heraldry, the hedgehog; a charge allusively borne by families of the name of Harris. HERSCHELL, FARRER, an English statesman, born in 1837. After being educated at the Univer- sities of London and Bonn he became a queen’s counsel in 1872, and recorder of Carlisle in 1873. In 18800116 was solicitor-general in Gladstone’s ministry, and in 1886 he was raised to the peerage and became lord chancellor. On the appoint- ment of a royal commission to inquire into the working of the metropolitan board of works, Lord Herschell was elected president of this commis- sion. In 1888 he visited India. HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBER- HARD, Prussian general, born at Grosswerther, Sept. 4, 1796, died at Bonn, Sept. 2, 1884. He entered the military service in 1811, and gained his first laurels in the war of liberation, especially in the battle of Leipzig. In 1863 he was promoted to the rank of general, and in 1864 commanded the Prus- sian troops against Denmark, distinguishing him- self by his daring capture of the isle of Alsen. In the campaign of 1866 he was intrusted with the occupation of Saxony, and then with the command of the army which advanced from Saxony into Bo- hemia. He gained victories at Hiihnerwasser and Munchengratz, and took a prominent part in the battle of Kbniggréitz. In 1870, on the outbreak of the Franco-German war, he was made governor of the Rhine provinces, and in 1871 a general field- marshal. HERWEGH, GEoRe, German poet and politi- cian,born at Stuttgart May 31, 1817, died at Baden- Baden, April 7, 1875. He studied at Tiibingen, was drafted into the army, and subsequently went to Switzerland, where in 1841 he published his suc- cessful Gedichte eines Lebendioen a collection of po- litical songs. He returned to Germany in 1842, but soon after incurred the displeasure of the king of Prussia, and was obliged to retire a second time to Switzerland, where in 1843 he published 21 Bogne aus Schweiz. He took part in the revolution in Baden in 1848. The remainder of his life was spent in obscurity in southern France. HERZ, HENRI, pianist and composer, born of Jewish parentage at Vienna in 1806, and educated in Paris, where his talent was early recognized. His compositions became popular over Europe, and he was received with applause on visiting England in 1834 and America in 1846. In 1837 he received HERRERA I —-HESSE \ the decoration of the Legion of Honor, and from 1842 till 1874 he was professor of music at the con- servatory of Paris. He was also manager of a pianoforte factory, and in 1855 his pianofortes won the first prize at the Paris exhibition. His compo- sitions, more than 200 in number, are mostly for the piano. He died in 1888. HERZOG, J OHANN J AKOB, German theologian of the Reformed creed, born at Basel, Sept. 12, 1805, died Sept. 30, 1882. He studied theology in his na- tive city and in Berlin, became Professor at Lans- anne in 1830, at Halle in 1847, and at Erlangen in 1854, retiring in 1877. Among his works are: Calvin, 1843; Das Leben (Ecolampadii (1843) ;DieRomanischen Waldenser(1853); but his name is best known for the great theological encyclopaedia edited by him, Realencyhlopiidie filr Protestantische Theologie und Kirche, 22 vols., 1854-68; new ed. 18 vols., 1877-88; English abridged ed. by Schaff, 3 vols., 1882-4. HESSE, a Grand-duchy of the German empire. Area (1885), 2,965 square miles. Population, 956,611. Capital, Darmstadt. For history, government, pro- ductions and early statistics, see Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 780. REIGNING DUKE AND ROYAL FAMILY.-Ludwig IV, born Sept. 12, 1837; the son of Prince Karl, eldest brother of Grand-duke Ludwig III, and of Princess Elizabeth of Prussia. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his uncle, Grand-duke Lud- wig III, June 13, 1877; married, July 1, 1862, to Princess Alice, second daughter of Queen Victoria, of Great Britain and Ireland; widower, Dec. 14, 1878. OFFSPRING.-—-I. Victoria, born April 5, 1863; mar- ried to Prince Ludwig, of Battenberg, April 30, 1884. II. Elizabeth, born Nov 1, 1864; mar- ried to the Grand-duke Sergius Alexandrovitch, of Russia, June 15, 1884. III. Irene, born July 11, 1866; married to Prince Heinrich, of Prussia, May 24, 1888. IV. Ernst Ludwig, born Nov. 25, 1868. V. Alice, born June 6, 1872. BROTHERS or THE GRAND-DUKE.-I. Prince Heinrich, born Nov. 28, 1838; married, Feb 28, 1878, to Caroline Willich, elevated Freifrau zu Nidda; widower, Jan. 6, 1879. II. Prince Wil- helm, born Nov. 16, 1845. CoUs1Ns or THE GRAND-DUKE.-The children of Prince Alexander (died December, 1888), and Prin- cess Julia von Battenberg, born Nov. 12, 1825. Off- spring of the union are five children: I. Marie, born July 15, 1852; married, April 29, 1871, to Count Gustaf von Erbach-Schbnberg. II. Ludwig, born May 24, 1854, commander in the British navy; married to Princess Victoria of Hesse, April 30, 1884; offspring, Alice, born Feb. 25, 1885; Louise, born July 13, 1889. III. Alexander, born April 5, 1857; elected Prince of Bulgaria, April 29, 1879; abdicated, Sept. 7, 1886. IV. Heinrich, born Oct. 5, 1858; married, July 23, 1885, to Princess Beatrice of Great Britain; off- spring, Alexander Albert Victor, born Nov. 23, 1886; Victoria, born Oct. 24, 1887; Leopold Arthur Louis, born May 21, 1859. V. Franz-Josef, born Sept. 24, 1861. The former Landgraves of Hesse had the title of grand-duke given them by Napoleon I, in 1806, together with a considerable increase of territory. At the congress of Vienna this grant was confirmed, after some negotiations. The reigning family are not possessed of much private property, but depend- ullt almost entirely upon the grant of the civil list, amounting to 1,244,488 marks, the sum including allowances to the princes. The executive "., assisted bya ministry divided at present imo three departments, viz.: of the HESSIAN FLY—HEXAMETER Grand-ducal house and Foreign Affairs; of the In- tenor and Justice; and of Finance. The largest towns of the grand duchy are: May- ence with a population, in 1885, of 66,321; Darm- stadt, 51,302; Offenbach, 31,731; Worms, 29,703; Geissen, 19,002. Of the population on Dec. 31, 1885, there were, of Protestants, 643,939; Roman Catholics. 278,440; other Christian sects, 7,957; Jews, 26,114; and 161 of no religion. HESSIAN FLY. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 781. HETEROCERCAL (Gr. heteros, “different,” “un- equal,” and herkos, “a tail,” a term introduced by Agassiz, to designate the unsymmetrical tail of Elasmobranchii, and most ganoid fishes, in which the vertebral axis is bent upwards in the tail, making the upper lobe much the larger—a structure still seen in the sharks and sturgeons. In bony fishes also the axis is somewhat bent upwards in its termination; but the asymmetry is disguised, and the tail looks equal-lobed or homocercal, as in the herring. HETEROGANGLIATA, a term introduced by Owen and adopted by many zoiilogists, in ac- cordance with a scheme of classification founded on the nervous system in animals to designate the mollusca of Cuvier, with which are ranked the “zoophytes” of the division Polyzoa, or Bryozoa. The nervous centres or ganglia are not arranged in a longitudinal series of symmetrical pairs, but are variously distributed in different parts of the body; one principal ganglionic mass, however, occupy- ing a position above the gullet, with which all the nerves of the special senses are connected. HETH, HENRY, an American general, born in Vir- ginia in 1825. He was a 'West Point graduate. When Virginia seceded he was a captain of infantry, but resigned promptly and entered the service of his native State as brigadier-general. In 1863 he was major-general, and commanded a division in General A. P. Hill’s corps in Virginia. He fought at Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and in the cam- plailgzni of 1864-65. He surrendered with General . . ee. HETMAN, or ATAMAN, the title of the head or general of the Cossacks. HEVES, a town of Hungary, sixty miles east- northeast of Pesth. HEWES, JOSEPH, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in Kingston, N. J ., in 1730, and died in Philadelphia,Pa., Oct. 29, 1779. In 1774 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress, and assisted in the preparation of the report on “the statement of the rights of the colonists, the several instances in which these rights are violated, and the most proper means for obtaining their restoration.” He belonged to the Society of Friends.\Vhen this society denounced the proceedings of Congress he severed his connection with it, and became even a promo- ter of war. In 1776 he was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and was at the head of the naval committee. Hewes declined a re- election, in 1777, but resumed his seat in Congress in 1779. HEWIT, NATHANIEL AUGUSTUS, an American clergyman, born at Fairfield, Conn., in 1820. He studied theology at East Windsor, Conn., and in 1843 was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episco- pal church. Wliile holding a charge in North Carolina he became a Roman Catholic, and was ordained in that church in 1847 by Bishop Rey- nolds. Hewit was thereupon appointed vice-prin- cipal of the Charleston Collegiate Institute. He joined the order of the Redemptorists in 1850; and in 1858, on the foundation of the congregation of St. Paul by Father Hecker, Hewit became one of 841 its chief members, taking the religious name of Augustine Francis. In the Paulist Seminary in New York city he was professor of philosophy, theology and Holy Scriptures since 1865. From 1869 till 1874, he edited the “Catholic World.” He has been active as an author, and has published Reasons for Submit- ting to the Catholic Church; Life of Princess Borghese; Problems of the Age; Light in Darkness; The King’s Highway; and many other works. HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS, an American states- man, born at Haverstraw, N. Y., in 1822. After graduating at Columbia College he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1845. His impaired eye-sight made him soon give up the practice of law, and he became associated with Peter Cooper in the manufacture of iron. The firm Cooper & Hewitt now own and control the Trenton, Ringwood, Pequest and Durham iron works. He was a com- missioner to the French exhibition of 1867, and made a report on “iron and steel.” He married Peter Cooper’s daughter, and has been secretary of the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art since its incorporation in 1859. Hewitt was elected to Congress in 1874 as a Democrat, and served continuously. with the exception of one term, until 1886. He advocated moderate tariff reform. In 1886 he was elected mayor of New York city. In this office he enforced the laws strictly, and held the heads of the departments strictly accountable. In 1887 Columbia College gave him the degree of LL.D. on account of his expert knowlege in the manufacture of iron. ' HEXACHORD: in modern music, denotes the six diatonic degrees of which Guido formed his scale. HEXAHEDRON, a solid figure bounded by six faces—the cube being one. HEXAMETER, the name applied to the most important form of classical verse. It is the heroic or epic verse of the Greeks and Romans, the grand- est examples of which are the Iliad and Odyssey in Greek and the AEneid in Latin. It consists of six feet, or measures, the last of which must be a spon- dee (a measure composed of two long syllables). and the penultimate a dactyl (one long syllable and two short). If the penultimate is also a spon- dee, the verse is said to be spondaic. Klopstock, Goethe and Voss have produced admirable speci- mens of hexameter verse in German. and it has become familiar in English through Longfellow’s Evangeline. The following lines from the last show the only varieties of the hexameter which are endurable to the ear——that is, those in which the accent on each foot falls on its first syllable: Felt she in I myriad I springs her I sources I far ' mountams, ‘ _ _ . Stu-‘ring, col I lecting, I heavmg up I r1s1ng I forth out I flow- mg. in the I It will be observed that on whatever syllable here the metrical accent falls , that syllable is pre- cisely the same which the voice naturally accentu- ates. Whether this was the case in ancient Greek and Latin hexameters we do not know; but, if the present system of Greek accentuation represents the natural accent of Homeric words, Homer dis- regarded the natural accents, or did not observe our rule of always placing the metrical accent on the first syllable of each foot; and we still pro- nounce Latin hexameters by preserving what we take to be the natural accent of each word, whether that corresponds to the metrical accent or not. Thus, in the line-— Itali I am fa I to profu I gus La I viniaque I venit, we disregard the metrical accent, which should M2 fall on the first syllable of each foot (and actually does so on the fifth and sixth), and in reading the line give effect to the natural accents only, as we conceive them, to the words Italiam, fato, profugus. When English hexameters were first written they were constructed in the same manner; the natural accent, except in the last two feet, overruled the metrical. In the following lines from Stanihurst’s translation of the Eneid, it will at once be seen that the effect is absurd if we reag the lines as modern English hexameters are rea : Either lielre I are crouch I ing some I troops of I Greekish as- I sem y, Or to crush I our bul I warks this I work is I forgéd, all- houses _ For :8 pry, I surmount I 1ng the I town; some I practice or 0 er Here_ lurks I of cun I ning; trust I not I this I treacherous en- sign. If we read by the natural accent, the effect is rough and harsh to the ear; if by the modern met- rical, ridiculous and absurd. Such are the limita- tions of the hexameter in English. HEYSE, PAUL J OHANN, German author, born in Berlin, March 15, 1830, educated there and at Bonn. He was one of the band of authors whom King Max of Bavaria gathered around him in Munich in 1854. He has published more than a score of collections of novelettes under various titles, good specimens of which are contained in Das Buch der Freundschaft (1883-84). His poetic works include narrative poems, such as Urica, 1852; and epics, such as Die Braut von Cypern, 1856; and Thekla, 1858. As a dramatist he has been a voluminous writer of dramas, but few if any of his dramatic pieces have been unequivo- cally successful. He has also written a couple, of more ambitious novels, Die Kinder der Welt, (1873), and Im Paradiese (1875), which have been very popular; and has translated the poetical works of. Giusti, of Leopardi, and of Parini, Monti and Manzini. HEYWARD, THOMAS, JR. (1746-1809), an Ameri- can statesman, born in South Carolina. He studied law in the Temple in London. After returning home he was elected to the Continental Congress of 1775, and became one of the signers of the Decla- ration of Independence. In 1778 he was appointed judge. of the criminal and circuit court of South Carolina. At the siege of Charleston, May 12, 1780, he commanded a battalion of volunteers, and on the surrender of the city was taken prisoner and sent to St. Augustine, Fla., where he was confined one year. After his release he resumed his oflice as Statejudge. In 1790 he was a member of the constitutional convention, and then retired to his plantation. HIAWATHA, a city and county-seat of Brown county, Kan., 40 miles west of St. Joseph, Mo. It has grain elevators and a steam flour mill. HICKMAN, a city and county-seat of Fulton county, Ky., on the Mississippi River. Flour, furniture and wagons are manufactured here. HICKOK, LAURENS PERsEUs (1798-1888), an American clergyman and philosopher, born at Bethel, Conn. After studying theology he be- came successively pastor at Newton, Kent and Litchfield, Conn., from 1822 to 1836. In the lat- ter year he was appointed professor of theology in the Western Reserve College, and in 1844 professor of the same branch in the Auburn Theological Seminary. In 1852 he removed to Schenectady, N. Y., to become professor of men- tal and moral science and vice-president of Union College there. From 1860 to 1866 Dr. Hickok HEYWARD- HIGGINSON was president of the same college. At the age of seventy Dr. Hickok retired (1868) to Amherst, Mass., where he devoted himself to philosophi- cal studies. He published Rational Philosophy (1848); System of Moral Science; Empirical Psychol- o y; Rational Cosmology; Creator and Creation; umanity Immortal; Rational Logic (1875), etc. He placed reason as far above the understanding in its comprehensiveness as the understanding is above sensual perception. HICKORY, a tree of America, of the genus Carya. See Britannica,Vol. XI, pp. 790,91;UNITED S'rA'rEs,Vol. XXIII, p. 808. HICKS—BEACH, SIR MICHAEL EDWARD, an Eng- lish statesman, born in 1837. After being edu- cated at Eton and Oxford, he became a justice of the peace for Gloucestershire, and sat as M. P. for the same shire and Bristol. In 1868 he was under-secretary for the home office; in 1874-78 and 1886-87 chief secretary for Ireland; and in 1878-80 secretary of state for the colonies. Un- der Salisbury’s first administration he was chan- cellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. In 1886 Sir Michael resumed the chief secretaryship for Ireland, but had to re- sign soon afterwards owing to failing eyesight. Then he traveled on the Continent for some time, and in February, 1888, reféntered the cabinet as president of the board of trade. In 1890 he op- posed the channel tunnel scheme in Parliament. HIERA PICRA, OR HOLY BITTER, once a popu- lar remedy, and still much employed in domestic medicine and in veterinary practice, is composed of four parts of powdered aloes and one part of ca- nella. It is, however, liable to cause irritation of the lower part of the intestinal canal. HIEROPHANT, the priest who presided over the mysteries at Eleusis. HIGGINS, AN'.rHoNY, a United States Senator, born in 1840. He was admitted to the Delaware bar in 1864, and in the same year was appointed deputy attorney-general. From 1869 to 1876 he was United States Attorney for Delaware, and in 1889 took his seat in the United States Senate as a Republican. His term of service expires March 3, 1895. HIGGINSON, FRANOIS, a New England clergy- man, born in England in 1588, died in Salem, Mass., in 1630. He was a Puritan preacher of great influ- ence in Leicester, England. In 1628 he was invited by the Massachusetts Bay Company to accompany its expedition to New England. He arrived at Salem on June 29, 1629, and was soon after chosen teacher of the congregation. He drew up a con- fession of faith which was assented to by 30 per- sons. During the ensuin winter he was attacked by a fever which disable him, and finally caused his death. He wrote New England’s Plantation, or A Short Description of the Commodities of that Coun- try (1630.) HIGGIN SON , THOMAS WENTWORTH, an American author, born at Cambridge, Mass., in 1823. He studied theology at the Divinity School at Cam- bridge, and was ordained Congregational pastor at Newburyport, Mass., in 1847. He preached and worked against slavery. This did not suit his con- gregation, and he resigned his charge in 1850. In 1852 he became pastor of a free church at Worces- ter, Mass. In 1853 he attempted to rescue a fugi- tive slave from the custody of the United States Marshal in Boston, and was wounded in the face. As a man had been killed in his attack on the courthouse Higginson was indicted for murder, but escaped finally through a flaw in the indict- ment. In 1856 he went to Kansas, and was con- spicuous in the movement to make it a free State. HIGH CHURCH-HILGARD On the outbreak of our civil war he was made a captain in a Massachusetts regiment. In Novem- ber, 1862, be became colonel of the 1st South Caro- lina volunteers, the first regiment of former slaves mustered into the service of the United States. With this regiment (afterward the 33d United States colored infantry) he made various expedi- tions in South Carolina and Florida; but he was wounded in 1863, and compelled to retire in Octo- ber, 1864. Living at Cambridge, Mass., he was elected to the State legislature in 1880, and has since been a member of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. Higginson has published Out-Door Papers; Harvard Memorial Biographies; Malbone, An Old ort Romance; Army Life in a Black Regiment; istory of the United States; Com- mon Sense About Women, advocating woman suf- frage; and many other works on social and histor- ical topics. HIGH CHURCH AND LOW CHURCH, two eccle- siastical parties in the Church of England, and in the Protestant Episcopal church. The terms are used exclusively as adjectives. The high churchmen emphasize the doctrine of the Apostolic succession, and attach much importance to ceremonies and symbols in worship. Low churchmen usually re- ject the peculiar tenets of the high-church school, and emphasize the spiritual doctrines of the Gos- pel, while they make but little of ecclesiastical rules. - HIGHLAND, a city of Madison county, Ill. It has a Roman Catholic university, woolen and flour mills, and a foundry. Many Germans and Swiss reside here. HIGHLAND REGIMEN TS, regiments recruited in the Highlands of Scotland. There are nine in the British army, of whom five wear the national costume. The first Highland regiment, the “Black Watch,” was organized in 1739. See ARMY, Britan- nica, Vol. II, p. 580. ' HIGH—LEVEL BRIDGE, at Halifax, England, opened in 1890, was built to provide railway accom- modation for the upper part of the town, which is 400 feet higher than the station of the Lanca- shire and Yorkshire Railway. The line ascends in a ruling gradient of one in fifty with sharp curves, and several deep cuttings; there are also a tunnel of 820 yards, a viaduct of ten spans of 50 feet each, and a number of bridges. The total length is three and one-half miles, and there are two stations. The cost was £300,000. HIGH MISDEMEANOR, an offense closely bor- dering on treason. See “Cognate Offenses,” under TREASON, Britannica, Vol. XXIII, pp. 528-29. HIGH SEAS, the open sea, including the whole extent of sea, not the exclusive property of any particular country. The rule of international law is that every country bordering on the sea has the exclusive sovereignty over such sea to the extent of three miles from its shores, all beyond being com- mon to all countries. The part of the sea within three miles distance is generally called the terri- torial sea of the particular country, or mare clau- sum. The distinction has little effect on the right of navigation, but as regards fishing it is otherwise. See Frsnnmns Qussrrou, in these Revisions and Ad- ditions. HIGHTSTOWN, a post-borough of Mercer county, N. J ., fourteen miles northeast of Trenton. It contains three educational institutions, and manufactories of plows, chains and doors. HIGHWAYMEN, robbers who attack passengers on the public road. Famous English hi hwaymen were Claude Duval, Swift Nick Nevison hanged at York in 1684),Dick Turpin and his comrade Tom King, and Jerry Abershaw. The best known 843 “romances of the road” are W. H. Ainsworth’s Rookwood and Lord Lytton’s Paul ’Zlifi"ord. Bio- graphical notices of most “knights of the road” ul- timately came to appear in the pages of the New- gate Calendar. . HIGHWAYS, For general article on HIGHWAYS, see Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 810. In American coun- tries, and generally on the Continent of Europe, the “rule of the road” requires that in passing, both in riding and in walking, the turning shall be to the right. In Great Britain and Ireland, carriages in passing are required to pass to the left and “walk- ers” to the right. The following English couplets express the rule in quaint verse. The Rule of the Road is a paradox quite; For in driving your carnage along, If you bear to the left you are sure to go right, If you turn to the right, you go wrong. But in walking the streets ’tis a different case: To the right It is pro er to steer; On the left there shou d be enough of clear space For the people who wish to wa k there. Another reading: The rule of the path, To get well along Is “keep to the right,” And you cannot go wrong. The rule of the road Is a aradox uite: If ou eep to t eleft, ou are sure to be right. HILARY TERM, January 11th to 31st, one of the English legal terms during which the courts of law sit at Westminster in banc. See Britannica, Vol. XI. p. 812. HILGARD, EUGENE WOLDEMAB, an American chemist, born at Zweibriicken, Bavaria, in 1833. He studied at the Royal Mining Academy in Freiburg, Saxony, at the Universities of Ziirich and Heidelberg. In 1857 he became assistant State geologist of Mississippi,and in 1857 he was appointed chemist in charge of the laboratory of the Smith- sonian Institution, and filled also the chair of chem- istry in the National Medical College at Washing- ton. From 1858 to 1866 he was State geologist of Mississippi, and till 1873 also professor of agricul- tural chemistry in the State University there. In 1873 Hilgard was called to the chair of geology and natural history in the University of Michigan, and in 1875 he accepted the professorship of agricul- tural chemistry and botany in the University of California, where he since remained. During 1881-83 he had charge of the agricultural division of the northern transcontinental survey. HILGARD, J umus ERASMUS, an American engineer and scientist, born at Zweibriicken, Bava- ria, in 1825. From 1843 to 1845, he studied civil engineering at Philadelphia. In the latter year he became one of Alexander D. Bache’s assistants on the coast survey, and soon rose to the office of as- sistant in charge of the bureau at Washington. This place he held until the death of the superintendent in 1881, when he was appointed to fill the vacancy. Hilgard had also charge of the United States standard weights and measures, and in 1872 he was made a delegate to the international metric com- mission which met at Paris. In 1885, on the advent of Cleveland’s administration, he was suspended and then permitted to resign. Professor Hilgard’s work in terrestrial physics, geodesy, the magnetic survey of the United States, tidal action in harbors, etc., and his papers and lectures on these topics are of considerable scientific importance. Died in 1891. 844 HILL, AMBROSE POWELL, an American soldier, born in Culpeper county, Va., in 1825, died near Petersburg,Va.,in 1865. He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1847, served as lieuten- ant of artillery during the Mexican war, and was en- gaged in Florida against the Seminoles in 1849-50. When Virginia seceded, in 1861, Hill went with it and was appointed colonel of the 13th regiment of Virginia volunteers. After the battle of Bull Run he was promoted brigadier-general, and fought as such in the battle of Williamsburg, in May 1862, with such a spirit that he was made a major-gen- Ieral. He took part in the seven days’ battles around Richmond, and was at the second battle of Bull Run. At the battle of Fredericksburg he held the right of J ackson’s force, and repulsed the attack of Meade. At Chancellorsville, in May, 1863, he participated in J ackson’s daring march and un- expected assault on Howard’s division. After Jack- son’s death he became lieutenant-general, fought at Gettysburg, and in 1865 commanded the city of Petersburg during its siege. On April 2, of the same year, while reconnoitering, Hill was killed by a rifle shot. HILL, BENJAMIN HARVEY, an American states- man, born in Jasper county, Ga., in 1823, died at Atlanta, Aug. 16, 1882. He practiced law suc- cessfully in La Gran e, Ga., from 1845 to 1861. ‘When his state secede he was elected to the Con- federate Senate at Richmond, where he remained till the close of the war. In 1875 he was elected to the United States Congress, but resigned on being chosen United States Senator in 1877. HILL, CHARLES Aueusrus, a United States Con- gressman, born in 1833. He was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1860, and in 1862 entered the Union army, serving until the close of the war. In 1868 he was chosen State’s attorney for the counties of Will and Grundy, and was elected as a Republican to the 51st Congress. HILL, DAVID B., United States Senator from New York, a lawyer, born in Havana, Vt., Aug. 29, 1844. He received a common-school and aca- demical education; removed to Elmira, N. Y., and entered the profession of law. In politics he is a Democrat. and in 1865 was elected city attorney of Elmira; was elected a member of the State as- sembly in 1871 and 1872;was afterward elected mayor of Elmira. In 1882 was elected lieutenant- governor ‘of the State of New York on the ticket with Grover Cleveland; became governor when Mr. Cleveland resigned to become President of the United States; was elected governor in 1885, and reélected in 1887. In 1891 he was elected by the State legislature to the United States Senate, to succeed William M. Evarts. HILL, DANIEL HARVEY, an American general, born in South Carolina in 1821. After graduating at West Point in 1842 he served through the Mexican war. resigned in 1849. and was made professor of mathematics in Washington College, Va., and in 1859 president of the military institute at Char- lotte. On the outbreak of the civil war he became colonel of the 1st North Carolina volunteers and took part in the fight at Big Bethel, Va., in June, 1861. He then rose to the rank of major gen- eral, and commanded a division during the seven days’ fight around Richmond in June, 1862. After- wards he fought at South Mountain, Antietam, Fredericksburg and Chickamauga. At the close of the war Gen. Hill returned to Charlotte, N. C., where he published a monthly magazine, “Field and Farm”; and subsequently “The Land We Love”; also Elements of Algebra; The Crucifixion of l(‘]'[hrist; and Consideration of the Sermon on the ount HlLIl—HILTED HILL, THOMAS, an American clergyman and educator, born at New Brunswick, N. J ., in 1818. He studied theology at Cambridge, and was or- dained pastor at Waltham, Mass., in 1845. From 1859 to 1868 he was successively president of Anti- och College and of Harvard College. In 1868 he resigned on account of bad health. Then he be- came botanist of the Hassler expedition around the coast of South America under Prof. ‘Agassiz (1871). In 1872 he was pastor of a church at Portland, Me. Hill has published Geometry and Faith; I/iberal Ed- ucation; True Order of Studies; Jesus the Interpreter of Nature; Natural Sources of Theology, and some ele- mentary mathematical books. HILLIARD, HENRY WASHINGTON, an American statesman, born in Cumberland county, N. C., in 1808. He was admitted to the bar at Athens, Ga., in 1829, and appointed professor in the State Uni- versity of Alabama in 1831. In 1838 he was elected to the legislature as a whig, and in 1842 President Tyler sent him as United States Minister to Bel- gium. From 1845 to 1851 he sat in Congress. At the outbreak of the civil war he went with the South, and held the nominal rank of brigadier- general in the Confederate army. After the war he resumed the practice of law at Augusta, and af- terward at Atlanta. From 1877 to 1880 he was United States Minister to Brazil. Hilliard pub- lished a volume of speeches in 1855 and a novel. HILO, an important seaport of, Hawaii, situa- ted on Byron Bay, an inlet on the east coast of the island. It is the second town in size in the Sandwich Islands, and has a spacious and com- modious harbor. Population, 4,231. HILLSBORO, a city and county-seat of Mont- gomery county, Ill., 66 miles northeast of St. Loudis, Mo., on the Indianapolis and St. Louis Rail- roa . HILLSBORO, a post-village and county-seat of Orange county, N. C, 40 miles northwest of Raleigh. It has several tobacco factories and a military academy. HILLSBORO, a city and county seat of High- land county, Ohio, 60 miles east of Cincinnati. It contains several educational institutions, banks, churches, factories, scale and agricultural works, and mills, and publishes several weekly papers. It is connected with Sardinia by 17 miles of nar- row-gauge railroad, and is the terminus of a. branch of the Marietta and Cincinnati railroad. HILLSBOROUGH, a port of entry of Albert county, N. B., on Petitcodiac River. It has a good harbor, and exports gypsum and gas coal (albertite) to the United States. HILLSBOROUGH, a post village of New Ham - shire, in county of the same name, situated In the Contoocook Valley. It contains woolen mills, bedstead factory and shovel handle shops. HILLSBOROUGH RIVER, on Mosourro RIVER, in Volusia county, Fla., is a salt-water lagoon, a continuation of Halifax River, extending 30 miles south of Mosquito Inlet. It is separated from the ocean by a narrow strip of land, and was formerly called Mosquito South Lagoon. HILLSDALE, a city and county-seat of Hills- dale county, Mich., 177 miles east of Chicago. It is the seat of Hillsdale College, and has a chair factory, machine shops, foundries and flour mills. HILL STATES, a number of small principali- ties of India on the east side of the Upper Sut- lej, comprising about 10,000 square miles and about 550,000 inhabitants. With the exception of this aggregate name they have but little in common with each other. HILTED, a term used in heraldry to indicate the tincture of the handle of a sword. I "‘ HINCKS—HIPPURIC ACID HINCKS, SIR FRANCIS, a Canadian statesman, born at Cork, Ireland, in 1807, died in 1885. He settled at Toronto in 1832, when he entered politics and edited the “Examiner.” After being elected to the Dominion Parliament, in 1841, he was ap- pointed inspector-general. In 1851 he became prime minister of Canada, and held this post till 1854. The next year he was made governor of the Windward Islands, and in 1860 governor of British Guiana, where he remained till 1866. After returning to Canada he assisted in uniting the British provinces into the “Dominion of Canada.” In 1869 Hincks was knighted. From that time till 1873, he was the finance minister of Canada. l-IIND, JOHN RUSSELL, English astronomer, born at Nottingham, May 12, 1823. At an early period he became interested in the study of astronomy, and in 1840 obtained a situation in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, where he remained till June, 1844-. He was then sent as a member of the commission appointed to determine the exact longitude of Valentia, and on his return entered Mr. Bishop’s observatory, Regent’s Park, London. Here he cal- culated the orbits and declination of more than seventy planets and comets, noted a number of new movable stars, and between 1847 and 1854 dis- covered ten minor planets. In 1851 Hind obtained from the Academy of Sciences at Paris the Lalande medal and was elected a corresponding member, and in the following year received the gold medal of the Astronomical Society of London and a pen- sion of £200 a year from the government. In 1853 he undertook the editing of the Nautical Almanac. His scientific papers were generally published in the Transactions of the Astronomical Society, in the Comptes-Rendus of Paris, and the Astronomische Nachrichten of Altona. He became president of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1880. HINDMAN, THOMAS C., a Confederate general, born in Tennessee in 1818, died Sept. 27,1868. In the Mexican war he served as lieutenant of Mississippi volunteers. During 1859 and 1860 he was in Con- gress. On the outbreak of the civil war he was made a brigadier-general in the Confederate army. He served first under General S. B. Buckner in Kentucky, and commanded afterwards at Memphis. He fought at the battle of Shiloh, was made a major-general, and assigned to the chief command in Arkansas. At Chickamauga he commanded a division in General Polk’s army. Was killed at Helena, Ark., by one of his former soldiers. HINGHAM, Mass., a manufacturing town of Ply- mouth county, fourteen miles southwest of Boston. Fancy knit goods, wooden ware, cordage, bagging, furniture, iron castings and worsted upholstery are made here. HINSDALE, a post-village of Cheshire county, N. H. It has good water-power, and among its manufactures are woolen goods, lumber and mow- ing machines. HINSDALE, BURKE AARON, an American educa- tor and author, born at Wadsworth, Ohio, in 1837. In 1861 he became a minister of the Christian (or Campbellite) church; was pastor of a church at Solon (1864), and afterwards at Cleveland till 1868. Then he was made professor of history and English literature in Hiram College. and was its president from 1870 to 1882. Hinsdale has published: Authen- ticity of the Gospels; Evolution of the Theological Sys- tems of the Ancient Church; Life and Works of President Garfield; Schools and Studies, etc. Hinsdale was also assistant editor of the “Christ- ian Standard,” and “Christian Quarterly,” for many years. HIP: in architecture, the rafter at the angle where two sloping roofs meet. A roof is called a 845 hipped roof when the end is sloped upwards so as to form a hip on each side. HIP-KNOB, an ornament carved in stone or wood, ‘set on the apex of a gable or hipped roof, and forming a kind of finial. HIPPARION, a genus of fossil horses. horse, Britannica, Vol. XII, p. 174. HIPPEAU, CELESTIN, a French author and ed- ucationist, born at Niort, Deux-Sévres, May 11. 1803, died in 1883. His earlier studies were pur- sued in his native city, and he subsequently held positions as professor at Poitiers, Napoléon, Ven- dée, Strasburg, Paris and Caen. He received the decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1861. Among the most prominent of his writings are: Histoire de l’Abbaye ole Saint-Etienne de Caen, 1066-1790 (1855); Histoire du Goavernemente de la Normandie (1863-73); and Aoenement des Bourbons an Tr6ne d’Espagne (1875). HIPPOCRAS (oinam Hippocraticum, “wine of Hippocrates”), an aromatic medicated wine, for- merly much used as a cordial. It was prepared from white wine, flavored with cinnamon and other spices, lemon peel, almonds, etc., and sweetened with honey or sugar. HIPPOCRATIC OATH, an engagement en- tered into by persons commencing the practice of medicine. The text of the oath has been as- cribed to Hippocrates, and may, perhaps, be ac- cepted as genuine; its comparative antiquity is not denied. It is the oldest and one of the best of the codes of medical ethics. HIPPOGRIFF, or HIPPOGRYPH (Gr. hippos, “a horse,” and the word gryph, “griffin”), a fabulous an- imal, unknown to the ancients. which is represented by modern writers as a winged horse with the head ofa griflin. The hippogrifl’ figures as the horse of the Muses, and plays a conspicuous role in the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto. HIPPOPHAGY, HIPPOPHAGI (Gr. “eaters of horse-flesh”), was a name given by the Greeks to a Scythian people living northeast of the Caspian Sea, and to a Sarmatian tribe north of the Euxine. In some parts of Europe horse-flesh is a regular and wholesome article of diet. In 1866 the sale of horse-flesh in the Paris markets as an article of food was officially recognized and regulated, and during the siege of Paris, horse-flesh was gladly eaten by all who could get it. In Great Britain an act was assed in 1889 regulating the sale of horse-flesh, requiring that all horse-flesh exposed for sale should be expressly so described. HIPPURIC ACID, CQHQNOS, a compound of great interest to chemist and physiologist. It de- rives its name from its having been first discovered in the urine of the horse, and that fluid, or the renal secretions of the cow, affords the best and readiest means of obtaining it. The crystals of hippuric acid are moderately large, colorless, but subsequently becoming milk white, four-sided prisms, which are devoid of odor, but have a faint- ly bitter taste. They dissolve readily in boiling water and in spirit. It is an abundant normal constituent of the urine of the horse, cow, sheep, etc., and probably is to be found in the urine of all vegetable feeders. In the urine of healthy per- sons living on an ordinary mixed diet it occurs in very small quantity, but it is increased by an ex- clusively vegetable diet and in the well-known disease diabetes. The hippuric acid occurring in the animal organism exists in combination with bases, and chiefly as hippurate of soda and hippu- rate of lime. The last-named salt can be obtained by the mere evaporation of the urine of the horse. hippuric acid readily splits into benzoic acid and glycocoll. If benzoic acid is administered it is ex- See 846 creted as hippuric acid,combining with glycocoll in the body. In herbivorous animals the benzoic acid is largely derived from the food; in animal feed- ers, even in starvation, it occurs in small amount in the urine; and it is therefore concluded that its forerunners may be derived from the metabolism of the tissues. That certain bodies closely allied to benzoic acid may be so formed has now been experimentally demonstrated, while glycocoll can also be proved to be so produced. At one time the belief was entertained that these bodies were com- bined in the liver; but more recent search has shown that the synthesis chiefly takes place in the kidneys. HIPPURITES, a remarkable genus of fossil bivalves, peculiar to the Cretaceous strata, and so abundant in some of the Lower Chalk beds of the Pyrenees that the series has received the name of hippurite limestone. The external form of the shell is so anomalous that some have called the genus a coral, others an annelid, others a barnacle, and so on, though the majority held it to be at least a mollusk. Investigation has shown that the hippurites were divergent bivalves. The right valve is very large, and elongated into a cone, while the left valve is inconspicuous and perfo- rated by radiating canals. Including allied ge- nera or sub-genera—for example, Radiolites and Caprinella—-there are over a hundred species, all restricted to the Chalk and Chalk-mark. HIRSCH, MoRRIs DE BARoN, a Hebrew capital- ist and philanthropist, born in Bavaria. Origi- nally a cattle merchant he gained a considerable amount of wealth, and then associated himself with the European banking-house of Bischoffsheim & Goldsmidt. A large portion of his fortune was made by his connection with the railroad leading from “Buda-Pesth,” in Hungary, to Varna, on the Black Sea. Baron Hirsch has founded and main- tained many schools in Egypt, and in European and Asiatic Turkey, and in 1890 established in the United States the fund, known as the Hirsch Fund (g. v.) for the help of needy Hebrew immigrants. The Baron is a resident of Paris, France. HIRSCH FUND, THE, was created by Baron Hirsch, of Paris, France, who executed, before the American Consul in February, 1891, a trust deed to a board of trustees in New York city, conveying to them $2,400,000, to be invested in the United States, and the net income (estimated to be $10,000 amonth) to be loaned to needy Hebrew immi- grants from Russia and Roumania, who have come to this country within two years. Baron Hirsch, during the year 1890, contributed $10,000 monthly for the benefit of such Hebrew families. The spe- cific purpose of the fund is to furnish mechanics with tools, teach them easy trades, pay their en- trance fees into trades-unions, and, in exceptional cases, to lend the immigrants small sums to help them to become self-supporting. Day-schools and night-schools for children and adults are to be founded where the local authorities have made no provision for them. There are two clerks whose duty it is to look up Hebrew children who cannot attend the public schools on account of not being able to speak English. No money will be lent to peddlers, and the smallest amount will be $5. During the last six months of 1890 the trustees of this fund provided situations in New York City for 2,888 immigrants. HISCOCK, -FRANK, a United States Senator, born in 1834. He was admitted to the New York bar in 1855, and from 1860 to 1863 served as district attorney of Onondaga county. He was a member of all the Congresses from the forty-fifth to the fif- tieth inclusive,and in 1887 took his seat in theUnited _ HIPPURI,TES—HOAR States Senate as a Republican. His term of ser- vice will expire March 3, 1893. HITCHCOCK, ETHAN ALLAN (1798-1870), an American general and author, born at Vergennes, Vt. After graduating at VVest Point in 1817, he was assistant instructor in tactics there till 1829, and from that time till 1833 he was commandant of cadets. In the Mexican war he was inspector-gen- eral under Scott. Becoming colonel in 1851, he was placed in command on the Pacific coast. When the civil war broke out he was appointed major-gen- eral of volunteers in the Union army in February, 1862, and soon afterwards made commissary-general of prisoners. He retired from service in October, 1867, and died at Sparta, Ga., Aug. 5, 1870. Among his published writings are: The Doctrines of Swed- enborg and Spinoza Identified; Alchemy and the Al- chemists ; and Christ the Spirit. HITCHCOCK, RoswELL DWIGHT (1817-87), an American theologian, born at East Machias, Maine. He studied theology at Andover, and was or- dained pastor of the first Congregational church at Exeter, N. H., in 1845. Afterward he spent a year at the Universities of Halle and Berlin in Germany. In 1852 he was professor of natural and revealed religion at Bowdoin College; in 1855 pro- fessor of church history in Union Theological Semi- nary, New York; and in 1880 he became president of that seminary. In 1866 he visited Italy and Greece; in 1869 Egypt and Palestine, and in 1885 he again went abroad. Doctor Hitchcock published a Complete Analysis of the Bible, and edited the Life and Writings of Edward Robinson. He received the degree of D.D. from Bowdoin College in 1855, and of L.D. from Williams College in 1873. HITT, RoBERT RoBERTs, a United States Con- gressman from Ohio, born in 1837. From 1874 to 1881 he was first secretary of legation at Paris, and charge d’affaires ad interim; was assistant Secretary of State in 1881, and in 1882 was elected to the 47th Congress. He was reélected a member of the 148th, 49th, 50th and 51st Congresses as a Repub- Ican. HIVITES (“villagers,” or “midlanders”), a Ca- naanitish people, the main body of which lived in the region from Lebanon and Hermon to Hamath, but who had colonies, apparently isolated, in south- ern Palestine, as at Gibeon. HOAR, EBENEZER Rooxwoon, an American jurist, born at Concord, Mass., in 1816. He was admitted to the bar in 1840. In 1849 he became judge of the court of common pleas, but resigned in 1855. Soon after he was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, and held this office until 1869, when President Grant appointed him Attor- ney-General of the United States. Mr. Hoar was a member of Congress from Washington from 1873 to 1875. HOAR, GEORGE F., a United States Senator, born in 1826. He was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1848, and in 1860 was city solicitor of Worcester. In 1852 he was a member of the State house of rep- resentatives, and of the State senate in 1857. He was a member of the 41st, 42d, 43d and 44th Con- gresses, and in 1877 took his seat as a Republican in the United States Senate. In 1883 and 1889 he was reélected. HOAR, SAMUEL, an American statesman. born at Lincoln, Mass., in 1778, died at Concord, Mass., in 1856. Being admitted to the bar in 1805, he soon became eminent in his profession. He was a mem- ber of Congress in 1835-37, and a State councilor in 1845-46. The State of Massachusetts sent him to South Carolina in 1844, to test the constitutionality of acts of the latter State, by which free negro sailors were seized and imprisoned on entering its HOBART-— ports. But on December 5th, of the same year he was driven from Charleston by a mob, and the State legislature authorized the governor on the same day to expel him from the State. HOBART, JOHN HENRY, bishop in the Protestant Episcopal church, born at Philadelphia in 1775, died at Auburn, N. Y., Sept. 10, 1830. He studied theology in 1796-98, while he was a tutor at Prince- ton College. He was ordained deacon in 1798; priest in 1801; assistant rector of Trinity church, New York, in 1812, and rector in 1816. In the latter year he became bishop of New York, and in 1821 profes- sor of pastoral theology and pulpit eloquence in the general Theological Seminary of New York. Bishop Hobart published Companion for the Altar; Apology for Apostolic Order; State of the Departed. and left some memoirs which were published in 1833, and again in 1834 and 1836. HOBART PASHA, the Honorable Augustus Charles Hobart Hampden, third son of the Earl of Buckinghamshire, born at Waltham-on-the-Wolds, in Leicestershire. April 1, 1822, died at Milan, June 19, 1886. He entered the British navy in 1836, served first against the slavers in Brazilian waters, then in the Baltic in the Crimean war, and at the outbreak of the civil war in America became known as the commander of a blockade-runner. In 1867 he entered the service of Turkey, and for his distin- guished services in checking the Greek blockade- runners to Crete was raised to the rank of pasha, and in 1874 made admiral of the Ottoman fleet. He commanded the Turkish Black-sea fleet in 1878, and was in 1881 made Turkish marshal. He wrote Sketches from My Life (edited by his widow, 1887); and a book entitled Never Caught (1867),giving an account of his exploits during the civil war in America. HOBHOUSE, J orm CAM, English statesman, born June 27, 1786, died June 3, 1869. He was educated at Cambridge, entered parliament in 1820 as an ad- vanced Liberal, and was successively Irish secre- tary, commissioner of woods and forests, and presi- dent of the board of control. He was created Baron Broughton in 1851. Author of Journey Through Albania and Other Provinces of Turkey with Lord Byron, 1813; and Italy, 1859. HOBOKEN, a city and port of entry of Hudson county, N. J., on the west bank of the Hudson River, opposite New York City, and immediately above Jersey City. It has an extensive trade in coal, being one of the principal depots from which New York and its shippings are supplied, and three lines of European steamships start from this port. The principal industries of the place are connected with these steamships and the coal docks. Popu- lation, 1870, 20,297 ; 1880, 30,999; 1890, 43,561. HOCHHEIM, a town of Prussia, in Hesse-Nas- sau, on the right bank of the Main, three miles east of Mainz. Here is produced the white wine known as Hochheimer. HOCHKIRCH, or HOCHKIRCHEN, a village in Saxony, a few miles east by south from Bantzen, was the scene of a battle between the Austrians and Prussians, Oct. 14, 1758, during the seven years’ war. HOCKTIDE, or HOKETIDE, a popular anniver- sary formerly celebrated in England on the Mon- day and Tuesday following the second Sunday after Easter. The custom goes back to the thirteenth cen- tury. but authorities differ as to its origin. HODGE, ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER, an American theologian, born at Princeton, N. J., in 1823. He graduated at Princeton Theological Semmary in 1847, went as missionary to Allahabad, India, but returned in 1850 on account of his wife’s impaired health. After that he was pastor of a Presbyteman HOG-GUM 847 church at Lower West Nottingham, Md., till 1855; then at Fredericksburg, Va., till 1861, and after- wards at Wilkes Barre, Pa., for a year. In 1864 Hodge became professor of didactic, historical and polemic theology in the Western Theological Semi- nary at Alleghany, Pa. In 1872 he succeeded his father as professor of dogmatic theology in the Princeton Theological Seminary. He has pub- lished Outlines of Theology; The Atonement; Commen— tary on the Confession of Faith; Presbyterian Doc- trine Briefly Stated; Life of Charles Hodge, and Manual of Forms, all from 1860 to 1883. HODGE, HUGH LENOX, an American physician, born at Philadephia, in 1796, died there Feb. 23, 1873. He studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, taking his degree in 1817. He ac- quired an extensive practice in Philadelphia. In 1835 Doctor Hodge was made professor of obstetrics in the University of Pennsylvania. After twenty- eight years’ service he became professor emeritus in 1863. Hodge published System of Obstetrics, and Diseases Peculiar to Women, both of which passed through several editions. His son Hugh Lenox Hodge (1833-82), was a noted surgeon. HOFFMANN, CHARLES FENNO, an American author, born at New York City, in 1806, died at Harrisburg in 1884. When 11 years old his leg was crushed, and had to be amputated above the knee. After studying law at Columbia College he was admitted to the bar in 1827. In 1833 he was the chief editor of the “Knickerbocker Magazine,” After a trip through the West he wrote A Winter in the West, and Wild Scenes in the Forest and the Prairie, and a novel Greyslaer. He also wrote poetry. The first volume is called The Vigil of Faith, and the second, Borrowed Notes for Home Cir- culation Amental disorder, which attacked him in 1849, closed his literary career. HOFFMAN, DAVID, an American jurist, born at Baltimore, in 1784, died suddenly at New York, Nov. 11, 1854. He was an eminent lawyer, and in 1817 became professor of law in the University of Maryland. In 1836 he resigned; after that he went twice to Europe for his health. His best writings are: Course of Legal Study; Legal Outlines; Thoughts on Men, Manners and Things, by Anthony Grum- bler; Viatur, or a Peep in My Note-book; Chronicles Selected from the Originals of Cartaphilus, the VVan- dering Jew (2 vols). HOFFMANN’S ANODYNE LIQUOR, amixture of ether, alcohol, and ethereal oil. It is prescribed with laudanum to prevent the nausea excited by opium preparations. HOFMANN, Auousrus IVILHELM, a German chemist, born at Giessen, April 8, 1818. After ob- taining the degree of doctor of philosophy, he be- came assistant to Liebig in the laboratory at Gies- sen; and, on the establishment of the Royal College of Chemistry in London in 1845, he was made superintendent of the new institution. From 1856 to 1865 he was chemist to the royal mint, and in 1865 accepted an appointment as professor of chem- istry in the University of Berlin. He has made im- portant discoveries in chemistry (see ANILINE, Britannica, Vol. II, p. 48), and has contributed numerous papers to the transactions of scientific societies—for the most part on the highest depart- ments of organic chemistry. At Liebig’s death he became editor of the “Annalen der Chemie.” He was ennobled on his seventieth birthday in 1888. HOG—GUM, or GUM-Hoe, a kind of gum employed in the West Indies as a substitute for pitch. It is of uncertain origin, being probably collected from various trees which yield resinous substances of similar qualities. 848 HOGMANAY, a name applied in Scotland to the last day of the year, often celebrated in connection with New Year’s Day. In the Scotland of former days it marked the commencement of a holiday of uproarious joviality. HOG PLUM, a name given in the West Indies to the fruit of certain species of Spondias trees and shrubs of the natural order Anacardiacee. S. pur- purea and S. lutea are the species called hog plum in the VVest Indies, because their fruits are a com- mon food of hogs. The pulp of the fruit of S. tuber- osa affords a beverage used in fevers. HOGSHEAD,an old English measure of capacity no longer in use, but equivalent for wine to six- ty-three gallons, for ale and beer to fifty-one gal- lons. In the United States the word now signifies a large cask. HOKIANKA, a river of New Zealand, enters the Southern Ocean on the west coast of the North Island, in lat. 350 30’ S., and long 1730 26’ E. HOLACANTHUS, a genus of fishes of the family Chaetodontida, remarkable for the beauty and sym- metry of their colors, and for their excellence as articles of food. They have the compressed form and other general characteristics of the Chaetodon- tidze, a single dorsal fin, and a large spine on the gill-cover. They are natives of the seas of warm climates. H. imperator is one of the esteemed fishes of the East Indies, rivaling the salmon in flavor. HOLBROOK, J OHN EDwARDs, an American nat- uralist, born at Beaufort, S. C., in 1794, died at Nor- folk, Mass., Sept. 8, 1871. After receiving his de- gree of M. D., from the University of Pennsylvania, he went to Europe to continue his medical stud- ies there, especially at Paris. In 1824 he was made professor of anatomy in the Medical College of South Carolina, which position he held for more than 30 years. During the civil war he was com- pelled to serve as surgeon in a South Carolina regi- ment. His most important published works are American Herpetology, or A Description of the Rep- tiles of the United States (5 vols.) ; and Ichthyology of South Carolina. HOLD, the interior compartment of a vessel throughout her length which is nearest to the keel. From the lowermost deck it extends to the bottom of the ship; it is always below the water- line, and dependent on the hatchways for ventila- tion and what little natural light it obtains. In merchant-vessels the greatest portion of the cargo is stored in the hold. HOLDEN, a railroad junction of Johnson coun- ty, Mo., where timber, building-stone and coal are to be obtained in abundance. HOLDER, JOSEPH BAssETT (1824-88), an Amer- ican zoblogist, In 1860 he entered the United States army, and was surgeon-in-charge at the United States military prison in Tortugas, Fla., until 1867, and then was assistant post-surgeon at Fortress Monroe, Va. In 1870 he was made curator of invertebrate zoology, ichthyology, and herpetology in the American museum of natural history, New York. He was the author of History of the North American Fauna (1882) ; History of the Atlantic Right Whales (1883); and The Living World (1884). HOLDING, a term used in Scots law to denote the manner in which heritable estate is holden, and corresponding to tenure in English law. HOLDREDGE, a city and county-seat of Phelps county, Neb. It has water works, board of trade. foundry, machine shops and a telephone exchange. HOLIDAY, a holy day; a day set apart in commemoration of some historical event, or in honor of some person; a religious or secular fes- tival, on which business is legally suspended, and the time spent in relaxation and amusement. HOGMANAY--HOLIDAYS Also a time when usual occupations are suspend- ed; a vacation. HOLIDAYS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. The general holidays in Great Britain and Ire- land are as follows: Banks of En land and Ireland, and the Exchequer, Good Fri ay, Easter Monday, Whit Monday, First Monday in August, Christmas-day and following day; or, if that be Sunday, then the bank is closed on Monday. The Stock Exchange, in addition to the Bank holidays, is also closed on May 1st and November 1st. At the Custom-house, Inland Revenue Oflice, and the Docks, the day appointed to be kept as the Queen’s Birthday; and at the Docks, Coronation Day (June 28) and the Prince of Wale’s Birth- day (November 9) in addition. In Scotland: New Year’s Day, Good Friday, First Monday in May, First Monday in August, and Christmas-day. HOLIDAYS, LEGAL, in the United States. JAN. 1. NEW-YEAR’s DAY: In Alabama, Arkansas, Ca_.1ifc;- nia, Colorado,Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois. Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mame, Mary- land, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada. New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Ore on, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Uta , Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Washington and Wyoming. JAN. 8. ANNIVERSARY OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS; In Louisiana. _ _ JAN. 19. LEE'S BIRTHDAY: In Georgia and Virginia. FEB. 10, 1891. MARDI-GRAs: In Alabama and Louisiana. FEB. 22. WAsHINGToN’s BIRTHDAY: In Alabama, Califor- nia, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Wisconsin, Washington and Wyoming. MARCH 2. ANNIVERSARY OF TEXAN Texas. MARCH 4. FIREMEN’S ANNIVERSARY: In New Orleans, La. MARCH 27, 1891. GOOD FRIDAY: In Alabama, Louisiana, Mary- land, Pennsylvania and Tennessee. APRIL 1, 1891. STATE ELECTION DAY: In Rhode Island. APRIL 21. ANNIVERSARY OF THE BATTLE OF SAN JACINTO: In Texas. APRIL 26. MEMORIAL DAY: In Alabama and Georgia. MAY 10. MEMORIAL DAY: In North Carolina. MAY 20. ANNIVERSARY OF THE SIGNING OF THE MECKLEN- BURG DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: In North-Carolina. MAY 30. DECORATION DAY: In California, Colorado, Con- necticut. Dakota, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Ne- braska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin, Washington and VVyonfing. JULY 4. INDEPENDENCE DAY: In all the States. SEPT. 7, 1891. LABOR DAY: In Colorado, Connecticut Iowa, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, Ohio and Pennsylvania. NOVEMBER —. GENERAL ELECTION DAY: In Arizona, Cali- fornia, Kansas, Indiana, Maryland, Missouri, New Hamp- shire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Washing- ton, Wisconsin and Wyoming. In the States which hold elec- tions in November, 1891, election day falls on the 3d instant. Nov. 26, 1891. THANKSGIVING DAY: It is observed in all the States, though in some it is not a statutory holiday. DEC. 25. CHRIsTMAs DAY: In all the States, and in South Carolina the two succeeding days in addition. Sundays and Fast Days (whenever appointed) are legal holidays in nearly all the States. ARBOR DAY is alegal holiday in Idaho, Kansas, and Wyo- mmg, the day bein set by1 the Governor, in Nebraska, April 22d, and in Colorado on t e third Friday in A ril (Apri 17, 1891). Arbor Day is also a legal holiday in Rho e Island, on a day set by the Governor, but does not affect the payment of notes, etc. In Minnesota, Washington’s Birthday and Memorial Day are the only general holidays expressly provided bylaw. As to the maturity of bills and notes, the following da s are by Implication holidays: Thanksgiving Day, Goo Friday, Chnstmas, January 1st and July 4th; as to schools, Christ- mas, January 1st, July 4th and Thanksgiving Day. In New Mexico there are no legal holidays established by statute, and in Delaware no State holidays. Every Saturday after 12 O’cl0ck noon is a legal holiday in New York. There is no national holiday, not even the Fourth of July. Congress has at various times appointed special holidays, but there is no eneral law on the subject. The proclama- tion of the President designating a day of Thanksgiving only INDEPENDENCE: In HOLLAND-HOLT inakss it aholiday in those States which provide by law OI1 . HOLLAND. See Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 59-98; also NETHERLANDS, in these Revisions and Additions. HOLLAND,city of Ottawa county, Mich., in Hol- land township, éontaining banks, churches, schools, Hope College and iron-smelting furnaces mills and tanneries. The town is largely populated with Hollanders, and four weekly newspapers in Dutch are published. HOLLAND, J OSIAH GILBERT, an American jour- nalist and author, born at Belchertown, Mass., July 24, 1819, died in New York City, Oct. 12, 1881. After graduating at Berkshire Medical College, Pittsfield, Mass., he became superintendent of public schools at Vicksburg, Miss. In 1849 Doctor Holland was associate editor of the “Springfield Republi- can.” His published works are: History of West- ern Massachusetts; The Bay-Path, a Puritan ro- mance; Bittersweet, a poem; Miss Gilbert’s Career, a realistic novel; Timothy Titco/nb’s Letters to Young People; Gold Foil Hammered from Popular Proverbs; Letters to the Joneses; Arthur Bonnicastle, published in Scribneri, . , whose chief editor he was; The--Mist7‘€ss of the Manse, and Garnered Sheaves, a collection of his poems. HOLLAND, NEW, the name formerly applied to the island or continent of Australia. HOLLIDAY, BEN. (1819-87), an American ex- pressman. During the Mexican war he was an army contractor, and a few years later established Holliday’s mail and overland express, which for ten years was the connecting link between the frontier States and the Pacific. He was also the establisher of the fast pony express, and of a line of steamers from Alaska to Mexico. He built in Westchester county, N. Y., a house that cost $1,000,000, but which he lost after several years of litigation. HOLLIDAYSBURG, the county-seat of Blair county, Pa., on a branch of the J uniata River, and at the junction of several branches of the Pennsyl- vania railroad. It has furnaces, foundries, rolling.- mills, nail factories and a female seminary. HOLLISTER, the county-seat of San Benito county, Cal., 94 miles south of San Francisco. Much tobacco is raised in the vicinity, while coal and quick-silver are found in the surrounding moun- tains. HOLLISTON, a manufacturing town of Middlesex county, Mass., 26 miles southwest of Boston. It produces boots, shoes, nails, wrenches and pumps. HOLLOIVAY COLLEGE, an institution founded in 1883 by Thomas Holloway, dealer in patent medi- cines. It is situated at Mount Lee, on the south- eastern limits of \Vindsor Park, near London, Eng- land. It was established for the purpose of afford- ing a suitable education to women of the middle classes, and is the largest female university hitherto founded. The building, which is constructed in the French Renaissance style, was opened by the Queen in 1886. It is of great architectural merit, and is surrounded by extensive grounds. The institution is liberally endowed, and the management is vested in the hands of twelve trustees. HOLLY, a post-village and railroad junction of Oakland county, Mich.,52 miles from Detroit. Ice is shipped from here, and among the articles manu- factured are furniture, flour and castings. HOLLY SPRINGS, a city, railroad junction and county-seat of Marshall county, Miss., noted for its educational institutions. Rust University and the State normal school and other schools are located here. It is a great cotton shipping point, and manufactures hubs, spokes, wagons, and con- tains potteries and marble works. 849 HOLMAN, WILLIAM S., a United States Congress- man, born in 1822. He was admitted to the Indiana bar, and from 1843 to 1846 was judge of the court of probate. From 1847 to 1849 he was prosecuting attorney; was a member of the legislature in 1851, and was a judge of the court of common pleas from 1852 to 1856. He was a Democratic member of the successive Congresses from the 36th to the 51st, except the 45th and 46th. HOLM OAK, or HoLLY OAK, a beautiful ever- green oak, Quercus ilex, native of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. It affords excellent timber. HOLMES, ABIEL (1763-1837), an American cler- gyman. In 1783 he became tutor at Yale, and in 1785 was made pastor in Midway, Ga. From 1792 to 1832 he had charge of the first parish in Cam- bridge, Mass. He wrote Annals of America (1805). HOLMES, GEORGE FREDERICK, an American edu- cator, born in 1820. He was a teacher in Virginia, Georgia and South Carolina, and in 1842 was admit- ted to the South Carolina bar. In 1845 he became professor in Richmond College, Va.; in 1846 presi- dent of Mississippi University; in 1847 professor of political economy, history and international law in IVilliam and Mary College, and in 1857 was made professor of history and literaturein the University of Virginia. He has written a series of text books used in Southern schools. HOLMES, OLIvER IVENDELL, an American phy- sician and author, son of Abiel Holmes, born in 1809. In 1839 he became professor of anatomy and physiology at Dartmouth, and in 1847 was chosen to a similar position in the Medical School of Har- vard. He has contributed to many periodicals in every kind of literature, and has published, among other works: The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table (1859); The Professor at the Breakfast Table (1860) ; The Poet at the Breakfast Table (1872); Elsie Venner, a Romance of Destiny (1861), and The Guardian Angel (1868) ; Soundings From the Atlantic (1864) ; Mechan- ism in Thought and Morals (1871); A llfortal An- tipathy (1885); and Our Ilunolred Days in Europe (1887). HOLOPTYCHIUS (Gr. holos, “all,” and ptyche, “wrinkle”), an extinct genus of ganoid fishes from Devonian and Carboniferous strata, type of a family the members of which are remarkable for their sculptured or wrinkled scales and labyrin- thine tooth structure. HOLST, HERMANN EDUARD voN, a German his- torian, born in Fellin, Livonia, in 1841, and emi- grated to the United States in 1869. In 1872 he be- came professor of history in Strasburg University, and in 1874 at Freiburg. Subsequently he returned to the United States, and lectured at Johns Hop- kins University. He wrote Louis XIV (1869) ; Ver- fassung unol Demokratie der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (1873); and The Constitutional Law of the United States of America. HOLSTERS, cases for pistols aflixed to the pom- mel of a saddle. They were frequently covered with wool or fur, to prevent injury to the rider in the event of his being thrown forward upon them. HOLSTON RIVER, a branch of the Tennessee, formed by the north and south forks, which rise in Virginia and unite near Kingsport, Tenn. It flows southwest to Kingston, where it unites with the Clinch. It is about 200 miles in length, and is navi- gable for light-draft boats the entire distance, and for large steamers to Knoxville during the greater part of the year. HOLT, JOSEPH, an American jurist, born in 1807. He was admitted to the Kentucky bar in 1828; in 1857 was appointed commissioner of patents; be- came postmaster-general in 1859, and in 1860 as- 2-17 850 sumed charge of the war department. In 1862 he was made judge-advocate-general of the army, and in 1864 was put at the head of the bureau of mili- tary justice. In 1865 he was brevetted major-gen- eral, United States army, for “faithful, meritorious and distinguished services in the bureau of military justice during the war,” and in 1875, at his own re- quest, was retired. HOLTON, a city and county - seat of Jackson county, Kan., 56 miles west of Leavenworth. It manufactures flour, and has excellent fruit, good timber and building stone. HOLTZENDORFF, FRANZ VON, a German jurist, born at Vietmannsdorf, in Brandenburg, Oct. 14, 1829. Educated for the law, he practiced in the courts at Berlin till 1857, when he became a lecturer on law at the University. Made professor there in 1861, he was in 1873 called to Munich. He is known as an able writer on several branches of law, and especially as an advocate for the reform of prisons and penal systems. HOLTZMANN, ADOLF, born at Carlsruhe, May 2,1810, died at Heidelberg, July 3,1870. He first studied theology at Berlin, then Old German un- der Schmeller at Munich, and afterwards Sanskrit under Burnouf at Paris. In 1852 he was appointed professor of German language and literature at Heidelberg. Among his numerous contributions to philology are: Ueber den griech. Ursprung des Ind. Tierkreises (1844) ; Ind. Sagen (1845-47); Kelten und Germanen (1855); and Untersuchungen ilber das Nie- belungenlied. After his death Holder edited from his papers Germanen-Altertilmer(1873) ; Deutsche My- thologie (1874) ; and Die Altere Edda (1875). HOLTZMANN, HEINRICH JULIUS, theologian, son of the Germanist Adolf Holtzmann, born at Carls- ruhe, May 17, 1832. In 1861 he became extraordi- dary, in 1865 ordinary professor of theology at Heidelberg, and in 1874 accepted a call to the theo- logical faculty at Strasburg. Among his writ- ings are Kanon and Tradition (1859); Die Synopti- schen Evangelien (1863); Kritilc der Epheser und Kolosserbriefe (1872); Die Pastoralbriefe (1881); and an introduction to the New Testament 1885. Besides these he prepared the New Testament por- tion of Bunsen’s Bibelwerk; and, in conjunction with G. Weber, published Geschichte des Volkes Israel, and, with Z6pfl‘el, the Lexicon filr Theologie und Kirchenwesen. He has also contributed extensively to the theological reviews. HOLY COAT OF TREVES. See TREVES, Bri- tannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 553. HOLY CROSS, the name of several orders of the Roman Catholic church, as the Congregation of Canons Regular of the Holy Cross, founded by Theodore de Celles in 1211; Congregation of the Holy Cross, an association of regular clerks, found- ed by the Abbé Moreau in 1834, and introduced into the United States in 1842; and the Sisterhood of the Holy Cross, also founded by Abbé Moreau in 1834. HOLY FAMILY, the name given, in the lan- uage of art, to every representation of the In- ant Saviour and his attendants. In the early part of the Middle Ages, when the object in view was to excite devotion, the Virgin and Child were usually the only persons represented. At a later period, Joseph, Elizabeth, St. Anna (the mother of the Virgin), and John the Baptist were in- cluded. HOLYHEAD ISLAND, lying west and forming part of Anglesey, Wales, is eight miles long by three and a half broad. It is separated from Anglesey by a narrow strait, crossed by a causeway, alon which run the Holyhead road and the Chester Holyhead Railway. The surface is mostly rocky HOLTON—HOMEOPATHY and barren. On the northwest coast are two islets, the North and South Stacks, the latter with a light-house, whose light is seen for twenty miles. Area, 9,658 acres. Population (1881), 10,131. HOLY LEAGUE, a name applied to various European alliances, as that of 1511, between the Pope, Julius II, Spain and Venice against France, or that of Nuremberg in 1538, between Charles V and the Catholic princes of Germany against the League of Schmalkald. For the league of 1576 against the Huguenots, see FRANOE, Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 562. HOLYOAKE, GEORGE J ACOB, an English reform- er, born at Birmingham, April 13, 1817. He taught mathematics at the Mechanics’ Institute in his na- tive city, acted as secretary to the British contin- gent that went to the assistance of Garibaldi; was for many years editor of “The Reasoner;” was chiefly instrumental in securing the passage of the bill legalizing secular afiirmations, and has taken a prominent part in various public movements. Hol oake was the last person imprisoned in Eng- lan ona charge of atheism, 1841. He was presi- dent of the Carlisle Congress of the Cotiperative Societies, 1887. On the subject of coéperation he has written History of Codperation in Rochdale, 2 parts (1857-72) ; History of Cooperation in England, 2 vols. (1875—79); and Self-Help a Hundred Years Ago (1888). Other works from his pen are: The Limits of Atheism (1861); Trial of Atheism (1877); Life of Joseph Rayner Stephens (1881) ; Hostile and Generous Toleration; aHistory of M iddlesborough, and Sixty Years of An Agitator’s Life (1890.) HOLYOKE, a city of Hampden county, Mass., and a railroad center, 8 miles north of Springfield and 9 miles south of Northampton; finely situated on the side of a hill, and surrounded by the Con- necticut River on all sides except the west. The river falls 60 feet in the course of a mile and af- fords immense water-power. Large quantities of paper are made here in 26 mills—-120 tons daily. There are also cotton, woolen, silk, lumber, cutlery, wire, machine and other mills and shops. The city is well lighted, and supplied with water; street railways run on the principal thoroughfares. Po - ulation in 1890, 35,637. See Britannica, Vol. XI , p. 105. HOLY ROOD, or TRUE CROSS. See CROSS, Bri- tannica, Vol. VI, p . 610-11. HOLY SEPULC ER, ORDERS on THE. (1) Can- ons Regular and Canonesses of, an Augustinian order, founded at Jerusalem in the 12th century, spread throughout Europe, and ceased to exist in the 17th century. (2) Knights of the Holy Sep- ulcher, an order of knighthood instituted, probably by Pope Alexander VI, for the guardianship of the Holy Sepulcher, and the relief and protection of pilgrims. On the recapture of Jerusalem by the Turks, the knights retired to Italy and settled at Perugia. After a temporary union with the Hos- pitallers the order was reconstituted in 1814 both in France and in Poland. HOLY SPIRIT PLANT, or DOVE PLANT, the Peristeria elata, an orchid of Central America, hav- ing white symmetrical floral envelopes, and the stamens and pistil united into a column which curiously resembles a white dove with expanded Wings. HOMALOPTERA, the name given to a small order of insects which has been more generally re- garded as a division of the order Diptera. Some of the Homalogtera are wingless, and all are parasites. The forest- y is an example of this order. See Bri- tannica, Vol. XIII, p.150. . HOMEOPATHY, The membership of the Amer- Ican Institute of Homoeopathy, on J an.1, 1891, num- HOME-R—HONEY-BUZZARD bored nearly one thousand, and represented nearly every State in the Union. The number of new members received during the previous year was 128. At that date the statistical summaries were reported as follows: Number of physicians (vari- ously estimated), 10,000 to 12,500; colleges, 13; stu- dents in attendance last year, 1,175 ; number grad- uated last year, 369; alumni of 13 colleges, 8,422; professors and lecturers, 254; value of college prop- erty, $750,00(3; State societies, 29; aggregate mem- bership, 3,080; local societies, 90; aggregate mem- bership, 4,543; hospitals, general and special, 62; total number of beds, 5,897; patients treated last year, 35,242; value of hospital property, $6,950,700 ; journals published, 25. The officers of the Ameri- can Institute of Homoeopathy, at the opening of 1891, were as follows: President—Dr. A. I. Sawyer, Monroe, Mich. Ml/‘ice-President—Dr. Chester G. Higbee, St. Paul, mn. Treasurer-Dr. E. M. Kellogg, New York city. General Secretary--Dr. Pemberton Dudley, Phila- delphia, Pa. Provisional Secretary-Dr. T. M. Strong, Ward’s Island, New York. The office of the general secretary was at the southwest corner of Fifteenth and Master streets, Philadelphia, Pa. The following were chairmen of the scientific bureaus connected with the institute: Materia Medica, Dr. E. O. Kinne, Syracuse, N. Y.; Clinical Medicine, Dr. J. W. Dowling, New York city; Obstetrics, Dr. T. Griswold Comstock, St. Louis, Mo.; Sanitary Science, Dr. T. Y. Kinne, Pat- erson, Y. J .; Gynaecology; Dr. S. P. Hedges, Chi- cago; Paedology, Dr. Clarence Bartlett, Philadel- phia; Surgery, Dr. Charles M. Thomas, Philadel- ~phia; Anatomy, Physiology and Pathology, Dr. J . T. O’Connor, New York city; Mental and Nervous Diseases, Dr. A. P. Williamson, Middletown, N. Y.; Ophthalmology, Otology and Laryngology, Dr. James A. Campbell, St. Louis, Mo.; Organization, Registration and Statistics, Dr. T. Franklin Smith, New York city. For general history of Homoe- opathy, see Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 126-29; also see HAHNEMANN, Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 373. HOMER, a city of Cham aign county, Ill., 273 miles southwest of Toledo, hio. It has a flour mill and is a shipping point for fruit and grain. HOMER, a railroad junction of Calhoun county, Mich., containing a furnace and flour mills. HOMER, a village of Cortland county, N. Y., 27 miles south of Syracuse. It contains foundries and flour mills. HOMER, WINSLOW, an American artist, born in 1836. From 1854 to 1856 he was a lithographer in Boston, and then went to New York, where he made drawings for a publishing house. In 1860 he became interested in painting, and has since de- voted his entire attention to that work. Among some of his most popular pictures are :Home, Sweet Home; The Last Goose at Yuletown; Snap the Whip; The American Type; Country School Room; Eating Watermelon; Cotton Pickers; Song of the Lark; The Four-Leaued Clover; Dad’s Coming; In the Fields; The Trysting Place; Flowers for the Teacher; The Life Line, and Undertow. HOMESTEAD LEGISLATION. See I-IoMEs'rEAD, Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 122-24. HOMINE REPLEGIANDO, an old writ in Eng- lish law, meaning to bail a man out of prison; now disused. HOMOGANGLIATA, the name given by Owen to the Articulata of Cuvier. Each segment of the lowest homogangliata contains a pair of ganglia with nerves proceeding from them; all, however, communicating by nervous filaments, and consti- 851 tuting a continuous chain. In the higher forms there is a more evident allotment of the ganglia of particular segments to particular functions. HOMOLOGATION, a Scotch law term, denoting an act which confirms or approves of something which otherwise might be invalid. Thus an infor- mal deed, though useless in itself, yet if acted on by one or both parties will be set up and made valid as against the party homologating. HOMOLOGOUS QUANTITIES, or magnitudes in geometry, are such as correspond, or are like to an- other. For example, in similar triangles, the homol- ogous sides are those which are opposite to corre- sponding angles. HONDURAS, BRITISH, a crown colony on the Caribbean Sea, south of Yucatan, and 600 miles west from Jamaica. Area, 7,562 square miles. Popu- lation in 1887, 27,452. Capital, Balize, with a popu- lation of 5,800. Balize is noted for its production of mahogany and logwood. Schools (1887), 27; pupils, 2,612 (1,086 Roman Catholic, 1,199 ‘Ves- leyan) ; government grant, $11,023. Detachments of the 2d West India regiment are stationed in the colony. Imports in 1889, £260,089; exports, £300,000; revenue. £50,000; expenditures, £45,487. Chief sources of revenue: Customs-duties, ex- cise, licenses, land-tax, etc.; also sale and letting of crown lands. Expenditure mainly administrative and the various services. Debt, £16,650. In 1887 mahogany exported, 4,191,264 cubic feet; logwood, 20,018 tons; fruit (chiefly to New Orleans), £25,000; sugar, 953 tons. The transit trade greatly increases the traffic of the ports, especially in India rubber, sarsaparilla, coffee, etc. Besides the staple products, mahogany and logwood, there are sugar, coffee, bananas, plantains, cocoa-nuts, etc. In 1888, tonnage of vessels entered and cleared, 253,152, of which 135,464 was British. Number of letters, newspapers, etc., passed through the post-office, 1887—international, 97,355; inland, 22,697. Currency. chiefly Central American silver dollars. HONDURAS, BAY or, a wide inlet of the Carib- bean Sea, having Guatemala and Honduras on the south, and Balize and Yucatan on the west. It re- ceives many streams, of which Balize and Monta- gua are the largest, and contains the Bay Islands, and a multitude of islets and reefs. HONEOYE FALLS, a village of Monroe county, N. Y., 16 miles south of Rochester. Flour, plaster, pumps, axe-handles, and woolen goods are made iere. HONESDALE, county-seat of Wayne county, Pa., and railroad junction. Glass, edge- tools, boots, shoes, pottery, leather, lumber, canal-boats and steam-engines are made here. HONESTY (Lunaria), a genus of plants of the natural order Cruciferae, of which two species, na- tives of the south of Europe, L. annua, or biennis, and L. redivira, have long been cultivated in Bri- tain. Their large flat seed-pouches (silicules), which are very persistent, resemble polished film of mother-of-pearl, and are frequently used as orna- ments. The early English reckoned the plant among herbs potent for magic. HONEY-ANT, an ant of the genus Myrmecocys- tus, inhabiting Mexico, New Mexico, and Arizona. In one form of the workers the abdominal cavity is found in summer distended with honey until the ants resemble small, spherical, pellucid grapes. Later in the season, when food is scarce, these liv- ing stores of honey are devoured by the other members of the colony. HONEY—BUZZARD, or BEE-KITE (Pernis apica- rus), one of the Falconidae, allied to kites and buz- 852 Q! zards. It has a thick feathering on the sides of the head down to the base of the bill; it winters in Africa, and breeds in the wooded districts of North Europe, ranging, however, as far east as China and Japan. The honey-buzzard plunders the nests of bees and wasps for the larvae, and also the honey. The nest is situated on some leafy tree; and the eggs, usually two, are laid in June. The genus in- cludes a few other species. HONEYCOMB MOTH, or BEE-MOTH, a moth of the genus Galleria, which infests beehives. There it deposits its eggs, and the larvae when hatched feed on the honeycomb. There are two broods in the year, and the later pupae sleep through the winter. The best known species are G. ceranea and G. alvearia. It appears that neither moths nor lar- vae are ever stung by the bees. vWhen they occur in numbers they are very injurious, or even quite fatal to the hive. HON EY-DEW, a viscid saccharine exudation, often found in warm dry weather on the leaves and stems of trees and herbaceous plants. It is often, but not always, associated with the presence of insects which feed on the juices of plants, and its flow is ascribed to their punctures; but the rupture of the tissues from any other cause seems also to produce it. and warm dry weather seems to produce in the sap that superabundance of sugar which is thus thrown off. Aphides themselves exude a fluid called honey-dew, which probably differs con- siderably from the direct exudation of the plant, but mingles with it where they abound. Different kinds of manna are the dried honey-dew of certain plants. But generally this exudation, as it dries, coats the surface of leaves and branches with a clammy film, on which molds and other small fungi soon grow, and thus the pores of the plant are clo‘gged and its health is impaired. Gardeners are therefore careful to wash off honey-dew. range and lemon plantations sometimes suffer great in- jury from the abundance of honey-dew, as have the coffee plantations of Ceylon. HONG-KONG, a crown colony of Great Britain, and formerly a part of China. For history, govern- ment and early statistics, see Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 141, 142. The latest reported ofilcial census was that of 1881; but an estimated census of Dec. 31, 1889, gave the following figures: Area, 29 square miles. Population, 194.482. 0? the colored population there were 130,168 Chinese, one-third of the latter being British subjects by birth. The governor has an an- nual salary of $32.000, including a “table allowance” of $7,000. In 1889 there were 106 schools (subject to government supervision) with 7,659 pupils, involv- ing an annual expenditure of $53,902; also 107 private schools, with 2,022 pupils. The revenue in 1889 amounted to $1,823,549, and the expenditure to $1,459,167; the public debt, to about $1,000,000. There was an imperial garrison of 1,300. Hong- Kong is the headquarters of the China squadron, consisting of 25 vessels in 1890. The number of vessels entering that port in 1889 was 3,820, of 4,518,614 tons. HOOD, JoIIN BELL (1831-79), a Confederate sol- dier. See UNITED STATEs, Britannica, Vol. XXIII, .789. P HOOF-AIL, TREATMENT OF. Special care is need- ed at certain times, to guard against the disease of cows’ feet known as hoof-ail. This disease con- sists of vesicular inflammation of the skin between the claws of the hoof, and if this is neglected ulcers form, which at length become deep and penetrate the foot, at times causing the hoofs to fall oil’. It sometimes occurs, more so with sheep than with cows, that the disease becomes virulent, and the pus escaping from the sores becomes contagious, HONEYCOMB MOTH-—HOOKS AND EYES and the more severe foot-rot is established in the herd or flock. The beginning of it occurs when the animals are forced to wade in swampy pastures or in muddy yards. The mud excoriates the feet, and causes the inflammation by which vesicles or watery pimples are formed on the skin. The chafing of the sores by the grinding motion of the claws in the acts of movement very soon produces the deeper sores, and the filth poisons the blood, when in time the contagious form of the disease occurs. Prevention is easy, while a cure is trouble- some. Dry pastures and clean yards and stables prevent the trouble. When, however, neglect has produced its inevitable result, the sore feet must be kept clean and dressed with some antiseptic ointment, as a mixture of lard, eight parts; tur- pentine, two parts, and acetate of copper one part. HOOK, JAMES CLARKE, an Eng1ish,painter, was born in 1819. He commenced his artistic career by painting pictures based on Scriptural and poetical subjects. Afterwards he produced many excellent paintings, whose subjects were pastoral or modern. In 1860 he was elected a Royal Academician. Con- sequent upon the success of his well-known Lufl”, Boy! Mr. Hook has more recently devoted his talents to marine pictures, and is a regular con- tributor to the Royal Academy. Three paintings by Mr. Hook attracted much admiration at the academy of 1890. ‘ HOOKER,'CIIARLES E., a United States Congress- man, born in South Carolina. After he was admit- ted to the bar he returned to Mississippi. In 1850 he was elected district attorney of River district, and to the legislature in 1859. In 1865 he was made attorney-general of the State, and reélected in 1868. He was elected to the 44th, 45th, 46th, 47th, 50th and 51st Congresses as a Democrat. HOOKER, SIR J OSEPII DALTON, a son of Sir W. J . Hooker (1785-1865), was born at Halesworth, in Suffolk, June 30, 1817, and was educated at the High School and University of Glasgow, graduating M. D. in 18°19. He soon afterward joined the antarc- tic expedition of the Ereb‘us and Terror. Returning after four years’ absence, he acted for some time as substitute for Professor Graham in the chair of botany at Edinburgh University; in 1846 was ap- pointed botanist to the geological survey of Great Britain, and in the following year undertook a botanical expedition to the Himalayas, which occu- pied him for three years. In 1871 he made an ex- pedition to Morocco, ascending the great Atlas, the summit of which had never before been reached by a European. In 1877 he accompained Doctor Asa Gray ina scientific tour through Colorado, Utah and California. Doctor Hooker became director of Kew Gardens in 1865, was president of the British Association in 1868, and from 1873 to 18'." 8 was presi- dent of the Royal Society. He was made C. B. in 1869, and K. C. S. I. iI1 1877. He has published a number of valuable works, of which one of the best known is Student’s Flora of the British Islands (1870) ; and the most important, the Genera Plantarum, in conjunction with George Bentham (3 vols., 1862-83). HOOKER, WORTHINGTON (1806-67), an American physician. In 1829 he began the practice of medi- cine in Norwich, Mass., and from 1852 to his death was professor of the theory and practice of medi- cine in Yale. Among his writings are several scien- tific books for the young, and also professional works, including Physician and Patient (1849); Homoeopathy: an Examination of its Doctrines and Evidences (1852) ; Human Physiology for Colleges and Schools (1854), and Rational Therapeutics (1857). HOOKS AND EYES. These dress-fasteners were formerly made by hand, but for many years they have been made by machine. By one kind of HOOK-SQUID-HOPPIN machine the wire is first drawn off a reel, next cut to the required length ; then by a sinker forced into a slot, by which it is bent, and at the same time the two ends are formed by cams into the lateral loops. A hook requires an additional bend, and this is produced by another slot and sinker. HOOK-SQUID, one of the cephalopod mollusks of the family Onychoteuthidione, remarkable for its long hooked tentacles and suckers, which are em- ployed to seize its prey. It sometimes attains a length of six feet, and is much dreaded on account of its voracious habits. It ranges through most seas. HOOPESTON, a village of Vermilion county, Ill., situated at the junction of the Chicago, Danville & Vincennes Railroad, with the Bloomington division of the Wabash Railroad, 104 miles south of Chicago. It has elevators and considerable traflic in grain. HOOSAC RIVER rises in Lanesboro, Berkshire county, Mass. ; flows north, crosses a corner of Ver- mont northwest into New York, entering the Hud- son about 14 miles above Troy. It affords consid- erable water-power, and in New York is called Hoosick River. HOOSICK FALLS, a village of Rensselaer county, N. Y., 26 miles northeast of Troy. It has manufactories of lumber and mowing machines, and contains malleable iron works. HOPE, a post-village and railroad junction of Hempstead county, Ark., situated 112 miles from Little Rock, and 33 miles from Texarkana, on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern Railroad. HOPE—SCOTT, J AMES, third son of the Honorable Sir Alexander Hope, and grandson of the second Earl of Hopetoun, born at Marlow in 1812, died in London, April 29, 1873. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, and, admitted to the bar in 1838, soon made a great parliamentary practice. His life, by Robert Ornsby (2 vols., 1884), is specially interesting for the glimpses it gives of men greater than himself, as Cardinal Newman and Mr. Gladstone. HOP-FLE A, or TOOTH-LEGGED BEETLE (Phyllo- treta, or Haltica concinna), a very small coleopt- erous insect, which often in the spring devours the tender tops of young shoots in hop plantations. It is of the same genus as the turnip-fly (Phyllotreta nemorum). HOP—FLY (Aphis, or Phorodon humuli), a species of aphis, or plant-louse, important on account of the injury it inflicts on the hop plantations. The general color is pale-green. Both larvae and adults ruin the plants. No eflicient method of preventing the ravages of this pest has yet been discovered; but the beneficial service to man of lady-birds and other natural foes of this fly has been long and widely recognized. HOPKINS, ALBERT J ., a United States Congress- man, born in 1834. He was admitted to the Illi- nois bar’, and began practice in Aurora, Ill. From 1872 to 1876 he was State’s attorney of Kane coun- ty, and from 1878 to 1880 was a member of the Re- publican State central committee. He was elected as a Republican to the 49th, 50th and 51st Con- gresses. HOPKINS, EDWARD (1600-57), an English statesman. He emigrated to Boston, Mass., in 1637, and shortly afterward removed to Hartford. From 1640 to 1654 he was governor of the colony every even year, alternating with John Hayes. He then returned to England and became warden of the fleet, commissioner of the admiralty, and member of parliament. At his death he left $3,500 to edu- cational institutions in New England. HOPKINS, ESEK (1718-1802), an American naval oflicer. In 1775 he was commissioned by the Con- tinental Congress commander-in-chief of the navy, 853 and, in February of the following year, put to sea with the first squadron sent out by the colonies. He was officially complimented for his success in several engagements, but in 1777 was dismissed from the service for neglecting a citation to ap- pear in Philadelphia. Subsequently he settled in Rhode Island, and several times was chosen a mem- ber of the general assembly. HOPKINS, JOHN HENRY (1792-1868), an Ameri- can P. E. bishop. In 1818 he was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar, and gained an immense practice, but five years later became a priest in the Protes- tant Episcopal church. In 1832 he was made bish- op of Vermont. Among his writings are: Christian- ity Vindicated (1833); The Primitive Creed (1834); The Primitive Church (1835); Essay on Gothic Archi- tecture (1836); The Church of Rome in Her Primitive Purity Compared With the Church of Rome at the Present Day (1837); The Novelties Which Disturb Our Peace (1844); The History of the Confessional (1850); The End of Controversy Controverted (1854); A Scrip- tural, Historical, and Ecclesiastical View of Slavery (1864); The Law of Ritualism (1866) ; The History of the Church in Verse (1867), and The Pope Not the An- tichrist (1868). HOPKINS, MARK (1802-87), an American edu- cator. In 1830 he accepted the professorship of moral philosophy and rhetoric at Williams College, and from 1836 till he resigned in 1872 was president of the college. He retained the pastorate of the college church until 1883. Among other works he is the author of The Law of Love, and Love as a Law; or, Christian Ethics (1869); An Outline Study of Man. (1873) ; Strength and Beauty (1874) ; Scriptural Idea of Afan (1883). HOPKINS, STEPHEN (1707-85), a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was a states- manxof high rank, and held numerous important pubhc offices. For many years he was a member of the Rhode Island assembly; was justice of the peace, and judge of the court of common pleas ; was governor of the colony, and was a member of sev- eral Congresses. He wrote History of the Planting and Grouth of Providence (1765). HOPKINSON, JOSEPH (1770-1842), an American jurist. In 1791 he was admitted to the Pennsylva- nia bar, and in 1814 was elected a representative to Congress. In 1828 he was appointed United States Judge for the eastern district Of Pennsylva- nia. Mr. Hopkinson was the author of the national song, Hail, Columbia. HOPKINSYILLE. a city and county -seat of Christian county, Ky., situated 71 miles northwest of Nashville, Tenn. The locality is very fertile, and produces tobacco, coal and iron. The city con- tains South Kentucky College, two seminaries, a. State insane asylum, and manufactories of car- riages and lows. HOPLEGNATHID./E, a family of acanthopter- ous fishes, limited, so far as known, to the single genus Hoplegnathus. It is characterized by having a continuous lateral line, perfect ventral fins, and intermaxillary and maxillary bones provided with a trenchant edge, with which the teeth are contin- uous. Several species are known as inhabitants of the Pacific Ocean. HOPPIN, JAMES MASON, an American educator, born 1820. In 1842 he graduated at Harvard Law School, and in 1845 from Andover Theological Sem- inary. From 1850 to 1859 he was pastor of the Con- gregational church at Salem, Mass., and two years later became professor of homiletics in Yale. He published Notes of A Theological Student (1854); Old England, Its Art, Scenery and People (1867); Ofiice and Work of the Christian Ministry (1869); Homilet- ics (1881), and Pastoral Theology (1884). 8M HOPS, the produce of a perennial dioecious plant of the natural order Cannabinaccee, the only species of its genus. See Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 156-58; BREWING, Vol. IV, p. 272. HOP-TREE, or SHRUBBY TREFCIL, a North American shrub, Ptelea trifoliate, belonging to the Rue family. The leaves are trifoliate, with leaflets ovate, pointed and downy when young. The flow- ers, borne in terminal cymes. are greenish white and not conspicuous. The fruit is two-celled and two-seeded, having a broad wing; is intensely bit- ter, and is a poor substitute for the true hop. HORDEIN, a term that has been applied to a substance which can be extracted from barley (Lat., hordeum). It is merely a mixture of starch cellulose and a somewhat nitrogenous matter. HOPS-HOROLOGY behavior towards certain re-agents (as the caustic alkalies and the mineral and acetic acids) and their percentage composition. HORODENKA, a town of Austria, in East Ga- licia, a hundred and six miles southeast of Lem- berg. Population, 10,226. HOROLOGY, the science which treats of the construction of apparatus for measuring and tell- ing the time. On the construction of ordinary clocks, see CLoCxs, in Britannica, Vol. VI, pp. 13- 35; and on the construction of ordinary watches, see WATCH, in Britannica, Vol. XXIV, pp. 394-98. The improvements in the escapement and the pen- dulum of the clock bring the mechanical perfec- tion of this time-keeping instrument to the point Which it has attained at the present day. But the W EASTKIM ‘HMS PAGIHC TlM£ Meeunm -HML Snares; 1|;-;;_ __._. _.__. _ i Z / / . I ‘ 1 I: M: M nnnn I0 ,1,‘ E ‘ Q ‘I “ I __- \ ‘ \ 0*“ I ' B - . I \vt'~I. ,- W \._ '-I Q- ) '0 '~Y I _ NY 12:5‘. _) ~_~.~ , A i i Mm“ I lurphhe .\;.’¢p -_~:_‘ W I ‘ , ‘h _ H'/ \_ t -' ‘° -4, .' -4 ,' I _. l " -- - § , .“ % ""’-_ _~~‘_4;-_h \_ Q ‘ I ¢1f|:b"U'AM. I I “Ev ’ 0 17 _’._.H__\ X ’ 1- __n-_-.._-\ X ‘Lt INQ- \ ' . ‘A; 1‘ ‘”- 1‘ COL, X R L‘ "M M I . I ' ' \ \. ' " . \ ' ' ~ u-‘.._ __4__ E ‘ \“ $ V) I [Q . ‘'‘_~--.__.’ .- *1 — Q _ h _ ~ -'-'1‘. L--,. 3.‘ -'8'.‘ “i " i ' *1 + --- " .-.~~ . . Q ! ‘ (' : ‘..'. ..'.'.,.'4‘\4‘ I I - ‘~~. ' . ......i ""‘ YUM4 ; i 1 \~l--\/“-* ; E i . --- -* ems‘; ALA . ___ _ J } : f I 4- -' 0 K ‘-‘.~...-'7 :’,.- '\ .’ , 0 _‘ . W <~ .5 . ’( HORNED TOAD, a lizard of the genus Phryno- soma. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 736. HORNITOS, or HoRNos, the name given to the low oven-shaped hillocks which emit smoke and vapors, and which occur in great numbers on the sides and in the neighborhood of the large volca- noes of South America. HORNY TISSUES were formerly regarded as extremely simple in their structure. Recent in- vestigations, however, show that the parts which consist of horny tissue, as the persistent horns of the ruminants, the claw and hoofs, whalebone, tor- toise shell, etc., have a somewhat complicated structure, although they are so far analogous to one another that they proceed from nucleated cells which are not morphologically developed like the cells of most other organs. In a chemical point of view they also closely resemble one another; for, when compared with other tissues, they all contain - a large quantity of sulphur, in combination with a substance whose origin from or affinity with the proteine bodies is sulliciently obvious from their art of horology would be incomplete unless there were some standard, independent of individual me- chanical contrivances. by which the errors of each may be daily corrected. This standard is supplied by observatories. The big Naval Observatory at Washington determines, and gives away to any one who chooses to ask for it, absolutely correct time at noon each day. Experts paid by Uncle Sam make the computation and press a button at precisely 12 o’clock, thus communicating the hour to the various departments in the city. The West- ern Union Telegraph company is permitted to have its instruments in the room whence the mes- sage is sent, with an attachment to the button, so that the news is flashed directly from the observa- tory, without even the aid of an operator, all over the United States, reaching even so distant a pomt as San Francisco within the space of not more than one 5th of a second——for such is the utmost twinkling required for the passage of an electric spark through 3,000 miles of wire. _ To accomphsh this the telegraph company is obhged to take all “ ' HORSE-HORSE ISLAND other business off the wires, each day just before 12 o’clock. Three minutes and a half before noon arrives, operators in all parts of the country cease sending or receiving messages and devote their at- tention to attaching wires in such a manner as to establish unbroken connections from Washington with points in every section of the Union to which the lines extend their ramifications. A dozen sec- onds before the time-bell is to strike, a few warn- ing ticks come flashing along, and at the very mo- ment when the sun passes over the seventy-fifth me- /ridian a current gives a single throb from Maine to Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, in- forming an expectant nation of the time of day. The noon signals sent out from Washington serve to indicate 11 A. M. for Chicago, 10 A. M. for Oma- ha, and 9 A. M. for San Francisco. In this manner the Western Union Telegraph Company keeps cor- rected by electricity to absolute solar-time not less than 7,000 clocks in the city of New York alone, and in all the United States perhaps as many as 70,000. As each clock is charged $15 a year for this ser- vice, the company derives an income of about one million of dollars from this source. The clocks that are set every noon in a thousand cities and towns by a single pressure of a button in \Vashing- ton are equipped with a peculiar electrical contri- vance by means of which the galvanic current passing through it springs the hands of each time- piece simultaneously to the point of 12, if in the eastern time-belt; to the point of 11, if in the cen- tral time-belt; to the point of 10, if in the mountain section; and to the point of 9, if in the Pacific sec- tion. The United States Government avails itself gladly of this chance to extend the courtesies of the hour to 63 millions of people, especially in all important seaport towns, where the noon time balls are dropped in order that the mari- ners may be able to correct their chronometers. This last was from the start the prime object of the entire service. The Naval Observatory does not reckon its time by the sun, but by the fixed stars, which are so far off that their position with re- lation to the earth does not change appreciably within a few months or even years. Star-time is therefore, the only true time. The operator looks through his large telescope and watches for a given star which he knows to cross the plane of the 75th meridian west of Greenwich. Its time was adopted for the District of Columbia by act of Congress, approved March 13, 1884. The observer has a star-time clock and a printed table that shows him at what second the star in ques- tion must actually have crossed the meridian. He corrects the observed time, if necessary, by the table, which is always correct, and reduces it to sun-time. Since the star-year is one day longer than the sun-year, the reduction of the star-time to sun-time requires considierable figuring. A sun- time or “standard” clock stands close by, and by the amount that this varies from the calculated or true sun-time, the clock indications are at once changed. The noon-stroke is sent all over the country according to this corrected sun-time. At the observatory all the chronometers made for the navy are tested and regulated before ,they are sent out on vessels. It takes 21 weeks of testing to properly regulate and prove one of them. A part of the trial consists in subjecting the instrument to the action of cold in an ice- box, and again to heat as communicated through steam-pipes. Each chronometer, when given out to the navy, is accompanied by a chart telling just how much it will vary under certain temperatures. THE NEW STANDARD OF TIME IN THE UNITED vSrA'rEs is established in the following way: The 855 country is divided into four “time-belts.” based on the 75th, 90th, 105th and 120th degrees of longi. tude. This makes just an hour’s difference in clock-time between any two nearest ones of the four meridians mentioned. On each side of these lines the same clock-time extends for about 71/2 de- grees longitude. This plan went into effect Nov. 18, 1883. The change to this new standard caused but unimportant differences anywhere, save in places where two belts meet. Thus, in Pittsburgh, Pa., a passenger coming into the city on a train from the east and going directly west, should his train leave immediately, will find that there is just one hour’s difference in clock-time or train-time between the moment of his arrival and that of his departure; while in fact there is not a minute’s difference of real time. His watch will be an. hour ahead of the time used on his departing train. On going east his watch will be an hour behind. as an hour can be more easily reckoned than an uneven number of minutes. This_ plan of dividing the country into belts about 15° wide 1s more pract1cab e than it would be to divide it into narrower belts. Besides, a passenger from Portland, Me.. to Ohareston, S. C., for instance. or from Chicago to New Orleans can make the entire run without changin his watch. This division into hour-belts has been adopte by all important cities. and by the railroads throughout the United States 1. The following cities have noon at the same moment‘ Al- bany, N. Y.; Augusta, Me.; Baltimore, Md.; Bangor. Me.; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn. N. Y.; Bufialo, N. Y.; Burhngton, Vt.; Charleston, S. (3.; Cleveland. 0.: Concord, N. H., Hart- ford, Conn. ;_ New H ren, Conn.: New York, N. Y.; Philadel- p{h1a, Pa.: P1ttsburg , Pa.; Portland, Me.; Providence, R. 1.; ichmond, Va.; Savannah, Ga.; Washington, D. C.; ‘ mington, N . 2. _When the cities mentioned under 1 have noon, the fol- lowmg have 11 o’clock, A. M.: Atlanta, Ga.; Chicago, Ill.; Cincinnati, 0.; Columbus, 0.; Detroit, Mich.; Dubuque. Iowa; Galveston, Texas; Hannibal, Mo.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Kansas City, Mo.; Little Rock, Ark.: Louisville, Kv.: Mem- phis, Tenn. ;_ Milwaukee, Wis.; Minneapolis. Minn‘; Mobile, Ala.; Nashville, '_1‘enn.; New Orleans, La.: Omaha,Neb.: Pen- sacola, Fla._; Quincy, 111.; St. Jose h, Mo.; St. Louis, Mo.; St. Paul, M1nn.; Terre Haute, Ind.; licksburg. M155, _ 3. When the cities mentioned under 1 have noon, the follow- ing places have 10 o’clock, A. M. : Denver, Col.: Salt Lake City; Utah City, Utah: Santa Fé, New Mexico; and 4. The following cities have 9 A. M.: Boisé O1t_v,Idaho; Port- land, Oreg.; _San Diego, Cal.; San Francisco, Cal.; Seattle, \\ ash.; Virg1n1a City, Nev. The boun_da_ry11nes of the time-belts coincide with the lines of the meridians only in a very 0'eneral way. In the accom- panymg map the three heavy and irregular north and south 1nes are these d1v1d1ng lines. The one dividmg the eastern and central belts passes through Detroit. .\Iich.. Buffalo, N Y., Pittsburgh, _Pa.; through the western portions of Virginia, \\ est Virginia and North Carolina to the city of Atlanta, Ga... and thence eastward to Charleston, S. C. The boundary line betwen the central and mountain belts runs nearlv due south- ward through Bismarck in North Dakota to Dodge City 1n Kans_as_: an thence south-westward to El Paso, Texas. And the dividing 1ne between the mountain and Pacific belts runs along the boundary line betn een the States of Montana and Idaho. thence due south to Ogden, Utah: and thence to Yuma, Arizona, at the head of the Gulf of Cahfornia. HORSE, a hoofed quadruped of the genus Equus, and valuable to man for its strength, speed. docil- ity and courage. See Britannica,Vol. XII, pp. 17 3-205. HORSE, a miner’s term, applied to any intruded material which is the apparent cause oia sudden interruption in the continuity of a material that is being quarried. \Vith vein-miners, a detached mass of rock or spar which fills the vein receives this name, while colliers apply the term to the shale which occupies a natural but sudden thin- ning out of the coal-bed, as well as to such in- terruptions as seem to have been the channels of small streams, and which were subsequently filled up by the clay that formed the roof of the coal. HORSEHEADS, a post - village and railroad junction of Chemung county, N. Y. It contains a woolen mill, saw mill, and a very large brick yard. HORSE ISLAND, an island in Lake Ontario, and in Jefferson county, N. Y., two miles from Sackett’s Harbor. It has a lighthouse. Area, 27 acres. 856 HORSE—RACING. According to the “Baltimore Sun Almanac” for 1891, the fleetest horses on record are : AT RQNNINGZ Miles. Time. 14. Jim Miller, 2, Deer Lodge (l\Iont.), Aug. 16, 1888 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0-21% HORSE-RACING Maud S., by Harold, at Cleveland, 0., July 30th, 1885, 2:083/4. NOTE.—-Wm. H. Vanderbilt owned Maud S., and sold her to Robert Bonner for $40,000, before she had made a record of 2:08%; refusing an offer of $100,000 for her, because he did not want her to go into the hands of those who would have “hacked” her round the country at exhibitions. 2:08% is the best trotting time ever made. Jay Eye See, by Dictator, at Providence, R. 1., Aug. 1, 1884, 2:10. St. Julien, by Volunteer, at Hartford, Conn., Aug. 27, 1880, 2:111/1. Guy, by Kentucky Prince, at C1eveland,O., Oct. 29, 1888. 2'12 ‘Maxie Cobb, by Happy Medium, at Providence, R. 1., Sept. 30, 1884, 2 :1s1/,. Rarus, by Conklin’s Abdallah, at Bufialo, N. Y. , Aug. 31, 1878,2:13 . Harry Wilkes, by George Wilkes, at Sacramento, Cal., April 2, 1887, 2:131/2. 88Belle 3ljamlin, by Almont, Jr., at Cleveland, 0., Sept. 16r 1 7.2:1' . Phallas? by Dictator, at Chicago, 111., July 14, 1884, 2:136’/,. Clingstone, by Rysdyk, at Cleveland, O., July 28, 1882, 2.14. Goldsmith Maid, by Abdallah, at Boston, Sept. 2, 1874P 2:14. '1:1rinket, by Princeps, at New York City, Sept. 22, 1881, 2:1 . Patron, by Pancoast, at Cleveland, O., July 29, 1887, 2.14 . Rosalind Wilkes, by Conn’s Harry Wi1kes,at Poughkeepsier N. Y., An .24, 25. 1888, 2:14V. Hopefu , by Godfrey’s fiatchen, at Minneapolis, Minn., Sept. 6, 1878. 2 :14'~‘*/. Prince Wilkes,4by Red Wilkes, at Cleveland, 0., Aug. 3, 1888,2:141’/4. _ 2 St;mboul,by Sultan,at San Francisco, Cal., Oct. 24,1888, :14: 4. A5rab, by Arthurton, at San José, Cal. Sept. 29, 1888,. '1 'Favonia, by Wedgewood, at Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 10, 1888, 2: . Lulu, by Alexander’s Norman, at Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 9, 187 2:15. 2 Majolica, by Startle, at Providence, R. 1., Sept. 5, 1885, :15. TROTTING BY TEAMS. Maud S., bv Harold and Aldine, by Almont, driven by Wm. H. Vanderbilt to road wagon over the then Fleetwood track, New York, 1883, 215%. Maxie Cobb and etta Medium, both by Happy Medium, to skeleton wagon, driven by John Murphy, Fleetwood track, New York, 1884, 2:157. Edward, by Mast Flode, and Dick Swiveller, by Walkill Chief, to skeleton wagon, at Providence, R. I., 1884, 216%. Aldine and Early Rose, both by Almont, to road wagon, at Fleetwood, New York, 1882, 2 :16%. Cleora,by Menelaus, and Independence, by Gen. Knox, to sulky, at Hartford, Conn., 1883, 216%. IN A RACE. Arab, by Arthurton, and Conde, by Abbotsford, driven by O. A.Hickok, in straight heats, San Francisco, Cal., Nov.26, 1887. Time 2:301/, 2:23, and 218%. The third heat is the best time ever made y teams in a race. AT PACING. Jolhnston, by Joe Bassett, at Chicago, 111., Oct. 3, 1884, 'Lll;1l3.16 Brown Jug, by Tom Hal, at Hartford, Conn., Aug. 24, 1881, 2 :113/.. _ Sllecpy Tom, by Tom Rolfe, at Chicago, Ill., July 25, 1879, :12 . Buhalo Girl, by Pocahontas Bo_v,at Pittsburgh, Pa., July 27, '12 Richba/1%, by King Pharaoh, at Pittsburgh, Pa., July 27, 1883, 2 :121/. 2 Bgrown 12-Ial, by Tom Hal, at Lexington, Ky., Aug. 31, 1887, 01 _ 2.Arrow,by A.W. Richmond, at Cleveland, 0., Aug. 1, 1888, :1? . Gjossip, Jr., by Gossip, at Bufialo, N. Y., Aug. 8, 1888, 'Eié‘ia. Bell, by White Cloud, at Buffalo, N. Y Aug. 10, 1883,2:13%. 2Fuller, by Clear Grit, at Maysville, Ky., May 17, 1883, '13 2.G;r3g§II.1, by Tom Rolfe, at Rochester, N. Y., Aug. 17, 1883, :1 . Little Mac, by Kentucky Dan, at Detroit,Mich., July 23, 1888,2183/,. 181‘t1o\éirdy3/Boy,by Bull Pup, at Rochester, N. Y., Aug. 14, 7 , :13 . westm6"ut,by Almont, at Providence,R. 1., Sept.11, 1884, .11): 2. ..y. 2 Jiewett, by Allie West, at Albany, N. Y., Aug. 27,1886, '1 1%. Cyclone, a, Helena (Mont.) Aug. 29, 1889 0:34% /2. Geraldine, 4, 122 lbs., at New York Jockey Club,Aug.30, 1889 . . . . . Britannic, 5, 122 lbs., at New York Jockey Club, Aug 31,1889. . . . % Fordham, 6,115lbs., at New York Jockey Club, Oct. 4, 1889 . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 0-59 Sallie McClelland, 2, 115 lbs., at New York Jockey Club, May 31, 1890 . . . . . .. 3/4. Fides, 4, 116 lbs., at New York Jockey Club, May31,1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .101/, Bntannic, 5. 110 lbs., at Sheepshead Bay, 7/ Sept.5, 1889. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 1:262-5 8' Bella B., 5, 103 lbs at Monmouth Park, July 8,1890 (straight course) . . . . .. . .. 1 231/2 Salvator, 4, 110_lbs. at Monmouth Park, Aug. 1 28, 1890 (against time, straight course) 1:351/2 Racine, 3, 107 lbs., Chicago (Washington Park), June 28, 1890 . . . . .. . . :45% 1m. 70 yds. Lizzie B., 5, 104 lbs., Chicago (Wash- 1.ngtonPark),July2,1890 . .. .. .. 1-39\/,. 1 1-16. Prince Royal, 5, 116 lbs., at New York Jockey C ub, June 11,1890 .. .. 1 46% 11/8. Tristan, 6, 114 lbs., at Morris Park, West Chester Co., New York, June 2, 1891... .. 1 511/2 1 3-16. Tnstan, 5, 102 lbs., Sheepshead Bay, Sept. 4,1890 . .. .. .. .. 001-5 Salvator, 4, 122 lbs., at Sheepshead Bay, ly June 25,1890 . . . . . . . .. 4' Banquet, 3, 108 lbs., at Monmouth Park, July 17,1890 (straight course) . . . . . . .. 2:03% 1m. 500 yds. Ben d’Or, 4,115 lbs., Saratoga, July 25,_188 . . . . . . .. . . 2:101/2 1%. Orm1e,4,105lbs., at Chicago (Washington _Park_), July 7, 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 220% 11/2. Firenz1,6, 117 lbs., at Sheepshead Bay, June 26,1890 . . . .. . 2:33 1%. Hmdoocraft, 3, 75 lbs., New York Jockey Club, Aug. 27, 1889. . . . . . . . .. . 2:48 13/. Gl1_delia, 5, 116 lbs., Saratoga, Aug. 5, 1882 3:01 178. Enigma, 4, 90 lbs., Sheepshead Bay, Sept. 15, 1885 . 3:20 Ten Broeck, 5, 110 lbs., Louisville, May 29, , 2. 1_877(against time) .. .. .. .. ' 3:27% W1ldm0or(0),Kansas City, Sept. 29, 1882, 3:28 21/8. l\(l§)lI;18ll3OI‘, 4, 110 lbs., Baltimore, Oct. 20. _0 . . . . . . 8:441/2 Sp1gi_ngbok,5, 114 lbs., Saratoga, July 29, 1 /0 . . .. . . . . .. . , 24' Prgakness, a, 114 lbs., Saratoga, July 29, 3561/* 2%. Aristides, 4, 104 lbs., Lexington, May 13, 187 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ......... .. 4;27I/2 2%. Ten Broeck, 4, 104 lbs., Lexington, Sept. 16, 1876... .. . 4:581/2 23/4. Hubbard, 4, 107 lbs., Saratoga, Aug. 9, 1873 . . . . .. .. . 4:58% 3. Drake Carter, 4, 115 lbs., Sheepshead Bay, Se t. 6,1884 .. ... . . 5:24 Ten roeck, 4, 104 lbs., Louisville, Sept. 4 27, 1876 (against time) .. . . . . . 7:15% Fellowcraft, 4,108 lbs., Saratoga, Aug. 20. 1874 ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7:191/,, When the question is asked how the “ time” of races run in England compares with that of the races run in America, the only answer that can be iven is that races are not offi- cially timed in England. an that the distances are gener- ally“ about_” one mile, and the Derby is about a mile and a half. _The time reported for eight years is as follows: 1888, Ayrshire 2:43; 1887, Merry Hampton 2:43; 1886, Ormonde 2 :45 2-5; 1885, Melton 2 :45 1-5; Harvester and St. Gatien (dead heat) 2:46 1-5; 1883, Saint Blaise 2:48 2-5; 1882, Shotover 2:45 3-5; and 1881, Iroquois 2:50. The race has never been timed faster than 2:43. AT TROTTING2 BEST PERFORMANCES OF 1889. Faustina, yearling, by Sidney, 2:35. Regal Wilkes, 2- ear-old, b Guy Wilkes, 2 :201/2. Sunol, 3-year-ol *, by Elect1oneer, 2:101/2. Axtell, 3-year-old, by William L.. 2 :12. AGED HORSES. Guy, by Kentucky Prince, 2 :103/4. Stamboul, by Sultan, 2 :121/,,. Palo Alto, by Electioneer, 2:12}4. Belle.Ham1in, by Almont, Jr., 212%. Bonnie McGregor, by Robert McGregor, 2 :131/2. Nelson, by Young Rolfe, 2:14. No'rE.—Immediately after Axtell had trotted in 2:12, he was sold to a syndicate at Terre Haute for $105,000. C. H. Nelson has recently received and declined an offer of $100,000 for the stallion Nelson, of which he owns three-quarters. 2.S"o'rrel Dan,by Red Buck, at Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 6, 1880,. '1 .Yolo Maid,by Alex Button, at San Francisco, Cal., Oct. 13, 1888, 2:14. HORSE-RACING \ PACING BY TEAMS. Daisy D., by Black Star, and Silver Tail, by Tempest, Jr., at East Saginaw, Mich., 1887, 218%. P51 hball, by King Pharaoh, and Westmont, by Almont, at 3211 . PACING WITH RUNNING MATE, AGAINST TIME. \V€est1nont, by Almont, at Chicago, 111., July 10, 1864, 2- 'Mii1.nie R, by J. C. Breckinridge, at Chicago, 111., Oct. 3, .1884, 2:031/,,. PACING UNDER SADDLE. Billie Boyce, by Corbeau, at Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 1, 1868, -2:14%. PACING TO wAcoN: IN A RACE. Johnston, by Joe Bassett, at Detroit, Mich.,Ju1y 21, 1887, 2:141 . Poéahontas, by Iron Cadmus, at Union Course, L. 1., June :21, 1855, 2 :171/2. AT HEAT RACING. 1/4 Mile Heats.—Sleepy Dick, aged, at Kiowa, Kan., Oct. 19, 1888, 0 21%: 022%,. Suspen er, aged, at Los Angeles, Cal., April 10, 1883, 023%, ¢0:22%,. 1/2 Mile Heats-Bogus, aged, by Ophir, 113 lbs., at Helena, Mont., Aug. 22, 1888, 0:48; 0:48. _ Lida Ferguson, at lone C1ty, Cal., Aug. 8, 1888, 0:48; 0:48%. _ _ G adstone, 4 years, by Reve1lle, at San Diego, Cal., Oct. 24, 1888, 0:481/2; 0:485. _ Red Oak, aged, 114 lbs., at Carson City, l\*ev., Sept. 16, 1879, 0:481/2; 0:49. _ Type Setter, 3 years, by Hock Hockmg 106 lbs., at Los An- ;ge1es, Cal., April 11, 1888, 0:48%; 0:49. 1/2 Mile Heats; 3 in 5.—Hadd1nton, 6 years, 118 lbs., at Peta- luma, Cal., Aug. 28, 1883, 0:49‘/2; 0:501/2; 0:49%. 5 Mile Heats.—Kittie Pease, 4 years, by Jack Hardy, 82 lbs., -at il’)allas, Texas, Nov. 2, 1887, 1 :00;_ 1 :00. Sadie McNairy, 3 years, by Enqu1rer,98 lbs., at Chicago, 111., July 2, 1883, 1 :021/,; 1 :03%. Hilda, 3' years, by Great Tom, 90 lbs., at Memphis, Tenn., April 17, 1888, 1:02%_; 1:02%._ A Mile Heats.-Lizzie S., 5 years, by Wanderer, 118 lbs., at Louisville, Ky., Sept. 18, 1883, 1:131/,; l:13}§. . G1-Over Clevelan , 4 years, by Monday, 103 lbs., at Oakland, ~Cal., Sept. 10, 1887, 1:131/2; 1:141/2, Joe Howell, aged, by Bonnie Scotland, 115 lbs., at San Francisco, Cal., Nov. 15, 1882, 1 :141 ; 1:151/2. Bonnie Lizzie, 3 years, by Hurra2h, 101 lbs., at Saratoga, N. 'Y., Aug. 16, 1881, 1:151/_,,; 114%. Shotover, 4 years, by Planter, 113 lbs., at Washington Park, Chicago, 111., July 2, 1888, msy; 1:151/. Unite, 4 years, by Longfellow, 103 4lbs., at West Side Park, -Chicago, 111., July 28, 1888. 1 :15; 1 :17. % mile heats, 3 in 5-Gleaner, aged, by Glenely, 112 lbs., at ‘Washington Park, Chicago, Ill., July 5, 1886, 1 :15; 1 :141/ ; 1 :15‘/2. Hindoo Rose,3 years, by Hindoo. 99 lbs., at Was ington Park, Chicago, 111.. July 4, 1887, 1:17; 116%; 1 :161/2. 7/8 mile heat-s—Hornpipe, 4 years, by St. Mungo, 105 lbs.. at West Side Park, Chicago, 111., July 19, 1888, 1:30; 1 :30. Unite, 4 years, by Longfellow, 104 lbs., at West Side Park, Chicago, 111., Aug. 9, 1888, 1 :30; 1:31. Estrella, 4years, by Rutherford, 115 lbs., at Kansas City, Mo., Nov.15, 1887, 1 :30; 1:34. 1 mile heats——Bounce, 4 years, by Bonnie Scotland, 90 lbs., at Sheepshead Bay, N. Y.. Sept. 7. 1881, 1:42; 1:41%. Kadi, 6 years, by Lexington, about 90 lbs., at Hartford, Conn., Sept. 2, 1885. 1 :421/; 1 :41%,. Gabriel, 5 years, by Alarm, 115 lbs., at St. Louis, Mo., June 13, 1881, 1 :421/; 1:413/4. Dan Spgarling, 4 years, by Glenel , 106 lbs., at Sheepshead Bay, N. ., Sept. 20, 1880, 1:42; 1 :4434. 1 mile heats, 3 in 5-Thad. Stevens, aged, by Longford, 100 lbs., at Sacramento, Cal., July 8, 1873, 1 :43/2; 1 :461/2; 1 :45. ‘ L. Argentine, 6 years, by ar Dance, 115 lbs., at St. Louis, Mo.,June 14, 1879, won the 1st, 3rd and 4th heats, 1:43; 1:44; 1'47 . ~/,. 1 1-16 mile heats. Slipalong, 5 years, by Longfellow, 115 lbs., .-at Washington Park, Chicago, Ill., Sept. 2,1885, 1 :50}/2; 1:48%. Ben (1 Or., 5 years, by Buckden, 117 lbs., at Louisville, Ky., May 25, 1882, 1 :49; 1 :511/2‘. 1 1-16 mile heats, 3 in 5-Dave Douglas, 5 years, by Leinster, at Sgramento, Cal., Sept. 23, 1887, 1:51%; 1:511/2; 1:51%; 1:54; 1 2. 11/ mile heats—Gabriel, 4 years, by Alarm, 112 lbs., at Sheeps- head Bay, N. Y., Sept. 23, 1880, 1.56; 1 :56. Ferida, 5 years, by Glenelg. 108 lbs., at Sheepshead Bay, N. Y., Aug. 30, 1881, 1 :56%; 1 :57%. 11/ mile heats-Glenmore, 5 years, by Glen Athol. 114 lbs., at S ee shead Bay, N. Y., Sept. 25, 1880, 2:10; 2:14. 11/2 mi e heats—Keno. 6 years,by Chillicothe, at Toledo, 0., Sept., 16. 1880. 2:43‘/2; 2:45. 2 mile heats—Bradamante, 3 years, by War Dance,87 lbs., at Jackson, Miss., Nov. 17, 1877, 3:32; 3:29. Miss Woodford, 4 years, by Billet, 107% lbs.. at Sheepshead Bay, N. Y., Sept. 20, 1884, 3:33; 3 :31%. 3 mile heats—Norfolk , 4 years, by Lexington, 100 lbs., at Sacramento, Ca1.. Sept. 23, 1865, 5 :27}§; 5:29‘/2. 2—lS" E5557’ Brown Duke, 3 years. by Margrave, 861/2 lbs., at New Orleans. La., April 10, 1854, 5:30%: 5:28. 4 mile heats—Ferida, 4 years, by Glenelg, 105 lbs.,at Sheeps- head Bay, N. Y., Sept. 18, 1880,7:231/2; 7:41. Lexington,4 years, by Boston, 103% lbs., at New Orleans, La., April 14, 1855. 7 1283/4. Glenmore, 4 years by Glen Athol, 108 lbs., at Baltimore, Md., Oct.,25, 1879, 7 230%; 7:31. The weights mentioned under “heat racing” are loads which the horses were made to carry in order to retard their progress during the heats, and equalize the chances of the competitors. Such a weight is called a “handicap.” The following table gives the present scale of weights for the United States: JANUARY. DISTANCE. ZYEARS. 3 YEARS. 4 YEARS. 5 YEARS. 6A‘;,%AII;g. ge nqile ..... 74 104 116 120 120 ,4 “ . . . . .. 74 104 119 122 122 1 “ . . . . .. 74 104 119 124 124 11/2 miles. . . . . 104 120 124 125 2 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99 119 125 126 2;; “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93 119 126 127 3 *‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94 113 125 127 4 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94 113 126 127 FEBRUARY. )/'rnile .... .. 77 106 117 121 121 34 “ .... .. 77 107 119 122 122 1 “ . . . . .. 77 104 119 124 124 11/2 miles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 104 120 124 123 2 ~* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99 119 125 126 23; “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93 119 126 127 3 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97 119 126 123 4 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , 96 119 127 123 MARCH 3/'In1le . . . . .. 30 107 119 123 123 32 “ .... .. 79 109 120 123 123 1 “ . . . . .. 73 106 120 124 124 11/2 miles. . . . - . . . . . . . . . . 104 120 125 126 2 *- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 120 126 127 235 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99 120- 7 123 3 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93 120 127 129 4 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97 120 123 129 APRIL }érnile .... .. 32 109 121 124 124 34 “ . . . . .. 30 110 121 124 124 1 “ ..... 79 106 121 123 123 11/2 miles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 121 126 127 2 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101 121 127 123 2;; 1* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 121 12 129 3 1‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99 121 123 130 4 ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93 121 129 131 MAY. 1 mile . . . . . . 84 110 122 125 125 ,2 ~~ .... .. so 110 122 124 124 1 ~‘ .... .. 79 106 122 126 126 11/2 miles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 122 127 128 2 *\ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102 122 123 129 235 *1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101 122 129 130 3 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 122 130 131 4 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99 122 131 132 JUNE 14. mile . . . . . . 86 111 122 124 124 ,4 “ .... .. 31 111 122 124 124 1 “ .... .. 79 107 122 126 126 Iiginiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103 122 126 127 2 ‘~ . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103 122 127 123 2;; “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102 122 123 129 3 ~~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- 101 122 129 130 4 *‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 122 130 131 JULY '24 H1118 .... .. 39 113 122 122 122 ,2 9 . . . . .. 34 113 122 124 124 1 “ . . . . .. 79 109 122 124 124 1% miles. . . .. 107 122 125 126 2 ** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103 122 126 127 235 “ .............. .. 104 122 127 123 3 *‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103 122 123 129 4 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102 122 129 130 AUGUST ;’Inile . . . . .. 93 115 122 122 122 ,2 “ .... .. 33 113 122 122 122 1 “ .... .. 31 111 122 124 124 llérniles ............. .. 109 122 124 125 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107 122 123 126 245 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106 122 126 127 3 *‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103 122 127 123 4 “ . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . .. 104 122 123 129 858 SEPTEBIBER. DISTANCE. 2 YEARS. 3 YEARS. 4 YEARS. 5YEARS. iggiis % mile . . . . . . 96 116 122 122 122 /, “ . . . . 91 116 122 122 122 1 “ . . . . . . 85 112 122 122 122 1% miles. . . .. 79 110 122 124 124 2 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 122 124 125 21/2 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 122 125 126 3 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 122 126 127 4 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 122 127 128 OCTOBER, NOVEMIBER AND DECEBIBER 1 mile . . . . .. 99 117 122 122 122 Z “ .... . . 94 117 122 122 122 “ . . . . . . 87 113 122 122 122 1% miles. . . . . 82 111 122 124: 124; . . . . . . 79 109 122 124 . 124: 2% “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 108 1-22 124 125 3 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 122 125 126 4 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 122 126 127 In races of intermediate lengths, the weights for the shorter distance are to be carried. . _ Ilii races exclusively for 4-year-olds the weights shall be 122 bs. Iri races exclusively for 3-year-olds the weights shall be 122 bs. In1 races exclusively for 2-year-olds theweights shall be 118 bs. Except in handicaps and races where the weights are fixed absolutely in the conditions. 2-year-old fillies shall be allowed 3 lbs. - 3-year-old fillies and upward, before Sept. 1, shall be allowed 5 lbs. 3-year-old fillies and upward, after Sept. 1, shall be al- lowed 3 lbs. AT HURDLE RACES. 1 mile, over 4 hurdles—-Suannanoa, aged, by Red Buck, 120 lbs, at Brighton Beach, N. Y., July 16, 1881, 1:50. Judith, 5 years, by Glenelg, 145 lbs., at Brighton Beach, N. Y., July 17, 1880,1151. 1 1-16 miles, over 4 hurdles—Judge Jackson, aged, by Buck- den, 138 lbs., at Latonia, Ky., May 29, 1886, 1 :59%. - 11/ miles, over 5 hurdles—-Winslow, 4 years, by Ten Broeck, 138 l1>S., at West Side, Chicago, Ill., Aug. 29, 1888, 2:02%. 1 3-16 miles, over 5 hurdles-Jim Murphy, 4 years, by Fellow- craft, 113 lbs., at Sarato a N. Y., Aug. 21, 1888, 2:12. , 1% miles, over 5 hur les—Bourke Oockran, 4 years, ’y War Dance, 127 lbs., Bri hton Beach, N. Y., Nov. 9, 1882, 2:16. 1% miles, over 5 urdles—Guy, aged, by Narragansett,155 lbs., at Latonia, Ky., Oct. 8, 1855,_2:35. 1}&miles, over 6 urdles—Kitt1e Clark, 3 years, by Glenelg, 130 s., at Brighton Beach, N. Y., Aug. 23, 1881, 2:47. Speculation, 6 years, by Daniel Boone: 125 lbs., at Brighton Beach, N. Y., July 19, 1881, 2;47. Ascoli, aged, by Springbok, 148 lbs., at West Side, Chicago, 111., July 26, 1888, 2:473/4. 1% miles-Turfman, 5 years, by Revolver, 140 lbs., at Sara- toga, N. Y., Aug. 7, 1882, 3:16. 1% miles—K1ttie Clark 4 years, by Glenelg, 142 lbs., at Monmouth Park, N. .1., July 12,1882, 3 :17. 2 miles, Tom Leathers, aged, by Camp’s Whale, 117 lbs., at New Orleans, La., April 16,1875, 324712. 2%, miles-Buckra , aged, by Buck en, 168 lbs.,at Sheepshead Bay (on the grass) June 21, 1887, 4 :26. Mile heats—Wi 1 Davis, aged, by Fadladeen, 140 lbs., at Washington Park, Chicago,I 1., July 3, 1886, 1 :491/2; 1:51. - In,the absence of special cond1t1ons,hurdle-race weights are 28 lbs. added to_ weight for age. The same is done in steeple-chases. We give no records of steeple-chases, because the distances are uncertain, and the jumps vary on each course,so that what may be a creditable performance over one course would be a comparatively poor one at another, with- out taking into consideration the question of weight carried. BIG WINNERS OF 1890. The following is a list of horses that won over $10,000 on the American race-course in 1880: Horse. Owner. Amount. Tournament, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G. Hearst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..$90,995 Potomac 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A. Belmont . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77,010 Russell, 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..J. A. and A. H. Morris... 56,880 Sallié McClelland, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . .B. McClelland . . . . . . . . . .. 56,455 Strathmeath, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G. B. Morris . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40,355 Salvator, 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .J. B. Haggin . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,400 Burlington, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hough Bros . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,295 Sinaloa, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .E. J. Baldwin . . . . . . . . . . .. 36,180 Tenny, 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .D. T. Pulsifer . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,430 Reckon, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .J. A. and A. H. Morris... 23,950 Torso, ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .W. L. Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 200 Banquet. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . ..W. L. Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,375 Judge Morrow, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G. B. Morris . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,150 Los Angeles, 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .E. J. Baldwin . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,005 La Tosca, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A. Belmont . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18,190 Reclare, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Warnke & Son . . . . . . . . . .. 17,620 HORSE-RADISH TREE-—-HORSE-SHOEING Horse. Owner. Amount. Sir John, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Dwyer Bros . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17,590 Chatham, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .J. A. and A. H. Morris... 17,560 Eon, 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dwyer Bros . . . . . . . 17,360 Ambulance,2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..J. A. and A. H. Morns. .. 16,450 Kingston, 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Dwyer Bros . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,310 Eurus, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .J. Huggins . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,105 Her Highness, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..A. Belmont . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,100- Gascon, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Bashford Manor . . . . . . .. 15,495- Firenzi, 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .J. B. Haggin . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14,260 King Eric, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .D. D. Withers . . . . . . . . . . .. 13,050= Sorcerer, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .D. D. Withers . . . . . . . . . .:. 13,050 Demuth, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..S. S. Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,657 Volunteer, a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gebhard . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,635 Nellie Bly,2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. McElmeel . . . . . . . . .. 10,440 Kenwood, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .G. Walbaum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,345 Or '31 individual horses have won $794,222, or about 50 per cent. of the total amount of money competed for. Remarks.-The trotter is a distinctive American strain or breed of horses. Its special gait has been developed in this- country to an extent not equaled anywhere else, and its sur erior qualities are acknowledged everywhere. F. A. Wa ker, the former superintendent of the Census, says: “Two- generations ago the trotting of a horse in 2 minutes 46: seconds per mile was so rare as to give rise to a proverbial. phrase signifying something extraordinary. It is now a com- mon occurrence.” “But a few yearsago,” wrote Prof. Brewer, in 1876,“the speed of a mile in 2 :30 was unheard of ;now perhaps- five or six hundred horses are known to have trotted a mi e in that time.” The number of such horses is to-day nearer 1,000 than 600. American horses have pressed the limit of mile-speed steadily downward within the last few years, until the astonishingly low figures of 2:08% and 2:10 have been reached by Maud S. and Jay Eye See, respectively. Trainers even expect to bring the limit of trottmg speed down to 2 minutes. Racing has in this country fallen into decadence since 1850, being re laced by trotting. Yet American runners have recently eaten the best English thoroughbreds on their own soil. In regard to acing, which is a faster gate than the trot, the best record s 2 :06A in harness by Johnston, and 2 :01% by Westmont, with running mate. HORSE—RADISH TREE, the Morin a Pterygo-- sperma, a tree common in India and Arabia, and‘ cultivated in various other tropical countries. The fruit is eaten as a vegetable or pickled, and its seeds are important as furnishing the commercial oil of ben. The fresh root has an odor and taste resembling that of the horse-radish. _ HORSE—SHOEING. FARRIERY, A horse used for drawing burdens heavier than his own weight upon hard roads or for fast riding, requires to be- shod from time to time. If left unshod his hoofs break and wear away more rapidly than they are renewed by the addition of horny material from within, and become tender and sore. This is avoided by properly paring the hoofs and nailing- on iron plates, or iron bands, called horseshoes. The hoof of the horse consists of three portions, which are so closely united as to seem but one. These are the wall or crust, the sole, and the frog. .. ..;-I 1'1) ... The wall is all that part of the hoof that is visible below the hair when the foot is placed upon the ground. It is in the form of a cylinder cut across obliquely at the top. It is deepest in front, from three to four inches, and grows grad- ually less in depth toward its posterior as ect. This wall is In front about ialf an inch in thickness, ecoming thinner on the back side as it extends around the foot. It has an edge bearing upon the ground of about half an inch around the outside of the bottom of the foot. Upon the inner side of the foot the wall is thinner than upon the outside. HORSE-SHOEING The illustration will show the relative parts: Ground sur- face of hoof, a, toe; a 1. inner toe; a 2, outer toe; b 1, inner uarter; b 2, outer uarter; c 1, inner heel; c 2, outer heel; - , d. (J, sole; e, e, wal of the hoof;f, f, the bars; g, g, the_com- inissures; h, k, l, the frog; it, part under the navicular Joint; It, boundary of the cleft; i, i, the bulbs or the heels. The wall is divided into toe, quarters, heels and bars. _ The toe constitutes about two thirds of the wall, and is sometimes subdivided into toe, inner toe, and outer toe. It is the deepest and thickest part of the wall, and stands at an angle of about forty-five degrees. When the angle of inclina- tion is much greater than this the feet are designated as fiat and weak. Flat and weak feet usually obtain in large and heavy animals, and it has been thought that as the foot is flattened the anterior wall will be drawn down by the weight, at length becoming fixed. _ _ The quarters are the portions on each side, midway be- tween the toe and the heels, and are designated as the inside and outside quarters. The fibers composing them run obliquely upward and backward, parallel to those of the toe. The quarters slope downward and backward, and become thinner as they approach the heels. _ The heels are the two protuberant portions of the wall by which it is terminated osteriorly. The wall here is short- est and thinnest. the fi ers being only about_an inch in length, and not exceeding the fourth of an inch in thickness. Wh1le,in its natural state, there is some degree of elasti- city in the entire wall,there is much more in the portion that covers the heels. . The bars are reflections of the wall in toward the center of the foot, on its ground surface. They gradually approach each other, and come together a little in front of the center of the foot. In the natural, healthy foot, that has never been shod, the bars appear as sharpened rominences. like braces, between the center of the foot an the heels. They are well adapted to keep the heels open, and prevent con- traction of the hoof. In the unshod foot, the bars have a bearinglupon the ground second only to that of the edge of the wa . The sole fills the space between the wall and the bars. It is in the form of an irregular arched plate, the concavity be- ing toward the ground. It is firmly attached,bg its outer convex ed e, to the inner border of the wall, whi e its inner straight edges are attached to the bars. Throughout its whole extent the bars intervene between the sole and the fro . The center of the sole is the thinnest portion of it, and it a so constitutes the summit of the arch. The lower cir- cumference of the arch, which is also the thickest and strongest, everywhere abuts against the sides of the wall. The frog is a wedge-like mass filling the angular space be- tween the bars, and consists not of solid horn, as might at first seem, but of a series of elastic arches. It_has been not inaptly compared to an elastic keystone received into an elastic arch, communicating in some cases, and admitting in all, the springing movements of which such an arch is capable. The base of the fro lies between and connects the posterior curved portions 0 the hoof, limiting to some ex- tent their action. The sides are connected with the bars by their u per edges, leaving upon the ground surface two deep channe s between the lower border of the bars and frog, which have been termed the commissures of the frog. The horny material arching over these channels is called the arch of the commissures. In _the center of the frog as we look upon its ground surface, IS a deep, narrow depression, the cleft of the frog, which extends further into the soft tis- sues of the foot than the commissures. This cleft is arched over in a similar manner, and the cone-like mass, as viewed on its inner upper surface, has received the name of frog,stay or bolt. Looking upon both the exterior and interior surface of the frog. we see that with the bars it forms three elastic foldings, which act as springs to keep the heels apart and the foot well spread. In the natural, unshod foot, the frog though rotected to some degree by the inner border of the wall an by the sharp prominences of the bars, must still receive pressure at each step. The first question in scientific horse-shoeing is, “How must the hoof be dressed in order to bring those parts of its iii- ferior surface upon the shoe, which are by nature intended to be the principal weight-bearers ?” and the next question is,1“H’ow must the shoe be fashioned and applied to the so e ?’ Aleading French farrier, La Fosse, maintained that the frog, or central prominence of the hoof, is the main weigllt-,_ bearer, in connection with the wall, and should therefore be placed s uarel and firmly upon the ground, but the fore- most Ita ian arrier, Fiaschi. says the frog must not be placed upon the ground on a level with the lower surface of the shoe at the heels, because it is not the primary weight- bearer. In the feet of colts running freely over u land pastures, the hoofs are marked with quite a downwar rowth at the heels, a less active growth at the quarters, an a much more rapid downward growth at the toes. The 11 turned hoofs show plainly that the walls at the heelsbear t e weight on land- ing, but on springing from the ground the wall at the toes bears the weight at every step. The uarters are elevated, as the hollow of the human foot is are ed above the ground. That the entire weight of the horse rests upon the toe-end of the hoof was demonstrated by Dr. Coleman. professor of the Royal Veterinary Oolleg . of London. as early as 1799. He re- moved the bottoms of ..horse’s front feet-soles,bars,and frogs 859 -—and then walked and trotted him. and even caused him to kick with both hind feet in the air. so that the entire weight of his body was violently concentrated upon the bared front feet, yet the internal structure did not descend to the least perceptible degree. Subsequent examination of the feet of colts showed also. that their frogs are more spongy and elastic than the front and side walls. And it was also noticed that there is a natural expansion of the hoofs at the heels when the feet press upon the ground. and that a contraction to the normal dimensions follows when the hoof is lifted and freed from pressure. This lateral expansion of the hoofs at the heels every time when a horse’s foot is coming down upon the ground breaks the force of the great concussion produced by a run or gallop of the animal. While the hoofs expand the slightly elevated frogs and soles descend far enough to come fnlcontact with the ground, but with a gentle pressure on y. Previous to these observations the walls of horses’ hoofs were often softened with lotions, poultices, or wet swabs. A leather, rubber. felt sponge, or other cushion was sometimes placed between the shoe and the bottom of the foot. This is all wrong except in the case of bruised soles. As the wall in front an at the heels carries the entire weight of the animal it must afford a firm,unyielding support for this weight; whereas the frog is yielding by virtue of its spongy texture, and thus neutralizes the last vestige of concussion. Modern farriery is guided by these observations and con- siderations. They furnish the only correct data for paring and shoeing both the normal and abnormal hoof. 1. The wall should be erfectly level; that is, both heels must measure the same distance from the ground surface to the coronet, where the hair and hoof unite. Then, at equi- distant points, on the ground surface of the wall, from the heels, the quarters must measure the same height from the ground to the coronet. Then the wall, around the forward arches of the toe, must measure, at corresponding points, the same from the groun surface to the coronet. Then. and only then, will the foot wall be perfectly level, and the action of the foot will be comfortable and correct. For then will the hoof land squarely upon even heels. revolve evenly over equal quarters, and spring straight and true from the toes. 2. The hoof must be balanced: that is, the hoof and quar- ters must be equidistant at corresponding points of the fro . This balancing prevents undue weight on either side- an therefore enables the tendons to carry the hoof straight both in elevating it from the ground and carrying it out straight and true without any interference with the other foot and limb. Moreover, it equally distributes the pressure flay equalizing the sections of the foot on either side of the ro . 3fgIt was found that most foot maladies resultin from horse- shoeing are due to an uneven and unbalanced wa lin connec- tion with an undue height of the heels. If the heels are al- lowed to grow too high, the greater part of the weight is thrown forward upon the bone structure of the limb, and the bones of the foot are forced forward against the wall in front. Inflammation of the feet and soreness in the joints and bones soon follow such a course. If the toes, on the contrary, are allowed to grow too long. then the preponder- ance of weight is thrown upon the fiexor tendons, which are on the back side of the foot, and these tendons become in- flamed. The hoofs must therefore be pared in such a way that the weight of the animal is e ually distributed between the bones and fiexor tendons. I one heel is permitted to grow higher than the other, bruises on the high heel, called come, with result. 4. Formerly farriers erroneously maintained that the sole should be pared till it yields to the pressure of the thumb. The sole is naturally only from 1/, to 9/8 of an inch thick. It must in all cases. when in a natural condition, be so pared as to approximate the concave form it ossesses in colt-hood. In no instance should it press upon t e shoe, ex- cept where the wall is so thin and weak as not to be able to bear the weight of the horse without pain. The frog must only be pared to remove the rag ed edges. Some prominent farriers even maintain that t e frog should never be touched, alleging that nature sheds the surplusage of horny material at the proper seasons. _ Horses with weak. tender, or bruised soles may for a time require leather or waterproof pads, but as the sole grows these should be discontinued ;_ they are never required in healthy feet where the sole, which is the best and most nat- ural protection, 1S allowed to grow undisturbed by the knife. Horses with corns should have their shoes made with a wide inside web, which rests upon the bars, or have for a time a bar shoe. The last nail on the inside should also be dispensed with, and the seat of the corn or bruise carefullv pared out, but without injuring either the frog or bars. I . from constant cutting, the bars are unfit to aid the crust in carrying the shoe. it will he often advisable to shoe for a time with tips or half-shoes keeping the horse as much as possible on soft ground, and waitin the healthy growth of the foot. In troublesome cases 0 tips are also most serviceable, allowing the frog the natural healthy ressure for which it is intended, and with astring- ents an cleanliness greatly expediting a cure. G1-oggv horses should have the toe shortened, and turned up. and the shoes made light and nicely fitted. Overreach, or cut- ting of the heel of the forefoot with the shoe of the hind, is thrush such . 2 860 remedied by filing round the posterior edge of the offend- ing toe, and keeping that shoe as far back as possible on the foot. Of the many recent patterns of horseshoes we mention the following: The Peri-planter of Charl1er 1s a narrow nm of iron forged Just as wide as the wall. The wall 1s cut away at its lower margain to a depth equal to the thickness of this iron rim, which is neatly inserted In the groove thus made. Its design is to prevent the wear of the wall by the contact with hard roads. It is based upon the theory that the entire base of the hoof-walls, bars, frog, and sole should come upon the ground at the same time. _ The four-calkin shoe, invented by Robert ‘Bonner, Is one of the greatest improvements of modern farr1ery. Two of the calkins, made oblong, are welded onto the web of the heels of a plain shoe, while the other two are placed at the Inner edges of the forward arches of the uarters. It Increases the articulation of the foot, prevents t e danger of slipping, and protects the flexor tendons. _ The rollin -ball shoe of Dr. David Roberge is another valu- able hospita shoe. It is solid at the bottom, being round or convex in shape at the base. If there is any sorene_ss 1n the joints, muscles or tendons, the rolling-ball shoe will enable the horse to revolve and ease the foot in such a position as will relieve the strain upon the injured part. B n \\ \ :\\ Q“ \ ~ \\\\§\\\\\ \\ 1 f‘ ’ “.,=‘v. ,( /, '. ?\ .s‘\;l¢n'_~;’a \' ."1")-? :- A SoUND FORE-FOOT PREPARED FOR THE SHoE. Copied from Stonehenge’s Horse in the Stable and the Field. A, A, the heels of the crust; B, the toe cut out to receive the clip; C, C, the quarters of the crust; D, D, the bars as they should be left, with the full frog between them; E, E, the angles between the heels and bars, where corns appear; F, F, the concave surface of the toe; G, G, the bulbous heels; H, the cleft. The wing-heeled centennial shoe follows the wall to the heels, and then turns with the mflexion of the wall and cov- cm the bars. It has been found to relieve horses with weak heels or quarter-cracks and to be valuable for saddle-horses that have to bear forehanded, the extra weight of the rider. There are many other patterns, especially of rimmed shoes, some plain like the Eng ish blank, and some corrugated like the American form of Mr. Goodenough. But they present nothing novel either in theory or design. The hoof-expander of F. P. Roberge. veterinary surgeon in New York, consists of a peculiarly formed spring contrivance which is introduced into the under portion of the hoof, and exerts a constant gentle pressure against the outer walls of the hoof, thereby preventing contraction in form where there is a tendency In that direction. From contraction, or wiring-in of the quarters. result shortness of gait, soreness, come, and frequently quarter-cracks. The hoof, or horny box is apparentl the same to the horse as a shoe is to man. When the horn 0 the sidewalls presses against the sensitive parts within the hoof, corns are produced in the same way as when we wear tight shoes. Roberge’s hoof-expander is intended to prevent this. One of the main requisites in horse-shoeing is the greatest ossible lightness of the shoes consistent with the use of the horse, their smallest size, and the least possible number of nails consistent with their secure fastening to the wall of the hoof. It was shown by a French hi popathologist, Bouley, that an ounce of artificial weight at t e foot is equal to a pound at the shoulder. Besides, it has been found that light shoes not only wear as long as heavy ones,but that they are much less apt to fall off the feet. The nails should also be light and smooth, and must be driven so as to have a short, thick, transverse hold, rather than extending high up, which splits the wall. HORVATH—HOST The cruel practice of overheating the shoes and burning the hoofs for a close fit, has been mostly discarded as an in jury to the texture of the horn. The shoes are now only shghtly heated, and in many cases, where they are carefully made, they are fitted entirely cold. Horseshoes made of rawhide, pressed into the proper shape and dried, have been recommended. Although they are hard enough to be serviceable and lasting they have never come into extensive use. HORVATH, MICHAEL, Hungarian historian, born at Szentes, in the county of Csongrad, Oct. 20, 1809, died at Carlsbad, Aug. 19, 1878. He studied the- ology at the seminary of Waitzen, took orders in 1830, in 1844 became professor of the Hungarian lan- guage and literature in Vienna, and four years later bishop of Csanad. During the revolution of 1848 he held the appointment of minister of public instruction and worship, and the defeat of the Hun- garians drove him into exile. Under the amnesty of 1867 he was permitted to return. Of several historical works which he wrote, three deserve special mention: History of Hungary to 1823 (4 vols., 1842-46, and its continuations); Twenty-five Years of Hungarian History (1823-48, 2 vols., 1863), and His- trgg/5 of the War of Independence in Hungary (3 vols., 1 ). HOSACK, DAVID (1769-1835), an American scien- tist. In 1791 he began the practice of medicine in Virginia, and four years later became professor in Columbia College, N. Y. In 1807 he was made pro- fessor of the theory and practice of medicine in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and in 1830 was called to the medical department of Rutgers. He wrote extensively on medical and other scientific subjects. HOSMER, HARRIET, an American sculptor, born in 1830. ‘She studied modeling for awhile in Bos- ton, Mass., and in 1852 went to Rome, where she entered the studio of John Gibson, the English sculptor. Among her most popular productions are (Enone; Puck; Will-o’-the- Wisp; Beatrice Cenci; Zenobia; Sleeping Faun; Heroine of Gaéta, and Wals- ing Faun. HOSPICE, the name given to establishments for sheltering travelers maintained by monastic per- sons, usually in connection with monasteries. One of the best known inhospitable regions is that on the Alpine Pass of Great St. Bernard, of which mention is made in 1125. Travelers are lodged and boarded gratuitously, but those who are able de- posit a present in the alms-box. Similar establish- ments are found on the Simplon, the Little St. Ber- nard, and the Bernina. HOSPITALS IN THE UNITED STATES. See Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 301-307; DIsPENsARY, in these Revisions and Additions. HOST (Lat. hostia, “a victim” ), the name given in the Roman Catholic church to the consecrated bread of the eucharist, so called in conformity with the doctrine of that church that the eucharist is a “sacrifice,” in the strict sense of the word, though, in the common language of Roman Catholics, “ host ” is used for the unconsecrated altar-bread, and even so occurs in the offertory of the Roman missal. The host in the Latin church is a thin wafer of unleavened bread, made of the finest flour, HOSTAGE-HOTEL and bearing upon it the figure of the Crucifixion or some other emblematic device. In all ancient li- turgical rites the consecrated host was broken be- fore being consumed by the priest. In the Roman church the celebrant first breaks it in two, and then from one half detaches a fragment which he drops into the chalice. In the Greek and other Oriental churches, as well as in various Protestant communities, the eucharist is celebrated in leav- ened bread. The use of unleavened bread is found- -ed on the belief that Christ could only have used such bread when instituting the eucharist at the Paschal feast. Luther followed the Roman church 'on this point, but did not break the host. HOSTAGE, a person given to an enemy as a pledge for the proper fulfillment of a treaty condi- '-tion. Formerly the evasion of the terms of the treaty by one of the contracting parties was re- garded as entitling the enemy to put to death the hostages that had been given up to them. HOTBED, a bed of fermenting vegetable matter, usually surmounted by a glazed frame, employed in gardening for cultivating melons and cucumbers, -and tender annuals, propagating greenhouse plants by cuttings, seeds, or grafting, etc. It is inexpen- sive and formerly it was an indispensable adjunct to the garden, but the almost universal employ- ment of hot water as aheating agent for horticul- tural purposes has latterly greatly circumscribed its use. The size of the bed is regulated by the de- gree of heat required for the purpose in view. A bed of stable-dung with or without leaves inter- mixed, four feet thick, will for sometime after it is built maintain a temperature of from 750 to 90°, which is sufiicient for most purposes. As the fer- mentation declines the bed cools down, but heat is readily increased by adding fresh material to the sides of it. The bed should be made a few inches wider and longer than its frame, and from six to nine inches higher at the back than the front, to secure a better angle for ligh t. The farmer’s hotbed is made, in its simplest and cheapest form, as fol- lows: In northern climates choose early in the year a dry place exposed to the south and pro- tected from the north. Dig out a trench 18 inches deep and five feet wide. Set stakes around it, and nail boards for the frame as long as may be needed --nine or 12 feet perhaps, and cover with a fitting sash. Then fill the pit with coarse horse manure; bank the earth up against the frame and leave it until about March, when it will be time to finish it. The end of the frame should be of this shape, sloping to the south: \| I Pit. . I HOTEL (Fr. hotel ; Lat., hospitale), a superior kind of inn. One point of difference between the European and the American “plant” is that under the former, except in the case of a table d’hGte, the charge is for each dish ordered, while under the American plan a fixed price is charged for the whole meal. During the last few years, hotels of large size and cost and many of them of much architectural beauty have been erected in large cities and towns and pleasure resorts throughout the United States; and since the introduction of passenger elevators in American hotels, a considerable number of these structures have risen to very great height. The hotel “ New Netherlands” now (May, 1891) in pro- 861 cess of erection, by Mr. W. W. Astor, on the north- east corner of 5th Avenue and 59th street, New York City, is the most lofty of any yet erected in the world. The accompanying illustration will in- dicate its exterior architecture. ~ .\\~\‘ -R. §.{ 5-:--.. '.\ ' t t "\,_ 4 k> -few‘ I ‘ Q " ‘/ “ S“ D I._' t_-*\ l\/ ' _,-- =-~'-.\,{ \ - ,7, - - > ..- --_. _'r..._‘‘ i - .- ->_ 1 -_,‘,;_ . fir .‘.--.~__ _ ‘:\_ : ‘.‘Lf";~‘ . _- \|' . \‘ .-_ ‘ ’ ' ~ 1- ‘/T ".'/1-.‘ ..'. _ ’ _ ' \". . . ' I v, ,“- H" ' ... ' L’/{/‘|:~" ;‘§ - P--. _ . - \'_-,\. l- -- - ' -- I) ~.""-‘ - . ‘ ' "- %"- ,.\u-I1‘); I " _- ' - , £35, ";_.\'. __'-‘I-"V 2"‘ ’ ‘J '__' / * ' -' ‘-.~ - 1 ‘ V . -' \_ I \ I -.2.' ~- ‘ ' Y "--'r "- -. , '%i!l"’~ '1 .-~"".'-=‘.-'2-‘til’-1|L"I-‘:r.\~* " ' /\-Q: - _1_r: _§_I X ; Q _ 5 ‘I. 4 \ I ‘ ‘ ‘_.. . -‘ ii s S ' ii’-f ' :' _ -1 ' ,' 1F! é " \\ I I " Z. "-1-" /1 — -. - -' -. ‘4__I g arr ':_ - I ~ , " " - ‘ ' 4 § 1?“ , - \ ‘l g , - I \ F _'\:'-$1 \"..'.5. “ " .-‘J ..' . _ " I‘. an \ ‘- . |'< .- .. \ flcr. \\V \\D r ~ I ‘ - . \. "l-\S-{-_ _ , 9-I ,fii’i'. f-. -'7 lip _ . :‘ Z __ I ___-I II .. '_ _..--‘F’-;‘,"*‘3_5“’-\i.‘§Hil“” .57.‘-' ' - .-.-.1/.-1 1- I -> -. . i i |.‘.'--!,‘' I" ‘ '1 -'9 -‘ ‘ If If}, ‘X A‘ ~:- 2 F A . .‘ *1‘ 1:15 on‘ . A Q. S s‘“ LII; ___. ":l:°l’E.I:_ -ll"! ‘P Q, 1- . ,' In '1 THE NEW NETHERLANDS. The plans were drawn by Vfilliam H. Hume. They represent a building that will not only be in- teresting in its details,but more imposing than any other structure in the city. The site stand consists of five city lots, with a mean depth of 125 feet in Fifty-ninth street and a frontage of 100 feet in Fifth avenue. Above the cellar and basement are to be erected 17 stories, making it the highest building in the city. The style of architecture is of the modern Roman- esque order, highly ornamented. The first four stories are to be of heavy rock-faced Belleville brown stone, forming a strong and massive base. The superstructure is to be of buff brick, relieved with stone and terra cotta trimmings. The 12th story is to be entirely of stone, forming the main cornice of the building and breaking the towering appearance of the structure. In the treatment of the fronts, also, the architect has broken the ap- 862 pearance of too great height by horizontal lines, or band courses, so disposed that while they separate the several parts they do not affect the union or disturb the blending of the various combinations. The main entrances are to be through richly sculptured Roman arched doorways in the Fifth avenue front. Mr. Astor intends to have the structure as nearly fire-proof as modern ingenuity can make it. The brick and stone walls are to be relieved of the strain or weight usually imposed on them by the use of heavy columns, which, with all the other col- umns and framework in the building, are to be of steel. In designing the interior the requirements of such an immense hotel were carefully studied. The boil- ers of the steam plant are to be placed in a cellar vault under Fifty-ninth street, the boiler room proper embracing in height the cellar and base- ment stories. In the cellar is to be the larger machinery hall, which is to be an interesting feature. The rest of the cellar Is to be used for storage purposes, except a space for.bowl- ing alleys. In the basement are to be the café, billiard room, barber shop, toilet rooms, kitchen _store-rooms, etc. In the first story is to be a magnificent dining room along the entire southerl front on Fifty-ninth street and art of the front on Fi th avenue. The usual ofl‘ices,_la ies’ reception rooms, and readin rooms are also to be In that story. The main hall and o ces are to be a notable feature. They are to be covered by a dome extending Into the second story. The grand staircase is to be of Numid1an_marble and bronze, which are also to be the materials used In the fin1sh of the main hall and ofiices. The arlors are to occupy a part of the second story. The lans or them show effective and convenient arrangements. 11 that story also is to be a large private dining room, with suites of rooms for guests at dinners and receptions. In the upper part of the building large rooms are to be arranged for the convenience of famihes. HOT SPRINGS, a city and county-seat of Garland county, Ark., 55 miles southwest of Little Rock. A United States Army and Navy general hospital and a Roman Catholic school and convent are lo- cated here. In the vicinity valuable mines of gold, silver and lead are worked. The city contains 72 thermal springs and these are visited by large numbers of health-seekers. HOTTENTOT’S BREAD, a kind of yam, Testudi- naria elephantipes, native of South Africa. HOT WALLS, or FLUED WALLS: in gardening, walls furnished with furnaces and flues. in order to produce finer kinds of fruit than could otherwise be expected in the climate. The flues are led as obliquely and make as many turns from right to left as are consistent with their drawing well, so that as little heat as possible may escape from the chimney, and as much as possible may be expended on the wall. The heat is applied chiefly during spring. IIOUDIN, RCEERT, French conjurer, born at Blois in 1805, died there in 1871. He studied mechanics, and, after winning a medal for his toys and auto- mata at the Paris Exhibition of 1844, opened a series of exhibitions, which he continued for ten years, retiring in 1855 with a large fortune. In 1856, at the invitation of the French government, he went to Algeria and entered into competition with the miracle-working priests. He was com- pletely successful, and did much toward destroy- ing their influence. HOUGH, FRANKLIN BENJAMIN (1822 -1885), an American author. medicide in Sommerville, and in Albany, N. Y. At the beginning of the civil war he entered the U. S. volunteer service as a surgeon and served nine‘ months. He then settled in Lowville, N. Y., and devoted the remainder of his life to literature. Among his published works are A Catalogue of From 1848 to 1860 he practiced ' HCT SPRINGS-H(@)UR-GLASS Plants in Lewis and Franklin Counties, N. Y. (1847) ; History of St. Lawrence and Franklin Counties, N. Y. (1853) ; Plan for Seizing and Carrying to New York- William Goffe, the Regicide (1855) ; The Duty of Gov- ernment in the Preservation of Forests (1873) ; and Re-- port on Forestry (1880). HOUGHTON. the county-seat of Houghton county, Mich., on Lake Portage. It is a copper- mining center. HOUGHTON, RICHARD MCNCTCN MILNEs, LCRD, an English author, born at Pontefract, June 19, 1809, died at Vichy, Aug. 11, 1885. He was edu- cated at Cambridge, graduating in 1831. From 1837 to 1863 he represented Pontefract, first as a Con- servative, but latterly as an Independent Liberal. In 1863 he was raised to the peerage. He cham- pioned oppressed nationalties, liberty of con- science and the rights of women; and secured the passage of a bill for the establishment of reforma- tories. Author of several volumes of poetry and. travels, among them Memorial of a Tour in Greece (1833); Poems of Many Years (1838); Palm Leaves (1844); Good Night and Good Morning (1859); and. Monographs, Personal and Social (1873). HOUGHTON-LE-SPRING, a town of England, in the county, and six-and-a-half miles northeast of the city of Durham. Its growth is mainly due to the neighboring collieries. The parish church con- tains the altar tomb of Bernard Gilpin, who (fsodifided a grammar school here. Population HOUK, LEoNIDAs CAMPBELL, a United States: Congressman, born in 1836. In 1859 he was ad- mitted to the Tennessee bar and practiced until the beginning of the war, when he entered the Union army. He served till April, 1863, when he resigned on account of ill health. From 1866 to ' 1870 he was judge of the 17th judicial circuit of Tennessee, and in 1872 became a member of the legislature. He was elected as a Republican to the- 47th, 48th, 49th, 50th and 51st Congresses. HOULTON, the county-seat of Aroostook county, in the eastern part of Maine. The chief produc- tions of the vicinity are potatoes, hay, starch, cedar shingles and hemlock bark. HOUMA, a post-village, capital of Terre Bonne- parish, La., on a branch of the Texas & Louisiana. railroad, 70 miles from New Orleans. It has a con- vent and an academy. HOUND’S TONGUE (Cynoglossum), a genus of plants of the natural order Borraginew of which there are many species, all with small flowers. The common hound’s tongue (C. ofiicinale) is a na-- ' tive of Europe, Asia, Africa and North America. It has downy leaves of a dull green, purplish red flowers, and a stem about two feet high. Its odor is very sagreeable. The root was formerly ad- ministered in scrofula, dysentery, etc., and is said to be an anodyne. OUR, a measure of time equal to one twenty- fourth part of an astronomical day. Hour circles, in 1astronomy, are any great circles which cut the 0 es. HOUR-GLASS, an instrument for measuring in- tervals of time. It is made of glass, and consists of two bulbs united by a narrow neck. One of the bulbs is nearlyfilled with dry sand, fine enough to run freely through the orifice_in the neck, and the quantity of sand is just as much as can run through the orifice in an hour. The expansion or contrac- tion of the orifice, produced by heat or cold, and the variations in the dryness of the sand, all pro- duce deviations from the true measurement of the time. The hour glass was almost universally em- ployed in churches during the 16th and 17th cen- turies. HOURI—HOWE HOURI, among the Mohammedans, a nymph of Paradise, whose companionship is to be one of the great felicities of the true believers. , HOURS, THE : in Greek mythology, the goddesses of nature and the seasons of the year. They were believed to especially personify the pleasing char- acteristics of the seasons. In art and poetry they were represented as blooming nymphs, decked with flowers and jewels. HOUSATONIC RIVER, THE, rises in Berkshire county, Mass., follows a southerly course through Connecticut amid beautiful, wild scenery, and en- ters Long Island Sound after a course of 150 miles. Tide-water ascends the river for 14 miles. HOUSE DOVES, in the laws of England and America, are protected like domestic ani- ' mals. HOUSEHOLD TROOPS: in Great Britain, troops whose special duty it is to attend the sovereign and to guard the metropolis. They comprise three regiments of cavalry: the First and Second Life Guards and the Royal Horse Guards; and three regiments of foot: the Grenadier Guards, of three battalions, and the Coldstream and Scots Guards, of two battalions each. See ARMY, in Britannica, Vol. II, pp. 578, 580. HOUSEMAID’S KNEE, the term commonly ap- plied to an acute or chronic inflammation of the bursa, or sac between the knee-pan and the skin. Housemaids were considered especially liable to it from their kneeling to scrub on hard floors. In its acute form it causes considerable pain, swelling and febrile disturbance, the swelling being very superficial and in front of the patella. The treat- ment in the acute form consists essentially in rest, and the use of leeches, fomentations and purga- tives; if suppuration take place the sac must be freely opened and the pus evacuated. The chronic form may subside under rest, blisters, etc., or it may require incision or excision for its cure. HOUSE OF CORRECTION, a jail not under the ordinary charge of the sheriff, but governed by a keeper. The houses were originally intended for the detention of vagrants and convicted persons, compelling them to work. The persons who may be committed to them are prisoners convicted of felony or misdemeanor; persons committed on charge or suspicion of felony, or of misdemeanor, and vagrants. Any justice may commit to the house of correction persons awaiting trial and persons convicted of small offenses. HOUSTON, a city and the county-seat of Harris county, Texas, on Buffalo Bayou, 49 miles north- west of Galveston, 164 miles east-southeast of Austin, and 152 miles south of Palestine. It con- tains many religious and educational institutions, and manufactories of engines, machinery, car- riages, etc., besides cotton factories, machine shops, an planing mills. Large quantities of cotton, maize and other products are shipped here. Popu- lation. 1880, 16,513; 1890. 27,411. HOUTZDALE, a post-village of Clearfield county, Pa., situated on a branch of the Tyrone & Clear- field Railroad. It has a lumber mill, and much coal is mined in the vicinity. HOVEY, ALvAH, an American clergyman, born in 1820. In 1848~49 he was pastor of the Baptist church in New Gloucester, Me., and from 1849 to 1868 held a professorship in Newton Theological In- stitution. Since the last-named year he has been president. Among his writings are: The State of the Impenitent Dead (1859) ; The Miracles of Christ as Attested by the Evangelists (1864); The Scriptural Law of Divorce (1866); God With Us; or, the Person and I/Vork of Christ (1872); Religion and the State (1874), and The Doctrine of the Higher Christ'z'an 0 863 Life, Compared with the Teachings of the Holy Scrip- tures (1876). HOWARD CITY, a post - village and railroad junction of Montcalm county,1\Iich., 33 miles north of Grand Rapids, where lumber and shingles are manufactured. HOIVARD UNIVERSITY. See COLLEGES, in these Revisions and Additions. HOWARD, J onn EAGER, an American soldier and statesman, born in Baltimore county, Md., in 1752, died at Baltimore, Oct. 12, 1827. He fought in the battle of White Plains, N. Y., in 1776 as captain in a Maryland regiment, and in 177 7 he distin- guished himself at Germantown, where he com- manded a regiment. At the battle of Cowpens, Jan.17,,1781, Col. Howard commanded the Conti- nentals, and led them in a bayonet charge which decided the fortunes of the day. At Eutaw Springs he was severely wounded. After the war he was in Congress 1787-88, and governor of Maryland from 1789 to 1792. From 1795 to 1803 he was United States Senator from Maryland. HOVVARD, OLIVER Orrs, an American general, born at Leeds, Me., in 1830. After graduating at West ‘Point in 1854 he was made instructor in mathematics there. In 1861 he became colonel of a regiment of Maine volunteers; and at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, of the same year, he com- manded a brigade, and was soon after made briga- dier-general. At the battle of Fair Oaks, June 1, 1862, he lost his right arm. Gen. Howard took part in the battles of Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Lookout Valley, Missionary Ridge, Chattanooga; commanded the right wing of Sher- man’s army during its march to the sea and through the Carolinas; was made commissioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau, May 12, 1865, and held that office until June 30, 1872, when it was closed. In 1869 he was made president of Howard University, which had been established in Washington for the higher education of the colored people, but re- signed in 1873. In 1877 he conducted a campaign against the Nez Percés Indians, and pursued them for 1,300 miles, as related in his book, Chief Joseph. He also defeated the Bannacks and Piutes in 1878. In March, 1886, hewas promoted to be major-gen- eral, U. S. A., and succeeded Gen. Hancock in com- mand of the Division of the Atlantic. HOWE, ELIAS, an American inventor, born at Spencer, Mass., in 1819, died at Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct.3, 1867. While working in a machine-shop at Lowell, Mass., and afterwards in one at Boston, he developed his invention of the sewing machine, and, having constructed the first machine in May, 1845, obtained a United States patent Sept. 10, 1846. He tried in vain to introduce his invention in Eng- land. On his return to Boston in 1847 he found that his patent had been infringed. For seven years he had to litigate to protect his patent rights, until, in 1854, the principal manufacturers, after being defeated in the courts, agreed to pay him royalties on the sewing machines made by them. His yearly income from this source increased to $200,000, and the total fortune derived from his in- vention amounted to two millions of dollars. He re- ceived many marks of distinction for the invention. HOWE, J osnrn, governor of Nova Scotia, born at Halifax in 1804, died there June 1, 1873. He was originally a printer. In 1828 he became editor and proprietor of the “Nova-Scotian.” In 1840 he was ‘ a member of the provincial cabinet, but resigned the secretaryship in 1854 to superintend the con- struction of the first railroad in Nova Scotia. After .. 1872 he became lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia. His Speeches and Public Letters appeared in two volumes in 1858. 864 HOWE, JULIA 1WARD, an American poetess, wife of Dr. S. G. Howe, born at New York in 1819. She . took a deep interest in her hnsband’s philanthropic labors, and was a warm friend of the anti-slav- ery cause. During the civil war she worked zeal- Iously with the United States sanitary commis- sion. social reforms. At the New Orleans World’s Fair in 1885 Mrs. Howe was the chief of the women’s de- partment. Her poetic spirit found expression in Passion Flowers (1854); Words for the Hour (1856); The World’s Own, and Hippolytus, two tragedies; Later Lyrics (1866), which comprised “Poems of the \Var, Lyrics of the Street, Parables and Poems of Study.” The most memorable of her poems is the “Battle Hymn of the Republic,” which gave ex- pression to the deep moral purpose of the war. Mrs. Howe is also a zealous worker in the cause of woman suffrage. HOIVE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY, an American philan- thropist, born at Boston in 1801, died there in 1876. After studying medicine he went to Greece in 1824, where he served as surgeon in the war for inde- pendence, and was placed at the head of the surgi- cal service. In 1831 he assisted in establishing an asylum for the blind in Boston; was appointed su- perintendent of the institution, and went after- wards to Europe to examine the schools for the blind. He also assisted in founding a school for training idiots, which was organized as the Massa- chusetts School for Idiots. In 1871 he was sent by President Grant as a member of the commission to visit San Domingo and report upon the advisability of its annexation to the United States. Howe pub- lished a Historical Sketch of the Greek Revolution and a Reader for the Blind. HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN, an American author, was born at Martinsville, Ohio, in 1837. He learned the printer’s trade, but he soon began to write for the papers, both prose and verse, and in 1858.he was editor of the “Ohio State Journal.” In 186,tfhe was appointed United States Consul at Venice, and ' there he remained until 1865. His Italian experi- ences are expressed in his Venetian Life and Italian Journeys. After his return to the United States Mr. Howells became editor-in-chief of the “Atlan- tic Monthly” (1871),and is noted for the faithful portrayal of American character of the present day. A collection of his poems was published in 1873. In 1885 he removed to New York City to take charge of an editorial department in “ Harper’s Magazine.” HOVVLER, ~ HOWLING MONKEY, or STENTOR (My/cetes), a genus of Central and South American monkeys, remarkable for the dilation of the hyoid bone into a hollow drum which communicates with the larynx and gives prodigious power to the voice, which can be heard two miles oii. They live chiefly among the branches of trees, and take extraor- dinary leaps from one to another, taking hold by the tail as readily as by the hands. They are gre- garious, and according to Humboldt, unite their voices in concert, producing a most deafening noise. The monkeys of this genus have a low intelligence. See Britannica, Vol. II, pp. 153, 156, 158. HOY, a small coasting vessel, difiering little from the sloop or smack, and often used for convey- ing goods from a large vessel to the shore. ' HOYA, a genus of tropical plants of the order Asclepiadaceze, having a five-cleft wheel-shaped cor- olla, and a five-leaved spreading fleshy corona. Some of the species are common in hot-houses, and from the appearance of their flowers they are called wax-plants. HUANCO DYING PLACE, a name given to cer- tain “spots” at the southern extremity of Patago- By voice and pen she contributed to many' H'OWE—HUl)SON nia, to which the inhabitants of the surrounding plains repair on the approach of death to deposit their bones. Darwin and Fitzroy first recorded this strange instinct of the people. The best known of these dying places are on the banks of the Santa Cruz and Galleos rivers, where the river valleys are covered with dense thickets of bushes and trees of stunted growths. HUBERTSBURG, a village and castle, formerly a royal hunting-seat of Saxony, 25 miles from Leipzig, built in 1721 by Prince Frederick Augus- tus, afterwards King Augustus III, of Poland. It was much injured during the Seven Years’ War; . and there, Feb. 15, 1763, was signed‘ the treaty by which that war was ended. Since 1840 the castle has served as a prison,a hospital, an asylum for the insane, and a refuge for idiot children. HUBNER, JOSEPII ALEXANDER, baron, born at Vienna, Nov. 26, 1811. He was educated at Vienna, subsequently traveled in Italy, and on his return in 1833, entered the service of the government. His diplomatic career began at Paris in 1837. After several minor appointments, he was ambassador there from 1849 to 1859, and was at the head of the Australian embassy at Rome, from 1866 to 1867. Possessed of consummate ability and tact, he has managed many delicate and diflicult matters. He has twice visited the United States, the second time in 1871, when he went around the globe. Author of a work on Pope Sixtus V.,Si:rtas der Filnfte -(1871; English translation 1872), and an en- tertaining account of his trip around the globe, Promenade Aatoar da Monde (1873; English trans- lation, 1874). HUBNER, RUDOLF JULIUS BENNO, a German painter, born at Oels, in Silesia, Jan. 27, 1806, died at Loschwitz, near Dresden, Nov. 7, 1882. He studied at Diisseldorf, in 1841; was appointed pro- fessor of painting in the academy at Dresden, and was director of the picture gallery from 1871. Among his pictures are: Job and his Friends; Charles V. in San Yuste; Frederick the Great in Sans-soaci; The Golden Age, and The Dispute Between Luther and Dr. Eek. He also designed glass aintings, including some for the crypt of Glasgow athedral., HUCKABACK, often shortened to “huck,” a coarse kind of linen cloth, figured somewhat like damask, and used especially for table-cloths and toweling. HUDSON, a post-village of Middlesex county, Mass., 17 miles northeast of I/Vorcester. Shoes and piano-fortes are manufactured here. HUDSON, a post-village of Lenawee county, Mich., 50 miles west of Toledo, Ohio. Carriages, spokes and butter-tubs are manufactured here. HUDSON, a city and county-seat of St. Croix county, Wis., on St. Croix Lake, 18 miles east of St. Paul, Minn. It contains wheat warehouses, flour-mills, machine-shops, and manufactories of plows and wagons. ‘ HUDSON, HENRY NORMAN, an American essayist, born at Cornwall,- Addison county, Vt., in 1814, died at Cambridge, Mass., in 1886. He graduated at Middlebury in 1840, and taught school in Kentucky and Alabama for some time.- At Huntsville, Ala., a lady teacher from New England advised him to read Shakespeare, and his enthusiasm eventually re- sulted in the endowment of a professorship of Shake- speare in Boston University. In 1848 Mr. Hudson published his Lectures on Shakespeare. In 1849 he was ordained deacon of the Protestant Episcopal church, and from 1.858 till 1860 he was rector of a church at Litchfield, Conn. During the late war he was chaplain in a corps of engineers, and after the war professor of Shakespeare in Boston Univer- sity. Ofhis later published works we mention,A HUDSON Cha lain’s Campaign with General Butler; Sturlies in %?V0rdsworth,- A School Shakespeare, and Shake- speare, his Life, Art and Characters. HUDSON BAY, a gulf or inland sea, in the north- east of North America. It is completely landlocked except on the north, where Southampton Island and Fox Channel lie between it and the Arctic Ocean, and where Hudson Strait, running 500 miles south- east, connects it with the Atlantic. Including its southeastern extension, James’s Bay, it measures about 1,000 miles in length, and 600 in average width, and has an area of some 500,000 square miles. The eastern shore, called the East Main, is for the most part rocky, and is fenced with several small islands; the western shore, the \Vest Main, is gen- erally flat. This sea is the great drainage reser- voir of the Canadian northwest territories. Of late years a movement has been on foot for opening up a direct communication from England with Mani- toba, and the northwest of Canada by way of Hud- son Bay and strait. The scheme provides for a rail- way from Winnipeg to Fort Nelson, on the bay, a distance of 650 miles, of which 40 miles were con- structed by the end of 1890. The chief objection to the project is that the strait is only navigable for about three months annually. This route would effect a saving of 775 miles as compared with the route by way of Montreal, and of 1,130 as compared with that by New York. HUDSON STRAIT joins the Atlantic Ocean and Hudson Bay. It is 450 miles long, and 60 miles W1d6. HUERTA, VICENTE GARCIA DE LA, a Spanish poet and critic, born in 1730 at Zafra, in Estrema- dura. He spent the greater part of his life in Ma- drid, where he was head of the royal library, and where he died March 12, 1787. His tragedy of Ra- quel (1778) was very popular, and is still esteemed one of the best of modern Spanish tragedies. His poems were published in two volumes in 1778-79, and again in Biblioteca ole Autores Espafioles. Hu- erta edited the Teatro Espafiol (17 vols., 1785-86), a collection of the best works of the older Spanish dramatists. HUGER, BENJAMIN, an American general, born at Charleston, S. C., 1806. After graduating at West Point, he became a captain of ordnance in 1832, and was made chief of ordnance to Gen. Scott’s army in the Mexican war. In 1855 he became major U. S. A.; but in 1861 he entered the Confed- erate service as brigadier-general and rose soon to be major-general. As such he commanded at Nor- folk when the National forces captured the place, May 10, 1862. Huger quickly withdrew, after hav- ing fired the navy-yard, the ]l[e'rr-imac, and some other vessels. Subsequently he led a division in the seven-days’ fight in front of Richmond. After the war he became a farmer in Virginia. HUGER, FRANCIS KINLOCII, an American patriot, born at Charleston, S. C., in 1773.died there in 1855. He studied medicine and surgery in England un- der the celebrated Dr. John Hunter; became a sur- geon, and was for a short time attached to the medical staff of the British army. While at Vienna in 1798, he took part in Dr. Bollmann’s attempt to liberate Gen. Lafayette from imprisonment in the Austrian fortress of Olmiitz. The rescue was suc- cessful, though Lafayette was recaptured near the frontier. Huger himself was arrested and taken to Olmiitz, where he was harshly treated. After eight months’ imprisonment he was sent across the frontier and returned to the United States. In the same year he was made a captain in the United States army. In the war of 1812 he served on the stafl’ of Gen. Pinckney, and on April 6, 1818, he be- came adjutant-general, with the rank of colo- BAY-—HUGrHES 865 nel. Subsequently he served in both branches of the South Carolina State legislature. HUGER, ISAAC, a Revolutionary soldier, born on Limerick plantation, S. C., in 1742, died in 1797. In 1760 he served as lieutenant in a battalion of colonial troops against the Cherokee Indians. In the Revolutionary war he began as lieutenant- colonel of a South Carolina regiment, but was in 1779 commissioned a brigadier-general, and partici- pated in every battle fought by the Southern army- During the siege of Charleston he was employed to cut off supplies from the enemy, but his force was defeated and dispersed. He then joined the army of Gen. Green, and commanded the Virginians at the battle of Guilford Court-house (1781), where he was severely wounded. HUGGINS, VVILLIAM, an English astronomer and spectroscopist, born in London, Feb. 7, 1824, and educated at the city school and by private in- structors, giving much attention to the experimen- tal study of the physical sciences and to astronomy. In 1852 he was elected a member of the Microscopi- cal Society, and was for several years engaged in the study of physiology, animal and vegetable,. with the microscope. In 1855 he built a private ob- servatory at Upper Tulse Hill, near London, and began what proved to be the principal work of his life- time—his well-known spectroscopic observa- tions and photographing of stellar spectra, the solar- corona, etc. Mr. Huggins is a member of various scientific societies; was president of the Royal As- tronomical Society from 1876 to 1878, and president of the British Association for 1891. HUGHES, J om: (1797-1864), an American Roman Catholic archbishop, born at Annaboghan, County Tyrone, Ireland, in 1797. After immigrating to America he worked first as a gardener; then stud- ied theology at Mount St. Mary’s College, Emmits- burg, Md., where he supported himself by taking care of the college garden, and afterwards by teach- ing in the college. As priest he had charge of some churches in Philadelphia till 1838, founded St. J ohn’s Orphan Asylum, and established the “Catholic Herald.” In 1842 he became bishop of New York. He now organized the Roman Catholics against New York’s public school system, and in- stituted a system of parochial schools. In 1850 the diocese of New York had so increased by immigra- tion that Hughes was made archbishop. During the war he used his influence in behalf of the in- tegrity of the Union. Secretary Seward sent him and Thurlow Weed to Europe in 1861, to set before the foreign governments the true object in con- ducting the war, and during the draft riots in 1863 he urged upon the excited population of New York the duty of submission to the United States Gov- ernment. HUGHES, THOMAS, author of Tom Brown/s School Days, born at Uffington, Berks, England, Oct. 23- 1823. He was educated at Rugby under the cele- brated Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford. Called to the bar in 1848, he became queen’s counsel in 1869, and was in parliament from Lambeth from 1865 to 1868, and from Frome in 1869 to 1874. He became early associated with the work of social and sanitary re- form among the London poor, and took a prominent- part in the debates relating to trades-unions and the law of master and servant. His best known work, Tom Brown's School Days (1856), is a truthful picture of life at Rugby, written from the author’s own boyish impressions. It was followed by TH Scouning of the I/Vlzite Horse (1858) ; Tom Brown at Oxford (1861); Alfred the Great (1869). In 1880 he assisted in founding a settlement in the United States, an account of which he published under the title of Rugby, Tennessee (1881). He has also written ’ ism, and pamphleteering in prose and verse. 866 lives of Daniel Macmillan (1882), and Bishop Fraser (1887). ' HUGHES, REV. HUGH PRIOE, M. A., the leader of the “ Forward Movement,” of Wesleyan Method- ism, a native of \Vales, born in 1847. He was edu- cated at the Richmond Theological College, and graduated M. A. at London University. Hughes held appointments at Dover, Brighton, Tottenham, Dulwich, Oxford, and Brixton. He has edited the “' Methodist Times” since 1885, and is the superin- tendent of the new London Mission to the West End. Recently he has published some of his St; James’ Hall discourses in two volumes, entitled Social Christianity, and the Philanthropy of God. HUGO, VICTOR MARIE, VIOOMTE, a French poet and romance writer, born at Besancon, Feb. 26, 1802, died May 22, 1885. His father being a general in Napoleon’s army, young Hugo’s childhood was chiefly spent in moving from France to Italy, and from Italy to Spain, but he received, nevertheless, an excellent education. At fourteen he produced a tragedy; at twenty published his first set of Odes et Ballades, and with the publication of Cromwell, in 1827, his reputation was established throughout France. In 1831 he published Notre Dame de Paris, and his best play, Marion Delorme. These were fol- lowed by Le Roi s’amuse (1832) ; Lucrece Borgia, (1833); Ruy Blas (1838); and Hernani (1839); and the two celebrated volumes of lyric verse, Les Feu- illes d’Automne (1831), and Les Voire Intérieures, in 1837. After the publication of Les Rayons et les Om- bres, in 1840, Hugo attempted but little in pure art for a number of years, devoting himself to the pur- suit of politics and the practice of oratory, jOllI‘IIlI3.1- I1- til 1830 he was a royalist; between 1830 and 1848 he was a Napoleonist with a turn for humanitarian- ism ; and later, as a member of the Assemblée Legis- lative, threw. in his lot with the Democratic Repub- licans. In 1852, after the coup d’etat, he withdrew to Jersey, and in his exile wrote Napoléon Ze Petit; Les Chdtiments, a great achievement in political and personal satire; Les Contemplations; Légende des Siecles; and in 1862 his masterpiece in prose, Les Misérables. These were followed by William Shakespeare, 1864; Les Chansons des Rues et des Bois, 1865; Les Travailleurs de la Mer, and Le Homme qui Rit. After the 4th of September, 1870, Hugo re- turned to France, and a few months later was chosen to represent the department of the Seine, but soon resigned his seat. In 1876 he was made a sen- ator. Among his later works are L’Anne’e Terrible, 1872; Quatre- Vingt - Treize, 1874; Historic d’un Crime, 1877 ; Le Pape, 1878-79; L’Ane, 1880; Les Quatre Vents de l’Esprit, 1881, and Torquemada, 1882. Victor Hugo’s writings are open to the criti- cisms of want of humor, and of dealing with abnor- mal situations, peculiar personages, and interests remote from experience; but genius is always gen- ius, and the final impression is one of unsurpassed accomplishment. He died the foremost man of letters of his time, and was honored with a funeral which was a vast public pageant. For further de- scription of his works, see Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 676-78. HULDA, or HOLDA, the friendly: in old German legend a goddess of marriage; also the patroness of agriculture and domestic life. See Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 46. HULL, ISAAO (1773-1843), a United States naval officer. See UNITED STATES, Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 789. HULL, IVILLIAM, an American general, born at Derby, Conn., in 1753, died at Newton, Mass., in 1825. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1775. He joined the American army at Cam- HUGHES-HUMBOLDT bridge as captain, fought at White Plains, Trenton and,Princeton, and was then promoted to be major. Afterwards he was engaged at Ticonderoga, Still- water, Saratoga, Monmouth and Stony Point. After the war he practiced law at Newton, Mass., and was prominent in the Massachusetts legisla- ture. In 1798 he was appointed judge of the court of common pleas, and in 1805 he became governor of Michigan Territory. At the outbreak of the war of 1812 Hull commanded the northwestern army, consisting of raw militia. He had to yield up De- troit and the entire Northwest to the English. For this he was court-martialed and sentenced to be shot, but President Madison pardoned him On ac- count of past services. In 1824 he published the Campaign of the Northwest Army. His Life was pub- lished by his daughter, Mrs. M. Campbell. HULLAH, JOIIN PYKE, an English musical com- poser, born at IVorcester,June 27, 1813, died in Lon- don Feb. 21, 1884. He studied at the Royal Acad- emy of Music, and in 1840 began popular singing- classes in London, continuing the work for over 20 years. He was for some time professor of vocal music in Kin g’s College, and from 1874 to 1882 was inspector of training-schools for the United King- dom. His comic opera, The Village Coquette, was published in 1836. Of his songs, The Three Fishers and The Storm attained wide popularity. He also published a History of Modern Music (1862), and The Third Period of Musical History (1865). HUMANISTS (Lat. Ziterae humaniores, “ polite letters ”—whence the title Humanity for the pro- fessorship of Latin in Scottish universities; Ital. umanista), the name assumed at the revival of learning by those who looked upon the cultivation of classical literature as the most valuable instru- ment of education, opposing those who clung to the ancient methods of the Scholastics. In their modes of thought also the tendency of the humanists was to exalt paganism at the expense of Christianity. In the 18th century the name became a word of reproach for those who showed a blind zeal for the classics as the sole educational subject. I-IUMBERT I, RENIER CI-IARLES EMMANUEL JEAN MARIE FERDINAND EUGENE, KING OF ITALY, born March 14, 1844, being the son of Victor Emmanuel. He attended his father during the war of Italian independence in 1859. In 1866, when Italy fought with Austria, the prince took the field as com- mander of a division in Gen. Cialdini’s army, and was present at the disastrous battle of Custozza, June 23, 1866. After Rome was occupied in 1870 by the Italian troops, he took up his residence there, and upon the death of his father, Jan. 9, 1878, suc- ceeded to the throne of Italy. In November of the same year an attempt was made to assassinate him, but failed. When the would-be assassin was condemned to death Humbert commuted his sen- tence to imprisonment at hard labor. During the cholera epidemic at Naples he exposed himself fre- quentlyin his endeavors to alleviate the sufferings of the sick and dying. By these and other actions of kindness and sympathy the king won the affec- tion of the Italian people. I-IUNIBCLDT, a post-village of Humboldt county, Iowa, the seat of Humboldt College. Liquor and gambling saloons are rigidly excluded from the village. HUMBOLDT, a city of Allen county, Kan., situ- ated on Neosho River, 86 miles from Lawrence. _ It is a railroad junction and has various manufac- tories. HUMBOLDT, a city of Richardson county, Neb., on the Big Nemaha River and on the Atchison & Nebraska Railroad, 21 miles northwest of Fall: City. HUMBOLDT-—HUNT HUMBOLDT, a railroad junction of Gibson county, Tenn., situated 128 miles west of Nashville. It has mills and a foundry, and educational insti- tutions supervised by Odd Fellows. \ HUMETTY, in heraldry, a cross or other ordi- nary which is cut ofi" and nowhere reaches the edge of the shield. HUMMELER, an implement or machine for re- moving the hummel or awn from the grain, partic- ularly barley, after it has been thrashed. See THRASHING MACHINES, Britannica, Vol. I, p. 325. HUMPHREY, HEMAN, an American clergyman, born at ‘West Simsbury, Conn., in 1779, died at Pittsfield, Mass., in 1861. He studied theology at Yale College, and was a Congregational pastor at Fairfield, Conn., from 1807 to 1817, and then in Pittsfield. From 1823 to 1845 he was president of Amherst College, to whose character, growth and prosperity he largely contributed. He was an earnest worker in the temperance cause and a pro- moter of religious revivals. Among his tracts were Parallel between Intemperance and the Slave Trade, which was a strong indictment of slavery; Essays on the Sabbath; Tour in France, Great Britain and Belgium; Domestic Education; Sketches of the History of Revivals; Letters to a Son in the Ministry; and Life and Writings of Prof. Nathan l’V. Fiske. HUMPHREYS, ANDREW ATKINSON (1810-83), an American general and engineer, born at Philadel- phia. As lieutenant of artillery he distinguished himself in the Florida war in 1835. In 1838 he be- came first-lieutenant of Topographical Engineers. From 1845 to 1849 he had charge of the Coast Sur- vey ofiice, and afterwards began the topographic and hydrographic survey of the delta of the Mis- sissippi. This work he resumed in 1857, after he had examined the river deltas in Europe and studied the means employed there for protection against inundations. During our civil war he be- came a brigadier-general, was engaged at the bat- tles of Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville and Get- tysburg. and commanded a corps in the siege and capture of Petersburg, and in the pursuit and cap- ture of Lee’s army. In 1866 Gen. Humphreys, now ‘chief of Engineers, was again engaged in engineer- ing work on the Mississippi. He published The Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River in 1867, and other valuable reports. HUHPI-IRE YS, Davrn, an American general born at Derby, Conn., in 1752, died at New Haven in 1818. In the Revolutionary war he was aid- 'de-camp to Gen. Putnam, and then to Gen. IV ash- ington. He distinguished himself at the siege of Yorktown in 1781. In 178-1 he went to Paris and London as secretary of legation to Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, who negotiated treaties of commerce and amity with European powers. I11 1790 President IVashington appointed him minister to Portugal, where he remained till 1794. In 1797 he was transferred to the court at Madrid as minister plenipotentiary, where he stayed till 1802. On his return from Spain he imported 100 merino sheep, and for some time thereafter he engaged in the manu- facture of woolens at Derby. In the war of 1812, Humphreys commanded the Connecticut troops as brigadier general. Humphreys was noted as a poet and wit. He helped in producing the Anarchaid, and other satiric verse; he also pub- lished An Address to the Armies of the United States, and other poems. HUNGARIAN POLITICAL PARTIES. The leg- islative power of Hungary is vested in the em- peror of Austria as king of Hungary, the dele- gations and a Reichstag, consisting of a house ~of magnates and a house of representatives. 867 The former comprises 286 hereditary peers, some 50 high ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Roman Catholic. Greek and Protestant churches, 82 life- peers, all the archdukes who have attained their majority, delegates from the diet of Croatia-Sla- vonia, and others—-160 magnates in all. The house of representatives contains 453 members, elected by open voting and limited suffrage for periods of five years. The present house was elected in June, 1887. The parties are distinguished as Liberals, Moderates, Independents, the Croatian delegates, who usually vote with the Liberals, and Nation- alists, who vote now with one party and now with another. The Liberals number 250; the In- dependents, who aim at the liberation of Hun- gary from all but the monarchical tie with Aus- tria, are 80; and the Moderates, numbering 56, accept the constitution of ’67. Until last year M. Tisza commanded the support of the majority in the chamber, but finding his authority wan- ing after fifteen years’ leadership he has now re- tired, and sits as a simple deputy, his place at the head of the ministry being taken by his col- league, Count Szapary, who was minister of ag- riculture in the Tisza cabinet. HUNGARY ‘WATER, a celebrated perfume made of rosemary blossoms and sage blossoms, with rec- tified spirit. A hermit is said to have given the original receipt to a queen of Hungary. HUNINGEN (Fr. Haningue), a town of Alsace, on the left bank of the Rhine, two and a half miles north of Basel, celebrated for its fish breed- ing establishment. It was fortified by Vauban in 1679-81, but the works were destroyed in 1815. Population, 1,704. HUNT, RICHARD Monms, an American archi- tect, born at ,Brattleboro, Yt., in 1828. He stud- died at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts at Paris in 1843. Then he made a tour through Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, and visited most of the art cen- ters in Europe. After his return in 1855 he was engaged on the extension of the Capitol at Wash- ington. Among the structures since designed by him are the Lenox library, the Stuyvesant build- ing, the Presbyterian hospital and the Tribune building, all in New York; the Yale Divinity School, New Haven; and many of the finest res- idences in Boston, Newport, and other American cities. HUNT, SANDFORD, an American M. E. clergy- man, born in western New York in 1825. He graduated at Allegheny College in 18-17, and in 1871 received the degree of D. D. from the same institu- tion. During the war he was secretary of the Unit- ed States Christian commission for \Vestern New York, and twice went to the army for work among the soldiers. He spent nearly ten years in the of- fice of presiding elder. He was trustee of Genesee College until its removal to Syracuse, and since then has been a trustee of the Genesee \Yesleyan Seminary. In 1879 he n as chosen one of the “book agents,” in charge of the Methodist publishing in- terests at New York-—a position in which he has since been retained (1891) by successive elections of the General Conference. For a number of years Dr. Hunt has been the general treasurer of the mis- sionary society of the Methodist Episcopal church. UNT. Tnomas STERRY, an American chemist and geologist, born at Norwich, Conn., in 1826. He studied chemistry under Prof. Benjamin Silliman at Yale College. In 1817 he entered upon the duties of geologist and mineralogist in the eolog- ical survey of Canada under Sir VVilliam ogan. IVhile holding this position he was for some years also professor of chemistry in McGill (“olle9:e.Mont- real. In 1872 he became professor of geology in 868 the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Prof. Hunt has published many important papers on chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, which have appeared in the “American Journal of Science,” and in other scientific periodicals of both Europe and America. HUNT, WILLIAM HoLMAN, an English painter, born in London in 1827. Admitted a student of the Royal Academy in 1845, he exhibited his first picture in the following year. In his earlier work he generally took his subject from one of the poets. The first of his work executed in the pre-Raphaelite manner was A Converted British Family Sheltering a Christian Missionary from the Persecution of the Druids. Other works are: Our English Coasts (1853); The Light of the World (1852-54), and The Awakened Conscience (1854). The result of several prolonged visits to the East appeared in The Finding of Christ in the Temple (1854); The Shadow of Death (1874), and the Tri- umphs of the Innocents, executed in two versions (1875-85). In 1888-89 he painted The Choris-ters of Magdalen College, Oxford, Singing the May-day Hymn. An important mosaic by Mr. Hunt, en- titled The Child Jesus in the Temple, intended for Clifton College chapel, was exhibited in 1890. HUNT, WILLIAM MoRRIs, an American painter, born at Brattleboro, Vt., in 1824, died at Isles of Shoals, N. H., in 1879. In 1846 he entered the Royal Academy at Diisseldorf, for the purpose of studying sculpture. But after a few months he removed to Paris to become a pupil of Couture in painting. Having returned to America in 1855, he opened studios both at Boston and Newport, settling finally at Boston, where he taught paint- ing with great success. Among his works we mention the portraits of Chief Justice Shaw and Judge Horace Gray; The Drummer Boy; The Bugle Call; The Fortune Teller; The Bathers, and the two allegorical mural paintings for the State capitol at Albany, entitled The Flight of Night, and The Discoverer. HUNTER, DAVID, an American soldier, born at VVashington, D. C., in 1802, died there in 1886. After he became a captain of dragoons in 1833, he was assigned to frontier duty, and twice crossed the plains to the Rocky Mountains. In the Mexican war (1842) he was chief paymaster of Gen. Wood’s command. When President-elect Lincoln went to Washington in February, 1861, Hunter accompanied him, and at Buffalo his col- lar bone became dislocated by the pressure of the crowd. During the war he commanded a di- vision at Bull Run, where he was wounded. In August, 1862, he became major-general of volun- teers, and successively commanded the Western and Southern military departments. To provide for the fugitive slaves, Gen. Hunter organized the 1st South Carolina volunteers, which was the first regiment of black troops in the National service. Upon this. Jefferson Davis issued a proc- lamation declaring Hunter an outlaw, who, if captured, should not be treated as a prisoner of war, but held in close confinement and executed as a felon. In May, 1864, Hunter was placed in command of the department of West Virginia. He defeated a Confederate force at Piedmont on June 5, 1864. HUNTER,ROBERT MERcER TALIAFERRo,an Amer- ican statesman, born in Essex county, Va., in 1809, gied there in 1887. After studying law at the Vir- ginja University. he was elected to Congress in 1837 8110. was chosen speaker in 1839. In 1845 he was again returned to Congress. and in 1847 he entered the United States Senate. where he was a leading advocate of States’ rights till July 1861, demanding HUNT-—HUNTING AND GAME LAWS the right of the slaveholder to carry his slaves to any United States territory. Being an active secessionist he became secretary of State in the Confederate cabinet, but was soon superseded by J. P. Benjamin. After this he was elected to the Confederate Senate, and became an opponent of Jeff. Davis’s administration. In 1885 he was ap- pointed a collector of customs by the United States Government. HUNTER, SIR XVILLIAM WILsoN, born July 15, 1840; educated at the Universities of Glasgow, Paris and Bonn; in 1862 entered the civil service of India, and, after filling the offices of secretary to the gov- ernment of Bengal and to the supreme government of India, was in 1871 appointed director-general of the statistical department of India. He was one of the first recipients of the order of the Star of India, in 1878, and in 1887 was knighted. He pub- lished Annals of Rural Bengal and Comparative Dic- tionary of the Non-Aryan Languages of India and High Asia (1868); Orissa (1872); Famine Aspects of Bengal Districts (1874); Imperial Gazetteerof India (1881); TheIndian Empire: Its People, History and Products (1886). In 1890 he undertook the editor- ship of a series, Rulers of India, to which he himself contributed a Life of Dalhousie. HUNTING. Stag-hunting, at one period so com- mon in England, is now confined to twelve packs, with the addition of four in Ireland. It cannot be- said that fox-hunting has increased in popularity of late, notwithstanding that every hunt now has a fund to reimburse farmers for any losses they may experience through the depredations of Reynard. Hunting men strongly resent the barbed wire fencing which many farmers have lately adopted; and, as a matter of fact, several lives have been lost through the “thin line,” whilst a number of valua- ble hunters have also prematurely journeyed to the “happy hunting grounds” through the same cause. In England there are 154 packs of fox- hounds, in Ireland 16, and in Scotland 9. England also boasts of 101 packs of harriers and 19 packs of beagles; Ireland possesses 25 packs of harriers; Scotland is content with 6. HUNTING AND GAME LAWS OF THE UNIT- ED STATES. The “ open seasons” for hunting the various kinds of game in the several States,as given in-the following paragraphs, have been carefully compiled from the latest published reports of the State laws.* ALABAMA. (Throughout the State, except in the counties named below.) Deer October 20 to February 14; wild tur- keys, October 20 to May 1; turtle doves. August 1 to April 1; quail, September 15 to March 15; wild ducks, October 1 to May 1. In Perry county—-Deer. October 20 to February 14; wild turkeys, October 1 to May 1-, doves, August 1 to March 1: quail, October 15 to March 1; wild ducks,October 1 to- May 1: snipe and robin, not protected. In Green and Pickens counties— eer, September 15 to February 1; wild turkeys, September 15 to April 15; doves, August 1 to April 1; quail. October 15 to March 15; wild ducks, Octoberl to April 1. In Lamar county-Deer, October 1 to April 1; wild turkeys, October 1 to May 1. In Barbour county (beat 5)-—Wild tur- keys, October 20 to May 1; uail, September 15 to May 1; doves, August 1 to May 1. In awrence county-Deer, part- ridge, quail. rabbit, September 1 to April 1. Possession and transportation of game limited to 0 en season. Nig t-shooting and use of sneak- oats in hunting wild ducks forbidden. ARKANSAS. Wild duck, doe, fawn, September 1 _to Feb- ruary 1; wild turkeys, September 1 to May 1; pinnated grouse, September 1 to February 1: quail, October _1 to- March 1. ossession of game durin close season prohibited. Taking grouse, quail or rairie chickens with nets, etc.. ex- cept on one’s own land, orbidden. Use of nets at mouths of streams, etc. (except minnow seines), prohibited. CALIFORNIA. Quail, partridge, grouse, ra11, September 10 to March 1: doves, June 1 to January 1; male antelope, deer. July 1 to December 15; female ante ope, elk, mountain *The reader ‘s also referred to an extended work on The Law gff Field Sports prepared by Geo. Putnam Smith. of the New- cr,_ ’~" * N“- - HUNTING AND GAME LAWS sheep. doe. spotted fawn. absolutely protected; netting quail, partridge or grouse, prohibited; speckled trout, brook or salmon trout, April 1 to November 1; salmon, except when caught with net or seine, between sunrise on Saturday and noon on Sunday, Wh1Ch is, in that event. close season. Sep- tember 1 to July 31; shad, December 31 to April 1. Posses- sion of game during close season prohibited. COLORADO. Partridge, pheasant, prairie chicken and rouse, October 1 to November 15; elk. deer, buffalo. antelope. ctober 15 to January 1; mountain sheep,protected until April 7,_ 1895; trout, or other food fish, July 1 to November 1. Posses- sion of game restricted to open season, but dealers may im- ort from_ other States. Netting or trapping game animals or sh‘ forbidden; also the killing of any wild animal merely for its skin, forbidden; also the killing of more animals than are needed for food, forbidden. Birds, except the above named four, are protected. CONNECTICUT. Wood-cock, uail, partridge, gray squirrel, October 1 to January 1; wild uck.geese. brant, September 1 to May 1; bo_bolink, rice-bird. robin, lark, September 1 to February 1; rail, September 1 to January 1. In New Haven, Fairfield and Litchfi_eld counties, August 20 to Januarv 1; trout. July 1 to April 1. Possession of game restricte to the open season. ood-cock. ruffed grouse and quail must not be carried out of the State. It is unlawful to hunt with un and dog within the inolosed premises of another, whet er persons or corporations, without ermission from the owner, a ent or occupant thereof, provi ed such owner shall have p aced six printed_signs or notices, in six different conspic- uous places on said premises, each board notice to be at least one footsguare, and the letters to be plainly made. 38 6. Any person v_io atmg section five of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be fined not less than $7, nor exceeding $25, exclusive of any damage by trespass. Insectivorous birds, including robin and lark, can be killed only on one’s own land. DELAWARE. Ortolan, rail. reed-bird, September 1 to J anua_ry 1 ; pheasants, quail. wood-cock, hares,rabbits. Novem- ber 15 to February 15. In Kent, Sussex and Newcastle counties. November 15 to January 15. Possession of game limited to open season. _Transportation of partridges, quail, wood-cock _or rabbits, killed in the State, for sale out of the State, forbidden. Night-shooting, netting or trapping game; use of ferrets,_or of artificial light to catch muskrats, forbid- den. Non-residents may not kill game or game fish without license from the Delaware Game Protective Association. Any non-resident found trespassing upon any private property With either dog or gun, not having icense from the Delaware Game Protective Association, is liable to be arrested where found trespassing, on a charge of misdemeanor, and fined $20, and in default of payment, imprisoned not less than ten nor more than twenty days. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Partridge and quail, Novem- ber 1 to February 1; pheasant, August 1 to February 1; wood- cock, July 1 to February 1; prairie chicken,Septcmber 1 to Fcbruaryl; snipe and plover, September 1 to May 1; wild duck, wild goose,and wild brant, September 1 to April 1; water-rails, ortolan, reed-bird and rice-bird, September 1 to February 1; deer, August 15 to January 15; shad and her- ring, January 1 to June 1. Possession of game during close season prohibited. During iishing season, viz., from Jan- uary_1 to May 30, there is a close season every week. be- ginning at sundown‘ on Saturday and ending at midnight on unday-during which time al nets, seines, etc., must be taken from the water. Trappin and snaring of wild birds and water fowl; _use of gun ot er than shoulder gun for shooting and killing Wild duck, wild goose, and wild brant; killing or shooting any bird or wild fowl in the night-time; shooting or carrying a gun in the open air on Sunday; taking black bass and salmon by other means than by hook and line, prohibited.* FLORIDA. D_eer, wild turkeys, quail, partridge, in all the counties wherein the county commissioners have published the law, September 1 to April 1. Sea-birds and birds of plume, protected at ' all times. Non-residents desiring to hunt game of any kind. must obtain license from clerk of county where they wish to hunt, paving therefor $25. Not more than six persons may be inc uded in one license. Fee foreach additional erson,$5. No one, except a citizen of the United States. can 'ill birds for their plumage on any lands or waters of the State or within a marine league of the coast. *The Act of Congress of June 15, 1878, also provides as follows: Sec. 15. Enacts that any person who shall knowinglv tres- pass _on the lands of another for the purpose of shooting or untmg thereon, after due notice. or notice as provided for in the following section by the owner or occupant of lands.shall be liable to such owner or occupant in exemplary damages to an amount not exceeding $100,and shall also be liable to afine of $10 for each and every trespass so committed. The posses- sion of implements of shooting on such lands shall be pre- sumptive evidence of the trespass. _Sec. 16. That the notice referred to in the preceding sec- tion shall be given by erecting and maintaining sign boards at lea_st8by 12 inches in dimensions on the borders of tho remises, and at least two such sign boards for every 50 acres. enalty for tearing down,injuring or defacing such sign boards not less than $5 or more than $25 for each. Insectivorous birds and the eggs, nests and young of wild birds protected. 869 It is unlawful to hunt or fish upon the lands of another, without permission of the owner or occupant, under a pen- alty not to exceed $20, or imprisonment. though ten days’ notice by poster must be given, and such notice must be posted in three conspicuous places around the premises sought to be protected. GEORGIA. Wild turkey, partridge, October 15 to April 1; summer ducks. dO\ es, August 15 to April 1; wood-cock, August 15 to January 1; insectivorous birds, October 1 to April 1; buck, November 1 to March 1, and May 1 to Septem- ber 1; doe, fawn. July 1 to January 1; snipe, October 1 to March 1. Possession of game during close season, prohibited. Trapping or snaring of game or birds, prohibited. In this State there are numerous local lauswhich affect par- ticular counties. and which vary considerably in their pro- visions—so much so as to make it important that hunters should examine the local law of the county embracing their selected hunting ground. IDAHO. Wild duck and goose, August 1 to April 15; prairie chicken. sage-hen, grouse, pheasant, July 15 to February 1; buffalo, elk, antelope, mountain sheep, September 1 to Janu- ary 1. In Ada county, grouse, prairie chicken and duck, September 1 to March 1. Taking fish, except “ ith rod or pole and hook and line, prohibited. ILLINOIS. Deer, wild turkeys, September 1 to January 15; pinnated grouse, August 15 to December 1; ruffed grouse, quail, October 1 to January 1; wood-cock, July-4 to January 1. Possession of game limited to five days after season closes. Black and other bass, salmon and other game fish can be caught with hook and line only from February 15 to June 15. Use of explosive or medicinal compounds to catch fish, net- ting and trapging game birds (except wood-cock), night shooting of wil fowl forbidden. No person who has not re- sided 60 days in the State may kill wild game. None but res- idents of Bend, Fayette, Effingham, Marion, Clav, Rich- mond, Hamilton, Wayne, Warren, Henderson and Jersey counties may kill deer or game birds for sale out of these counties. INDIANA. Deer, October 1 to January 1: quail or pheas- ant, October 15 to December 20; wild turkeys. November 1 to February 1; prairie hens or chickens, Se tember 1 to Febru- ary 1; wood-cock, July 1 to January 1; wil duck, September 1 to April 15; fish (with gig or spear), January 1 to March 1. Fishing with hook and line allowed at all times and all laces. Possession of game limited to open season. Fishing 11 the St. Joseph and Kankakee Rivers allowed in any man- ner between April 1 and June 1. In the Ohio River without any restrictions. Netting or tra pin quail, pheasant, prairie chickens or wild duck of any in or variety prohib- ited. Taking fish with net or seine, gun or trap of any kind, or set-net, wire, or pot in any of the lakes, ponds, rivers or small streams (except in the Ohio, St. Joseph and Kankakee Rivers) prohibited. Shooting at wild pigeons at or within half mile of any pigeon roosting or nesting (\\ hen they are nesting) prohibite . Trespass on inolosed lands is punish- able by a fine. IOWA. Pinnated grouse, September 1 to December 1; wood-cock, July 10 to January 1; rpffed grouse, quail, wild- turkeys, October 1 to January 1; wild ducks. geese, brant, August 15 to May 1; deer and elk, September 1 to January 1; beaver, mink, otter, muskrat, November 1 to April 1; bass and wall-eyed pike, June 1 to April 1; salmon and trout, Feb- ruary 1 to November 1. No fish but minnows may be caught from July 1 to October 1. Twenty-five of each kind of game may be had for five days after season closes. Transportation of game restricted to within the State, and one dozen in any one day from any one person to any other one. Trapping game, birds, deer or elk; use of any but shoulder gun; use of oison for birds or fish; s caring or gafiing fish from Novem- er 1 to May 31 are iorbidr on. ho one shall in one day kill more than 25 each of quail, wood-cock, prairie chickens and pheasants. KANSAS. Pinnated grouse, September 1 to January 1; quail, November 1 to January 1. Insectivorous birds—Wild geese, ducks, hawks, harrier, blue-jay, crow, snipe, curlew, plover, piper, bittern, heron. crane and \\ ood-pecker not pro- tected. Possession of game allowed ten days after season closes. Snaring quail or grouse: hunting on occupied or im- proved premises without owner’s consent; killing fish by ex- plosive substances forbidden. All birds protected except wild geese, ducks, hawk, harrier, blue-jay, crow, sni e, cur- lew, plover, piper, bittern, heron, crane and wood-pec 'er. KENTUCKY. Deer, September 1 to March 1; quail, part- ridge, pheasant. October 1 to March 1; wild geese, VS ood duck, teal or other duck, September 15 to May 1; wood-cock, June 1 to January 1; wild turkey, September 1 to February 1; squirrels, January 15 to February 1. Taking fish by any other contrivance except hook and hand-line prohibited. Posses sion of game limited to close season. Trappin game ani- mals; taking fish with net or other contrivance except trot- lines and gigs and minnow-nets), or by use of any deleterious substance or explosive agent, exce t in the Ohio and Cum- berland Rivers, below the mouth 0 Rockcastle River, and lakes in the Ohio and Mississippi River bottoms prohibited. *The Kentucky law also enacts that anv person knowingly trespassing upon the land of another for the purpose of hunt- incr or fishing, after public notice by the owner or occupant, is iable to such owner or occupant to an amount not exceed- ing $25, besides all actual damage said owner or occupant 870 LOUISIANA. Buck, doe, fawn, October_l to March 1; wild turkey, October 1 to April 15; quail, partridge, pheasant, Oc- tober 1 to April 1. Possession and transportation of game during close season prohibited. Insectivorous and song birds protec ted, unless they prove destructive to fruit or grain crops. MAINE. Moose, deer, caribou, October 1 to January 1; mink, beaver, sable, otter, fisher, muskrat, October 15 to May 1; wild ducks, September 1 to May 1; ruffed grouse, wood- cock, September 1 to December 1; quail, pinnated grouse, September 1 to January 1; plover, August 1 to May 1; salmon, April 1 to July 15; with hook and line, to September 15; smelts, except by hook and line, October 1 to April 1; land- locked salmon, trout, togue, May 1 to October 1; black bass, Oswe¢o bass,white perch, July 1 to April 1. Possession of ruffed grouse, or partridge, and wood-cock allowed during September, October and November to be consumed as food; of land-locked salmon, trout and togue during February, March and April. No person shall have in possession in open season more than one moose, two caribou or three deer. Possession of over 50 pounds of land-locked salmon, trout or togue at any one time for purpose of transportation prohib- 1ted. Transportation of game, birds or fish during close sea- son prohibited. In Maine there are local laws which apply to particular lakes, ponds and rivers, and which require at- tention only in those localities. Hunting or killing moose, deer or caribou with dogs; taking of mackerel, herring, por- gies and menhaden by use of purse or drag-seines in small bays, inlets, harbors or rivers, and other objectionable methods of taking other kinds, mentioned in detail in the statutes, prohibited. No weir, hedge or set-net shall extend more than two feet depth of water at ordinary low water. Between April 1 and July 15 there shall be a weekly close of 48 hours between sunrise on each Saturday morning and sunrise on the ensuing Monday morning, during which time no salmon, shad, slavines or bass shall be taken. Dur- ing the close time all seines or other movable apparatus shall be removed from the water; but this does not apply to the Kennebec, Androscoggin or Penobscot Rivers, or their tributaries, or to St. Croix River below the breakwater at the ledge. Private fishing grounds may be protected by posting notices in the manner specially prescribed. Insectivorous birds are protected. MARYLAND. Quail partridge, November 1 to December 24; wood-cock, June 15 to February 1; pheasant, August 15 to Januaryl; rabbit, October 15 to January 15; squirrel, Sep- tember 1 to December 25; plover, sand piper, November 1 to January 1; mink, otter, muskrat, December 15 to March 15; wild turkey, January 1 to September 15. Wild Water Fowl- No person shall, at any time, in, on or over the waters of the State of Maryland, shoot at, or shoot any water fowl bedded in flocks, either upon the feeding or roosting grounds of said water fowl, or elsewhere, or from any vessel, boat, float, ca- noe or any craft of any kind whatever; nor shoot at any wild water fowl from any booby blind, or artificial point erected at a greater distance than 100 ards from the natural shore from which the same be exten ed; nor shoot any water fowl while flying above their feeding grounds, or elsewhere over the waters aforesaid, from any vessel, boat, float, canoe or craft of any kind—reserving, nevertheless, to any citizen of any county bordering on the waters aforesaid, and to whom- soever they may extend the privilege, the right to shoot from boats other than sink boats or sneak boats. Possession of game limited to open season. The above are State laws. There are in addition many local regulations, varying in the different counties. MASSACHUSETTS. Wood-cock, August 1 to January 1; ruffed grouse, October 1 to January 1; qua1l, October 15 to January 1; wood, or summer duck, black duck, or teal, or any of the so-called duck species. September 1 to April 15; pinnated grouse, protected at all times; plover, snipe, sand giper, rai or any of the so-called shore, marsh or beach irds, July 15 to May 1; wild, or passenger pigeon, gull and tern, October 1 to May 1; gray squirrel, hare, rabbit, Septem- ber 1 to March 1; salmon, May 1 to August 1; trout, April 1 to October1;smelts, June 1 to March 15; land-locked salmon, lake trout, April 1 to September 1; black bass, July 1 to De- cember 1. Exce tion is made in the application of these re- strictions to the onnecticut River and its tributaries. Posses- sion of the above animals and birds prohibited during close season, except in case of quail, which may be held in posses- sion from October 15 to May 1, and pinnated grouse. wild pigeons, and any of the so-called shore, marsh, or beach birds. or any of the so-called duck species, at any season, if not taken or killed within the State. Use of ferrets, battery or swivel guns, torch or jack-lights; netting or trapping game (except partridges, hares or rabbits, between September 1 and January 1, on one’s own land or by leave of owner); kill- ing deer in or within 200 yards of pond or river; kil ing at may suffer by such trespass—presence on the lands of an- other with dogs or implements of hunting or fishing is evi- dence of the purpose of trespass. The notice 1eferred to shall be given by erecting and maintaining sign boards at least one foot square in at least two conspicuous places on each side of the premises intended to be protected, such sign boards to have thereon the word posted, and the name of the owner or occupant of the lands. Any person who shall tear down, destroy or deface any such sign board shall be fined not less than $5 nor more than $25. HUNTING AND GAME LAWS any time prairie chicken, except on one’s own land, and placed there by land-owner; use of deleterious substances or other means than red and line to catch salmon, trout or bass, are forbidden. Owners of land may be protected by posting notices in the manner prescribed by statute. MICHIGAN. Deer (in upper peninsula), August 15 to November 15; deer (lower peninsula), November 1 to Decem- ber 1; wild turkeys, October 1 to January 1; wood-cock, Au- gust 1 to January 1; ruffed grouse, wood, teal, mallard and ray ducks, September 1 to January 1; water fowl, snipe, eptember 1 to May 1; quail, November 1 to January 1; pin- nated grouse, September 1 to November 1; trout, May 1 to September 1; grayling, June 1 to November 1. Possession of game allowed for eight days after season closes. No deer in red, or fawn in spotted coat, or any such skin of deer or fawn, can lawfully be possessed. Deer, ruffed and pinnated grouse, quail, and wild turkey, cannot be carried out of the State. Fish cannot be taken from fish lakes,Diamond and Stone lakes, or in any lake in Westervelt township from November 1 to May 1; nor in land lakes of Oceana county from January 1 to April 1; nor in lakes of Kalamazoo county from March 1 to July 1; nor in Devil's Lake, Round Lake, Whitmore and Brace Lake, from December 1 to A rill. S caring or shoot- ing fish in these mentioned lakes; illing eer in the water or in trap or pit-fall; netting or trapping game birds; use of swivel or punt gun; shooting wild pigeons within five miles ofhpi]g1eon nesting, forbidden; trespass on inclosed lands pun- 1s a e. MINNESOTA. Elk, moose, deer, November; quail, ruffed grouse, September 1 to December 1; wild duck, goose, Sep- tember 16 to January 1; wood-cock, July 4 to November 1; prairie chicken,white breasted or sharp-tailed grouse, August 15 to October 1; a uatic fowls, Se tember 1 to May 15; speckled trout, Apri 1 to October 1. ossession of game lim- ited to open season. Night shooting rohibited. Transpor- tation of game out of State forbid en. Deer in Stearns county can be taken only from November 15 to December 15. Fish can be taken in Stevens county by hook and line only, and in Lake Ripley by hook and line only from March 1 to June 1. In Loon, Crystal, Lily, Madison and Miles lakes by hook and line only from March 15 to June 1. Game birds must be killed only by shooting; speckled, river, and brook trout must be taken with hook and line. No fish except white fish from any waters in the State except Lake Superior, the Mississippi, Minnesota, and St. Croix rivers can be taken excegt by hook and line, shooting or spearing. MI SISSIPPI. Deer, September 15 to February 1; wild tur- key, ruffed grouse, quail, October 1 to April 1; turtle doves, starlings, September 15 to February 1. In Tate county, open season for al game November 1 to March 1; in Jasper, and some other counties,wild turkey unprotected. Possession and trans ortation of game restricted to open season. In Jasper an some other counties wild turkeys are unprotected. In Madison and Jefierson counties, netting and trapping quail and partridge forbidden. MISSOU I. Deer, Septemberl to January 15; wild turkey, September 15 to March 1; pinnated grouse, ruffed grouse. quail, October 15 to February 1; wood-cock,July 1 to January 1; turtle dove, meadow lark, lover, August 1 to February 1. Possession of game during c ose season, forbidden. Insect- ivorous birds protected. Taking with traps, nets, pens or pits, pinnated grouse and quail; or disturbing the eggs of wild birds or their nests (except by owner on his own prem- ises during open season); or poisoning waters: or using ex- losive substances for the purpose of taking fish; or taking sh by means of seine (except a very small one),net,gill-net, trammel-net, set-net, bag, weir, bush-drag, any fish-net or dam, or any other device or obstruction (unless by owner in waters wholly on his own premises), prohibited. Non resi- dents are rorbidden to hunt or trap deer, fawn, wild turkey, pinnated grouse, ruifed grouse, quail, wood-cock, goose,brant, duck or snipe for purpose of marketing or removing same out of State. Trespass by any one on closedland unishable. MONTANA. Bu alo, moose, elk, black or w ite tailed deer, antelope, mountain sheep, Rocky Mountain goat, Au ust 15 to December 1; grouse, prairie chicken, pheasant, foo -hen, sage-hen, partridge, quail, August 15 to November 15; beaver, otter, marten, or fisher, October 1 to April 1; wild geese and ducks, August 10 to May 15. Killing any of the above birds for sale prohibited. Hounding deer, elk, moose, or mountain sheep; catching fish with other means than hook and line (except in Missouri River below Three Forks and the Yellowstone River below mouth of Clarke’s_Fork) and use of explosive or oisonous substances, forbidden. Game animals can be kil ed only for food, and their skins cannot be taken out of the territory. _ NEBRASKA. Buffalo, elk, deer, antelope, mountain sheep, turkeys, and quail, October 1 to January 1; grouse, Septem- ber 1 to January 1; mink and muskrat, February 15 to April 15; pinnated grouse, September 1 to January 1.. Possession of game restricted to open season. Transportation of grouse, quail, turkeys, deer, buffalo, elk, and mountain sheep, at any time prohibited. Insectlvorous birds protected. Deer hound- ing forbidden in Burt, Washington, Douglas, Sarpey, Cass, Saunders and Dodge counties. Fishing, except with hook and line, use of other than shoulder guns for wild fowl, for- bidden. Tres ass on land to kill or take any animal or bird, and catching fish in any private pond not more than ten acres in area, umshable. NEVA A. Partridge, pheasant, wood-cock, quail, wild goose, wood duck, teal, mallard, or other ducks, sand hill HUNTING AND GAME LAWS cranes, brant, swan, plover, curlew, snipe, grouse, robin, meadow lark, yellow hammer, bittern, September 1 to A ril 1; sage-cock, hen, chicken (counties of Humboldt, E ko, Eure a, and Lauder, excepted), August 1 to April 1; deer, -antelope, elk, mountain sheep, goat, August 1 to September 1; trout, June 1 to Januaryl; but between April 20 and Octo- ber 1 cannot be taken for purpose of sale. Possession of game during close season prohibited. Insectivorous birds protected. Trapping or netting quail; catching any fish otherwise than with hook and line (except for scientific pur- poses) (prohibited. Protection to owner of grounds may be secure by posting notices in two places in town. NEW HAM PSH RE. Deer, moose, caribou, September 1 to December 1; mink, beaver, sable, otter, or fisher, October 15 to April 1; raccoon, gray squirrel, September 1 to January 1; hares, rabbits, muskrats, September 1 to April 1; plover, yellow leg, sand piper, wood-cock, duck, rail, August 1 to February 1; ruffed rouse, partridge, quail, September] to February 1; land-loc ed salmon, lake trout, brook or speckled trout, April 30 to September 30; but during January, Febru- ary and March, lake trout may be taken with single hook and line only; pike, perch or white perch, July 1 to May 1; black bass, June 15 to April 30; musca onge, pickerel, pike, or gray- ling, June 1 to A rill; possession of game during close sea- son rohibited; msectivorous birds protected. Ta ing of any fish from the Pemigewasset river near the State hatching-house in Holderness, anywhere between the abutments of the u per dam of lnvermore Falls in Compton and extending one- alf mile below the same, prohibited. Taking of grouse, partrid e, quail, with trap or snare; of salmon trout, lake trout, lan -locked or fresh water salmon, grayling, bass, pike, pike perch, white perch, pickerel, mus- calonge, in an manner other than by ordinary way of ang- ling with sing e hook and line with bait, artificial fly or spoon; of any fish from ponds or streams used for breeding purposes, or poisoning the waters thereof, or placing therein without permission 0 owner or lessee any fish, or the roe, spawn or fry of the same; of white fish, black bass,land- locked salmon, grayling, pike, perch, or any other variety of fish from any of the waters of the State, and which have been glaced or introduced therein by the fish commissioners, for ve years after the same have been so placed therein; of brook or speckled trout less than five inches. and of striped bass less than fifteen inches in length, prohibited. Non- residents are forbidden to take by seine or net any herring, hard-heads or mackerel from the waters of the State for the purpose of salting or barreling the same. Owners of any lands may be protected by posting written or printed notice; offenders subject to fine of $1 per bird; fine to be aid to owner of ground. NEW JE SEY. Hare, rabbit, ruffed grouse, November 1 to December 15; gray squirrel, November 15 to December 15; rail, reed-bird, September 1 to December 15; wood-cock, July 1 to 31, and October 1 to December 15; English snipe, March 1 to April 31, and October 1 to December 15; marsh-hen, Sep- tember 1 to December 15; deer, October 31 to December 1; wood duck, September 1_ to December 31; grass plover, August 1 to December 16; prairie chicken, November 1 to December .31; black bass and Oswego bass May 30 to December 1; brook trout, April 1 to July 15. Song birds. and insectivorous birds, excepting English sparrows, are protected. Possession of game restricted to the open season, except quail and pheas- ants, which may be retained five days after season closes. ‘Transportation of game in close season forbidden, unless ‘killed in another State. In Barnegat bay and its tide-water tributaries north of line from Good Luck Point to Band-house, duck, geese, closed ‘until October 15 to May 1. Night shoot- ing, sailing for w1_ld fowl, or shooting from boat staked on said water, forbidden. In Mosquito Cove and its inlets ducks and brant can be shot only between sunrise and sun- down on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays from September 1 to May 1. _ Shoulder guns only to be used; trapping deer, hares, rabb1ts_, squir_re s, quail, pheasants, wood-cock, rail, reed-bird, prarrie chicken, plover or ducks; shooting within -quarter of a m_1le of Wild-pigeon nest; catching trout or black bass, except with hook an line; using deleterious substances in fishing, forbidden. Non-residents must obtain a license irom the Game Protection Society, if there be one whose jurisdiction covers the county wherein they intend to hunt (except for wild fowl), or to fish for trout, black bass or sal- mon Owners of grounds may be protected by posting no ices. NEW MEXICO. Elk, buffalo, deer, antelope, mountain -sheep, wild turkey, grouse, quail, September 1 to Mav 1; trout, Mayl to December 1. ossession of game limited to 0 en season, unless brought from another State. Game may a so be killed for subsistence by travelers and others in camp. Trout can be taken only by book and line. No fish can be taken by poisonous substances. Taking fish from a private lake, pond, or stream used for propagation of fish without the owner’s consent, punishable. NEW YORK. Deer, August 15 to November 1, hares and rabbits, November 1 to February 1; moose. absolutelv pro- tected; ducks, geese, brant. September 1 to May 4;* squirrels, *Except in Long Island waters, October 1 to May 1, and Chautauqua county, September 1 to February 1. Cannot be killed between sunset and daylight, nor with any net, device, or other instrument than guns fired from the shoulder, but lantern or other light must be used. 871 August 1 to February 1; quail, November 1 to January 1, and cannot set net, trap, or snare for them; wood-cock, August 1 to January 1, except in Oneida and Delaware counties. Sep- tember lto January 1; ruffed grouse, September 1 to January 1, except in Queens and Suffolk counties, November 1 to J an- uariylr 1; pinnated grouse, September 1 to January _1, netting pro ibited; spruce grouse, no close season; wild birds, song birds, absolutely protected,except English sparrow; trout, April 1 to September 1; -i- bass,May 30 to January 1;]; salt water striped bass, no restriction; muscalonge, May 30 to January 1, except in certain localities it is May 20 to January 1; pickerel, bul heads, no restriction, except Lake George, which is closed between February 15 and July 1; pike, perch, May 30 to January 1; shad, March 15 to June 15. In Hudson River none may be taken above the Northern line of West- chester county, from sunset Saturday, to sunrise Monday. No one person shall take more than three deer during the 0 en season. Hares and rabbits shall not be killed or hunte by ferrets. Shooting on Sunday; fishing within eighty rods of State fisheries and fish ways; drawing off water to catch fish, pollution of water, and stocking the Adirondack waters with any fish except of the salmon. and trout family, prohibited. Game killed in Rockland county cannot be carried out of it. Speckled salmon and California trout caught in Forest Pre- serve can be taken between May 1 and September 1. Tres- passers on private grounds liable for damages, and exem- plary damages, not exceeding $25, nor less than $15. Owners protected by osting notices. NORTH CA OLINA. Deer, August 15 to February 15. In Clay, Cherokee, Macon, Jackson, Haywood, Transylvania, Stokes, Forsyth, Surrey, Yadkin, Cravin, Green and Rock- ingham counties, partridge, quail, doves, robins, mocking birds, larks. wild turkeys, October 15 to April 1. In Curri- tuck county, partridge and quail, December 1 to April 1; wild fowl, November 10 to March 10. In New Hanover county, artridge, quail, marsh hen, wood-cock, snipe, doves, curlew, ctober 15 to April 1; trout, in counties West of Blue Ridge, December 30 to October 15. In Clay, Cherokee, Jackson, Swain, Macon, Graham. Transylvania and Henderson counties,game birds are not protected. Shoulder un only to be used for wild fowl, except in Pamlico, Dare, arteret, Johnston. Tyrrell, Onslow and Columbus counties. Fire- hunting and night-shooting prohibited. Sunday-shooting of wild fowl in Currituck and Dare counties, prohibited. Shoot- ing wild fowl from fioatin battery forbidden in Carteret county. Non-residents shal not use or build blinds, boxes, batteries, or any wood decoys (ducks or geese), or live ducks or geese for decoys in Currituck, Dare or Hide counties, for killing wild fowl; violations of statute punishable by fine not exceeding $100, or imprisonment not less than 30 days. Grounds protected by posting notices. NORTH DAKOTA. Deer, bufialo, elk, antelo e, mountain sheep, September 1 to January 1; prairie chic ‘ens, grouse, snipe, plover, curlews, August 15 to January 1; bass. muses.- longe, pike,pickerel and perch,l\Iay1 to February 1. Killing or having for sale,or for any purpose but consumption within the State, any plover, snipe or curlew forbidden. Fishing, ex- cept with hook and line, except in Missouri and Red Rivers, and any inlet or outlet of a lake, forbidden from M arch 1 to October 1. OHIO. Muskrat, mink, otter, March 1 to April 15; quail, rairie chicken, November 10 to January 2; wild turkey, ctober 31 to January 15; ruffed grouse, (pheasant, blue winged teal, September 1 to January 1; any wil duck, Septem- ber 1 to April 10; wood-cock, July -1- to January 1 ; turtle dove, August 1 to January 1; squirrel, June 1 to January 1; rabbit, October 1 to February 1; deer, October 15 to November 20; brook trout, salmon, land-locked salmon, California trout, March 15 to December 14. Possession of game during close season, prohibited. Insectivorous birds protected. Tra in or snaring of quail or Virginia partridge; killinglwilggowg by aid of swivel or punt gun, or any other gun t an a com- mon shoulder gun, or by aid of artificial light, or sink-boat, battery; taking any fish, except minnows, otherwise than by hook and line from any of the waters of the State, except in private fishing waters, Lake Erie, Mercer and Sikm county reservoirs, or waters of Lake Erie West of Ann Point etween June 1 and October 1, and East of Ann Point, between June 10 and October 10; in Mercer county reservoir with trammel or picket net; shooting at wild gigeons within one-half mile of nesting grounds. or taking or estroying their eggs; use of ferret for catching rabbits, prohibited. Whoever discharges any fire-arms on any lawn, park or pleasure ground directly appurtenant to or within gun-shot of any occupied +Except in the counties included in the Forest Preserve (which are Clinton, Franklin, St. Lawrence, Essex, Warren, Herkimer, Hamilton, Lewis.Fulton. Saratoga, Washin ton, Greene, Delaware, Ulster and Sullivan), wherein it is rom May 1 to September 15. Cannot be caught except with hook and line, except in Lake Ontario, Niagara River. and wholly rivate waters No net, seine, set-line, or set-pole can be use . except in Lakes Ontario and Keuka. Cannot be caught through the ice nor be disturbed in their spawning beds. except in Lake Ontario. lltxcept in certain localities. where it is from May ‘.20 to January 1; in Sohroon Mahopac. Paradox and Skaneatles lakes July 1 to January 1 and Lake George and Brant lake, August 1 to January 1. Cannot be caugnt of less than a half pound weight or less than 8 inches long. 872 dwelling-house. the property of another, or any charitable institution. shall be fined not more than $20 nor less than $5, or imprisonment not more than thirty days, or both. OREGON. Deer, July 1 to November 1; spotted fawn, abso- lutely protected. No deer shall be kille except for food. Elk, moose and mountain sheep, August 1 to January 1; kill- ing them for their skins and hams, forbidden; swan and duck, September 1 to April 1; prairie chicken and Sage—hen, June 15 to April 1; grou_se, pheasant, quail, July 15 to Jan- uary 1; brook trout, April 1 to November 1. Possession of game lim.ted to open season. Trap ing game birds; catching trout, except with hook, and line, orbidden. PENNSYLVANIA. Turkey, October 15 to January 1; duck. September 1 to May 15; plover, July 15 to January 1; wood-cock, July 4 to January 1; quail, November 1 to December 15; ruffed grouse. pinnated grouse, October 1 to January 1; rail, reed- birds, September 1 to December 1; snipe, wild pigeons, any time ; elk, deer. Octoberl to December 15; squirrels, September 1 to January 1; hare. rabbit, November 1 to January 1; speckled trout, April 15 to July 15; shad and herring, January 1 to June 20; lake trout, January 1 to October 1; pickerel, June 1 to December 1; black and rock bass, pike, May 31 to Jan- uary 1. Possession of elk, deer, antelope, October 15 to November 30; pinnated or ruffed grouse, quail and wood- cock, 15 days after season closes. Sunday-hunting; hounding deer, killing deer in the water if driven there by dogs; use of ferrets; of guns other than shoulder guns; of nets and traps for game and wild fowl; night-hunting for ruffed and pinnated grouse; use of nets to catch trout, bass or pickerel; shutting off water; use of explosive, etc., substances; taking trout less than five inches long, are forbidden. Non-resi- dences must not trap or net wild pigeons without license of county treasurer. RHODE ISLAND. Wood-cock, July 1 to January 1; ruffed grouse, robin, lark, wood-duck, black duck,gray duck, Sep- tember 1 to February 1; rabbits, hares, gray squirrels, Sep- tember 1 to January l;grouse, heath hens, November 1 to January 1; quail, October 15 to January 1; Swallow,or box marten, October 1 to May 1; grass plover, August 1 to May 1; dusky. or black duck. summer duck, blue, or green winged teal, September 1 to March 1; wild pigeon (netted or trap ed),August 10 to January 1; trout, arch 1 to August 15; b ack bass, July 15 to March 1; insectivorous birds pro- tected except from owner of land. Trapping quail and par- tridges; hunting rabbits with ferrets or weasels; using punt, battery, swivel, or PIVCU guns for wild fowl; fishing in stream or fresh pond except on one’s own land otherwise than with hook an line; catching black bass except with hook and line, forbidden. Trespass punishable. SOUTH CAROLINA. Deer, August 1 to February 1; wild turkey, partridge, dove, wood-cock, pheasant, Octoberl to March 15; fishing in Black River, August 15 to June 1. Fire hunting prohibited. All 1persons who have not lived a year in the State, forbidden to unt or fish; but land owners may authorize hunting or fishing on their own land. SOUTH DAKOTA. Deer, buffalo, elk, antelope, mountain sheep, September 1 to January 1; prairie chickens, grouse, snipe, plover, curlews, August 15 to January 1; bass, musca- longe, pike,pickerel, and perch, May 1 to February 1. In Clay, Union and Yankton counties, quail, August 15 to January 1. In Clay, Union, and Lincoln counties, deer, October 1 to Jan- uary 1. Killing or having for sale, or for any purpose but consumption within the territory, any plover, sni e or our- lew forbidden. The same rovisions as in Nort Dakota, with respect to fishing with ook and line. TENNESSEE. In Henry. Dyer, Giles, Maury, Davidson, Madison, Hamilton, Bedford, and Wilson counties, deer, Se - tember 1 to March 1; pheasant, grouse, quail, partridge.wo0 - cock, lark, and snipe, September 15 to March 1; wild turkey, Sept. 15 to May 1. In Mont omery and Cheatham counties in- sectivorous birds, partri ge, quail, grouse, pheasant, lark, October 15 to March 1; woo -cock, dove, wild turkey, August 1 to March 1; sni e, plover, duck, September 1 to May 1. In Robertson, Davi son,Maury,Lincoln, and Shelby counties, deer, wild turkey, partridge, quail,grouse,pheasant, wood- cock, sni e, lark and insectivorous birds, September 1 to Feb- ruary 1. n Rutherford, Fayette, and Ti ton counties, quail and partridge, October 1 to April 1. In La e county, deer and insectivorous birds, September 1 to February 1; wild-turkey hen. October 1 to March 1; wild turkey, September 1 to May 1: quail, September 1 to April 15. No persons except citizens of certain counties name in statute permitted to hunt game therein for profit. Taking fish otherwise than by hook and line, except _in_ Cumberland, Tennessee, and Big Hatchie Rivers, prohibited. Owners’ grounds protected, by posting notices. TEXAS. Deer, June 1 to December 1; prairie chickens, August 1 to March 1; quail, partridge, September 1 to March 1; wild turkey, September 1 to May 1; fishing at all times with nets, seines, traps. or explosives, prohibited, except in counties especially named in statute. Hunters in Texas should consult statutes with reference to exemptions. UTAH. Elk, mountain sheep, deer, antelope, September 1 to December 1; beaver and otter, April 1 to Novemberl; quail, partridge, grouse, August 1 to March 15. Possession limited to open season. Night-hunting for ducks; catching fish by fioison or by other means than by hook and line (except in ear and Utah lakes), prohibited. VERMONT. Mink, beaver, fisher, otter, November 1 to April 1; wood-cock. August 15 to February 15_: quail, wood-duck, partridge. September 1 to February 1; Wild geese and ducks, Q HUNTING AND GAME LAWS-—-HUNTINGBURG September 1 to May 1; trout, land-locked salmon, salmon trout, September 1 to May 1: black bass. wall-eyed pike, pike perch, June 15 to September 1; white fish or lake shad, any time from November 1 to 16; taking trout, land-locked salmon, salmon trout,salmon, and 0nd ickerel, except by hook and hand line, prohibited. _P0‘S€SS1OIl of game restricted to open sea- son. Transportation of ame for sale out of State forbid- den. lnsectivorous bir S protected. In Lake Cham lain. and its inlets for ten miles from mouth, fishing with ook and line allowed at any time. Persons engaged in artificial raising of fish may take them in his own waters when and how he pleases, but must not sell them for food in close sea- son. Use of explosives or deleterious substances to catch fish; use of nets or traps to catch trout, salmon or bass: tak- ing black bass less than ten inches long, forbidden. Local restrictions affect fishing in Perch, Royal, Tuells, Lud- low, and Plymouth ponds, Rhines cove and Lake Bornoseen- VIRGINIA. West of Blue Ridge Mountains, pheasants, wild turkeys, September 15 to February 1; partridges, Octo- ber 15 to January 1; deer, August 15 to January 1; elsewhere in the State, partridges, pheasants, wild turkeys, October 15 to January 1; deer, August 15 to January 1; applying to whole State; wood-cock, July 1 to February 1; robin, November 1 to April 1; wild water fowl,except wood and summer ducks, and sora, September 1 to May 1; marsh hens, killing or taking its eggs later in the season than June 20, prohibited; willet, January 1 to July 20; gull, or striker, September 1 to January 1; its eggs, January 1 to Jul 1; mountain trout, April 1 to December 15; black bass, pon bass, July 1 to May 15. Posses- sion of game during close season prohibited. lnsectivorous birds protected. Netting or trapping of 1pheasants, wild tur- keys, partridges, and all wild water fow , except wood duck and sora, prohibited; also taking mountain trout otherwise than by hook and line, shooting or spearing black bass or pond bass; also netting and trapping quail, prohibited, ex- cept in counties especially exempted b statute. Non-resi- dents are forbidden to fish in Chesapea e Bay. Hunters in Virginia should examine local laws. WASHINGTON. Deer, elk. moose, August 15 to January 1; mountain sheep, prairie chickens, sage-hens, swans, ii ild ducks, August 15 to April 15; grouse, heasant, partridge, August 1 to January 1 ; rook trout, Apri 1 to November 1. Possession of game limited to open season. Deer must not- be killed except for food. Killin elk, moose or mountain sheep for their skins, hams or cut ets forbidden. Hounding deer in Thurston, Cowlitz, Whatcome Island and Lewis counties; taking mountain brook or bull trout, except with. hook and line; duck-shooting between 8 P. M. and 5 A. 111.; use of sink-boats, battery, swivel or punt gun forbidden. WEST VIRGINIA. Deer, September 1 to Januar 15; quail, October 15to January 1; wild turkey, ruffed an pinnated grouse, September 1 to February 1; wild ducks, geese and brant,November1 to April 1; Jack salmon, white salmon, June 15 to May 1; brook trout, land-locked salmon, January 1. to September 1. Possession of game restricted to open sea- son. Insectivorous birds protected. Fish can be caught only by hook and line from March 1 to November 1. Explo- sive and poisonous substances in fishing; snaring quail; use of any but shoulder gun for wild fowl; shooting within gun- shot of occu ied house are forbidden. Trespass on inclosed grounds pun shable. WISCONSIN. Deer, October 1 to November 10; otter, mink, marten, fisher, muskrat, November 1 to May 1; wood-cock, July 10 to December 1; quail, partridge, pheasant, prairie chicken, grouse, snipe, plover, wild fowl, September 1 to De- cember 1. Possession of game limited to open season. Kill- ing deer, except for food, and transporting them out of State forbidden. In Green Lake county it is unlawful to use, in wild-fowl shooting, any cover, blind or bough-house over 18- inches high. Trapping or netting deer, ame birds‘or wild fowl; using any but shoulder guns; use 0 float, sneak-boat, sail or steamboat or floating box or any ambush located in open water beyond the natural cover of reeds, etc., in any lake, river, bay or inlet; hounding deer; catching trout, ex- cept with hook and line, forbidden. _ WYOMING. Deer, elk, moose, mountain sheep, mountain goat, antelope, buffalo, September 1 to December 1. Killing or capturing same by means of pit, pit-fall or trap prohibit- ed at all times. Ptarmigan, pinnated grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, sage-grouse or any other grouse or sage-hen, August 1 to November 15. Killing in one day more than ten of any of the game birds above mentioned prohibited. Avocet or other wader, or plover, August 15 to April 1: _wild duck, trout, oose, August 15 to May 1; fish of all kmds,exce_pt trout, uly 1 to November 1. All the above animals and birds ma be taken at any time for breeding purposes. P_ossessioii an transportation of game or game birds is limited to 30 days after season closes. After expiration of 30 days after close of open season prohibited, except game in transit through the territory from other States and Territories. Netting and trapping of game and game birds, use of explosive, poison- ous and deleterious substances for the purpose of taking fish, or of weir, dam or other artificial obstruction, or _of_net, seine or other device, except hook and line, p_i'oliibited. Fishing in streams or ponds stocked by fish commission pro- hibited for three years after publication of notice of stock- ing same. HUNTINGBURG, a post-village of Dubois coun- ty, Ind., situated in a region where tobacco is HUNTINGDON-—HURON raised extensively, and where block and cannel ~coal, plumbago, iron ores, potter’s clay, mineral paints, lime and sandstone are obtained. Car- riages, wagons, lumber, furniture, and saddlery :are here manufactured. HUNTINGDON, a post-borough, county-seat of Huntingdon, county, Pa., located on the J uniata River. Lead, coal, iron, fireclay, limestone, and tim- ber abound in the region. Brooms, boots and shoes and furniture are manufactured, and there are planing mills, a brick yard and several printing ~offices in the vicinity. HUNTING HORN, or BUGLE Hoax, is a frequent bearing in heraldry. HUNTINGTON, a city and county-seat of Hunt- ington county, Ind., built on both sides of Little River. This is the center of a large lime-burning region. There are several factories for working wood into various shapes, a woolen mill and other manufactories. HUNTINGTON, a post-village of Suffolk county, N. Y., on the Atlantic Ocean, 38 miles from New York City. Bricks, pottery and thimbles are made Qnere, and the place is a fashionable summer resort. HUNTINGTON, a city of Cabell county, VV. Va., -on the Ohio River. It has several manufactories, .a State normal school, and is the seat of Marshall College. HUNTINGTON, DANIEL, an American painter, born at New York in 1816. He studied painting under Prof. S. F. B. Morse at the National Acad- iemy of Design, and produced the Bar-Room Politi- cian, A Toper Asleep, and some landscapes in 1885. In 1839 he went to Italy. There he painted The ..Sibyl, Early Christian Prisoners, and other works. After returning to New York he painted many portraits and some historical scenes, such as Queen Mary Signing the Death Warrant of Lady Jane Grey. He has worked in several departments of paint- ing, and in all of them has shown great skill, true -feeling and rare simplicity. HUNTINGTON, FREDERICK DAN, a Protestant Episcopal bishop, born at Hadley, l\Iass., in 1819. He was at first a Unitarian pastor of a church at Boston. In 1855 he was chosen professor of Chris- tian morals at Harvard College. His theological views then underwent a gradual change, and finally in 1860 he entered the Episcopal church. In 1864. he became rector of Emmanuel church in Boston, and in 1869 he was elected and conse- icrated bishop of Central New York. Mr. Huntington was one of the founders of the “Church Monthly,” and has published some volumes of sermons: Hu- man Society; Lessons on the Parables, and Steps to Living Faith. HUNTINGTON, SAMUEL, an American states- man, born at \Vindham, Conn., in 1732, died at Norwich, Conn., in 1796. He learned the trade of a -cooper, but became a lawyer in 1758, when he was made king’s attorney and also associate judge of the superior court of Connecticut. In 1776 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress, and as such he signed the Declaration of Independence. From 1779 to 1781 he was president of the Con- gress, and in 1784 he became chief justice of Con- necticut. In 1785 Huntington was elected lieu- tenant-governor of Connecticut, and in 1786 he became governor of that State, which office he re- "tained till his death. HUNTLY, a town of Scotland, county of Aber- deen. In the vicinity is the ruin of Huntly castle. the seat of the earls and marquises of Huntly. Population, 3,519. HUNTSVILLE, a city and county-seat of Mad- iison county, Ala., called the “Queen City of the -Mountains.” It has a brass and iron foundry, 873 railroad machine shops, a female seminary (Pres- byterian), a female college (Methodist), and a nor- mal school for colored pupils. HUNTSVILLE, the county-seat of Randolph county, Mo. It has a college for both sexes, and in the vicinity are flour-mills, a woolen mill, ma- chine shops and coal mines. HUNTSVILLE, a city and county-seat of IValker county, Tex., 200 miles southeast of Austin. It contains a State penitentiary, Austin College (Pres- byterian), Andrew Female Seminary and Sam Houston Normal Institute. It is a cotton-shipping point, and manufactures furniture, cotton and woolen goods, boots and wagons. HURA, a genus of tropical American plants of the natural order Euphorbiaceze. H. crepitans, the sand-box tree, is a large tree, having glossy leaves, inconspicuous flowers and fruit about the size of an orange. It is remarkable for the loud report with which the woody capsule bursts when the seed IS n e. HURDLES: in military affairs, straight flat rec- tangles of strong wicker-work, about six feet long, and two feet nine inches high. They are useful as fencing, as barriers, or, in fortification, in the con- struction of hurdle batteries. These last can be con- structed to any ground-plan, and with their aid a. body of soldiers can entrench themselves in a few minutes. ~ HURDY—GURDY, a very old musical instrument of the stringed kind, something between a guitar and a lute in appearance. It has four or six cat- gut or wire strings attached to screw-pegs in the head; two of the strings stretch over the sounding- board to the tail-piece, and are sounded by a wooden wheel (under the cover a in the figure) charged with rosin, which is turned by means of a handle with the player’s right hand. The strings are //’__/7 ’//C7/‘£-/////, __ /-4~..J\-:-\-a'_\:| \____ ' ‘~ ‘ ' \‘_‘_. . \_ __¢‘_?;" ,-\__?_>_ “stopped” by an ingenious arrangement of keys, b, manipulated with the left hand. The remaining strings are stretched out of reach of the keys, and are tuned as drones. The instrument has a range of two octaves from the tenor G upwards. The rustic simplicity of its music made it at one time a great favorite among the peasantry of a great part of Europe (see Engel’s Musical Instruments). The name hurdy-gurdy is also sometimes applied to the mechanical pianos familiar on the streets. The word was probably coined to express contempt of the instrument. HURON, the county-seat of Beadle county, S. D. On account of its situation and railroad facilities it is a leading commercial center of the State. The region is rich and prosperous. The city has an ex- cellent system of public schools, a complete equip- ment of water works and electric lights, and many handsome commercial buildings and private resi- dences. HURON, LAKE, remarkable for the number and size of its islands, which are mostly Canadian and very rocky. but well timbered. The commerce of the lake is facilitated by a number of good harbors and roadsteads. At Sand Beach, Mich., the United States Government has constructed an artificial harbor of refuge. having a breakwater parallel to 874 HURON the shore and a pier or mole reaching out from the land at the north side. The principal natural ports on the United States side are those of I—Iammond’s Bay, Michael Bay, Presque Isle, Thunder Bay and Saginaw Bay. Among the towns on the lake are Mackinaw City, Cheboygan, Alpena, Bay City and Port Huron, all in Michigan. On the Canadian shore are Collingwood, Southampton, Kincardine, Port Albert and Goderich. See ST. LAWRENCE, Britannica, Vol. XXI, pp. 178, 182. HURON INDIANS, or WYANDOTS. See INDIANS, AMERICAN, in these Revisions and Additions. HURST, J OHN FLETCHER, a Methodist Episcopal bishop, born in Dorchester county, near Salem, Md., in 1834. He studied theology at the Universi- ties of Halls and Heidelberg, in Germany. Hav- ing returned home in 1858 he Was pastor of Metho- dist churches in Passaic and Elizabeth, N. J., till 1866, after which he took charge of the Methodist missionary institute at Bremen, Germany. Here he remained for three years as teacher and direc- tor of the institute. In 1871 he again returned to the United States, became professor of historical theology at the Drew Seminary in Madison, N. J ., and in 1873 was made president of that institution. In 1880 he was elected bishop at the General Con- ference at Cincinnati. He has published a History of Rationalism; Outlines of Bible History ; Jvlartyrs of the Tract Cause; Life and Literature in the Fa- therland, and Bibliotheca Theologica. HUSBAND AND WIFE, LAW RELATING TO. See Vols. XII, p. 400; XV, p. 565. In America a husband has no right to enforce his will against the will of his wife. He is not allowed to restrain her movements and actions by force, or to forcibly compel her to reside with him against her will. The laws recognize the existence of two wills in husband and wife, neither of which can be subordi- nated to the other and forced into submission by legal compulsion or penalties. Although the old common-law rule, that the services of the wife be- long to the husband, remains in force in some of the States, yet it is practically obsolete, because the wife employs her services in his behalf only as she may choose. As the wife has the power to make contracts on her own account, she may also make contracts with her husband, and may in some of the States sue him at law upon such contracts. She may also receive conveyances directly from her husband. But this rule is not without exceptions. As to the custody of the children in case of disa- greement, the mother has acknowledged claims to all female children up to a certain age, the limit of which differs in different States. Infants belong to her by nature. A married woman’s right to con- trol her property independently of her husband’s influence, to employ her services as she may choose regardless of his wishes, and to have the custody of her children up to a certain age, removes her disa- bilities so efl:'ectually that she is her husband’s equal in every point of law, and has in addition a rightful claim to his protection and her support, even if she should not choose to contribute at all to her own personal maintenance. HUTCHINSON, a city, railroad center and county-seat of Reno county, Kan., situated on the Arkansas River. It has a State reformatory, elec- tric lights, Holly water works, street railroads and a telephone system. It was founded in 1871. Pop- ulation in 1890, 8,682. HUTCHINSON, ANNE (1591-1643), an American religious enthusiast, born at Alford, Lincolnshire, England, in 1591. She was the dau hter of a clergyman, and married Edward Hutc inson. In 1684 she removed to New England. Anne main- tained that those who were in the covenant of INDIANS—-HYDATID grace were entirely freed from the covenant of‘ works. She gave lectures twice a week, which were well attended. Her adherents were called “Anti- nomians,” and included many prominent men, as Sir Harvey Vane, the governor, and the powerful preacher, Cotton. Boston was soon divided into- two hostile theological camps. Mrs. Hutchinson was then tried for heresy and sedition and ban- ished from Massachusetts, along with several of her followers. She then bought for forty fathoms of Wampum the island of Aquidneck from the Nar- ragansett Indians, and founded the town of Ports- mouth. After the death of her husband in 1642,. she left Rhode Island and settled upon some land to the west of Stamford, Conn., then supposed to be within the territory of the New Netherlands. There, in the following year, she was cruelly mur- dered by Indians, together with her family, 16 vic-- tims in all. HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY, an English biologist,. born at Ealing, Middlesex, May 4,1825; commenced his education at the school in that place, and after- wards studied in the Medical School of Charing Cross hospital. In 1846 he entered the medical. service of the royal navy, and in the following year was appointed assistant-surgeon of H. M. S. Rattle- snake, which was commissioned for surveying ser- vice in Australasia. Huxley devoted himself to» the study of the marine animals collected during the service, making them the subjects of scientific- papers, which were published by the Royal and innaean societies. Soon after his return to Eng- land in 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1854 was appointed professor of nat- ural history, including palaeontology, in the Royal School of Mines, and held that office, combined with the curatorship of the fossil collections in the museum of practical geology until his retirement from the public service in 1885. After his appoint- ment to the school of mines his attention was chiefly directed to vertebrate morphology and to palaeontology. In 1856 he accompanied Dr. Tyndall on a visit to the glaciers of the Alps, and his name appears as joint-author of Observations on Glaciers (1857). In 1859 his large work on The Oceanic Hy- drozoa was published by the Ray Society. He is author of numerous papers on the invertebrata, vertebrate mor'phology, palseontology, and of essays on topics of a philosophical and general character. Huxley has greatly interested himself in educa-. tional questions, and especially in scientific and medical education, and strongly advocated Dar- win’s views. He has held the ofiices of examiner in- the University of London, of Fullerian professor at the Royal Institution, of Hunterian professor of comparative anatomy at the Royal College of Sur- geons, of president of the Ethnological Society and of the British Association. He has been president and secretary of the Geological Society and of the Royal Society, and is a member of the American and Brussels Academies, a corresponding member of the Institute of France, of the Berlin Academy, and of many other foreign societies. HYACINTH. See Britannica, Vol. XII, pp.419, 256. HYACINTHE, PERE. See LOYSON, Charles, in these Revisions and Additions. HYANNIS, a post-village and seaport of Barn- stable county, Mass., on the south side of Ca e Cod, and on a branch of the Cape Cod (Old olony) Railroad, 79 miles from Boston. It has a high- school, an iron foundry, a shoe factory and several churches. Its outer harbor is protected by a break- water, and has a fixed light with an elevation of 70 feet above the level of the sea. HYDATID (from Gr. hydatis, “ a watery vesi- cle”), a term applied to the bladder-worm stage of HYDE PARli—-HRYDROPHOBIA certain tapeworms, particularly to that of Tania echinococcas. The term hydatid is sometimes applied in medicine to serous cysts which have nothing at all to do with parasites. HYDE PARK, an inclosure of nearly 400 acres extending from the western extremity of London, England, to Kensington Gardens. It derives its name from having been the manor of Hyde, belong- ing to the Abbey of Westminster. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 824. HYDE PARK, a village of Norfolk county, Mass., on the Neponset River, and on the Boston, Hart- ford & Erie and Boston & Providence railroads, 7 miles from Boston. It has excellent graded schools, a public library and various manufactories. It is chiefly a place of residence for persons who carry on business in Boston. HYDNORA, a genus of parasitic Plants belong- ing to the order Oyntinacex, which consists entirely of root-parasites. Hydnora africana is a South African species, parasitic on the roots of fleshy Euphorbiw and other succulent plants; it has a putrid smell, but is roasted and eaten by the natives, and is also used for tanning. HYDNUM, a genus of fungi belonging to the sub-order Hymenonycetes, order Basidiornycetes, and having the under side of the pileus covered with soft spines which bear the spores. The species are numerous, one of them, H. repandwn, being common in some parts of Europe. It grows chiefly in pine and oak woods. See FUNGUS, Britannica, Vol. IX. HYDRA, a fabulous monster of the ancient world, said to have inhabited the marshes of Lernaea, in Argolis. Accounts vary as to its origin and appearance; some make it the issue of Styx and the Titan Pallas. It is represented as having several heads, which immediately grew up again as often as they were cut off. The number generally ranged from seven to nine, though some historians give it a hundred and more. HYDRASTIS, a genus of North American plants, of the natural order Rananculaceaa. H. canadensis, the only known species, is a small perennial herb, sometimes used in dyeing yellow; hence the com- mon names yellow-root, golden-seal and yellow puccoon. It is also used to some extent in medi- cine. HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS are employed to lift persons by hydraulic pressure from one story of a building to another. The essential parts are a cylinder sunk in the earth, with a plunger descend- ing into it and packed water-tight at the top, be- low which water is admitted by a valve, when the piston rises to the required height, and remains there by the closing of the valve. The car for the conveyance of passengers rests upon the top of the iston. P HYDRAULIC FORGING, shaping wrought iron and steel by the continuous power of the hydraulic press, instead of the repeated blows of a hammer. See HAMMER, Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 426. HYDROCELE (Gr. hydor,“water,” and lcele, “a swelling”), a dropsy of the tunica vaginalis, the serous membrane investing the testis. It occurs as a smooth, pear-shaped swelling, painless, but sometimes causing uneasiness from its weight. The quantity of fluid in the sac may amount to forty ounces. Hydrocele most commonly comes on without any apparent local cause, and is most fre- quently met with about or beyond the middle period of life, and generally in persons of feeble power; sometimes, however, it occurs in young children. The treatment may be palliative or curative. The palliative treatment consists in the use of suspensory bandages, and tapping from time to time. The curative treatment consists in set- 875 ting up inflammation in the tunica vaginalis by the injection of tincture of iodine, so as to obliterate the cavity, or by excision of the whole or part of the sac. HYDROCOTYLE, a genus of umbelliferous plants, having simple umbels, entire acute petals, and fruit of two flat orbicular carpels, with five thread-like ribs, and no vittee. The species are nu- merous, generally more or less aquatic, and widely distributed. HYDRODYNAMIC ENGINES. See Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 520-21. HYDROMYS, a genus of water mice found in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, distin- guished from all other rodents by the small num- ber (2-2 ) of molars. They are called beaver rats in Tasmania; are noctural and very shy; inhabit the banks of fresh and salt water, and swim well, with the help of partially webbed hind feet. The larg- est species is twice the size of a common rat. HYDROPHOBIA AND RABIES are fully treated in Britannica, Vols. XII, pp. 545-547, XX, 190-202; and the reader is referred to those volumes for ex- haustive accounts of the diseases and their effects on man and beast. The researches of M. Louis Pasteur in connection with fermentation, the pres- ervation of wines, and the propagation of zymotic diseases in silk worms and domestic animals, led him to a series of experiments on the result of which he based his announcement to the French academy in 1884, that by inoculation with pre- pared virus absolute protection against rabies and hydrophobia could be secured. He considers rabies a disease of parasitic origin, although the particular parasite has not yet been securely iso- lated. His method of treating people bitten by mad dogs is as follows: ‘He has found that, if he inoculates a number of rabbits from one to another in series with the virus from a mad dog—-that is, if he inoculates one rab- bit from the dog’s virus. a second rabbit from the virus of the first, a third rabbit from the virus of the second, and so on—and then exposes the spinal cords of these rabbits in glass jars which have been free from all moisture by caustic potash, and are kept at a constant temperature of 23° C., these spinal cords lose in virulence with each day of such exposure until, after a period of 14 days, no poison- ous effect results from their inoculation into a healthy rabbit or dog. They will produce milder and milder symptoms the longer these spinal cords have been kept as above described, till at last, when they have been kept for 14 days, they will upon in- oculation produce no symptoms whatever. Next he has found that, if he daily inoculates the same rabbit with the virus of the modified spinal cords, beginning with the weakest virus and using a stronger one each succeeding day, at the end of the series of inoculations the strongest virus will have no ill effects whatever. The strongest virus is that from the cord of a rabbit just dead of rabies. It will cause rabies in healthy animals in 7 days, if in- oculated when fresh. An animal bitten by a mad dog, if inoculated daily with gradually stronger and stronger virus taken from the spinal cords of rabbits, was, there- fore, proof against the outbreak of hydrophobia. Pasteur concluded that a person thus treated must likewise be proof against the disease. On July 7, 1885. when a boy, Joseph Meister, who had been re- cently bitten by a mad dog, presented himself at his laboratory, he inoculated him first with weak virus. Each succeeding day he inoculated him with a gradually stronger virus, ending this treat- ment on the 16th of June. The same virus that was used on the boy was tried every time on a 3 876 fresh, healthy rabbit, in order to test or “control” the inoculations. It produced rabies in the rabbits, which died in a few days; but it had no effect upon the boy, so that Pasteur considered him proof against hydrophobia from mad dogs. No delete- rious effects of these graduated inoculations of the boy have since been reported. Since that time Pasteur has performed hundreds of similar preventive inoculations. Many cases were sent to him from America, and still more from the various states of Europe. It is generally stated that, of one hundred persons bitten by mad dogs, about 18 or 20 become rabid and die of hydro- phobia. By Pasteur’s treatment this percentage was reduced to % or even less. Some physicians who are opposed to Pasteur, have maintained that there is danger of death being caused by his inoculations without reference to the effect of the dog’s bite. An English commission has invest.gated this point, but could not find a single case of death from this cause alone. A number of wolf-bitten Russians have been sent to Paris to be treated by Pasteur. But it was found that the wolf-virus is much stronger than that of mad dogs; and sev- eral of the patients, therefore, died of rabies in spite of Pasteur’s treatment. These cases must be con- sidered as exceptional. During the last few years a large hospital, called the Pasteur Institute, has been established in Paris, where dog-bitten patients are treated under Pas- teur’s personal supervision. In this institute hun- dreds of victims have already been saved from a horrible death. Of the few who have succumbed to the disease it is asserted that there were other complications involved. In London a fund was raised in 1889 to enable indigent English patients to be taken to Paris for treatment at the Pasteur Institute. In 1890, a Pasteur institute was opened in New York city for the preventive treatment of dog-bitten persons by the same method of graduat- ed inoculations. HYDROPHYLLAOEJE, a natural order of ex- ogenous plants, containing about 80 known spe- cies, natives chiefly of the colder parts of America. The order includes some small trees and bushes as well as herbaceous plants. They are often hispid, like the Borraginaceee. HYGIERA, or HYGEIAI in Greek mythology, the goddess of health. She was worshiped at Athens, Corinth, Argos, and other important cities, and in works of art is usually represented as a virgin with a snake, the symbol of health, which drinks from a cup held in her hand. HYGIENE AND DEMOGRAPHY, INTERNATION- AL Gonennss or. Arrangements are now in prog- ress (June 1891) for holding this congress in Lon- don, from August 10th to 15th, 1891. The call was issued by the Duke of Westminster and the presi- dents of leading scientific bodies in England. The Prince of Wales promised to preside. . The object of the congress is to promote the in- terchange of knowledge between those persons in different countries interested in the study of hygiene and demography. The Duke of Westmin- ster gives six branches of inquiry: (1) The means of preventing communicable diseases; (2) the sci- ence of bacteriology in relation thereto; (3) in- dustrial questions from a health point of view; (I) the hygiene of childhood; (5) the hygiene of houses and towns; (6) state hygiene, or the duty of the government toward the nation in regard to health, and the machinery necessary for exercising that duty. “Demography” is a word of modern coinage, in- tended to represent and include such themes as are here indicated. "’) HYDROPHYLLACEZE—HYPERICACEZE The London “Times” speaks of this congress, and says it is likely to be useful, because some of the delegates to it will be sent by governments possess- ing power to carry into effect any reforms of the necessity of which their representatives may be- come convinced. Delegates are to be sent to it from the United States by various scientific, collegiate and other corporate bodies. At the last session of this con- gress (held in Vienna, Austria) about 2,000 mem- bers were present. HYLID./E, the family to which the tree-frog be- longs. See Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 796. HYMNS. For the general history of hymns and hymnody, see Britannica, Vol. XII,p.577. In Amer- ica comparatively little has been done in this field. Having the literature of England to draw from, there has seemed to be little need. Some of the productions of Bishop Doane, Dr. Miihlenberg, Mr. Thomas Hastings, Mr. Edmund H. Sears, Mrs. S. E. Miles, and Dr. Ray Palmer will, however, compare favorably with those of other countries. Among modern American hymn-writers may be mentioned Bishops Goxe and Burgess, and Dr. Crosswell, of the Protestant Episcopal church; Drs. W. Hunter, T. O. Summers, and T. H. Stockton, of the Methodist, and Dr. S. F. Smith, of the Baptist churches; L. W. Bacon, E. Nason, and Professors Mead and Rice, of the Oongregationalists; and the Presbyterians have Drs. Robinson, Hatfield, Hitchcock, Schaff and Eddy. The popular Gospel Hymns fall under no denominational head. They gave currency to the productions of P. P. Bliss, Fanny Crosby (Mrs. Van Alstyne), and many others. Formerly our collections for public worship were largely com- posed of British hymns, but of late years hymns born on American soil occupy larger and larger places in the hymnals. More attention is being paid to hymnology, and the improvement in this department of knowledge and worship is already apparent. HYPER./ESTHESIA (Gr. hyper, “over,” aisthesis, “a sensation),” in the general sense of the word, denotes an excessive excitability of the parts of the nervous apparatus which have to do with sensation. Abnormal sensibility to pain is, however, more cor- rectly called hyperalgia, or hyperalgesia. See Touon, in Britannica, Vol. XXIII, and NEURALGIA, Vol. XVII. In this condition, as in ticdouloureux, the slightest stimulus may cause a paroxysm of pain, even a current of air, 01 a noise bringing on an attack; while, in hyperzesthesia of the special senses, flashes of light may be seen, sounds may be heard, and even smells and taste experienced, in the absence of any objective cause. Of the diseases predisposing to hypheraesthesia, hysteria is far the most frequent. The treatment is that of the morbid change on which it depends; but the local applica- tion of anodynes, ice, or warm poultices, and some- times the use of electricity, may diminish the patient’s suffering for the time. HYPERBOREANS (dwellers beyond the north Wind), a namegiven by the ancients to a mythical people suppose to dwell in the extreme northern parts of the world. As the favorites of Apollo, they enjoyed an earthly paradise and everlasting youth and health. In the modern science of anthropol- ogy, the term Hyperboreans is sometimes used to designate certain people, who dwell in the north- east of Asia and the northwest and north of North America, and who cannot be classed either with the Indians or the people of the Asiatic plateau. HYPERICACEZE, or HYPERICIN/E, a natural order of about three hundred species, trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, widely distributed and in very different climates, but particularly numerous HYPNOTISM—HYPOSTATIC UNTON in North America The species of Vismia yield a substance resembling gamboge. Many of the Hy- pe/dcaceze belong to the genus Hypericum. HYPNOTISM (from the Greek hypnos, sleep), a condition of mental insensibility to some sense im- pressions combined with excessive sensibility to other impressions, and total absence of self-con- sciousness. It is similar to somnambulism, but is artificially induced. In order to hypnotize a per- son the hypnotizer or “mesmerizer” concentrates the attention of the subject upon some bright ob- ject of vision, as a shining piece of glass, or upon the operator’s eye, while the operator makes a few gentle strokes over the subject’s hair from the top of the head to the front, or makes some passes with his hand before the eyes of the subject. Some mes- merizers merely fix their eyes firmly and steadily upon the subject’s eyes, while they hold the subject by the hands. Each hypnotizer has his own par- ticular method of producing the hypnotic state. When a person becomes hypnotic he gradually loses the sense of taste, touch and color. He can- not distinguish between hot and cold, nor between white and black, etc. Next, the forms of objects become indistinct, and can no more be distin- guished. Lastly, the eyes become immovable, and nothing is seen even if the eyes are open. But, curious enough, the ear never sleeps. The subject hears and believes everything said by the operator, and finally performs every act the operator com- mands him to do. Magnets have often been used as aids in bringing about the hypnotic condition, especially permanent horse-shoe magnets of steel. They were apparently quite efficacious. But a French mesmerizer made lately wooden horse-shoe magnets of the same size and shape as the steel magnets, and painted them exactly like the genuine ones. Upon making his strokes and passes with these pseudo-magnets he was able to produce the hypnotic state in sensitive subjects just as easily as with steel magnets. This proves clearly that magnetism has nothing to do with hypnotism, and that it is merely the belief of the person operated upon, and the submission of a weak will to a powerful will, that brings about the hypnotic effect. A parallel case taken from the lower animals is reported by Professor J. Czermak, of Leipzig, in the “Popular Science Monthly, ” of September, 1873, pp. 618-27. He there relates the following incident: Athanasius Kircher, of Fulda, a celebrated savant and Jesuit, tied the feet of a hen together with rib- bon, and laid the animal on the ground, where, after many cries and violent struggling, it became quiet. 'Then Kircher drew on the floor a chalk line diago- :nally from one eye of the hen to the other, loosened the ribbon; and the hen, although left perfectly free, remained immovable, even when he attempted to rouse her. Kircher attributed this immovability to the force of the hen’s imagination. Professor Gzermak repeated the experiment first by tying a hen’s legs with a ribbon and making a chalk line on the floor, as Kircher had done. It succeeded. Then he held down a hen’s neck and head upon a table, until the frightened bird became -quiet,and drew a chalk line on the dark surface of the table, beginning at the end of the hen’s beak, and left the hen after this entirely free. Although breathing heavily, she remained motionless on the table, and even allowed herself to be turned over upon her back. Lying on her back she remained quiet until the close of the lecture during which the experiment had been performed. Afterwards Professor Czermak performed the same experiment with wild hens, geese, ducks, turkeys, and even with a timid, unruly swan ; and in 877 every case he dispensed with the use of a chalk line, and also with the ribbon around the bird’s feet. It consisted simply in holding down the neck and head of the bird fast upon the table,until the bird became quiet and convinced that all its struggling to escape was fruitless. The subject must be convinced that it has found its master. Professor Heidenhain conducted numerous ex- periments with medical men and students as his sub- jects. He found that, in the first or last profound stage of hypnotic sleep, the subject on being awak- ened can remember all that has happened during that sleep. On awakening from the second or more profound stage, the patient can only partially recol- lect what has happened; while, in the third or most profound stage. all power of subsequent recollection is lost. During the most profound stage he hears sounds and sees sights, etc.(that is, the power of sen- sory perception remains), without knowing that he hears the sounds and sees the sights, and he can therefore afterwards not recollect the impressions of sounds heard or sights seen. He is like a man whose attention is absorbed or distracted. The less pro- found stages of hypnotism are paralleled by the con- dition of reverie. in which a passing sight or sound, although not particularly noticed at the time, may be subsequently recalled by an effort of will. Heidenhain also found that, even when all mem- ory of what has passed during the hypnotic sleep is absent on awakening, it may be aroused by giving the subject a clew—just as in the case of a for- gotten dream. This clew may consist of a single word. Again, he found that actions which have been previously rendered mechanical by long habit, as piano-playing, can in the hypnotic state be performed automatically upon the command of the hypnotizer. When Heidenhain held his fist be- fore the subject’s face the subject immediately per- formed a like movement; when he opened his hand, the subject did the same. Awakening from the hypnotic sleep may be effected by suddenly blowing upon the face of the subject, slapping the hand forcibly, screaming into the ear, or by any sudden change in the stimula- tion of the subject’s nerves. For further informa- tion on the subject of hypnotism the reader is re- ferred to l\.[AGNETISM, ANIMAL, Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 277-83. and APPARITIONS, Vol. II, p. 205. HYODONTID./E, a family of fishes represented by the toothed herrings or moon-eyes. HYOGANOID./B, an order of fishes represented by the Aznioidei and Lepidostoz'dei. See Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 687, 688. HYPNUM, a genus of mosses belonging to the order Bryineze. Archegonia and capsules are borne on special lateral branches. The sexual organs are formed in August and September, and the capsules take from ten months to a year to ripen. Many species are remarkable for their beauty. and are often used for decorative purposes. Their distri- bution is universal. See Musonxn.n, Britannica, "01. XVII, pp. 70-73. HYPOGHABRIS, a genus of plants of the natural order Composz'ta*, of which one species, H. radirata, is common in meadows and pastures in Britain. Its rough leaves spread on the ground, and resem- ble in form those of the dandelion ; the stem is branched; the flowers are like those of the dande- lion, but smaller. HYPOCYOLOID, a curve whose course is gener- ated by a point in the circumference of a circle rolling on the concave side of a fixed circle. HYPOPHOSPHITES, potassium, sodium calcium combined with hypophosphorous acid. HYPOSTATIG UNION, a union of natures or substances so intimate as to constitute one undi- and 878 vided person. The term is used to describe the mysterious union of the divine and human natures in Christ. See MONARCHIANISM, Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 719. HYPOSTASIS, the Greek term used to designate the distinct subsistence of the three persons of the Trinity. HYPOSU LPHITE, a salt of hyposulphurous acid. See Britannica, Vol. XXII, p. 636. HYPOSULPHUROUS ACID, called also HYDRO- snnrnnnous Acm, is obtained by the reduction of sulphurous acid. See Britannica, Vol. XXII, p. 636. HYPOTHECATION, the mortgaging or pledging of property or goods to raise money for some criti- cal emergency. HYPOTHEN USE, the name of that side in a right-angled triangle which is opposite to the right angle. The well-known property of the hypothe- nuse, that the square described on it is equal to the sum of the squares described on the other two sides, is proved in the forty-seventh proposition of the first book of Euclid. HYPOTHESIS, a supposition ; a proposition sup- posed, or taken for granted, in order to draw a con- HYPOSTASIS—HYRIA clusion or inference for proof of the point in ques- tion. HYPOXANTHINE, called also Sancmn or SAB- KINE, a white crystalline powder found in the spleen, liver, muscles and other organs of man and in the spleen and blood of the ox. HYRACEUM, a blackish-brown viscid material, not unlike soft pitch, found in the crevices of the rocks of Table Mountain, Cape of Good Hope. It has an offensive taste, and is not unlike castoreum, for which it has served as a substitute in medi- cine. HYRACIDJE, the only existing family of the order Hyracoidea, of small size and rabbit-like form; the “cony” of the Bible. Hyrax Sinaiticus is the best known species. HYRACOTHEBIUM, a genus of fossil ungu- lates, established in 1839 by Owen for a small Eocene animal about the size of a hare, to which he afterwards gave the name of Pliolophus. HYRIA, or HYRIUM, an ancient city of Calabria in South Italy, spoken of by Herodotus as the me- iéiéopglis of the Messapians, also mentioned by ra o. 879 I IABADIUS-—lDAHO IABADIUS, a large fertile island in the East In- dies, described by Ptolemy. It was said to be near the Golden Chersonesus, and it produced much gold and grain. It is now thought to be indentical with Java, but Humboldt took it to be Sumatra. IACCHUS (Gr. Luccnos), a name for the god Dionysus at Athens and Eleusis. On the sixth day of the Eleusinian Mysteries a decorated statue of Iakchos was carried from Athens to Eleusis, where the votaries were initiated into the last myste- ries. Some think that Iacchus is identical with the Roman Bacchus, the son of Zeus and Semele. IBAGUE, or IBAQUE, a town of the United States of Colombia, in the department of Cundinamarca, 70 miles west of Bogota. Population, 6,000. IBEBA, or YBERA, a cluster of marshy lakes in the province of Corrientes, Argentine Republic, between the rivers Parana and Uruguay. IBERVILLE, D’ PIERRE LE MOYNE, SIEUR, founder of Louisiana, born at Montreal, Canada, July 16, 1661, died at Havana, Cuba, July 9, 1706. He en- tered the French navy as midshipman when 14 years old. In 1690 he was one of the leaders in the retalia- tory expedition against Schenectady. In October, 1694, he captured Fort Nelson, on Hudson Bay. In 1696 he took nearly all of Newfoundland from the British, whom he defeated in the naval fights of 1697. In March, 1699, he entered the Mississippi River, and ascended it as far as the mouth of the Red River. He then built old Fort Biloxi at the head of Biloxi bay. This was the first post estab- lished in Louisiana. After going to France and re- turning to Louisiana in 1701 he found the settle- ment reduced by disease, and thereupon trans- ferred it to Mobile, thus beginning the colonization of Alabama. He also occupied Dauphin or Mas- sacre Island. After being made captain of a line- of-battle ship, he captured, in 1706, the island of Nevis from the English. He was suddenly struck with a malady of which he died. IBSEN, HENRIK, poet and dramatist, born at Skien in South Norway, March 20, 1828. In 1842 he was apprenticed to a chemist at Grimstad, but abandoned that business to devote himself to literature. His earlier efforts were of little im- portance. tiania University, but did not remain to complete the course. After two years of journalistic work he was appointed director of Ole Bull’s theater at Bergen, for Which he wrote _The Banquet at Solhaug, (1856), and Lady Inger at Ostrat (1857), his first works of note. In 1857 he undertook similiar duties for the national theater in Christiania. His next dramas, The Warriors in Helgoland (1858), Looe’s Comedy (1862) and The Rival Kings (1864), placed him in the first rank of Scandinavian dram- atists. He left Norway in 1864, and has lived abroad since that time, chiefly in Rome, Dresden and Mu- nich. The Norwegian Parliament granted him a pension in 1866. In that and the following year appeared the lyric dramas, Brand and Peer Gynt, in many respects the finest things he has done. Other Works are: The Young Men’s League; Emperor and Galilean; Pillars of Society; A Doll’s Home; Ghosts, An Enemy of the People; The Wild Duck; Rosmersholm and The Lady from the Sea. His later plays aroused a storm of controversy in England in 1889, as they In 1850 he became a student in Chris- . had done shortly before in Germany and in the Scan- dinavian countries. An English translation of Ibsen’s prose works in 4 vols. was edited by Mr. 5Aggcher in 1890. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. ICELAND. Our latest information from Iceland is to Feb. I, 1892. Since 1387 the King of Denmark has been the acknowledged sovereign of Iceland. The island has its own constitution and adminis- tration under a charter dated January 5, 1874, by which the legislative power is vested in the Althing, which is composed of thirty-six members, of whom thirty are elected by the people and six appointed by the crown. The highest local authority is the governor or stiftamtmand. At the head of the administration is a minister appointed by the King of Denmark. This minister resides at Copenhagen and is responsible to the Althing. ICHTHYODORULITE (Gr. FISH-SPEAR Sronn), the name given to fossil fish spines, not uncommon in stratified rocks. ICICA, a genus of plants of the natural order Bnrseracew. The species are mostly natives of South America. I. altissima, the Guiana cedar- wood, attains a great size, and is valued by the Indians for making canoes. It is also used by cabi- net-makers in the construction of bookcases, its odor protecting the books from being injured by insects. Another species, I. heptaphilla, yields a balsam similar to elemi. ICY CAPE, a headland of Alaska, discovered by Cook in 1778. Lat. 700 21' N.; long. 161° 46' W. IDAHO SPRINGS, a post-town of Clear Creek county. Col., on the Colorado Central Railroad, 34 miles west of Denver. It is surrounded by beauti- ful scenery, and is well known for its hot and cold mineral springs, which attract a large number of visitors in summer. Gold and silver are found in the vicinity. IDAHO, STATE or. For general article on IDAHO see Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 697, 698. Idaho is an Indian word, meaning “Gem of the Mountains.” The first white man known to have set foot upon its territory was Captain Lewis, of Lewis and Clarke’s expedition. He crossed the main range of the Rocky Mountains from Horse Plains (Horse Prairie),Beaver Head county, Montana, Aug. 12, 1805. The Missouri Fur Company in 1810 estab- lished a trading post on Snake River, but soon abandoned it. Fort Hall was established as a trad- ing post by a party of traders under Nathaniel I. Withe in 1834. Gold in paying quantities was dis- covered in Idaho in 1860 by Captain James Pierce of Washington Territory, and the first location was on Oro Fino Creek. The first permanent settle- ment was made at Mount Idaho in May, 1861. Idaho was created a Territory by act of Congress March 3, 1863. and admitted as a State J u y 3, 1890. Its territory was originally taken from parts of Dakota, Nebraska, and Washington Territories. Later the Territories of Montana and Wyoming were organized by act of Congress, subtracting from Idaho large portions of its territory and re- ducing its area to 84,800 square miles, as ofiicially reported in the census of 1890. Idaho extends from the British Possessions on the north to Utah and Nevada on the south, a distance of about 410 miles, 880 and has a width from'oast to west of from 44 to 306% miles. The population in 1880 was 32,610; in 1890, 84,385, an increase during the decade of 51,775. Its capi- tal and chief city is Boisé City. - The following figures give the population of the State by counties, as shown by the census of 1890: Counties. 1890. 1880. crlersllse Ada ................................... . . 8,368 4,674 3.694 Alturas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,629 1,693 936 Bear Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,057 3,235 2,822 Bingham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,575 . . . . . . . . 13,575 Boisé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,342 3,214 128 Cassia ................................. . . 3,143 1,312 1,831 Custer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,17 . . . . . . . . 2,176 Elmore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,870 . . . . . . . . 1,870 Idaho ................................. . . 2,955 2,031 924 Kootenai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,108 518 3,590 atah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,173 ...... . . 9,173 Lemhl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,915 2,230 . . . . . . . . Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 . . . . . . . . 4,169 Nez Perce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,847 3,965 . . . . . . .. Oneida ................................ .. 6,819 6,964 ...... .. Cwyhee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 2,021 1,426 595 Shoshone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,382 469 4,913 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,836 879 2,957 84,385 32,610 Of the rugged mountains of the Bitter Root, Rocky and Wasatch ranges,the Bitter Root occupy the northern, the Rocky the central, and the Wa- satch the southern links in the eastern boundary. The “spurs” of these ranges, especially the Wasatch, extend well over into Idaho, and they contain some of the best mineral belts. Their highest peaks reach altitudes reaching from 9,000 to 13,000 feet. On the south and southwest are the Owyhee Moun- tains, which form an important link in the great divide between the waters of the Columbia and those of the Humboldt. The Sawtooth, Salmon River, Wood River and Boise are among the prom- inent mountain ranges in Central Idaho. On the ‘Nest are the Blue Mountains of Oregon and VVash- ington. The interior of the State is a vast plateau, varying in altitude from 600 feet above the sea in its lowest valleys to 10,000 on the tops of its highest peaks. The average elevation is from 2,000 to 3,000 feet less than that of I/Vyoming, Utah, Nevada or Colorado. Its numerous mountain ranges run in a variety of directions, the trend of the principal ones, however, being southeast to northwest. In the interior ranges are the mineral belts, which first attracted general attention to the territory. The figures showing the principal elevations have been tabulated as follows: Name. F6839‘ Feet. Albion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,400 Alturas Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,600 American Falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,320 Atlanta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,525 Bear Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,900 Bellevue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,200 Blackfoot City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,523 Bloomington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,985 Boisé City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.800 Big Camas Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 Big Can1as Prairie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,500 Bonanza City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,400 Burke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,900 Camas Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.722 Coeur d’Alene Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,280 Craig Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,080 Custer Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,760 IDAHO” Name. lfilgga" Feet. Caribou Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,854 Centerville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,825 Challis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,400 Clawson Toll Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,300 Custer City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,560 Dry Creek Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,689 Eagle Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . .. 4,720 Estes Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,050 Fort Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,783 Fort Lapwai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,000 Franklin City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..‘. . .. 4,516 Florida Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,750 Florence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,000 Fish Haven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,932 Forks of L010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,450 Gentile Valley (head) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,245 Galena City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,900 Gladiator Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,700 Henry Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,443 ' ey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,350 Idaho Cit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,263 Junction Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,329 Jackson Lake . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,806 Ketchum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,700 Lewis ton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Lake Pend d’Oreille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,003 Lake Coeur d’Alene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.150 Long Valley . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3.700 Murray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,750 Malad City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,700 Market Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,795 Mont elier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.793 Mout of Port Neuf River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,522 Mount Idaho City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,480 Montana Mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,500 Meade Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,540 Malad Divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,220 Oneida Salt Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,300 Oneida (town) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,700 Oxford .. . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..' . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,862 Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,836 Pocatello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,512 Paris Peak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..‘ . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,522 Placerville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,100 Putnam Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,933 Quartzburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,115 Rathdrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000 Ross Fork Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,394 Red Rock Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,792 Rock Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,513 Rocky Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,200 Red Fish Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,600 Sawtell’s Peak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 070 St. Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,937 St. Geor e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5771 Salmon ‘ity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,030 Soda Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,779 Silver City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,680 Sawtooth City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,000 Shoshone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,587 Summit, between Challis and Bonanza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,100 Summit, between Boisé City and Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,815 Summit, between Idaho City and Centerville . . . . . . .. 4,812 South Mountain City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,450 Salmon Falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3.226 War Eagle Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,980 Weston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,600 W eiser City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,340 Idaho has numerous and rapid rivers. With the exception of a comparatively small portion of southeastern Idaho, whose waters flow into the Ba- sin of Great Salt Lake, the river system is entirely tributary to the valley of the great Columbia Riv- er. There are three important rivers in Idaho which empty directly into the Columbia—namely, the Spokane, Clark’s Fork, and the Snake. Snake River meanders through the eastern, southern and western parts of the State for over 1,000 miles, and, next to Niagara, boasts the most imposing cataract on the continent—the great Shoshone Falls. It rises among the most marvelous scenes of the Yel- lowstone National Park, within a few feet of the crystal founts from which springs that great tribu- tary of the Mississippi, the Yellowstone, and with- _ in sight of the headwaters of that-grand inlet of the Gulf of California—the Rio Colorado. -Here, at its ‘ IDAHO romantic start, the Snake is also only a day’s ride from its twin torrent of the North, Clark’s Fork, but soon sweeps southward 500 miles, as if to gather in the waters of wider and richer fields. Again, flowing majestically northward to markthe boundary between Idaho and Oregon, it umtes, when within 400 miles of the Pacific, with the Clark’s Fork system to form the Columbia. Sound- ings of the Snake River in eastern Idaho, near the crossing of the Utah Northern Railway, fail to dis- cover bottom at 240 feet. Governor Shoupin, in his report for 1889, says that conservative estimates give Idaho 13,000,000 acres of agricultural lands. Others place the amount at 20,000,000. It is safe to estimateit at 15,000,000 to 16,000,000 acres. Industrious pioneers have already brought under cultivation about 4 per cent.,or 600,- 000 acres, expending $2,000,000 in irrigating canals alone. The altitude of the land governs, to a large ex- tent, the character of its productions. The valleys of Bear Lake, Lemhi, and Custer counties are prof- itably cultivated at an elevation of 6,000 feet above tide water, and at 5,000 feet, oats, wheat, potatoes, turnips, etc., are raised abundantly. Timothy and a few hardy grasses flourish at these altitudes. At 4,000 to 4,500 feet all kinds of grain and vegetables are profitable, except a few tender garden prod- ucts. In some localities fruit is grown success- fully at 4,000 to 4,300 feet, and berries are abundant at 4,500._ The Boisé Valley, so prolific of all kinds of fruit, is 2,800 feet above the ocean, while the val- leys of the Clearwater and Snake rivers, near Lewiston in the northwest, with an altitude of but- 680 feet, revel in tropical vegetation. Thus Idaho, in addition to its invaluable mineral wealth, pos- sesses a share of the best climatic influences of ev- ery portion of the Union. The soil in the valleys and on the plateaus, in the eastern and southern parts of the State, is com- posed of vegetable matter mixed with mineral, and, in some localities, with sand and clay. On this class of soil sage-brush grows extensively. In the northwestern counties, dark loam of great depth prevails. In the gulches and near the mountains the soil is mixed with decayed rock. Alkali soil is limited to narrow strips, in widely separated local- ities, and rarely interferes with agriculture. The yield of all kinds of cereals, when land is irrigated, is most gratifying, and is not surpassed by any State or Territory. The same can be said of all kinds of vegetables, while in many parts of the State tender vines produce abundantly. Fruits are excellent in quality and flavor. Apples, pears, peaches, plums, prunes, apricots, grapes, and all small fruits and berries are raised in great abun- dance. Huckleberries, gooseberries, and wild cherries grow wild in profusion on the mountain- sides and foot-hills. The camas, which gives a name to several prairies in the State, is found in all sections. It is a bulb which is highly prized by the Indians for food. Alternating and nestling among the mountain ranges are many valleys, large and small, affording in the aggregate a vast area of agricultural lands not exceeded in fertility by any in the world. The arable portions of the valleys lie from 600 to 6,000 feet above the sea, and they range in size from one to twenty miles in width, and from twenty to one hundred miles in length. Traversing southern Idaho is the extensive vol- canic belt on the basin of Snake River. This basin stretches far into neighboring territories, being 800 miles in length. In Idaho it averages about fifty miles in width. Some of the best valleys traverse it, but it is more noteworthy as the great winter 881 razing region of Idaho and adjacent territories. ts nutritious herbsand grasses fatten thousands of cattle and sheep annually. Idaho is in the same latitude as France, Switzer- land, and portions of Italy, Spain and Portugal. It is subject to oceanic influences very similar to those countries, and necessarily has a somewhat similar climate. All this region is near enough to the Pacific Ocean to be very noticeably effected by its currents. By reference to any map whereon these ocean currents are shown, it will be seen that the great Japan current (Kuro Siwa)-that mighty stream of warm water-bears directly against the western shores of America. The temperature of the winds blowing over it is, of course, affected by its heat, and they carry their modifying influences inland hundreds of miles, even extending their ge- nial influences upon the climate of Montana. The average or mean annual temperature at Lewiston- in northern Idaho—is 56°, a milder showing by five degrees than is made by Ohio, milder by ten de- grees than Iowa, and milder by twelve degrees than Maine and New Hampshire. Boisé City, in western central Idaho, with a much greater altitude than Lewiston, has an average temperature of 51°. the same as Ohio, and four degrees warmer than Con- necticut.* At this writing (1891) mining is a very large in- dustry in Idaho. The total value of the metals produced in the State since 1862 is reported at $157,720,962,84. The statistical returns, for the ten years closing with 1889, were as follow: 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,634,637.19 1881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,915,100.00 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,500,000.00 1883 .................................................. .. 000,000.00 1884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,500,000.00 1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,755,602 00 1886 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,679,500 00 1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,245.589.00 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,905,136.00 1889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 344,600 .00 Total for 10 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..74,480,164.09 The rapid increase of the mining industry in this new State will be specially noted. The values of the several metals mined in 1889 were: Gold, $3,204,500; silver, $7,563,500; lead, at 4 cents per pound, $6,490,000; copper, at 10 cents per pound. $85,600; total, $17,344,600. VVool-growing in the State is also largely on the increase. In 1880 there were about 50,000 sheep in Idaho; in 1888 the number was over 350,000. Other industries also show large progress. By the act of February 18, 1881, Congress granted to Idaho seventy-two sections of public lands for school purposes, under certain restrictions. These, with the 3,000,000 acres of school lands (sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections) allowed under the gen- eral law, form the basis of a sound, substantial school system. The reports of 1889 showed a total to date of 337 school districts, with 365 schools, and a school population of 18,506. The Methodists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Catholics have also established academic schools and numerous private schools; some of a high grade of excellence are reported. The following is a list of the Governors-, with their dates of service: Wm. H. Wallace . . . . . .. 1863-64 John P. Hoyt . . . . . . . . .. 1875-76 Caleb Lyon . . . . . . . . . . .. 1864-66 Mason Brayman . . . . . .. 1876-80 David W.B_allard . . . . .. 1866-67 John N. Irwin . . . . . . . .. 1880-84 Isaac L. Gr1bl)S . . . . . . . . . 1867-68 Edw. H. St-evens0n.. . . 1884-88 David W. Ballard . . . . .. 1868-70 George L. Shoup ..... .. 1888-90 G1lman Marston . . . . . .. 1870-71 Norman B. Willey... . .*l890-93 Thomas W.Bennett.... 1871-75 * Term expires J an. 1, 1893. The salary of the Governor of Idaho is $3,000. *For a list of the mineral springs and pleasure resorts of Idaho, see those topics in these Revisions and Additions. 2-19 882 IDDESLEIGH, EARL OF, an English statesman, better known as SIR STAFFORD N ORTHCOTE, born in Devonshire, Oct. 27, 1818, died in London, Jan. 12, 1887. He was educated at Eton and at Oxford, and began puplic life in 1843 as private secretary to Mr. Gladstone. In 1847 he was called to the bar, and four years later succeeded his grandfather as eighth baronet. In 1855 he entered Parliament as Conservative member for Dudley, was elected for Stamford in 1858 and in 1866 for North Devon, rep- resenting the latter constituency until 1885. He was financial secretary to the treasury in Lord Derby’s ministry of 1859, and in 1866 was appointed by the same prime minister president of the board of trade. While at the India office in 1868 Sir Staf- ford N orthcote had charge of the Abyssinian expe- dition, which under his management was carried to successful issue. In 1871 Mr. Gladstone appoint- ed him British commissioner to the United States for the adjustment of the Alabama difiiculty. He was chancellor of the exchequer in 1874, and when Mr. Disraeli went to the Upper House Sir Stafi'ord succeeded to the leadership in the Commons. In 1885 he was raised to the peerage and appointed first lord of the treasury. He was foreign secre- tary in Lord Salisbury’s second ministry, but re— signed the post a few days previous to his death. IDE, or In, a small fresh-water cyprinoid fish, Leuciscus idus or I dus melanotus of Europe. Its flesh is esteemed. A domesticated variety, colored like i(:)he gold-fish, is known in northern Europe as the rfe. IDEALISM, the modern philosophical doctrine Which maintains that all conceptions proceed from self-consciousness as distinguished from the doc- trine that all knowledge begins with sensations. It is the opposite of “realism” and “sensationalism ;” for it denies the reality of the outer world and its impressions, and maintains that all our knowledge finds its starting ground in abstract conceptions. The idealist doubts the existence of an external world,and relies solely upon an analysis of self (Ego). SUBJECTIVE IDEALISM makes the innate faculties of the human mind the primary subject of investi- gation, and predicates a philosophical system from their intuitions and relations. MonEEN IDEALISM started with Descartes (1596— 1650), was pushed forward by Baruch Spinosa 1632-1677), and was carried to extreme conclusions by Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753). The latter declared that the supposed existence of a material world was not only incapable of proof, but was also posi- tively false. Idealism was borne to its highest vis- ions and most perfect realizations in German . The most noted philosophers of this school are . IV.‘ Leipnitz (1646-1716), Immanuel Kant (1724- 1804), Fichte (1762-1814), F. W. J. Schelling (1775- 1854), and G. W. F. Hegel (1770-1831). Kant, how- ever, insisted that the material of our thoughts is in the external world. IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG, astronomer and chronologist, born near Perleberg. in Prussia, Sept. 21, 1766, died Aug. 10, 1846. After holding various offices he received a professorship at the University of Berlin in 1821. He was author of several valu- ableworks, which include Historische Untersuchun- gen ilber die astronomischen Beobachtungen der Alten (Leipzig, 1806), andHandbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825-26). IDIOCY. See INsANI'rY, in these Revisions and Additions; also Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 95-113. IDIOSYNCRASY, a peculiarity of physical or mental constitution or temperament. See ANTIP- ATHY, in these Revisions and Additions. IDUN, or IDUNA, the name of a goddess of Norse mythology. She was the daughter of the dwarf IDDESLEIGH-——ILLICIUM Svald, but, being received among the ]Esir, she be- came the wife of Bragi. IGLOOLIK, an island near the east end of Fury and Hecla Strait, in the Arctic Ocean, the place where Parry passed the winter of 1822-23. IGNATIEFF, NIooLAUs PAULOVITCH, a Russian diplomatist, born at St. Petersburg, Jan. 29, 1832, and educated in the corps of pages. In 1849 he en- tered the guard, and in 1856 exchanged from the military to the diplomatic service. Appointed mil- itary attaché of the Russian embassy at London, he won the emperor’s approval by a report on Eng- land’s military position in India, and was in 1858 sent on a special mission to Khiva and Bokhara. In 1860, as ambassador at Peking, he negotiated a treaty advantageous to Russian interests. From 1864 he represented Russia at Constantinople, and in 1867 was made ambassador there, in which capac- ity he took a principal part in the diplomatic pro- ceedings before and after the Russo-Turkish war of 1878. After the accession of Alexander III. Igna- tieff was appointed minister of the imperial do- mains, and in 1881 succeeded Prince Loris Melikoff as minister of the interior. In this capacity he en- deavored to stamp out Nihilism by forcible meas'- ures. He was dismissed from ofiice at the end of the year. IGNORAMUS (Lat., we do not know), the word formerly written by a grand-jury on the back of an indictment, meaning that they rejected it. The word is now used most commonly as a synonym for a blockhead. IGNORANCE (Ignorantia juris) is held in law to be no excuse for any breach of contract or duty, nor for crime or other offense. It is absolutely necessary to start with this basis; otherwise, it would be quite impossible to administer the law, for if once a contrary maxim were allowed it would offer a premium to ignorance and would lead to endless and abortive inquiries into the interior of a man’s mind. Ignorance of a fact is a different thing. In the case of petty offenses, however, and even in crimes, a judge always takes into consider- ation, when passing judgment, whether the pris- oner or defendant is an ignorant or intelligent per- son. Another kindred maxim of the law is that every man intends the consequences of his own act. Thus, if he shoot at or give poison to a person it is presumed he intended to kill such person. So, if he leave a trap-door open in a street or thorou h- fare it is held he intended that people should all into it and be injured. IKROPA, or IxIoI>A, a river of Madagascar, about 270 miles long, rising in the province of Ankova, and falling into Bembatooka bay, on the north- west coast. It is navigable for about twenty-five miles from the sea. ILICIN, the bitter principle of the holly, llex aquifolium. It forms in yellowish-brown crystals, , and is extremely bitter. ILION, a thriving village of Herkimer county, N. Y., on the Mohawk River. Here is located a factory where firearms, type-writers, sewing-ma- chines and farming implements are made. ILIXANTHIN, a yellow coloring matter con- tained in the leaves of the holly. It is used for dyeing cloth prepared with alumina or iron mor- dants. ILLICIUM, a genus of trees of the natural or- der Magnoliaceae. The species are few, but widely distributed. The seeds of I. anisatum (Chinese anise) are useful in medicine; and I. religiosum is held sacred by the Japanese. I. floriclanum, a tall evergreen shrub with large flowers and leaves rather fleshy, and I. paroiflorum, are found in the south of the United States. ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY-ILLINOIS ILLINOIS INDUSTRIAL UNIVERSITY (since July 1, 1885, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS), at Urbana,. capital of Champaign county, was established under acts of Congress of July, 1862, and July, 1866, and under acts of the legislature of Illinois Jan. 25, Feb. 28, and March 8, 1867, to“ teach in the most thoroughmanner such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in- cluding military tactics, and not excluding other scientific or literary studies.” The University was opened in 1868, and three years later women were admitted as students. It includes the following colleges and schools: College of agriculture and horticulture; college of civil, mechanical and min- ing engineering, and architecture ; college of natural sciences, chemistry, and natural history; college of literature and art; school of military science; and school of industrial art. The assets of the Univer- sity are about $1,000,000, with an income of about $25,000. ILLINOIS RIVER, the largest stream in Illinois, formed by the Des Plaines and Kankakee Rivers, which unite in Grundy county, and flow southwest, entering the Mississippi a few miles above Alton. The main stream is about 350 miles in length, and is navigable in favorable seasons as far as Peru, a distance of 250 miles. It is connected by canal with the lake navigation at Chicago. ILLINOIS, STATE OF. For early history, ov- -ernment, productions and earlier statistics 0 Il- linois, see Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 703-06. The census of 1890 reports the area as 56,650 square miles. Population, 3,826,351; capital, Springfield, with a population of 24,842. The population- of the State by counties in 1890 was as follows: Counties. 1890. 1880. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,888 59,135 ‘ Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,563 14,808 Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14,550 14,866 Boone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,203 11,508 Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,951 13,041 Bureau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,014 33,172 ‘Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,652 7 .467 Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 .320 16,976 ~Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,963 14,493 -“Champaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42,159 40,863 Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,531 28,227 Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,899 21,894 ' lay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,772 16,192 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,411 18,714 Coles . . . . . . . . . . .g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,093 27,042 ‘C001; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,191,922 607,524 Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,283 16,197 Cumberland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,443 13,759 De Ka-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27,066 26,768 De Witt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,011 17,010 -Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,669 15,853 Du Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,551 19,161 Edgar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,787 25,499 Edwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,444 8,597 Eflingham. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , . . . . . . . . . . 19,358 18,920 ‘Fayette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,367 23,241 Ford .................................... . . 17,035 15,099 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,138 16,129 Fulton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.110 41,240 Gallatin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,935 12,861 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,791 23,010 Grundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,024 16,732 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,800 16,712 Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,907 35,337 Hardin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,234 6,024 ‘Henderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,876 10,722 Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,3? 36,597 Iroquois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,16 35,451 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,809 22,505 Jasper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,188 14,515 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,590 20,686 Counties. 1890. 1880 Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 .810 15,542 J o Daviess . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,101 27,528 Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,013 13,078 Kane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65,061 44,939 Kankakee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,732 25,047 Kendall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,106 13,083 Knox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38,752 ,344 Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,235 21,296 La Salle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80,798 70,403 Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,693 13,663 Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,187 27,491 Livingston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,455 38,450 Lo an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,489 25,037 McDonough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,467 27,970 McHenry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,114 24,903 McLean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53,036 60,100 Macon... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.083 30.665 Macoupm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,380 37,692 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,535 50,126 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,341 23,686 Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,653 15,055 Mason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,067 16,242 Massac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,313 10,443 Menard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,120 13,024 Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,545 19,502 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,948 13,682 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,003 28,078 Morgan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32,636 31,514 Moultrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,481 13,699 Ogle , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,710 29,937 Peona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,378 55,355 Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,529 16,007 Piatt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,062 15,583 Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,000 33,751 Pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,016 13,256 Pulaski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,355 9,507 Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,730 5, Randolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,049 25,690 Richland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,019 15,545 Rock Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41,917 38,302 Saint Clair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66,571 61,806 Saline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,342 15,940 Sangamon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,195 52,894 Schuyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,013 16,249 Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,304 10,741 Shelby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,191 30,270 Stark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,982 11,207 Stephenson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,338 31,963 Tazewell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,556 29,666 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,549 18,102 Vermilion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,905 41,588 Wabash... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,866 9,945 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,281 22,933 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,262 21,112 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,806 21,291 White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,005 23,087 Whiteside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,854 30,885 Will . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62,007 53,422 Williamson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,226 19,324 Winneba o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39,938 30.505 Woodfor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,429 21,620 The cities having a population of 9,000 and over were: Alton, 10,184; Aurora, 19,634; Belleville, 15,360; Bloomington, 22,242; Cairo, 10,044; Chicago, 1,098,576; Danville, 11,528; Decatur, 16,841; East St. Louis, 15,156; Elgin, 17,429; Freeport, 10,159; Galesburg, 15,212; Jacksonville, 12,357; J oliet, 27,407 ; Moline, 11,995; Peoria, 40,758; Quincy 31,478; Rockford, 23,589; Rock Island, 13,596; Springfield, 24,852; La Salle, 9,904; Ottawa City, 9,971. The city of Chicago, which ranked, in re- spect of population, as the 5th city in 1870 and the 4th city in 1880, is now the 2d city in the United States. The State reported a population by decades as follows: in 1810, 12,282; in 1820, 55,162; in 1830, 157,455; in 1840, 476,183; in 1850, 661,470; in 1860, 1,711,951; in 1870, 2,539,891 ; in 1880, 3,077,193; in 1890, 3,826,351. 884 The complete list of governors of the State, with their dates of official service, is as follows: TERRITORIAL. N inian Edwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1809-1818. STATE. Shadrack Bond . . . . . . .. 1818-22 Richard Yates . . . . . . . .. 1861-65 Edward Coles . . . . . . . .. 1822-26 Richard J . Oglesby.... 1865-69 Ninian Edwards . . . . . .. 1826-30 John M. Palmer . . . . . .. 1869-73 John Reynolds . . . . . . .. 1830-34 Richard J. Oglesby. . .. 1873 Joseph Duncan . . . . . . .. 1834-38 John L. Berldve. 1873-77 Thomas Carlin ...... .. 1838-42 Shelby M. Cu1lom..... 1877-83 Thomas Ford . . . . . . . . .. 1842-46 John M. Hamilton... .. 1883-85 Augustus 0. French... 1846-53 Richard J . Oglesby. . .. 1885-88 Joel A.1\Iatt1son....... 1853-57 Joseph w. Fifer ..... ..*1888—93 William H. Bissel1.... 1857-60 *Term expires Jan. 19,1893. Illinois was the second State in rank in the United States in the production of steel in 1880 and in 1890, Pennsylvania being the first. increase during the decade was 241 per cent. The production in 1880 was 254,569 tons; in 1890 it was 868,250 tons. The number of pupils enrolled in the public ‘ schools of the State in 1890 was 778,319, a gain of 10.55 per cent. in ten years. In addition to those in the public schools there were 105,232 pupils in private and parochial schools. In the latter there were reported about 47,000 Catholic, 24,000 Lutheran, 4,000 German Evangelical pupils and small num- bers of Protestant Episcopal, Holland Christian Re- formed, Dutch Reformed and German Presbyterian children. The State reform school is located at Pontiac, and reported, in 1890, 383 inmates. The coal products of the State in 1890 were 12,104,272 tons, valued at $11,755,203, and were near- ly double the products of the year 1880. The coal area of the State embraces about 37,000 square miles. The employes during 1890 numbered 24,323; the wages aggregated $8,694,347, and the grand total of expenditures in the coal business in that year amounted to $10,366,069. The coal is bituminous and is found in 19 counties; it is used for steam and heating purposes. Coke is manufactured in Gallatin and La Salle counties. In the value of the output of sandstone the State ranked 12th in 1880 and 25th in 1891—the State of Ohio in both cases ranking the highest of all the States. . Illinois is a small producer of petroleum, the out- put being 1,400 barrels in 1889, all of it ranking as lubricating oil. . ILMENIUM, a name given by R. Hermann to an element which be supposed to be present in ore found in the Ilmen mountains in Siberia; he also supposed it to be present in some other minerals. His conclusions have not been admitted by other chemists. ILMINSTER, an ancient market-town of Somer- setshire, England, on the river Isle, eleven miles southeast of Taunton. The church in Ilminster is a noble example of perpendicular architecture. Some manufactures of ropes, bricks and tiles are carried on. Population of parish (1881), 3,281. ILSLEY, EAST, or MARKET ILSLEY, a market- town of Berkshire, England, situated amid bleak downs, nine miles north of Newbury and six and a half miles south of Didcot. Its sheep markets are among the most important in the kingdom. Popu- lation, 577. Archbishop de Dominis (see Britannica, Vol. VII, p. 355) was rector of West Ilsley, two miles northwest. Population, 377. IMITATION: in the science of musical composi- ‘tion, the repeating of the same passage, or the fol- lowing of a passage with a similar one,in one or more of the other parts or voices, and it may be In Illinois the ILMENIUM-IMMIGRATION either strict or free. When the imitated passage is repeated note for note, and every intervalis the same, it is called strict, and it may take place in the unison or octave, or in any other of the degrees of the scale, either above or below the original passage. Canon (see Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 82) is strict imitation carried on to some length. The progression of a passage may also be imitated by an inversion, or by reversing the movement of the orilginal, also by notes of a greater or of a lesser va ue. IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES- OF AMERICA. For general article on this sub- ject see EMIGRATION, Britannica, Vol. VIII, pp. 173- 177'; and UNITED STATES, Vol. XXIII, pp. 731, 754- 821. The official returns made to the commissioners. of immigration at the ofiice of the superintendent up to June, 1891, furnish the data for the following figures: The nationality of immigrants to the United States for the year ending June 30, 1890, was as fol- lows: Germans, 92,427; English, 57,020; Irish, 53,024; Italians, 52,003; Swedes, 29,632; Scotch, 12,041 ; Norwegians, 11,370; Danes, 9,366; Swiss, 6,993; French, 6,585; Europe, not specified, 112,764 ; total—Europe, 443,225; all others, 12,077. Of the whole number of immigrants who arrived within the above-named period, 364,086 came through the; customs district of New York, 27,178 through Balti- more, 29,813 through Boston, 22,658 through Phila- delphia, and 11,567 through all others. The reported occupations of immigrants who ar- rived during the year ending June 30, 1889, were as follows: Laborers, 110,809; farmers, 28,962; serv- ants, 30,220; carpenters, 4,373; miners, 5,505; clerks, 4,005; tailors, 3,809; shoemakers, 2,065 ;. blacksmiths, 2,185. The total number of profes- sional immigrants was 2,815; of skilled laborers, 50,457 ; of miscellaneous, 182,394. ‘ The following are the yearly official summaries since and including 1820: - Total Total Year. Immigrants. Year. Immigrants. 1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,%5 1858 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119,501 1821 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,127 1859 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118,616 1822 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,911 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150,237 1823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,354 1861 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 ,724~ 1824 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,912 1862 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89,007 1825 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,199 1863 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174,524 1826 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,837 1864 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193,195 1827 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,875 1865 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247, 3 1828 _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,382 1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163,594- 1829 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22,520 Fiscal year ending June 30. 1830 .................. .. 23,322 1 67 .................. . . 29 1831 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,633 1868 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282,18 1832 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60,482 1869 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352,569 1833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58,640 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387,203 1834 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65,365 1871 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321,350 1835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,374 1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404.806 1836 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76,242 1873 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459,803 183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79,340 1874 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313,339 1838 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,914 1875 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227,498 1839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68,069 1876 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169,98( 1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84,066 1877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141,85 1841 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80,289 1878 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138.469 1842 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104,565 1879 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177,826» 1843 .................. .. 52,496 1880 .................. .. 457,25 1844 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78,615 1881 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669,431 1845 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114,371 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788,992 1846 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154,416 1883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603,322 1847 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234,968 1884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518,592 1 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226,527 1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395,346 1849 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297,024 1886 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334,203 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369,986 1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490,109 1851 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379,466 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546,889 1852 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371,603 1889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _444,427 1853 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368,645 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 ,302 1854 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 ,833 --——— 1855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200,877 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,381,009- 1856 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195,857 From 1789 to 1820, es- 1857 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 246,945 timated . . . . . . . . . . . 250,000 In the above table immigrants from the British North American Possessions and Mexico are not. included since July 1, 1885. IMMIGRATION With regard to insane persons, the new immigra- tion law says that “ all idiots, insane persons, pau- pers, or persons likely to become a public charge, shall be excluded from admission into the United States.” This provision is a reénactment of the law of Aug. 3, 1882, which provided that “no con- vict, lunatic, idiot, nor any person unable to take care of himself or herself, without becoming a pub- lic charge, shall be permitted to land.” Now, there is ample proof that since 1882 hun- dreds of persons have gained admission who ought to have been excluded according to the last-men- tioned act. They were shipped to this country from Europe by the authorities of cities and towns, or by so-called benevolent societies. By the same agencies convicts have also been sent to us. A convicted murderer, Nicholas Bader, arrived at the port of New York on April 23, 1891, having been shipped to America by the authorities of a town in Germany, where he had been confined in prison for one year and in an asylum for the insane for 24 years. This case is now under the consideration of the Treasury Department. In a similar way European city and town authorities have for years unloaded paupers and lunatics upon the taxpayers of this country, and especially upon those of the State of New York. In Austria, many persons con- victed of crime have been given the alternative of either going to prison or emigrating to Amer- ica. Since 1884 the Board of Charities of the State of New York has sent back to Europe more than 600 lunatics, imbeciles, and feeble-minded persons who had been shipped to America by the authorities of their native cities or towns, by immigration socie- ties. and “ benevolent ” organizations, often also by relatives, guardians, and friends. Two-thirds of these persons entered the State by way of the port of New York. They were afterwards found in the asylums, hospitals, and almshouses of the State. In many cases they had come with through tickets to interior towns, where they at once became pub- lic charges. In many instances the senders of such persons even selected the asylum or almshouse in this State to which they should be consigned. Of the 600 persons sent back to their homes in Europe there was no complaint made in any single instance by the authorities into whose charge they fell after their return home. This shows that the action of th; dBoard of Charities had been proper and jus- ti e . According to ofiicial statements the number of insane persons in the institutions of the State of New York were on Oct. 1, 1880, 9,537, and on Oct. 1, 1890, 16,022. This is an increase of 6,485 persons in 10 years, or 68 per cent. In the same 10 years the increase of the population of the State was only 18 per cent. It is therefore the belief of the Board of Charities——and this belief is based upon close in- quiries—that by far the greater part of this in- crease is due to the shipment of insane persons to this State from the countries of Europe. No attempt to enforce the law of 1882 on the Ca- nadian boundary has been made, nor was it effect- ively enforced at the seaports. But there is a commendable energy shown to enforce the new law at the seaports, and especially at the port of New York, where the evasion of the former law has im- posed so heavy a burden on the taxpayers and Board of Charities. In view of the bearing the new Congressional act has upon the general question of immigration, as well as in view of the relief which it promises to bring to the country from the perils incident to indiscriminate and unrestricted immigration, we make room for full text of the act which is as follows: 885 AN ACT in amendment to the various acts relative to immigra- tion and the importation of aliens under contract or agree- ment to perform labor, Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress Assembled, That the fol- lowing classes of aliens shall be excluded from admission into the United States, in accordance with the existmg acts regulating immigration, other than those concerning Chinese laborers: All idiots, insane persons, paupers or persons like- ly to become a public charge, persons suffering from a loath- some or a dangerous contagious disease, persons who have been convicted of a felony or other infamous crime or mis- demeanor involving moral turpitude, polygamists, and also any person whose t1cket or passage is paid for with the money of another or who is assisted by others to come, un- less it is afiirmatively and satisfactorily shown on special in- quiry that such erson does not belong to one of the fore- going excluded c asses, or to the class of contract laborers excluded by the act of February twenty-sixth, eighteen hund- dred and eighty-five; but this section shall not be held to ex- clude persons living in the United States from sending for a relative or friend who is not of the excluded classes under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may pre- scribe: Provided, That nothing in this act shall be construed to apply to or exclude persons convicted of a political offense, notwithstanding said political offense may be des- ignated as a “felony, crime, infamous crime, or misdemeanor, involving moral turpitude” by the laws of the land whence he came or by the court convicting. SEC. 2. That no suit or proceeding for violation of said act of February twenty-sixth, eighteen hundred and eighty-five, prohibiting the importation and migration of foreigners un- der contract or agreement to perform labor, shall be settled, compromised, or discontinued without the consent of the court entered of recorded with reasons therefor. SEC. 3. That it shall be deemed a violation of said act of February twenty-six, eighteen hundred and eighty-five, to assist or encourage the importation or immigration of any alien by promise of employment through advertisements printed and published in any foreign country; and any alien coming to this country in consequence of such an advertise- ment shall be treated as coming under a contract as contem~ plated by such act; and the penalties by said act imposed shall be applicable in such a case: Provided, This section shall not apply to States and immigration bureaus of States advertising the inducements they offer for immigration to such States. SEC. 4. That no steamship or transportation company or owners of vessels shall directly, or through agents, either by writing, printing, or oral representations solicit, invite or encourage the immigration of any alien into the United States except by ordinary commercial letters, circulars, ad- vertisements, or oral representations, stating the sailings of their vessels and the terms and facilities of transportation therein; and for a violation of this provision any such steam- ship or transportation company, and any such owners of ves- sels, and the agents b them employed, shall be subjected to the penalties impose by the third section of said act of Feb- ruary twenty-sixth, eighteen hundred and eighty-five, for violations of the provision of the first section of said act. Sac. 5. That section five of said act of February twenty- sixth. ei hteen hundred and eighty-five, shall be, and hereby is. amen ed by adding to the second roviso in said section the words “nor to ministers of any re igious denomination, nor persons belonging to any recognized dprofession; nor pro- fessors for colle es and seminaries,” an by excluding from the second pro so of said section the words “or any relative or personal friend.” SEC. 6. That any person who shall bring into or land in the United States by vessel or otherwise, or who shall aid to bring into or land in the United States by vessel or other- wise. any alien not lawfully entitled to enter the United States, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, on conviction, be unished by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars, or yimprisonment for a_ term not exceed- ing one year, or by bot such fine and imprisonment. SEC. 7. That the oflice of superintendent of immigration is hereby created and established, and the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 1s authorized and directed to appoint such ofiicer, whose salary shall be four thousand dollars per annum, payable monthly. The superin- tendent of immigration shal be an officer in the Treasury Department, under the control and supervision of the Secre- tary of the Treasury, to whom he shall make annual reports in writing of the transactions of his oflice, together with such special reports, in writing, as the Secretary of the Treas- ury shall require. The Secretary shall provide the superin- tendent with a suitable furnished ofiice in the city of Wash- ington, and with such books of record and facilities for the discharge of the duties of his oifice as may be necessarv. He shall have a chief clerk, at a salary of two thousand dollars per annum, and two first-class clerks. SEC. 8. That upon the arrival by water at any place within the United States of any alien immigrants it shall be the duty of the commanding officer and the agents of the steam or sailing vessel by which they came to re ort the name, na- tionality, last resi ence, and destination 0 every such alien, before any of them are landed, to the proper inspection oili- cers who shall thereupon go or send competent assistants on board such vessels and there inspect all such aliens, or the inspection ofificers may order a temporary removal of %6 such aliens for examination at a designated time and place, and then and there detain them until a thorough inspec- tion is made. But such removal shall not be considered a landing during the endency of such examination. The med- ical examination s all be made by surgeons of the Marine Hospital Service. In cases where the services of a Marine Hospital Surgeon cannot be obtained without_ causing un- reasonable delay the inspector may cause an alien to be ex- amined by a civil surgeon and the Secretary of the Treasury shall fix the compensation for such examination. The in- spection ofiicers and their assistants shall have power to ad- minister oaths, and to take and consider testimony touching the right of any such aliens to enter the United States, all of which shall be entered on record. During such inspection after tern orary removal the superintendent shall cause such aliens to be properly housed, fed, and cared for, and also, in his discretion, such as are delayed in proceeding to their destination after inspection. All decisions made by the"in- s ection ofiicers or their assistants touching the right of any a ien to land, when adverse to such right, shall be final un- less appeal be taken to the superintendent of immigration, whose action shall be subject to review by the Secretary of the Treasury. It shall be the duty of the aforesaid officers and agents of such vessel to adopt due precautions to re- vent the landing of any alien immigrant at any place or time other than that designated by the inspection officers, and ‘IMMIGRATION ‘any such officer or agent or person in charge of such vessel who shall either knowingly or negligently land or ermit to land any alien immigrant at any place or time ot er than that designated by the ins ection oflicers, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor an punished by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars, or by imprisonment for a term not ex- ceeding one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment. That the Secretary of the Treasury may rescribe rules for inspection along the borders of Canada, ritish Columbia, and Mexico so as not to‘obst_ruct or unnecessarily delay, im- pede, or annoy passengers in ordinary travel between said countries: Provided, that not exceeding one inspector shall be appointed for each customs district, and whose salary shall not exceed twelve hundred dollars per year. All duties imposed and powers conferred by the second section of the act of August third, eighteen hundred and eighty-two, upon State commissioners, boards, or officers acting under contract with the Secretary of the Treasury shall be performed and exercised, as occasion may arise, by the inspection oiiicers of the United States. SE0. 9. That for the preservation of the peace and in order that arrests may be made for crimes under the laws of the States where the various United States immigrant stations are located, the officials in charge of such stations as occa- sion may re uire shall admit therein the proper State and municipal o cers charged with the enforcement of- such I £41 " l I:'1| \ Ill?! illi- '_ ill!!l!II~!l ii I I ll illlllk M . ‘ ii ll (ID i i Q I .. ‘°* '1‘ .l ‘ 1 -_-__ i I r:L_—- 7;_'.~ A . I. _ _-.__ -_—-——-— :-mx-:>:- lllll. _ ~= lililllllt 1 I m i" ill ""i“|“~'iigi!%iii!ii!iih l \ j llllllv i"“'i‘i 1| ill l||l|!!!'l i I, ,~-‘i ,~i:~i.,, l :mm||||:,. ,. .. ii|"‘|ii ,2 ii Mill!!! ,i|!l|'ii- llillil it W . "iii. ~.. ‘aim UH = - “aha”, L! . llliilifi ‘:i:L;‘!:_: élizlizizii I ~, W {lit lillliliiIl%{:}Iii%y""m%mn!!H!|[!ili‘....Hi! . ~ llllllitfll "~im: , .. ! ‘ |l!i|!!!l!li 4l‘::‘.l;:'...'|I~ I 2 illli!!l—i!l!!l!!!!!—;; hu- lllL iiiiiiiimlii .» --"-e‘-1 . §l!!_.l‘.-1!!-lll ill I_ W ' I i||_| ll I Elli W! a Penn Inn 6n 7. ...... .5 9 lllliililiil \\‘%\ laws, and for the purposes of this section the jurisdiction of such officers and of the local courts shall extend over such stations. SEO. 10. That all aliens who may unlawfully come to the United States shall, if practicable, be immediately sent back on the vessel by which they were brought in. The cost of their maintenance while on and, as well as the expense of the return of such aliens, shall be borne by the owner or own- ers of the vessel on which such aliens came; and if any mas- ter, agent, consignee, or owner of such vessel shall refuse to receive back on board the vessel such aliens, or shall neglect to detain them thereon, or shall refuse or neglect to return them to the port from which they came, or to pay the cost of their maintenance while on land, such master, a ent, con- signee, or owner shall be deemed guilty of a mis emeanor, and shall be punished by a fine not less than three hundred dollars for each and every offense; and any such vessel shall not have clearance from any port of the United States while any such fine is unpaid. SEC. 11. That any alien who shall come into the United States in violation of law may be returned as by law provid- ed, at any time within one year thereafter, at the expense of the person or persons, vessel, transportation company, or corporation bringing such alien into the United States, and ' the revisions of this act; and this act shal 001'-I'll!!! ML 8! H1811‘ if that cannot be done, then at the expense of the United States; and any alien who becomesa public charge within one year after his arrival in the United States from causes existing prior to his landing therein shall be deemed to have come in violation of law and shall be returned as aforesaid. SEC. 12. That nothing contained in this act shall be con- strued to affect any prosecution or other proceeding, crimi- nal or civil, begun under an existing act or any_acts hereb amended, but such prosecut on or other proceedings, crim - nal or civil, shall proceed as if this act had not been passed. SEC. 13. That the circuit and district courts of the United States are hereby invested with full and concurrent ]l1l'1SdlO- tion of all causes, civil and criminal, arisin under an; of go into e ect on t e first day of April, eighteen hundred and ninety-one. Approved, March 3, 1891. ‘ The sub'oined chart, repared by Rev. F. W. Hewes, of Michigan (‘author of Sam‘ ner’s Statistical Atlas of the United States, Showing by Graphic Methods the Present Condz'tz‘ohof Their Polttz'cal Social and Industm'al Development), furnishes, in a graphic form, instructive statistics of immigration to ilsgige United States during the decade ending with the year 0. ~ IMPANA/l‘ION—IMPROVISATORS Norns on THE CHART BY REV. A. W. HEws.—Periodicity.- The culminating years of the East decade are 1882 and 1888, as indicated in the diagram y the general trend of the charting lines. The chief causes producing fluctuations in the stream of immigration are undoubtedly the comparative condi- tions affecting labor in this country and that from which the immigrant comes, and it is remarkable that a knowled e of favorable or unfavorable conditions becomes so quick y and generally known in the laboring communities of the Old World, from which the mass of immigration flows. Look at the chart and see how true it is that the principal European countries reduced their exodus very greatly in 1883. The two exceptions are Italy and Hungary, and in the following year Hungary and Russia. What else than the let- ters to friends in the old country can give the impulse that increases or decreases this living t1de? How these chart lines portray the judgment of foreign peoples as passed upon labor conditions here! At the same time these chart lines serve to compare the various labor conditions of Europe. Since 1883 the Russian linelshows a constant increase, indicating that, whatever the contemglating immigrants from other countries may have believe to be to their advantage or disadvantage, those in Russia have seen advantage on y, and have continued to come in undiminished numbers to a country which they be- lieved would give them better conditions. The year 1890 fur- nishes two other examples of the same kind; for while most countries decreased their contribution to our population, Italy and Hungary greatly increased theirs. Increase.—It needs but a brief study of the chart lines to see that the three countries which are at present most per- sistent in their increase are the three just noted: viz., Italy, Russia and Hungary. The sons, clerks, miners, carpenters and joiners, and tailors. Of the unskilled or “miscellaneous” occupations 38 are re- orted, ranging from three “bird dealers” to 139,365 laborers. thers reporting at over 2,000 each are: 3,437 peddlers, 6,707 merchants, dealers; 28,625 servants (of which number Ire- land sends 10,113), and 29,296 farmers (of which number Ger- many sends 8,469. Amon the more numerous “professional occupations” are reporte 491 clergymen, 578 musicians, 261 physicians and surgeons,484 teac ers, 109 sculgtors, 158 lawyers, 105 engra- versé 271 artists,169 actors, an (the least number) 5 in- gu1s s. One of the surprises coming to many who examine the chart will be the discovery that England alone (not even in- eluding Wales) has, since 1885, sent a larger number of immi- grants than Ireland. Afew points showing what occupations these two nation- ali ties bring with them are given: 2 . <11 . 3 - e,__, 22 6 :2 E 3 2’ Country. Sr'£?I’1a’e1d 5:13 Clerks. 3 3 322 3 ~ GU13"-' "Q9 <3 odu "“ Z5 *2 cl 7; Q jg E o as 2 England 10,189 598 1,142 509 621 964 1,143 Ireland . . . . . . . 2,524 179 428 45 153 300 192 Total . . Country. Pr0feSSi0n&1_ Teachers. Phys1c1ans. Clergymen. England. 958 152 83 160 Ireland. . 184 32 22 78 m 0 3;; . . <1? new a 2 Es c6 ‘,3: ea 2 :6 H Country. 3:3‘ 3 Q -3.2 Servants. E Q) (D H Q H 6 O 2! <3 Q Q) Q .23 R4 -1 .46 ‘,2 England . . . . . . . . . . .. 18,719 2,452 10,563 1,207 3,042 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . .. 30.436 1,525 18,194 229 10,113 Chinese.-—-The act excluding them became effective August 6, 1882. Between June 30,1882 (the beginning of the fiscal year 1883 , and August 6, 6,613 of the 8,031 landed on our shores. ince 1883 their record ranges from 10 in 1887, to 279 in 1884, but in 1890 jumps to 1,716, of which 1,221 reported as merchants. Italian line has almost met the Irish line. The Rl1SS18J1 above both the Norwegian and Scotch. 887 _Germans.—As stated in the title of the chart, the German hne is not shown, because it would require such a great 1n- crease in height of the diagram. The German average for the decade has been (in round numbers) 145.000 (double that of either English or Irish), while in 1882 the number was 250,630, and in 1886 it was 84,403. Like the records of other desirable immigrants, that of the Germans has since 1888 shown a decrease, the figures beginning with 1888 bemg 109,717, 99.538 and 92,427. Italian-s.—-The total Italian immigration for the five years 1876-80 was 28,270; for the five years 1881-85 it was‘I09,320; and for the fi_ve years 1886-90 it was 196,549. These figures refer to the continental immigration alone which the chart line por- trays. The insular (Sicily and Sardinia) for the three genods named was _420, 184, and 1,256 or 1,869, for the whole fteen_ years, of wh1ch 1.146 came in the three years 1888-90. (If this 1nsular immigration were added to the continental 1t would not move the chart line a hair’s breadth except in 1888-90, and 1n those years its movement would be almost im- perceptible.) . Hang_arians.—Previous to 1880 less than 1,000 er year. Russmns.—Previous to 1880 about 5,000 annua ly. Swedes.-—Previous to 1879 about 5,000 annuall . . . . . Y ' Occupatwns.——Of the total lmmigratlon of 1890 (455,302),- 194,653 had no occupation, 44,540 were skilled operators, 211,- 756 _unsk1lled or “miscellaneous,” 3,236 were reported as having “(professional occupations,” and 1,117 as “occupation not state .” The Ofiicial Report specifies 102 skilled industries. The number belonging to each of these industries ranges from 3 “iron puddlers” to 3,879 “tailors.” The eight reporting over 2,000 each are, in numerical order IMMIGRATION STATISTICS. The total arrival of immigrants in theUnited States from foreign coun- tries, other than British North America and Mex- ico, during the year ending June 30, 1891, amounted to 560,319, against 455,302 during the preceding fis- cal year, an increase of 105,017. The following ta- ble shows the number and nationalities of immi- grants arrived in the United States during the years ending June 30, 1890 and 1891: Country of Last Per- manent Residence or 1890 1891 Increase. Decrease. Citizenship. England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57,020 53,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,420 Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53,024 55 .706 2,682 . . . . . . . . . . . . Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ,O41 12,557 516 . . . . . . . . . . .. Great Britain, other. . . 669 448 . . . . . . . . . . .. 221 Total Great Britain and Ireland . . . . . . .. 122,754 122,311 . . . . . . . . . . .. 443 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92,427 113,554 21,127 . . . . . . . . . . . Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52,003 76,055 24,052 . . . . . . . . . . . . Russia and Poland.. . . . ‘,671 74,923 28,252 . . . . . . . . . . . . Austria-Hungnry . . . . . . 56,199 71,042 14,843 . . . . . . . . . . . . Sweden and Norway.. . 41,002 49,448 8,446 . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Europe . . . 32,169 36,652 14,393 . . . . . . . . . . . . China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,716 2,836 1,120 . . . . . . . . . . . . All other countries. . . . 10,361 13,498 _ . . . . . . . . . .. 6,773 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 455,302 560,319 105,107 . . . . . . . _ . . . . Including tourists and immigrants there was an increase in arrivals of 94,376, or more than 22 per cent. over the previous year. The arrivals during the first four months of the present fiscal year (end- ing Oct. 31, 1891) have been'189,778, an excess of 40,595, or of more than 27 per cent. over the cor- responding months of 1890. This extraordinary and progressing increase in the tide of alien immi- gration to the United States, which does not in- clude the increased arrivals via Canada, has not failed to attract the attention of the whole country, and it will doubtless command the early considera- tion of Con ress. IMPRO ISATORS, poets who, without previous preparation, compose on a given theme, and who sometimes sing and accompany the voice with a musical instrument. The talent of improvisation is found in races in which the imagination is more than usually alert, as among the ancient Greeks, the Arabs and in many tribes of negroes. Down to the present day the performances of, improvisators constitute a favorite entertainment of the Italians. Women have frequently exhibited this talent in a high degree. %8 IMPUTATION, a common technical expression in Christian theology. It denotes the transference of guilt or of merit, of punishment or reward. The doctrine of the imputation of sin, for example, is that all mankind are sharers in the fact and conse- quences of Adam’s fall from innocence, and the correlative doctrine of the imputation of Christ’s righteousness is that the merit or righteousness of Christ is transferred to those who believe in Him; in other words, that they become sharers in His righteousness. . IN ARTICULO MORTIS (at the moment of death), a legal phrase used in connection with the execution of deeds by persons at the point of death. IN CARNATION , a term used in theology to de- note the union of the Divine nature of the Son of God with human nature in the person of Christ. See JESUS CHRIST in these Revisions and Additions ; also Britannica, Vol. VIII, pp. 656-672. IN CLINED PLANE, THE, is reckoned one of the mechanical powers because a man may, by rolling it up a plane, raise a weight, which he could not lift. The figure ABD represents an inclined plane, AD is the plane properly so called; DB the height of the plane, BA its base, and BAD the angle of inclination or elevation, The power necessary to sustain any weight on an inclined plane is to the weight as the height of the plane to its length; or as DB to DA. Hence a force which would, if applied 1) B A ver-tically, just lift 300L pounds will keep a rolling mass of 780 pounds in position upon a smooth in- clined plane,'whbse' gradient is five (height) in thir- teen (sloping length); and a force exceeding this would pull the mass up the slope. In every prac- tical case, however, there is a certain force expend- ed in overcoming friction, even on a dead level; in railway trains this is equivalent to vertically lift- ing about 50 pounds for every tonof dead weight; and when a train leaves a level run to go up a slope of, say, one in eighty, the engine has for every ton of weight to do work equivalent to vertically lifting fifty pounds plus one-eightieth of a ton, or seventy-eight pounds instead of the former fifty. IN CCENA DOMINI, a celebrated papal bull, which, with additions and modifications at various times, dates back to the Middle Ages. Its present form, however, is received from Popes Julius II, Paul III, and, finally, in 1627 from Urban VIII, from which year it continued for a century and a half to be published annually on Holy Thursday. _ It is a summary of ecclesiastical censures against heresy, schism, sacrilege, etc. It also denounces piracy, plunder of shipwrecked goods, and forgery. This bull encountered in the seventeenth century the opposition of nearly all the courts, and in 1770 Clement XIV, discontinued its publication. INCOME TAX, a tax levied in some countries on income. During and following the civil war, the United States Government levied (from 1861 to 1872) a tax on incomes at the following rates: Dat- ing in 1862, incomes under $5,000 a year the tax was 5 per cent. (exempting $600 and paid house-rent) ; on incomes of $5,000 and not over $10,000, 7% -per cent. and on those over $10,000,10 per cent. without exemptions. There were several modifications: in 1865 the exemption limit was fixed at $1,000, and in 1870 at $2,000. In 1872 the income tax in the United States was abolished. In the United Kingdom the IMPUTATION—JNDIA rate of income tax in 1890 and 1891 was rated as follows: In the £ Schedule A, lands, tenements, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 0 6 Schedule B, occu iers of farms, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 0 8 “ Scot and and Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 0 2% “ Nurseries and market gardens . . . . . . .. 0 0 6 Schedules C, D, and E, income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 0 6 If under £150, exempt; if under £400, the tax is not charge- able upon the first £120. INC UMBEN T, the rector, parson, or vicar holding I an ecclesiastical benefice. INDEBTEDNESS OF FOREIGN NATIONS. The figures and facts here given (and designed to present a comparative view of the indebtedness of nations in 1890), have been compiled from the de- tailed statements .and reports furnished by the proper financial ofiicers of the United States, as col- ated and published in the census bulletins of 1890. N 0 special report from Spain and Mexico, and from some of the Southern States had been received up to the date of sending these pages to press. In some cases where an increase of the indebtedness of a nation is shown, such increase is due to aid given to private corporations, or the direct expen- ditures in the constructions of railways or other public improvements. the value of which improve- ments may be equal to that of the expenditures therefor, or perhaps in excess, but of which no ac- count can well be taken in a summary of this character. (See table on following page.) To show changes in the debt in any country be- tween the two periods in question it has been found necessary to adopt a like standard of value for each period, and for that purpose a nominal value in gold of the currency in which the debt was stated, has been used whenever known. Owing to the delay in making up the accounts some of the debts reported for 1890 were, in fact, for 1889, and in a few cases for 1888; but in every case the latest date for which a report of the debt has been re- ceived has been taken. See UNITED STATES, DEBT or, in these Revisions and Additions. INDENTURE, the technical name for a deed, under seal, entered into between two or more par- ties with mutual covenants. The edges were formerly indented, or notched, to correspond, for identification and security. Indentures of appren-' - ticeship refer to the contract between an apprentice and a master. INDEPENDENCE, a city and county-seat of Buchanan county, Iowa, on Wapsipincon River, 65 miles west of Dubuque. It has a State insane asy- lum, -three parks, expensive school-buildings. Pop- ulation in 1890, 4,120. - ‘ INDEPENDENCE, the county-seat of Montgom- ery county, Kan.,located on the Verdigris River, 134 miles, by rail, south of Lawrence. INDEPENDENCE, a city and county-seat of Jackson county, Mo., 10 miles east of Kansas City, and three miles from the Mississippi. It contains two colleges and several other institutions of learn- ing. It was formerly the headquarters of the over- land routes to New Mexico, Oregon and California. Population in 1890, 6,373. _ INDIA. For general article on this great Brit- ish empire, giving in extenso its geography, history, government, productions, commerce and earlier sta- tistics, see Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 731-812. The present area of the empire, without reckoning in Baluchistan (130,000 square miles), which is to some extent dependent on, or feudatory to, India, reaches from the 8th to the 35th degree of north latitude, and from the 67th to the 100th degree of longitude east of Greenwich; Calcutta itself lying in 88° E. longitude. The areas of Cashmere, Mani- pur, and of the recently annexed province of Up- innnsrnnnnss or FOREIGN oounrsrns Debt Less Sinking Fund. Debt Per Capita. Names of Countries. 1880. 1890. 1880. 1890. -Argentine Re ublic .......................... ..' ................ .. $117,165,852 $284,867,069 $67.46 $70.40] Austria-Hungpary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,224,509,572 866,339,539 58.72 70.84 elgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 .276 380,504,099 49.32 63.10 Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,100,000 14,763,367 14.87 12.38 Brazil. . .. .. ..................................................... . . 445,225,984; 345,927 .83 41.80 -Chili . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85,762,665 85,192,339 37.56 31.96 Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ .............................. . . 14,706,679 63,451,583 3.79 16.36 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,613,982 33,004,722 13.95 1566 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,274,782,478 4,446,793,398 113.47 116.35 De egdencies—Africa. 2 827,900 0 81 a ascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , ............ .. . ’I‘unf,sg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,000,000 34,881,500 _ 12.33 23.25 German Empire (proper) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77,577,719 _ _ , , _ , _ , , _ , , , _ L57 States of Germany: Alsace-Lorraine ............................................ . . 3,937,265 3,837,373 2.51 2,39 Baden.. .'.. .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67,953,404 71,165,252 43.28 42.95 Bavaria ..................................................... . . 283,664,534 335,503,105 53.68 60.03 Bremen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,459,025 16,217,400 34-83 89-94 Brunswick... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,507 4,876,174 18.63 12.10 Hamburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,394,003 59,202,946 75.78 943:‘; Hesse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,167,826 7,562,763 6.59 7.60 Li pe.. . .. ................................................... .. 340 220,725 ass 1.72 Liiheck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,738,817 3,295,709 58.81 43.10 Mecklenburg-Schwerin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mecklenburg-Strelitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57,775 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 . . , _ . _ , , , _ _ _ _ _ Oldenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,257,787 9,211,095 27.43 25 . 95 Prussia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344,115,551 1,109,384,127 12.61 37.03 Saxe-Weimar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222,1 425,66 0.72 1.31 Saxony . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152,539,705 143,897,747 51.31 41.11 Schaum burg-Lippe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350, 150,000 9.89 3.83 Thuringian States: Reuss, E. B . . . . . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85, 70,687 1.69 1.13 Reuss, Y. B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176,319 ,540 1.74 0.53 Saxe-Al tenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150,968 158,853 0.97 0.93 Saxe Coburg-Gotha ...................................... . . 947,340 955,311 4.87 4.63 Saxe-Meiningen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,418 ,340 2,550,698 11.68 11.39 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521,550 743, 6.50 8.67 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806,919 842,631 11.35 11.16 Waldeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623,175 568,200 11.03 9.92 Wiirtemberg ...... . . . ........... . . . .......................... . . 91,564,500 107,735,500 46.45 52.93 Great Britain and Ireland . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,577,746,690 3,350,719,563 101.52 87.79 Dependencies— Asia: Ce lon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,750,000 11,184,400 0.63 8.86 In is. ..................................... . . . .............. .. 671,574,652 881,003,592 2.64 3.27 Africa: Cape of Good Hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55,034,660 110,817,720 48.40 77.56 Mauritius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 8,464,662 10.77 22.92 Natal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,132,180 22,028,424 19.72 45.76 America: Bermudas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41,864 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.69 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 175,194,000 237,533,212 40.51 47.51 Australasia and Oceanica: Fiji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678,800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.41 New South Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74,519,595 2%,289,245 99.17 214.87 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128,085,565 184,898,305 261.43 298.01 Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66,245,430 129,204,750 310.25 333.46 South Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,330,000 202,177,500 176.26 321.00 Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,683, 22,335,345 75.05 147.46 Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102,538,500 179,614,005 118.91 161.63 Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . .. -. . . . .. 1,692,161 6,509,736 56.96 150.23 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,079,492 107,306,518 25.80 ~ 49.06 Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,241,055 10,825,836 3.46 7.59 ayti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,223,263 13,500,000 28.36 14.06 Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388, 2,302,235 6.71 26.57 Honduras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,111,925 63,394,267 116.45 146.77 y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,014,237,932 2,324,826,329 70.78 76.06 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘ , 5 305 .727 .816 9.65 7.83 L1be_r1a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 .000 972,000 0.69 0.91 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117,193,728 113,606,675 11.83 9.98 Montenegro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740,200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.14 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382,440,317 430,589,858 95.31 95.56 Dependency-—Dutch East Indies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18,381,509 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.64 Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,711,206 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.28 Paraguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 ,392,000 19,633,013 966.42 59.56 Peru. . .. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265,050,000 382,175,655 98.06 145.77 Roumama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74,189,652 1 180,145,800 14.02 32.75 Russ1a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,318,953,000 491,018,074 38.85 30.79 Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78,885 6,013,300 4.78 9.05 Santo Domingo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,682,422 9,865,256 14.73 16.17 Servia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 000,000 60,811,330 4.19 30.20 Spa1n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,583,209,252 1,251,453,696 155.37 73.85 - Sweden and Norway: Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56,551,435 64,220,807 12.39 13.53 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,543,837 13,973,752 9.65 7.13 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,873,299 10,912,925 2.06 3.72 Turkey: Dependency-—Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1“, . . .. 491,520,600 517,278,200 89.08 75.88 Grand total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,481,572,185 25,636,075,840 34.14 889 8% per Burma, with its dependent Shan States, have never been surveyed. Cashmere, however, is esti- mated at 80,900 square miles, Manipur at 8,000, Up- per Burma at 90,000, and the British Shan States at 90,000. With these estimated figures, the total area of British India may be taken to be 1,648,944 square miles, of which 765,947 square miles are un- der native and the remainder under British admin- istration. The population of India, shown by the census in 1881, was 253,982,595; but this did not in- clude the figures for Cashmere, which in 1873 had a population of 1,534,972, or Manipur with its popula- tion of 221,070, or Upper Burma with its estimated population of 3,000,000, and the Shan states with their estimated population of 2,000,000. Adding in these totals, and allowing for a yearly increment of one-half per cent. to the census figures, the total population of British and feudatory India at the beginning of the year 1891 may be taken to be 273,533,000, of whom 211,936,000 are in British terri- tory. From Peshawar, the northern frontier sta- tion, to Cape Comorin, the distance is 1,900 miles, and the‘ same distance separates Kurrachee, the port of Sind, from Sudiya, the frontier post on the eastern border of Assam. The limit, yet unde- fined, of the states dependent on Upper Burma stretches even further to the east than Sadiya, while British influence in Baluchistan goes farther west than Peshawar. The province of Burma, in- cluding the country formerly independent, and now called Upper Burma, which was annexed to the Asiatic dominion earlyin 1886, lies to the east of the Bay of Bengal, and forms no part of the Indian Peninsula. The English dominion in India dates from 1600, when the first East India Company was incor- porated by Queen Elizabeth. The act establishing the authority of the British crown, and the “Proc- lamation to Princes, Chiefs, and Peoples of India,” that Her Majesty, Queen Victoria, assumed the government of all the territories of India, were dated Nov. 1855. It was not, however. till 1877 that the queen formally assumed the title of Empress of India. The home imperial government is in- trusted to a “ Secretary of State for India,” assisted by a council of not less than ten members, the ma- jority of whom must be persons who have served or resided ten years in India, and who have not left- India more than ten years previous to the date of their appointment on the council. The ofl‘ice is held for a term of ten years, and any vacancy is filled by the appointment of the “Secretary of State for India.” British India now (1891) embraces nine separate provinces, each under its own civil government, but subordinate to the general and supreme gov- ernment. The resident chief executive, the vice- royal governor-general, whose administration ex- tends over all the provinces, is appointed by the crown. His present annual salary is £25,000 ($125,000), with‘ additional allowance of about £12,000. His ordinary term of office is five years. The present incumbent (July 1, 1891) is the Mar- quis of Lansdowne, who assumed office Dec. 10, 1888. He is supreme in his executive. authority, but is assisted by an executive council of six mem- bers, including the commander-in-chief. Power is reserved to him of overruling his council; but all acts of the government run in the name of the “ Governor-General in Council.” This body, form- ing the supreme government in India, passes in review the entire administration in six separate departments-—Finance and Commerce, Foreign, Military, Public Works, Home, and the Department of Revenue and Agriculture. Each department is under the charge of a secretary, and is also the INDIA special care of a member of the supreme council, who has authority to deal with affairs of routine and minor importance, and to select what is worthy of the consideration of the governor-gen- eral and his collective council. The governor- general specially superintends the political busi- ness of the foreign office. The department of fi- nance and commerce looks to questions of finance, to stamps, excise; the postoflice, and anything in- volving a permanent charge on the state; also to questions bearing on tne-commerce of the country. The most important subjects coming under the at- tention of the department of revenue and agri- culture are the land revenue, forests, and the agri- cultural development of the country. The home department deals with the educational, medical, ‘ sanitary, ecclesiastical, judicial, municipalities, lo- cal government boards, police, and other matters, and has charge of the penal settlements of Port Blair and Nicobar. The foreign department con- ducts relations with Afghanistan, Nepaul, and other conterminous countries, and corresponds with the political agents of the numerous semi- independent native states of Rajputana and Cen- tral India, and with the residents of Mysore, Cashmere, Baroda, and Hyderabad. The marine service, as well as the army, is under the military department. The legal member takes charge of government bills in the legislative council, which consists of twelve members (besides the seven mem- bers of the executive council), of whom one-half must be unconnected with the public service. As only Bengal, Madras, Bombay, and the Northwest Provinces possess councils of their own, the legis- lative council of India legislates for those prov- inces which are unprovided with local councils, or on matters of exceptional importance afiecting the empire. Separate high courts have been established for the provinces of Madras and Bombay and for the lieu- tenant-governorship of Bengal (with jurisdiction also over Assam), and of the Northwest Provinces. The Punjaub has a chief court; the Central Prov- inces, Oudh and Mysore, have each a judicial com- missioner, and Burma has a judicial commissioner , and a recorder. The government of India is debited with the cost of the army for all India, with the interest on debt, and, generally, with all imperial as distinguished from provincial expenditure. Since the close of the record in the Britannica, Vol. XII, the list of governor-generals has been as follows, with date of appointment: Marquis of Ripon, 1880; Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, 1884; Marquis of Lansdowne, 1888. The native states of India cover an area of 766,000 square miles, and contain an estimated population of 61,000,000. The most important of native Pnnces In 1891 are mentioned in the following table: Princes. Sq. M. Pop. 1881. Revenue. Rx.* Nizam of Hyderabad . . . . . . . . . . . 81,807 9,845,594 3,130,000 Gaekwar of Baroda . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,570 2,185,005 1,523, Maharaja of Gwalior . . . . . . . . .. 29,067 3,115,857 1,434,000 “ of Mysore . . . . . . . . . . .. 24,723 4,186,188 1,329,000 “ of Cashmere . . . . . . . .. 80,000 1,534,972-I 700,000 “ of Travancore . . . . . . . 6,730 2,311,379 712,000 “ of J ai ur . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14,465 2,534,357 ,000 “ of In ore . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,402 1,055,217 611,000 “ of Patiala . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,887 1,467,433 479,000 “ of J odhpur . . . . . . . . . .. '37,000 1,750,403 408,000 Begum of Bho al . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,874 954,901 351,000 Takor Saheb 0 Bhawnagar.. . . 2,860 400,323 433,000 Raja of Kolha ur . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,816 800,189 312,000 Maharaja of B urtpur . . . . . . . . . 1,974 645,450 261,000 “ of Ulwar . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,024 682,926 207,000 “ of Oudipur . . . . . . . . . . . 12,670 1,494,220 258,000 -1- Rx. to 10 rupees, or about $5. INDIA--INDIAN AFFAIRS The names of the various provinces, as arranged at present, with their population, as reported at latest dates, are as follows: - P ‘ gm mw,;‘O.—1 Q6- ’-4E ' £03; : gorcl Q‘;-(E E ;_,,-Q5‘-< O *3 "9 C5 P6805 '4-t GP ®flH m A Q Q0 npfi w G5<:~<1> H mz sum 4 2mm 6 M A HN men @ bwm * W V V The present Nizam of Hyderabad was installed in 1884. Cashmere was granted to Gholab Sing by Lord Hardinge, after the First Punjaub War. His son and successor, Rumbir Sing, died on Septem- ber 12, 1885, and was succeeded by the present Ma- haraja, Pertab Sing, when also a British Resident Was appointed, and stronger pressure was brought to bear in favor of much needed reforms in the government. In 1889, in consequence of continued misgovernment, the Mahara'a was deprived of his powers, which were intruste to a native council, assisted by the advice of the resident. The most important recent act of the Indian leg- islation was a comprehensive act, passed in 1890, dealing with railways in that empire. Other acts dealt with probate and administration in India, with the charge of charitable endowments, with the law relating to guardians and wards, with In- dian cantonments, with the forests of Burma, and with tenant right, land revenue, sanitation, and lo- cal self-government in the Central Provinces. Leg- islation was also passed to make penal the disclos- ure of oflicial secrets, to prevent cruelty to animals, to raise the duty on imported spirits and to tax Indian-brewed beer, and, lastly, to indemnify cer- tain witnesses who had incriminated themselves, on the promise of indemnity, at the trial of a high government official in Bombay. In the year 1889-1890, the foreign trade of India increased beyond the totals of the previous year. During that year, excluding government merchan- 891 disc and treasure valued at Rs. 2,76,55,061, the for- eign seaborne trade of British India (excluding Aden and its dependencies, of which the trade may be stated at about 7% million tens of rupees) amounted to Rs. 1,89,25,82,000, or 5% per cent.above the total of 1888-89; of this amount Rs. 84,01,94,000 _ represent imports and the remainder exports. The imports of treasure increased to Rs. 17,46 lacs, and the exports to 1,90% lacs. All imports are free, excepting arms and ammu- nition, opium, liquors, petroleum oil, and salt. An excise tax on Indian-brewed beer is under consid- eration. The duty on petroleum oil of 6 pies per imperial gallon was introduced in 1888, and in 1889- 90 realized nearly 161/4, lacs. Notwithstanding the duty there has continued to be a large increase in the imports of oil, especially from Russia. The value of Indian cotton yarn and piece goods ex- ported has increased from 74 lacs in 1876 to 674% in 1889-90. Each year sees a large extension of this industry. Having wrested the markets of China and Japan to a large extent from England, the Bombay mill-owners are now successfully com- peting for the market of Eastern Africa, of Aden, . of Ceylon, and of the Straits Settlements. The following table gives the populations, with the religious census of the principal cities of India as reported in the census of 1881: woawmmom WD$QGFIGH mH§voooatom$ao¢>bm . 1qQwQ@“@QqQ-QQQQ1R mm ' m o. awm a '5 1-¢6¢°3“<3E$%r-E’-est-s*‘.‘i'iS‘-.-I-.-1-s§e: -8 £~w@0'D'<'.-\<.“:r.\1w-—h—u-1v—n--1 F-lv—'l\-1!-1?-l‘l—i B 3 see; sssssssssssss 2 qqém m qwq #§QN§@Q S gas m H 3a wgm 5 : : g ‘m' c mow F Hfi M g -m‘Em >ma ~@ ex “ ” ‘Q QT QYfi"Q.§Q .2 Q Icah '¢Qv-4 -z-1};-_co ' In’: 6:0 $4 . .. Q : O W I g . mwim QQH Hrwfiaw U ggfim-m§2wbw-mJmnwh E qqqq-qqmqqqggqqqqq w oolmbdmoa mmmmfiw O 2§§LQ £1 I g . 5 O®Qb o wowm efiwofiw mama a. ma bvfimb Q qqqq QQQBQQQQQQQQQ Q mwbm m mbmgmggaogg E sass assess: as-H 'g"Ir.r3IIIiIIIIIll" §:‘:;::::::.:.:: . “'D-‘-.IIIIIZI-. u m U . - . H H::-£1-"::::~-:-. % .-:¢ :.-....::.:. H I‘U.:.CI)-.:::--...;_. w G1. U ;...¢:-::~" d.~. .---a. ..-Q. S . Q ... ....~> w w,-‘@.j...O_ __.p: Q @.‘% -.---H-...'O. Q M.-:6-._;-Q... 18. O O'$od§:I-Ig32:E-C: ;>=§§;.m-gem I I IOQG3 -QQO - 6-use Q---Emfiwseo pa,--4,.” q>cJF<,Hd_ d esssess-Q23--2--as Hp , -1 O€w§>:@®smdEEe:$eQ NU &mQmQm~'-= Sfiwsfigfiggfigg onwm0w QQQ€d@§@QQ sq N ~:*.#l\=:>Q,-I-1 ' ‘ ' “ ' Q GMNH m 38 g H m w fi@HO -OIIIZIZ game .8 . - . . ..ss s Q z~O’ir-_4_'-it-.1 . _w 0 5 I-::::::."'‘.'::1.~s -- :I::._'::-131369‘ ‘é . - . .0 . . _ ' . '~. Q _ ~ _ _O _ _ - .y...,, 6 ~—4 ' ' - -IQ ' _ . '5 ' E . I . .0 . . _ : .'-Q I .H O 1- I II!) I I :'__::;_-J - S Q _2I,__',°3bUj I jc3j<1>Ijq-.1.-< Q) ,-< ~Q-3&1: - . .0-0 ' -'-I ~ O~QI~"-‘ ' ' ' ‘Z: ‘PO’-lg ' Q pm :-..*- -Foo . 1-.cs°~"-* - - -Q -g ',_-_-,3:-‘.'.:-.‘ ~ an-13__;‘r-(d' ‘Q)E'-é P-( s:1‘§.3£'§e3"i'i3_g>‘E$'gp3é=1g¢ Q °s3sD<”3't‘i3‘=‘S'U-°3.=l- of :1 ‘E ":3 force. I-4 O n., Ouray, _ Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,030 1 6 7 Pawnee, Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 1 7 8 Pima, Ariz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,518 1 . 10 11 Pine Ridge, 8. Dak . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,611 3 35 38 Ponca, Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 533 1 7 8 Pottawatomie and Great Nema- ha, Kan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ' 989 1 11 12 Puyallup, Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,844 13 13 Quapaw, Ind. T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,150 1 6 7 Rosebud, S. Dak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,586 3 40 43 Round Valley, Cal . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 531 .. . . 5 5 Sac and Fox, Oklahoma . . . . . . . .. 2,180 1 8 9 Santee, Neb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,354 . . .. 11 11 Shoshone, Wyo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,945 1 12 13 Siletz, Oregon . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . .. 606 1 7' 8 S1sseton, S. Dak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,487 -1 5 6 Southern Ute, Col . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,013 1 12 13 Standing Rock, N. Dak . . . . . . . . .. 4,110 3 24 27 Tongue R.iver,Mont . . . . . . . . . . . .. 867 1 7 8 Tulalip. Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,233 1 11 12 Uinta, Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 874 1 6 7 Umatilla, Oregon . . . . . . . ..\ . . . . . . . 983 1 9 10 Union, Ind. T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65,200 3 40 43 Warm Springs, Oregon . . . . . . . .. 853 1 9 10 Western Shoshone,Nev . . . . . . . .. 477 1 7 8 White Earth, Minn . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,239 3 22 25 Yakama, Wash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,675 1 7 8 Yankton, S. Dak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,760 1 7 8 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70 700 770 XIII. INDIAN FAEMINe.—The Congressional act of March 3, 1875 (10 Stats. 449), requires that all able bodied Indians between the ages of eighteen and forty-five must labor for the benefit of them- selves or of the tribe, in order to be entitled to ra- tions. The Indian agents in executive charge of the reservations are instructed to require every farmer to make monthly reports (for which blanks are fur- nished at the Indian Bureau) as indicated in the following schedule: Number of days occupied in the field during the month. Number of days at headquarters. _ Number of Indians assisted and instructed. Number of Indians who have been induced to be- gin farming. Number of acres plowed. Number of acres planted. The condition of stock. The condition of agricultural implements. Agents are also directed to state the most press- ing needs of the Indians under their charge for such articles as lumber, seeds, agricultural imple- ments, and stock. - From the reports, some of them covering only nine months, from October, 1889, to June, 1890, it is ascertained that during that time 35,000 Indians had been personally assisted and instructed in farming; that 1,136 who never farmed before had been induced to commence; that 46,000 acres had been plowed, and at nearly every agency the need of a greater supply of lumber, seeds, and agricul- tural implements was very pressing. Had these reports been for the year, from all farmers em- I ployed, and exhaustive instead of partial, the fig- ures would have been largely increased. According to the year’s census for 1889, the entire Indian population on the reservation where farm- ers were allowed during the year, was only 107,283. -A close estimate as to the number of those who could be expected to Work on a farm,would be one- seventh of this number-—15,326, which for the nine months in question would give 8 per cent. as those who have been induced for the first time to com- | age to receive and receipt for his own share. INDIAN AFFAIRS-INDIANA mence farming. If it is considered that nearly one- half of the 15,326 had already made a commence- ment, the percentage would be at least twice as great. In the act of March 2, 1889, making appropria- ‘tions for the service for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, provision was made for the employment, in addition to the agency farmers, of farmers who should superintend and direct the work among such Indians as were making effort for self-sup- port. To this act a clause was added, requiring that no person should be so employed who had not been for at least five years engaged in practical farming. The following table, prepared from the reports of the Indian agents, exhibits status of farming, etc., by Indians, exclusive of the five civilized tribes, up to July 1, 1890: Number of allotments made to date (July 1, 1889) un- der act of February 7, 1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,827 Number of farms or Indian families engaged in farm- ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,635 Number of acres under fence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 496,787 Number of acres under cultivation (by Indians) . . . . .. -269,355 _ AMOUNT RAISED LAST YEAR. Bushels of wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 836,741 Bushels of oats and barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 529,790 Bushels of corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190,458 Bushels of vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 647,802 Tons of hay cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 110,372 Pounds of butter made . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93, NUMBER AND KIND OF STOCK OWNED BY INDIANS. Horses and mules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435,687 Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153,774 Swine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,353 .Sheep and goats . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ,857 Domestic fowls (all kinds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171,330 XIV. CASH PAYMENTS T0 INDIANs.—During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, there was paid per capita to Indians (other than the five civilized tribes) the total sum of $774,268, all regular an- nuities due in fulfillment of treaty stipulations, or interest on funds held in trust. by the Government -—a sum nearly $130,000 greater than the amount for the previous year. This is accounted for by a special payment made to the Pottawatomie Nation (viz : the Citizen Band and the Prairie Band of Pot- tawatomies, and the Pottawatomies of Huron), in pursuance of the act of March 2, 1889 (25 Stats., 988), by which the sum of $178,953.43 was appropriated, ‘with interest at the rate of 5 per cent. from the date on which it was decided by the commissioner appointed for that purpose that said sum was still due to the Pottawatomie Nation from the Govern- ment. The interest amounted to $182,728.61, mak- ing in all the sum of $361,682.04. The following paragraphs from the report of the Indian Commission for October, 1890, indicate the ‘careful and wise methods observed in the payments of moneys to the Indians on the various reserva- tions. The Pottawatomies of Huron, who reside in the ‘vicinity of Athens, Mich., are paid first, a special agent being sent for the purpose, with instructions to make a careful enrollment of the names of all who were living on the 1st of July, 1889, the day up -to which the interest was computed, and on which the funds became available. This was done, the list was submitted to the scrutiny of the chiefs and head men, who, after examining it, certified that it was correct and complete, and the agent was directed to pay under the following rules: Each person of This included married women. The father (or mother, if father is not living) to receive the shares and receipt for the minor chil- 899 dren of the family, provided the parent was com- petent and properly qualified to act for the chil- dren,and that there was no reasonable doubt of the children receiving the full benefit of their money. In case the parents were dead or incompetent,or in any manner not properly qualified to act for the children, then their shares were to be returned to the United States Treasury to await the chil- dren’s coming of age. The shares of all who had died since July 1, 1889, to be returned to the United States Treasury un- less legal representatives of the estates of the de- ceased were appointed by the proper court. The Commissioner of Indian affairs quoting the opinion of one of his most experienced agents, sub- stantially afiirms that the Indians are as frugal as the average white man would be under similar cir- cumstances, and that he believes they are far more easily controlled and submit more cheerfully to the laws that govern them than any other community of his acquaintance. Could the government but protect them successfully from the evil consequent upon too close contact with degraded whites, their prosperity would greatly increase. The following is reported as an oflicial summary of the money earned by the Indians during the year ending June 30, 1890: Paid to regular Indian employés at agencies . . . . . . . . . Paid to irregular Indian employés at agencies . . . . . . 54,500 Paid to Indian additional farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,000 Paid to regular Indian employés at Indian schools. . 51,000 Paid to irregular Indian employés at Indian schools 22,000 Paid to Indian interpreters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000 Paid to Indian policemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94,000 Paid to Indian judges of courts of Indian offenses. 5,000 Paid to Indians for hauling supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90,000 Paid to Indians for produce, hay, wood, and other supplies purchased from them, and for breaking lan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66,000 Paid to Indians for logs out and banked by them. .. . 139,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 642,000 If to this is added annuity, interest, etc., it makes a grand total of $1,416,268, paid in small cash payments to Indians during the year. INDIANA, the county-seat of Indiana county, Pa., 72 miles northeast of Pittsburgh. It contains a State normal school, planing-mills, foundries, and has a large lumber trade. _ INDIANA, STATE or, for general article OI1lNDI- ANA see Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 813, 814. The census of 1890 reports the area at 36,350 square miles, the same as reported at the previous census. Of this total surface 440 square miles is water. The population had increased to 2,192,404, an increase during the decade of 214,103. The capi- tal, Indianapolis, has a population of 107,445, a gain during the decade of 32,371. The subjoined table gives the population of the State by counties, as reported by the census of 1890: Counties. 1890. 1880. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,181 15,885 Allen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66,689 54,763 Bartholomew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,867 22,777 Benton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,903 11,108 Blackford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,461 8,020 Boone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 ,572 25,922 Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,308 10,264 Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,021 18,345 Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,152 27,611 Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,259 28,610 Cla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,536 25,854 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,370 23,47‘ Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,941 12,356 Daviess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,227 21,552 Dearborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,364 26,671 INDIANAPOLIS Counties. 1890- 1880. Decatur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,277 19,779 De Kalb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24,397 20,225 Delaware . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,191 22,926 Dubois . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,253 15,992 Elkhart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59,201 53,454 . . . . . 12,6“0 11394 fiZ$3ii::::::::;:::::: ................. .. 29,138 2135911 Fountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,558 20%;; Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.306 , Fulton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,746 14,301 ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,920 22 742 8i‘i%%fi:::::::::::: : ................... .. 91,191 1.-.5618, Greene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,379 22,996 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,123 24,801 Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,829 17 ,125 ' .............................. .. 20,786 21,320 52335311, ............................. .. 11,198 22,981 Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,879 24,016 Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,186 19,584 Huntington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,644 21,805 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,139 23 050 122533111: ........................... .. 11,185 11:11-.1 Jay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. g3,%gf; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. -1, 5233552: I I I I Z 1'. ....................... . . 14,608 151455 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,561 19 537 ‘Egg; I .'§.'.' ........................ .. 29,044 26:32.4 Kosciusko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,645 26,494 La range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,615 15,630 L e .................................... .. see 15,091 P t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34,445 30 985 %g.‘W19erI1§e .............................. . . 19,792 182543 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,487 ,527 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141,156 102,782 Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,818 23,414 ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,973 13 475 I~]§faI:fr11i1IIII ................. ... ......... .. 25,823 Z083 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 ,8’; 0 ....................... . .. , , §gI1?g§gI.n.\??.y ........................... . . 18,643 18,900 is . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,803 8,167 £8518? ................................ . . 23,359 22,955 Ohio ................................... .. 4,955 5,555 Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,678 14,363 Owen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,040 15,901 k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,296 19,460 533; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18,240 16,997 Pike .................................... .. 18,544 16,383 Porter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,052 17,227 Posey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,529 20,857 P 1 ki ................................ .. 11,233 9 951 P3t%im ................................ . . 22,395 221501 Randolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,085 ,435 Ripley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,350 21,627 Rush ................................... .. 19,034 19,238 Saint Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42,457 33,178 Scott..- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7, _ 8,343 Shelby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,454 25,257 S encer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,060 22,122 S arke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,339 5,105 Steuben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,478 14,645 Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,877 ,336 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,514 13,336 Tippecanoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ,078 ,966 Tipton ................................. . . 18,157 14,407 Union ................................ . . 7,006 7,673 Vanderburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59,809 42,193 Vermillion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,154 12,025 Vigo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,195 ,658 Wabash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27,126 25,241 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,955 11,497 Werrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,161 20,162 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,619 18,955 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,628 38 613 Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,514 18,442 White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,671 13,795 Whitley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,768 16,941 The census returns for 1890, give the population. of the several cities of 8,000 inhabitants and over, as follows: Anderson, 10,759; Elkhart, 11,370; Evansville, 50,674; Indianapolis, 107,445; Jefferson- ville, 11,274; La Fayette, 16,407; Logansport, 13,798; Michigan City, 10,704; Muncie, 11,339; New Albany, 21,000; Richmond, 16,849; South Bend, 21,786; Terre Haute, 30,287; Kokoma, 8,224; Madi- son, 8,923; Marion, 8,734; Vincennes, 8,815. Indiana produced in the census year 1890, a total of 2,845,057 tons of coal, valued at $2,887,852, about double the product of the previous census year- The coal area of the State covers about 7,000 square- miles. The coal is bituminous, and is adapted for steam and heating purposes. The State employed in the coal business 6,532 hands, and paid in wages. $2,201,044. The total expenditures in the coal business in the State aggregated $2,581,669. The production of petroleum 1889, amounted to 32,000 barrels of 42 gallons each, ranked as oil for fuel. In the out-put of sandstone, Indiana ranked 10 in the- census of 1880, and 21 in 1890. In both cases Ohio- ranked 1, Illinois ranked 12 in 1880, and 25 in 1890. The following is a complete list of the governors of Indiana, both territorial and State, with the- dates of service: TERRITORIAL. Wm. H. Harrison... . . ..l800-11 John Gibson . . . . . . . . . . ..1811-1&- Thomas Posey . . . . . . . . ..1813-16 STATE. Jonathan Jennings. . . . .1816-22 Ashbel P. Willard . . . . ..1857-61 Wm. Hendricks . . . . . . .1822-25 Oliver P. Morton . . . . . ..1861-6'7 James B. Ray . . . . . . . . . ..1825-31 Conrad Baker . . . . . . . . . . .1867-73? Noah Noble . . . . . . . . . . . . .1831-37 Thomas A. Hendricks..1873-77 David Wallace . . . . . . . . ..1837—40 James D. Williams. . . . .1877-81 Samuel Bigger . . . . . . . . . .1840-43 Albert G. Porter . . . . . . . 1881-85- James Whitcomb . . . . . ..1843-48 Isaac P. Gray . . . . . . . . . ..1885—89~ James C. Dunning . . . . ..1848-49 Alvin P. Hovey . . . . . . . ..1889-93 Joseph A. Wright . . . . . ..1849-57 For numerous-1 additional items of interest re‘- lating to the State of Indiana, see the article-. UNITED STATES in these Revisions and Additions- INDIANAPOLIS, a city and capital of Indiana, and county-seat of Marion county, situated on the- West Fork of White River, 109 miles N. W. of Cin- cinnati, and 195 miles SS.E. of Chicago. Lat... 390 50’ N., long. 860 5' W. The site is nearly level. The streets generally cross one another at right: angles, except four wide diagonal. avenues, which converge to a circular park in the center of the»: city. Indianapolis contains afine court-house, the State institution for the deaf and dumb, the blind,. and the insane, besides numerous other public structures. It is the most populous city of the- State, and was selected as the seat of government. in 1820. It is the terminus of 13 railroads running in all directions, furnishing the best facilities for- distributing the city manu actures throughout the country. It is near the center of the great corp- belt of the West, and is thus the natural market. for an extensive area. It has many grain-eleva-~ tors, flouring-mills, and pork-packing establish- ments, and in the direction of manufactures has made good progress, having extensive rolling-mills, malleable iron-works, carriage shops, foundries,. and machine shops; manufactories of agricultural. implements, glass, organs, carriages, railroad-cars,.. sewing-machines, pianos, cotton goods, woolen goods, furniture, sash, blinds, etc. There are up- wards of thirty incorporated manufacturing com- panies, and there is an aggregate of above $15,000,- 000 capital invested. The city has an excellent fire- department, and an ample water supply. The various points of the city are connected by horse- cars. Population in 1850, 8,090; in 1860, 18,611; in. 1870, 48,244; in 1880, 75,056; in 1890, 107,445. .¢-q_.\-..~ \ INDIAN CORN--INDIAN TERRITORY INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE, Usrcs or. For the history and description of this cereal see MAIZE, Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 309-310. No other crop of our American farms supplies so many wants as In- dian corn. It is very nutritive, containing 11.6 per cent. protein, or flesh-forming material, and 6.5 per cent. fat; whereas, wheat contains 11.7 per cent. protein, and 1.6 per cent. fat. The nutritive quality can be increased by enriching the soil. For domestic uses, as a food-grain, corn is served in various forms, and is equally relished by rich and poor. The sweet varieties furnish a toothsome dish, when the ears are taken green, boiled and the ker- nels eaten from the “cob” with butter. For “canned corn” the full grown kernels are cut from the cob while yet in the milk, and then boiled, or boiled on the cob and cut afterwards, which latter method gives the better article. Sealed up in air- tight tin-cans it can be kept for years, and always finds a ready sale in America and in Europe. An- other way of preparing corn for the market is by cooking it before it is fully ripe then taking it from the cob and kiln-drying it on revolving machines heated for the purpose. There are several million dollars worth sold annually in this way. “Hulled corn” is prepared by boiling shelled corn in lye made of wood ashes until the hull becomes loose. It is then washed, the hull is rubbed off with the hands, and the grain is washed again un- til the alkaline taste is removed. Then it is boiled until soft, and usually served in milk. This af- fords a much relished dish in the farm house. Corn is often cracked in mills and the chaff removed by Bifting. This is sold as “hominy” in the \Vest and South, and is known as “samp” in New England. It requires considerable boiling to make it edible. It is usually served with milk. Cornmeal contains more albumen than wheat flour, because less of it is removed with the bran than in the case of wheat. The famous “Indian pudding,” “hasty pudding,” “cornbread,” etc., are all made of cornmeal, and are healthful, palata- ble, and nutritious, and, moreover, as cheap as any other human food. Cornmeal bakes rather badly, as compared with wheat flour, because it contains. four times as much fat as the latter, and this rich- ness in fat prevents its fermentation and rising. It is therefore often mixed with rye or wheat-flour, and baked into “rye-and-Indian bread.” Indian corn contains from 60 to 65 per cent. of starch, and “corn starch,” which is manufactured from it on a large scale, is much used for stiifening clothes and making cakes, custards, and puddings. Large quantites of corn-starch are converted into glucose or grape-sugar, which is now chiefly em- ployed in beer breweries and confectioneries. As feed for all kinds of stock, Indian corn takes the foremost place in winter. It is mostly fed in the ear, seldom shelled or ground, except when fed to poultry. Milch cows give much rich milk when fed on corn, because it contains so much fat and oil. Cattle and hogs fatten rapidly on it, because of its large contents of starch, of which a portion is con- verted into glucose in the animal system. The most economical way of feeding corn is by cracking or grinding it, as a large percentage of the grain passes whole through the intestines of cattle. But where hogs are allowed to run loose, they pick up the dropped grains. Poultry do the same. For “fodder-corn” the seed is sown in June either in drills or broad-cast, and the crop is harvested when the ears are developed, but before they are ripe. It is cut and dried like grass and hay. Often the stalks and leaves are harvested while green, then cut fine by machinery and placed into close bits in the ground, or in in air-tight compartments 901 on the surface, called “silos.” The exclusion of the air preserves the fodder from decomposition and enables the farmer to feed it all winter in the suc- culent state. The stalks, husks, and leaves of corn, which re- main after the ears have been plucked off, are also used as food for cattle, and are usually designated by the term “fodder.” They assist very largely in feeding the farm stock during winter. Even the corn cobs are eaten. They contain over three per cent. of protein, and are as nutritive as coarse hay. For information as to the sugar contents of corn stalks, see SUGAR, also ConsT CROP, in these Revis- ions and Additions. INDIAN FIRE, or INPYROTECH-NY, a bright white light produced by burning a mixture of sulphur, realgar, and niter. IN DIANOLA, the county-seat of Warren county, Iowa, located 20 miles south of Des Moines. It manufactures farm-implements and is seat of Simp- son (Methodist Episcopal) College. INDIANOLA, formerly a village of Calhoun county, Texas, on the west shore of Matagorda Bay, 10 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. It was of con- siderable importance and contained in 1870, 1,900 people. It had a thriving trade in cotton, cattle, hides, and wool, but in Sept. 15, 1875, a terrible storm caused the waters to rise and a large part of the village was swept away. Another storm in 1886 completed its destruction. INDIAN RIVER,a narrow tidal channel parallel with the Atlantic coast, and lying in Brevard and Volusia counties, Fla. It is about 100 miles long, and finds an outlet to the ocean at Jupiter inlet. It is navigable for boats drawing not more than 5 feet, and as the climate of the locality is healthful, and fish abound in the river, this is a resort for inva- lids and sportsmen. INDIAN SUMMER, in the United States, a period of late autumn characterized by calm, dry, and hazy weather. The name is due to the fact that this condition was especially noticable in the region chiefly occupied by the Indians at the time the term was introduced. INDIAN TERRITORY. For general article on the INDIAN TERRITORY, see Britannica Vol. XII, pp. 833, 835. Area, as returned by the U. S. Census of 1890, 31,400 square miles including 400 square miles of water surface. Population (including Indians—- census report 1890) 177,558. The chief town is Talequa, capital of the Cherokee Country. By the act of Congress, approved by the Presi- dent May 2, 1890, creating the Oklahoma Territory, the boundaries of the former Indian Territory were changed, and the new Indian Territory was defined to comprise “all that part of the United States which is bounded on the north by the State of Kansas, on the east by the States of Arkansas and Missouri, on the south by the State of Texas, and on the west and north by the Territory of Oklahoma.” In other words, all that portion of the old Indian Territory occupied by the five civilized tribes and by the several tribes under the jurisdic- tion of the Quapaw Agency, now compose the In- dian Territory. The area is less than half that of the old Indian Territory. The said act, in sections 26 et seq., proceeds to limit the jurisdiction of the United States court in the Indian Territory established by the act of March 1, 1889 (25 Stats., 783), to the Indian Terri- tory as above defined, and to enlarge the authority conferred on that court by the said act, giving it jurisdiction within the limits of the said Indian Ter- ritory over all civil cases therein, except those over which the tribal courts have exclusive jurisdiction. The Indian Territory is divided into three judi- 902 cial divisions, and the court will be held for the first division, consisting of the country occupied by the Indian tribes in the Quapaw Agency, the Cherokee country east of ninety-six degrees of longitude and the Creek country, at Muscogee, in the Creek Nation ; for the second division, consist- ing of the Choctaw country, at South McAlester, in the Choctaw Nation; and for the third division, consisting of the Chickasaw and Seminole coun- tries, at Ardmore, in the Chicasaw Nation. The court is given probate jurisdiction, and cer- tain of the general statutes of the State of Arkan- sas are extended over and put in force in the Indian Territory. It is authorized to appoint not more than three commissioners for each judicial division,who “shall be ex ojficio notaries public and shall have the power to solemnize marriages ;” they shall also “ex- ercise all the powers conferred by the laws of Arkan- sas upon justices of the peace within their districts.” Except as otherwise provided in the law, appeals and writs of error may be taken and prosecuted from the decisions of this court to the Supreme Court of the United States, in the same manner and under the same regulations as from the ciruit courts of the United States. , Much good is expected to -result from the en- larged jurisdiction of the court, and especially from that provision of the law which gives the judge of the “United States court in the Indian Territory the same power to extradite persons who have taken refuge in the Indian Territory, charged with crimes in the States or other Territories of the United States, that may be now exercised by the governor of Arkansas in that State.” This power properly exercised will, it is expected, have the effect to purge the Territory to a great extent of the criminal element that for years is said to have found an asylum there, where pursuit and punish- ment seldom, if at all, found its way, and to which much of the introduction of whiskey and the moral degradation of many of the Indians is due. POPULATIONS IN INDIAN TERRITORY, CLASSIFIED.-—, The following figures have been compiled from the figures reported in the ofiicial census of 1890: Indians Colored Whites Total Cherokee Country . . . . . . . . .. 25,357 4,242 27,176 56,775 Chickasaw Country . . . . . . . .. 3,464 3,718 49,444 56,626 Choctaw Country . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,996 4,401 27,991 42,388 Creek Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,291 5,341 3,280 17,912 Seminole Country . . . . . . . . . .. 2,539 22 96 2,627 Quapaw Country . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,224 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,224 Chinese in Chickasaw Nati’n ...... 6 . . . . . . . .. 6 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,871 17,730 107,987 177,558 Indian citizenship in the first five tribes above (designated as “The Five Civilized Tribes,”) is regulated by tribal laws. Freedmen and other negroes become citizens of the several tribes under said laws. The Eastern Cherokee tribe of Indians live on the Eastern Cherokee Reservation in North Caro- lina. Rations are not issued by the United States to these Indians. For additional important infor- mation concerning populations of this Territory, see R. S. Peale’s edition of the Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 822-835. Also maps of the Indian Territory and Oklahoma in these Revisions and Additions. INDIGIRKA, a river of Siberia, in the govern- ment of J akutsk. It rises in the Yablonoi Moun- tains, flows north for about 750 miles, through a frozen desert, and falls into the Arctic ocean in latitude 710 north, and longitude 1500 east. INDORSED, Ennonsnn, or Annonsnn, terms INDIGIRKA--INDUSTRIAL ta)pp]l§ied in heraldry to two animals placed back to ac . IN DORSEMEN T , the term generally used to de- note the writing of the name of the holder on the back of a bill of exchange or promissory note, on transferring or assigning it to another. Signing the name “A. B.” alone is a blank endorsement, and if the transferee is named it is an indorsement “in special,” or “in full.” The usual form is “Pay C. D. or order, (signed) A. B.” When personal liability is to be avoided the words “without recourse” are added, and in this case no demand can come back on the indorser, who would otherwise be liable. INDULGENCE is generally defined as the re- mission by church authority of the temporal pen- ances due for sins committed. But the writings of Tertullian (De Pudicitia) point to a primitive be- lief that the merits of the saints will be efficacious also in remitting the sins of the faithful before God; and the invocations of the saints’ intercession before God, as practiced by the Roman Catholic church of to-day, shows that the remissions believed in are not only relaxations of canonical, that is external penances, but also forgiveness of sins by God him- self. The Catholic church teaches that it possesses a “Treasury of Merit” (Thesaurus Eeclesiae) accrued from the sufferings of Christ and of the martyrs, and also from the good works of the saints. Based upon this treasury and superabundance of merit, ~ the church claims the power of remitting——not the sin itself but—the guilt of sin, and, in consequence, also its external punishment. That the church can condone temporal punishment is deduced from St. Paul’s example in forgiving a sinning Corin- thian (2 Corinth ii. 10), and from the power of binding and of loosing as conferred upon St. Peter, and subsequently upon all the apostles (Matt. XVI., 18). A “plenary” indulgence remits the entire satisfaction due to God; a “partial” in- dulgence only remits it in part. The jubilee is a plenary indulgence conferred upon all contrite confessors. Indulgences are also applied to the souls of the departed by way of intercession. The living obtain the indulgence from the church and present it to God, who may or may not, remit the sins of the de- parted soul. The church assumes that He does ac- cept it, and thus ratifies her action. The indul- gence of the “privileged altar” was explained by the Sacred Congregation of Indulgences (July 28, 1840) to mean a plenary indulgence which forthwith liberates the soul from all the pains of purgatory. These altars are privileged, “each time the euchar- istic sacrifice is ofiered, to possess, and set apart, a sufficient portion of the church’s treasure of mer- its to obtain from God, if it so pleaseth him, the release of the prayed-for soul from purgatory.” IN DUSIAL LIMESTONE, a variety of fresh- water limestone found in Auvergne, France and some other localities, formed of the cases (indusia) of caddice-worms, great heaps of which have been encrusted with carbonate of lime, and formed into a hard travertine. INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS. For the great industrial exhibition held in Europe and America before 1876, see Britannica, Vol. VIII, pp. 803-805. Exhibitions of mechanical arts have been periodi- cally made in the United States by several institu- tions. Prominent among these are the exhibitions of the American Institute of New York, the Frank- lin Institute of Philadelphia,'and the Mechanics’ Fairs in Boston. All of them have done much to stimulate invention and to awaken popular inter- est in the mechanic arts. The farmers are equally enterprising; agricultural fairs are now held regu- larly in almost every state of the Union, and annu- facture of which boiling is resorted to. INFANTE—-INJECTIONS ally in many counties; and these fairs embrace usually mechanical products of city and country throughout their districts. See WoRLD’s FAIRS, in these Revisions and Additions. IN FANTE, the title given in Spain and Portugal to the princes of the royal, family, the correspond- ing title of infanta bein given to the princesses. The personal domain 0 an infante or infanta is . called the infantado. INFANTRY, AMERICAN, see ARMY on THE UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. INFANT SCHOOLS. Pastor Oberlin may be re- garded as the founder of infant schools. The edu- cation and training of young children were also matters of great interest and study to Pestalozzi. The most successful system of educating quite young children is the Kindergarten. See Britan- nica, Vols. XIV, p. 79; XVII, p. 704. INFEFTMENT, a Scotch law term, used to de- note the symbolical giving possession of land, which was the completion of the title, the mere conveyance not being enough. The instrument of sasine was the notarial instrument embodying the fact of infeftment. IN FORMA PAUPERIS (‘in the character of a poor person’). Persons are said to sue in forma pauperis when the law allows them to conduct law- suits without paying fees to court-officers, counsel, or solicitors. A suitor in forma pauperis is not en- titled to costs unless by order of the court. INFUSIONS, aqueous solutions of vegetable sub- stances obtained without the-aid of boiling. In this respect they differ from decoctions, in the manu- Infusions are prepared by digesting the vegetable substance in hot or cold water in a covered earthenware ves- sel. In preparing the infusion of calumba, cold water is preferable, because it takes up the bitter 'principle, which is the essential ingredient, and leaves the starch-matter undissolved. In most cases, however, boiling water is employed. Infu- sions are preferred to decoctions when the active principle volatilises at a boiling heat, or when ebullition readily induces some chemical change. Infusions may also be prepared by percolation, a process extensively employed in the preparation of tinctures. When thus prepared they are less liable to decay than when prepared on the old sys- tem. INGALLS, JOHN JAMES, a United States Senator, born in 1833. He graduated at Williams College in 1855 and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1857, and the following year went to Kansas. In 1860 he was secretary of the Territorial Council; was Secretary of State in 1861, and a member of the State Senate in 1862. In 1873 he became a member of the United States Senate as a Republican, and was reélected in 1879 and 1885. His term of oflice expired March 3, 1891. INGELOW, JEAN, an English poetess, born at Bos- ton, Lincolnshire, in 1830. Her father being of su- perior culture gave Jean, who was very reserved, an unusually good education. A volume of Poems published in 1863 established her reputation as a gpetess, and the Songs of Seven and the High Tide on t e Coast of Lincolnshire, etc., increased her fame. Her prose works include Studies for Stories; Stories Told to a Child; Mopsa, the Fairy; Ofl‘ the Skelligs; ‘ljaizbfed to be Free; Sarah dc Berenger, and Don o n. INGERSOLL, CHARLES JARED (1782-1862), an American statesman. He was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar, and was attached to the United States embassy to France. From 1813 to 1815 he was in Congress, and then became United States district attorney.- which office he held till 1829. 903 Shortly afterward he served in the legislature, and in 1837 became secretary of legation to Prussia. From 1841 to 1847 he was again in Congress, and dis- tinguished himself as a Democratic leader. He contributed extensively to various periodicals, and wrote Edwy and Elgira (1801) ; Inchiquin the Jesuit’s Letters on American Literature and Politics (1810); and Historical Sketch of the Second War Between the United States and Great Britain (1852). IN GERSOLL, JARED (1749-1822), an American jurist. He became a prominent lawyer, and es- poused the cause of the colonies in the Revolution, He was twice attorney-general of Pennsylvania, and was United States district attorney for the eastern district of Pennsylvania. At the time of his death he was judge of the district court of Penn- sylvania county. INGERSOLL, JosEPH REED ( 1786-1868), an American lawyer. He began the practice of law in Philadelphia, Pa., and from 1835 to 1837, and again from 1843 to 1849 was a member of Congress. In 1852 he was appointed minister to En land, but the following year retired to private li e and de- voted himself to literature. He wrote Secession a. Folly and a Crime; Memoir of Samuel Break (1863); and a translation from the Latin of Roccus’s tracts De Naoibus et Naulo and De Assecuratione (1809). IN GERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN, an American law- yer, born in 1833. He began the practice of law in Shawneetown, Ill., but in 1857 removed to Peoria. In 1866 he was appointed attorney-general for Illinois, and in 187 7 refused the post of minister to Germany. He is well known as a campaign orator, and also by his books and speeches. He has pub- lished The Gods (1878) ; Ghosts (1879); Some Mistakes of Moses (1879) ; Lectures Complete (1883); Prose Poems and Selections (1884); and alarge number of minor works. INGERSOLL, a town of Oxford county, Ont., Canada, on the Thames River. It contains fine public buildings, and manufactories of woolen goods, cheese, and farm-implements, and carries on a brisk trade in lumber and grain. INGLEBY, CLEMENT l\/IANSEIELD, an English author and Shakespearean scholor, born at Edgbas- ton, near Birmingham, in 1823, died in 1886. He was professor of logic and metaphysics at the Midland Institute from 1855 to 1858; became foreign secre- tary to the Royal Society of Literature in 1870, and afterwards vice-president to the society. Among his works on Shakespeare we have his Complete View of the Shakespeare CO7"tiTOt’67‘8?/; Shakespeare lilermencutics, and Shakespeare, the Man and the Book. His other works include Outlines of Theoreti- cal Logic, and an Introduction to Metaphysics. INGRAHAM, DUNCAN NATHANIEL, a naval officer, born in 1802. He entered the United States navy as midshipman in 1812; became lieutenant in 1818; commander in 1838; captain in 1855, and chief of the Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography of the Navy Department in 1856. In 1861 he entered the Confederate naval service, as chief of ordnanc construction and repair, and rose to the rank 0 commodore. He has served in every war since the Revolution. INHAMBANE, a Portuguese station, capital of a district on the east coast of Africa. It is just south of the tropic of Capricorn, and is beautifully situ- ated at the head of a deep bay, 200 miles northeast of Delagoa Bay. The town dates from 1764, and has 6,500 inhabitants, of whom some 70 only are Euro eans. It has a trade in wax, ivory, etc. IN ECTIONS, a term applied in medicine to fluids thrown into the passages or cavities of the body by means of asyringe or elastic bag. The fluids thus injected into the rectum or lower bowel ml are termed clysters. Hypodermic injections are treated under that head. . INKBERRY, the popular name for I lean Glabra, an elegant shrub found on the Atlantic coast of North America, and much cultivated by florists. It grows from 2 to 4 feet high, has slender, flexible stems, shining evergreen leaves, and produces small black berries. INLAND BILL OF EXCHANGE,abill of ex- change drawn by and upon persons living in the same country. The rules applicable to foreign bills . differ in some respects from those applicable to in- land bills. INMAN, HENRY (1801-1846), an American painter. He entered the studio of John Wesley Jarvis, in New York City, as an apprentice, and at the age of twenty-one opened a studio of his own. He soon acquired a high reputation as a painter of portraits. Among his productions were pictures of William Wirt, Nicholas Biddle, DeVVitt Clinton, Martin Van Buren, William Penn, and many other noted per- sons. He also produced numerous valuable genre paintings ‘and landscapes. INNER HOUSE, the name given in Scotland to the higher divisions of the court of session. IN NES, CosMo, a Scottish antiquary and historian, born at Durris, on Deeside, Sept. 9, 1798, died at Killin, July 31, 1874. He was educated at the Edinburgh high-school, at Glasgow and Oxford, and in 1822 passed as an advocate. In 1840 he be- came sheriff of Moray and was subsequently ap- pointed clerk to the court of sessions. In 1846 he was elected to the chair of history in the University of Edinburgh. Author of Scotland in the Middle Ages (1860), and Sketches of Early Scotch History (1861). He also prepared the first volume of Acts of the Scottish Parliament, and published a vol- ume of lectures on Legal~/lntiquities. ‘ INNES, Tnonms, a Scottish historian, born at Drumgask, Aberdeenshire, in 1662, died at Paris, J an. 28, 1744. At fifteen he was sent to Paris, where he studied at the College of Navarre and the Scots College. In 1692 he received priest’s orders, and after three years of mission work in Bauffshire re- turned to Paris, and became prefect of studies in the Scots College. His Critical Essay on the An- cient Inhabitants of Scotland (2 vols. 1729) is much the earliest of all scientific histories. It was meant for an introduction to a Civil and Ecclesiastical His- tory of Scotland, one volume of which, coming down to Columba’s death, he prepared for the press, while another, bringing down the narrative to 831, was left incomplete. The work retains a perma- nent value. INN ESS, GEORGE, an Americanlandscape-painter, born in 1825. At the age of twenty-one he began landscape-painting in New York City. He then made visits to Europe, and resided in Florence and Rome for some time. He returned to New York about 1868, and from 1871 to 1875 again lived in Italy. Among his best paintings are The Sign of Promise; Peace and Plenty; Going Out of the Woods; The Valley of the Shadow of Death; Summer Sunshine and Shadow; Pine Grove; American Sunset; St. Peter's; Rome, from the Tiber; A View Near Medfield, Mass.; An Old Roadway; Long Island; Under the Greenwood; A Summer Morning; In the Woods, and Sunset on the Sea-Shore. INNISHERKIN, small island on the south coast of Ireland, belonging to the county of Cork, from the shore of which.it is separated by a channel a quarter of a mile in width. It is well cultivated, and contains some extensive slate-quarries. Popu- lation about 1,000. . INNOCENTS, HOLY, FEAST OF, or Innocnnrs’ DAY. See CHILDERMAS in these Revisions and Additions. INKBERRY—JNSECTS INNOMINATE ARTERY (Arteria innominata), the first large branch given off from the arch of the aorta. INN UEN DO, a part of a pleading in cases of libel and slander, pointing out what Was meant and who was meant by the libelous matter or description. IN OCARPUS EDULIS, an evergreen tree of the Pacific islands whose seeds when roasted are said to be used as food by the natives, and to resemble chestnuts in flavor. The tree is allied to the Daphnes, of the order Thymelaceaz, and the fruit of the plants of the order is generally poisonous. IN OSIC ACID, a name given by Liebig to an acid found in the mother-liquid in preparing creatine from flesh-juice. IN PARTIBUS INFIDELIUM (Lat., “in the re- gions of the unbelievers”). Titular bishops in the Church of Rome were from the 13th century until the pontificate of Leo XIII styled bishops in partibus infidelium. They were originally bishops who had no diocese, and took their titles from places where there was no longer a bishop’s see. The places con- quered by the crusaders in the East were furnished with Roman Catholic bishops, but when these con- quests were again lost the popes continued to ap- point and consecrate the bishops as a continual protest against the power which had prevailed over their alleged right, and to signify their hope of restitution. In Britain, the assumption of terri- torial titles being illegal and dangerous, the Roman Catholic bishops actually resident long bore titles derived from such distant places. INSANITY: in law, a mental condition that does away with individual responsibility through inca- pacity to distinguish between right and wrong. In its various phases it is fully treated in Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 95-113. . INSECTIVORA (Lat., insect-eating), an order of mammals, the members of which—-shrews, moles, etc.—are mostly terrestrial, nocturnal in habit, and small in size. They feed mainly on insects and small animals, and in adaptation to this diet the summits of the molar teeth are beset with small conical tubercles. A few, as the moles, burrow; a few are aquatic ; while the divergent Galeopithecus, if included in this order, has a peculiarity ofgliding through the air. Over two hundred living species are known, and many fossils, especially from Terti- ary strata. See Britannica, Vol. XV. pp-, 400-405. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES. For an extended article on Insnors, see Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 141-154. “Insects proper” have their bodies divided or cut into three very marked portions, the head, thorax, and abdomen, and have usually six legs, two an- tennae, or feelers, and two pairs of membranous wings; they breathe through air-holes, called stig- mata, laced along the sides of the abdomen and con- necte with air-tubes, called trachea, which carry the inspired air into every part of the body. Spiders, crabs, and myriapods are not insects proper. Most insects pass through a metamorphosis or several changes of form and habits. In their period of in- fancy insects are known as larva. They are worm- like, very voracious, and cast oil’ their skins repeat- edly. Grubs, caterpillars, maggots, silkworms, etc., are larvae. Some of them lose their larva form after a while, take no food, and remain at rest in a death-like sleep. This is called their pupa state, because in this condition they resemble an infant trussed in bandages. The pupae from caterpillars are called chrysalides, as some of them are adorned with yellow spots, as if they were gilt. Grubs, af- ter their first transformation, are often called nymphs. At the end of the second period insects again shed their skins, and come forth fully grown -INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES and usually provided with wings. The winged state is called imago. In this, their perfect state, they provide for the continuation of their kind. The larva state lasts the longest, and the adult state the shortest; for they often die immediately after they have laid their eggs. Bees, wasps, and ants, however, continue much longer in their adult state. After this short introduction we mention the most common insects injurious to vegetation. I. Insncrs INJURIOUS TO GARDEN VEGETABLES.-— The Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris Asparagi) was acci- dentally introduced into Long Island, N. Y., from Europe in 1860, and has since so multiplied there as to cause a dead loss of some $50,000 to the asparagus growers on the island. It has recently spread west on the mainland of the State of New York. [Fig. 1]. This , beetle is blue-black, but the thorax is brick-red. ‘ The wing-cases have various markings on their sides. The insect passes the winter in the beetle state under loose bark. When the asparagus is ready to be cut for the table, the beetle comes forth from its winter quarters and lays its eggs. After being hatched out the brood of larvae eats the ten- der parts of the plants, and afterwards consumes also the tougher and harder bark of ,the main stalks. At the end of June the larvae hide under some rubbish or in the loose ground, form slight cocoons there, and pass into the pupa state. From these pupae there bursts forth the same season a second brood of beetles, which lays its eggs on the asparagus, and produces in the middle of August a second brood of larvae or grubs, whence in the same manner, as before, there comes forth in Sep- tember the brood of beetles destined to reproduce the species in the following spring. These beetles become so numerous as to destroy many asparagus farms of 20 acres in extent. But in 1863 a deliverer appeared in the form of a small, shining, black par- asitic fly. This fly lays its eggs in the eggs or larvae of the asparagus beetles. It develops faster than the latter and destroys it. The damage done by this beetle has therefore been slight since 1863. The straight line in the illustration shows the actual size. The American Bean and Pea I/Vee-vils.—(B-ruchus fabx and Bruchus pisi). The first [Fig. 2] has spread from Rhode Island since 1861. It is similar to the latter, but a little smaller. As many as four- teen larvae have been counted in a single bean. The little spots where the larvae entered a pea can always be detected, even in a dry pea; but in the beans these points of entrance become obliterated. The larvae row in the beans and peas, while they eat the see s, and in the end there is nothing but an excrementitious powder left in the pods. The body of these weevils is oval, slightly convex; their feelers are small and bent sideways; their wing- cases do not cover the end of the abdomen.- These beetles frequent the leguminous plants. They wound the skin of the tender pods and lay their eggs singly into the wounds. Each of the maggot- like grubs hatched therefrom enters a seed and feeds upon its pulp until fully grown. Persons in- dulging in early green peas swallow these larvae very, frequently. The pea-weevil is a native of the United States. It has spread from Pennsylvania over the Eastern States. A simple method of check- ing the ravages of these bugs is to keep seed-beans ‘and seed—peas in tight vessels over one year before plantin them, and to put them in hot water just before t ey are planted, so as to kill the weevils. Cabbage Butterfly, White Butterfly, Potherb Butter- fly (Pieris oleracea).-—In May and June these but- -. terflies are seen fluttering over cabbage, radish and turnip beds for the purpose of depositing their eggs. These are fastened to the undersides of the 90-5 leaves. Their wings are white with little black marks; their antennae short; and their flight lazy and lumbering. [Fig. 3.] Their eggs are hatched in a week, and the caterpillars produced from them are one and one-half inches long, and of pale green color. In devouring the cabbage, they be- gin at any place on the under-side of the leaves and eat irregular holes through them. Besides cab- bages they eat cauliflower, spinach, turnips, beets carrots, mignonettes, etc. To the same species of insects belong the Rape Butterfly (Pieris rapee) and the Southern Cabbage But- terfly (Pieris protoclice). The Zebra Caterpillar [Fig. 4]. is also destructive to caulifiowers, cabbages and beets. It is two inches in length, velvety black, with a red head, red legs, and with two longitudinal yellow lines on the sides,betvveen which are numerous_ transverse white lines that give it the name. It changes to the chrysalis [Fig. 5], within a rude cocoon formed just under the surface of the ground by interweaving a few grains of sand or particles of dirt with silken threads. The moth, which is called the “Painted Mamestra” (Mamestra picta) appears in mid-sum- mer. It is a prettily marked species; the front wings are purple-brown with round spots; the hind wings are white. There are two broods of this in- sect each year, one in August and the other in October. On account of the gregarious habit when young they are easily destroyed in their larva state. The Squash-bug (Coreus tristis) punctures the leaves of squashes. It lays its eggs at the .'end of June (in the Northern States), depositing them in little patches, brownish-yellow, and glued to the squash leaves. They soon hatch, and the larvae, or young bugs, are more rounded in shape than the perfect insects. [Fig. 6.] They remain in clusters until grown, penetrate the leaves with their beaks, living upon the juice of the leaves until they wither and die. Then the bugs pass to fresh leaves. Vflhere the squash-bugs are numerous they become very destructive. ‘ Their eggs are not all laid at one time, and being hatched in successive broods, they are found in various stages of growth during the summer. During September and October they appear in their perfect state, that is, they get their wings and wing-covers. In color they are then rusty-black above and dirty ochre-yellow beneath. Their odor is that of an “over-ripe” pear, but more repulsive. Squash-bugs must be destroyed before they have laid their eggs. This is easily done by hand picking. If it has been omitted, the patches of eggs and clusters of young bugs must be crushed between the thumb and forefinger. II. Inssors INJURIOUS TO Roor Cnors AND INDIAN CORN. The Corn-worm, Boll-worm (Helrlothis armi- ge-ra).—-—Although the corn-worm feeds on corn and the boll-worm on cotton bolls, they are identically the same insect, producing exactly the same spe- cies of moth. It attacks corn in the ear, at first .feeding on the “silk,” but afterwards devouring the kernels at the top end, being securely sheltered the while within the husk. But they generally dis- appear when the corn fully ripens. Besides ravag- ing corn and cotton crops this gluttonous worm eats itself into tomatoes, young pumpkins, and va- rious green fruit, causing such fruit to rot. [Fig. 7.] It also eats green peas and beans. In 1860—the year of the great drouth in Kansas—-—the crop in that State was mostly ruined by the corn-worm. In color the young worms are from pale-green to dark-brown. The body has longitudinal light and dark lines and is covered with black spots which give rise to soft hairs. When full-grown the worm descends into the ground, and there forms an oval 9% cocoon of earth interwoven with silk, wherein it changes to a bright chestnut-brown chrysalis. Af- ter 3-4 weeks the moth makes its escape. In this last and perfect state the front Wings are clay-yel- low, marked and variegated with olive and yellow- ish brown, a dark spot near the middle of each wing being conspicuous. The hind wings are paler and have a dark brown band at the edge. [Fig. 8.] The only remedy when the corn-worms infest corn is to kill them by hand. Their presence can be de- tected in the corn fields by the silk becoming pre- maturely dry and partly eaten. The White Grub, June Bug(Lachnosterna fusca).— Few people are aware that the frequent White Grub and the familiar May-bug or June-bug are (1) (4) M on small roots for two cut them ofl’ below the surface, an This happ OBIS. They the plant wilts and dies. ens to Indian corn, to grass, to tender lettuce in the garden, to strawberries, potatoes, and all kinds of flowering plants. When two years old, this grub is as large as one’s little finger. [Fig. 95.] It is soft, dirty-white, and has a mahogony colored head. It is usually found with its body curved in a semi-circle, though it can straighten itself out and crawl slowly. In the third year the May-bugs form an egg-shaped chamber by sticking particles of earth together with an adhesive fluid. In this they pass their pupa state. In J une of the same year the change into the perfect beetle is completed. INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES different forms of the same insect. These beetles come often into the lighted rooms in May and June, buzz about and knock themselves against the walls [Fig. 9a]. Vast swarms of them are out- side upon the trees. They are very voracious, and therefore destructive to trees and shrubs, some- times completely denuding them of their foliage. They attack fruit-trees and ornamental trees alike, but always only at night. The beetle is an inch long, has long and slender legs and sharp claws, by which it can hold to the foliage. It is ofa dark chestnut color and finely punctured. Soon after pairing the female bug deposits from 40 to 50e gs in the ground, and soon dies. The eggs hate in a month. The young grubs subsist (7) BOLL worm (If§}l:‘0Ul.iS armtgera) FEEDING uro ronaro. (91)) wrnrs onus. (9a) JUNE BUG. An insect related to the June-bug is known in Eng- land as cockchafer and in France as Hanneton. The French government has offered a prize for a reme- dy against it. The best destroyer of this insect is the crow. The skunk also kills large numbers of them. In some parts of Europe children follow the plow and pick the larvae up as they are exposed. The perfect beetles are often shaken from the trees into sheets and collected by pailfuls. This must be done in plhe early morning, when they do not attempt to y. The Potato-stalk Weevil (Bariclius trinotatus).— This insect is abundant in the southern parts of Illinois, INSECTS AND’ INSECTICIDES Indiana and Missouri. [Fig.10.] The female de- posits an egg in a slit made in a potato stalk with its beak. The larva, after being hatched, bores in- to the heart of the stalk, and then works itself down towards the root. After passing through the pupa state within the stalk it comes forth in the beetle state at the end of August. The stalk inhabited by the larva always wilts and generally dies. The per- fect beetle must live through the winter to repro- duce its species in the following spring. In many potato-fields the vines become prematurely de- cayed by the ravages of the insect, and look as if they had been scalded. The Potato-worm or Tomato-worm (Sphinx quinque- maculata). This is a large green caterpillar with a kind of thorn or horn upon its tail, and oblique whit- ish stripes on the sides of the body. [Fig. 20.] It de- vours the leaves of the potato to the injury of the plant. It grows to the thickness of the fore-finger and the length of three inches.’ At the beginning of September it crawls down the stem of the plant (8) a,LARvA; b, morn, wmes OPEN; c, morn, wmes CLOSED. (19) a beetle on the Upper Missouri, near the base of the Rocky Mountains. It fed on a wild species of Solanum (S. rostratum), a plant belonging to the same genus as the cultivated otato(/Solanum tu- berosum). These beetles s readp eastwards at the rate of 60 to 75 miles eac year, after they once found food in the potato fields of Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska and Illinois. They in- creased so enormously as to become the greatest pest that ever afflicted western farmers. The female beetles deposit their eggs on the un- der side of the potato leaves, in clusters of from 20 to 50, or more. They are orange-colored, and hatch in a week after being laid. The grubs feed on the leaves till fully grown. Then they bury themselves in the ground, and after ten days come forth as perfect winged insects. Two to four broods are perfected during the summer. The last brood descends into the ground in the beetle state and remains dor- mant during winter, reappearing in the next spring to devour the first shoots of the potato plants. In the larvae of the potato-beetle the sides 907 and buries itself in the ground. Here in a few days it throws off its caterpillar-skin, and becomes a chrysalis of a bright brown color, with a long and slender tongue-case bent over from the head, so as to touch the breast only at the end, and somewhat resembling the handle of a pitcher. [Fig 21.] In the following summer the chrysalis-skin bursts open, a large moth crawls out of it, mounts upon some neigh- boring plant, and in the evening it flies around in search of food. This large insect measures 5 inches across its spread wings, is of gray color with blackish lines and bands, and has five round orange-colored spots on each side of the body, for which the English entomologists call it the “Five- spotted Sphinx.” Its tongue can be unrolled to the length of 5 or 6 inches; but when not in use is coiled like a watch-spring. [Fig. 22.] The Colorado Potato Beetle (Doryphora decem- lineata). Mr. Thomas Say, the zotilogist of the Government expedition to the Northwest Territo- ries in 1819 and 1820, found numerous specimens of (13) are ornamented with two rows of black dots, and the head is black. The perfect beetle has ten black stripes on its front wings, which give it the name of the “ 10-lineataf’ To destroy this insect, some kill the females as they come out of the ground in spring; others de- stroy the larvee a few days later, when they have commenced feeding upon the leaves. This is done by dusting Paris green or other arsenical poisons, mixed with powdered plaster or flour, over the po- tato plants while wet with dew or rain. The oper- ator must be careful not to inhale any of these poi- sons while at work. III. INSECTS INJURIOUS To THE CEREAL GRAINS AND GRAss CRoPs.—The Chinch Bug (Lygaeus leucop- terus). The mature chinch-bug is -Es of an inch long, has white wing-covers with a large black spot [Fig. 12]. The rest of the body is black and downy. It lives in most of our states. Such chinch-bugs as survive the autumn pass the winter as perfect in- sects in some hiding place, as under dead leaves, rubbish, straw, etc., in the usual torpid state. In %8 the spring the iemale lays its eggs, about 500, in the ground, generally upon the roots of plants. The larvae, after they hatch out, remain under ground for some time, sucking the sap from the roots. The roots of wheat plants in a field infested with chinch-bugs have large clusters of these larvae sticking to them. They look like so many moving little red atoms. The chinch-bugs infest dry loose ground in the Southern and Southwestern States. They travel in immense solid columns from field to field, like 10- custs, destroying everything as they proceed, but especially corn and wheat fields. They sometimes cover the roads, fences, teams, workmen—pass through houses, corn-cribs, orchards, meadows- one creeping mass of stinking life, like the lice-pest in Egypt. ut they are generally gone after a few days. A simple and cheap method of treating this pest has been devised by Wilson Phelps, of Crete, Ill. it is this: With twelve bushels of spring wheat mix ‘ INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES one bushel of winter rye, and sow in the usual manner. The rye not heading out, but spreading out close to the ground, the bugs content them- selves with eating it until the wheat is too far ad- vanced to be injured by them. The .Hessian Fly (cidovnyia destructor) [Fig 13].- This insect obtained its name from the supposition that the Hessian troops in the British service had brought it here. As no such fly can be found in Germany or any other part of Europe, this suppo- sition must be erroneous. The Hessian fly has two broods, one is hatched in May, the other in Sep- tember. Its eggs are laid in the creases of the leaves of young wheat. The maggots, or lar- vae, crawl down to the sheathing base of the leaves, and remain between the base of the leaves and the stem, causing the stalks to swell [Fig. 14] and the plants to turn yellow and die. They suck the sap of the stalks. During their first winter they are in the pupa state, looking like fiaxseed. The head, antennae, and thorax of the Hessian mi fly are black, the wings dull smoky brown, and the legs are pale brown. Its spread of wing is only about % inch. As precautions against this insect, pasturing the wheat-fields with sheep in November, and rolling the ground have been recommended, in order to kill the eggs and larvae; also the use of lime, soot, or salt, scattered over the young wheat. The Hessian fly infests the Eastern, Atlantic and Middle States, and the Valley of the Mississippi River. The Army-Worm is the larva of a night-flying moth (Leucanid unipuncta). The perfect insect is plain and unadorned in appearance [Fig.15], of a yellowish-drab color, with a white spot in the center ofits fore-wings; and it has a spread of wings of 13/4 inches. The eggs are laid in the spring of the year between the folded sides of grass blades, and glued along the creases with a white, glistening, and ad- hesive fluid, which draws the two sides of the blades close aroundthern. The worms hatch out in ten days. They are dark-gray, with three nar- row yellowish stripes above and a broader one on ‘ HOTH. each side. When fully grown, the army worm measures from 13/4 to 2 inches, and is about as thick as a goose-quill. Its chrysalis is of a mahogany- brown color, 3/4 inch in length, and tipped at the end with a short spine. [Fig. 16]. Sometimes the army-worm becomes very numer- ous and destructive. This occurs at the time when winter wheat is in the milk, and again in August. The easiest way to arrest its rava es is by plowing a double furrow around the fie d. This furrow must be deep and have the steep side next to the unharmed crop. A ditch with the side toward a field perpendicular is still better. When the worms are collected in the ditch, cover them with straw and burn it. , IV. Insncrs INJURIOUS 'ro FRUIT Tnnns.—The apple-tree borer (Saperda bimittata) causes the apple- trees on the ridges to be shorter lived than those grown on ourlower lands. It is a native American insect [Fig. 17], and has for ages inhabited our crab-apple trees. It also attacks the quinces, mountain-ash, hawthorn, pear, and J une-berry, and INSECTS does a great deal of damage to orchards in various localities, but especially in New England and the Middle States. The borer is the larva of the in- sect. When fully grown it is about an inch long, and the first segment a quarter of an inch thick. Its color is light-yellow; but the head is chestnut- brown, polished and horny, and the jaws are deep- black. The perfect beetle comes forth from the trunks of the trees at night, early in June, and moares and flies about in search of companions and foo . Notwithstanding the pains that have been taken to destroy and exterminate these pernicious bor- ers, they continue to reappear in our orchards and nurseries year after year. They can be killed by thrusting a wire into the hole made by them; also by cutting the grub out with a knife or gouge. But these are slow ways, because the borer always penetrates into the hearts of the trees, and such AND INSECTICIDES means are not better than looking a stable after ' the horse has been stolen from it. As the female beetle will not lay her e gs upon trees protected by alkaline washes, a goo preventive is found in applying soft soap mixed with the lye from wood ashes, thinned with water, to the base of the tree. The wash need not reach up to the crotch of the tree, because the borer is rarely found as high up as that. But if a piece of lye soap is placed in the crotch, the rains will produce the necessary wash. (18) APPLE worur—-connrne morn. v. Iusnors Imumous TO SMALL Faurrs.—The Grape Phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatrias). This minute in- sect is a native of America, but it has wrought its greatest mischief in Europe. There are two types of it: The Leaf-gall type (Gallicola), which pro- duces galls on the underside of the leaves of the grape-vines; and the root-inhabiting type (Radi- cola), which hides in the creases, sutures and de- pressions of the roots. The Gallicola lives in the leaf-galls, which are of the size of a pear, while she surrounds herself with eggs scarcely 1-1,, inch long and less than half as thick. The mother-louse is only ft; inch long, nearly spherical in shape, of a dull orange color, and looks much like an unripe purslane seed. Having exceedingly small limbs anda round body she looks clumsy, and as if she were swollen. The eggs she lays hatch into little oval lice of a bright yellow color. Issuing from the mouth of the gall, the young ones scatter over the vine, most of them finding their way to the tender terminal leaves, from which they suck out the sap. Each young louse produces a gall for its habitation. In this new home she begins a parthe- nogenetic maternity by the deposition of fertile eggs as her parent had done before. She increases in bulk with pregnancy, and one egg follows an- other in quick succession until the gall is crowded. -__ 909 The mother dies, and the young, as they hatch, issue and produce new galls. The number of eggs in each gall is from 200 to 500. The family is won- derfully prolific. As there are at least five genera- tions ina season, these lice cover the leaves with their galls completely till fall. The consequence is that the vine loses its leaves prematurely. Be- fore the end of September the young lice attach themselves to the roots of the vine, and thus they hibernate. The male gall-louse is not known, per- haps it does not exist. The Radicola is in its first larva state like the Gallicola. But, instead of the smooth skin, it soon ‘fl-D I Q . ' . §!§IIf-. = .9, - -07,. M . _ I ‘-__,_“. U‘ I 7' 7-"""f~r"’;£;-‘-.~-.'.i“-‘ ‘ ,R- 1- $1 I\. . V “ ‘A5’ '~'> \‘- , -‘L .1. ?\'1 , I L-_-, Q H m gt ‘~'!' ; ‘xi ~\ .i'jl)$‘§‘ I v V‘ " . is?‘ -9 -. (20) CATERPILLAR. acquires raised warts or tubercles, and retains a more elongated form than the Gallicola. Neither of them get wings, and both are occupied, from adolescence till death, with the laying of eggs. The eggs of the Gallicole are, however, smaller and more numerous than those of the Radicola. With pregnancy the Radicola becomes quite tumid and pear-shaped, and it remains with scarcely any mo- tion in the quite secluded parts of the roots, such as creases, sutures, and depressions between the knots. For a winged female Phylloxera, which seems to be different from those hereinbefore described, see Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 239. The result of the punctures made by the root- ' louse is an abnormal swelling beginning at the tips of the rootlets. These swollen tips soon rot, when the lice attack fresh roots. At last the entire system of small roots wastes away. The only prac- ticable way of combating this insect is by drowning it. For this purpose the soil is irrigated. Another way of evading its ravages is to graft the vines up- on stocks, the roots of which are Phylloxera-proof. To this end American varieties have been sent to Europe in large numbers, both as cuttings and as rooted plants. An enterprising grape-growing firm has even established nurseries in Europe for the production of American vines that resist the Phylloxera. Locusts (Locustadae), often called Grasshoppers. (Fig. 19.) The Rocky Mountain Locust is at home on the plains between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains where it is hot and dry. There they breed and multiply. When they have reached a certain stage of their existence they take (21) CHRYSALIS. to flight, and come, generally with the prevailing wind, eastward in countless millions. They over- run Kansas. Missouri, Nebraska, Iowa, etc., and eat every green thing they meet. When the season comes for depositing their eggs, the swarms which happen to be in favorable localities, such as sandy sunny hillsides, proceed to do so, after which most of them soon die, and the pest disappears. If the suc- ceeding winter is mild the young grasshoppers will appear next spring in great swarms with the earli- 910 INSESSORES-—INTERCONTINENTAL RAILWAY est vegetation. At this time they are the most destructive, because one young grasshopper eats as much as a dozen old ones. They feed vora- ciously. After attaining their full growth, they take to flight, as did the generation before them. This happens generally in August. But the grass- hopper years are, happily, far between. Various methods are used for combating the at- tacks of the locusts. Their eggs are destroyed_by harrowing the ground, especially with revolvmg harrows, in autumn and early winter; also by plowing and irrigating. Broad pans, similar to the scrapers used in roadmaking, are covered with coal- tar or crude petroleum, and placed across the fields infested by locusts. On approaching, the latter jump into the oil and die there. In places where straw is plenty, it is placed in windrows and burnt on the approach of the locust swarms. To stop the young insects, ditching and trenching is effectual. The ditches must be at least 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep, and have perpendicular sides. The young locusts tumble into such ditches and die at the bottom in large numbers. Where lum- ber is cheap, a board-fence 2 feet high is an effect- ual barrier, if a 3-inch batten is nailed horizontally over the top and the edge at the side from which the locusts are coming is smeared with tar. The destruction of the winged insects, when they swoop down upon a country in prodigious swarms, is immense. Man is powerless in the presence of the mighty host. On the subject of beneficial insects, as the Honey- bees, and the various insects that destroy harmful ones, as the Lion-beetles, which devour the Cut- worms; the Lady-bags, which eat the Plant-lice ( Aphides); the parasitic Ichneumon-flies, which de- posit their eggs into Tomato-worms and other caterpillars, a great deal might be said. But we conclude this article by stating that most plants would disappear from the face of the earth if it were not for the countless insects which assist in their fertilization and cross-fertilization. Red- clover, for instance, planted in New Zealand, would thrive quite well as f'ar as the single plants were concerned; but it could not be made to spread there because of the absence of humble-bees, which assist in cross-fertilizing it. Most countries would be entirely uninhabitable during the hot seasons if it were not for the countless millions of insects acting as scavengers by devouring putrefying vegetable and animal matters, and thereby making the air fit for breathing, whereas it would be di- rectly poisonous without the action of these hated little scavengers. INSESSORES or PERCHING BIRDS, an order of birds called b Cuvier passerine or “sparrow-like.” The order inclbdes more than half the known birds, but can hardly be defined, since the members are marked rather by a combination of characters than by any uniqueness. INTERCONTINENTAL RAILWAY. A pro- jected railway extending through Mexico, and the Central American States southward for the pur- pose of opening railway communication between the various American republics. In Dec., 1891, surveys were in progress for the connecting links of this railway, not only in Mexico but also at various other points along the route. Three sur- veying parties were at that time in the field under the direction of the Commission. Nearly 1,000 miles of the proposed road had already been sur- veyed including the most diflicult part--that part through Equador and the southern part of Colom- bia. The report showed less engineering difliculties than had been anticipated. The following abstract of the report of the Commission was published in Washington, D. C., J an. 6, 1892: United States and Mexico —The railways in these two countries being in perfect communication, the Commission has only been occupied with their continuation, and the choice of the most available point of departure; it has decided for Ayutla, on the Guatemala frontier. Gaaz‘emald.——From Ayutla the Intercontinental line will descend by the Pacific Coast, passing in the neighborhood of Rotahuleu and Mazatonango, as far as Santa Lucia. Thence will be used the branch, in course of construction, of the Central Railway from Guatemala to Escuintla, and the road will pass from Cujinijilapa to Santa Ana, in the Republic of Salvador. Saloador.—In this Republic the route of the pro- posed Central line will be utilized, passing by Santa Ana, Nuevo San Salvador, Cujutepeque, San Vincent and San Miguel, entering Honduras by Guascoran. Honduras—From Guascoran the line will con- tinue by the shore of Gulf Fonsoca, crossing the State of Chuluteca by way of the town of that name, going thence to the south toward Nicar- agua. NiIca.1~agud—-In this republic the line will arrive at the town of Chinandega, where it will join the railway from Corinto to Lake Managua, utilizing this line up to an available point—for example, Pueblo, Viojo-—skirting the lake and coming to the town of Managua, where it will take the line al- ready constructed from Managua to Massaya. From Massaya the line will pass to Rivas,will cross the proposed Nicaragua Canal and will enter into the Republic of Costa Rica. Costa Rica—-Following the shores of the Lake Nicaragua, and penetrating the country by the plains of Guatuso and San Carlos, the line will con- tinue as far as the town of Alajuela, where there is a branch to the capital. From Alajuela a continu- ation will be made by the railway from San J osé to Puerto Limon, thence, by points which are not yet determined, the length of the Isthmus of Pan- ama, as far as the entry of the Altrato Valley, in Colombia, will be traversed. Colombz'a—Colombia being reached, the Intercon- tinental will traverse the'Western Cordillera of the Andes, entering into the Cauca Valley and reach- ing the environs of the town of Antioquia, It will ascend by this valley, connecting the principal localities met with, and arriving at Popayan. The Central Cordillera will be crossed, in order to sur- vey the branch intended to connect Bogota with the main line. From Popayan the line will pass into the Patia Valley, making toward Pasto or Ipiales, with continuation toward Ecuador. The passage of the Cordillera on the route from Popa- yan to Paste will be one of the greatest difficulties met with in Colombia; it is at this {point that the great ramifications of the Colombian Andes begin. Venezuela-—In order to place this Republic in communication with the trunk line, a branch will start from a point (still undetermined) of the route in the Cauca Valley, going to Medellin, where it will rejoin the line running from that town to Puerto Berrio, on the Magdalena. Thence it will go to Bubaramanga, and thence to! San Jose de Cucua (frontier) and San Christobal, La Grita, Merida, Trugillo, Barquisimeto, in terminating at Valencia. From Valencia to Caracas, by way of La Victoria, a railway is in course of construction, and will be completed in a few years. Other lines having been conceded, are being surveyed in the regions just indicated. The route of the Intercon- tinental will undoubtedly adapt itself to circum- INTERNATIONAL LAW stances at the time of the execution of the project, whenever that may be. Ecuador—The line will touch at the town of Tul- can, then, descending by the central valley of Quito, will serve the towns of Ibarra, Quito, Lata- cunga, Ambato, Cuenca and Loja, entering Peru. Peru—The line will traverse the Department of Cajamarca, or the Amazonos, till it meets the River Maranon, and will ascend by that valley as far as Carro de Pasco. From the latter point it will follow the course of the Perene up to a proper point for a deviation to Santa Ana, then to Cuzco, Santa Ana; then to Cizco, Santa Rosa and Puno, skirting Lake Titicaca in order to penetrate Bolivia. Bolioia——The Intercontinental will connect the towns of La Paz, Oruro and Huanchaca, where it will divide into several branches, going to Chili, the Argentine Republic, Brazil, Paraguay and Uru- uay. Chili—The Chilian branch goes from Huanchaca to Antofagasta, a port on the Pacific. Argentine Republic—This branch, which has al- ready been surveyed, goes from Huanchaca to Ju- juy, the extreme point of the railway system of this Republic. Paraguay and Uruguay,—The line which is to connect these two countries to the proposed sys- tem will start from Huanchaca, will follow the left bank of the Pilcomayo, in order to rejoin the Os- bourn concession, which, from Asuncion, goes to north of Paraguay. From Asuncion, use will be made of the lines already constructed or in course of construction, as far as Montevideo. Brazil—The Brazilian branch starts from Huan- chaca, going eastward, clearing the Paraguay River at Curuna, where, penetrating Brazilian territory, it follows the River Taguary as far as Coxim. A railway, if the concession for it shall be granted, will go from this point to Urberaba. From this latter locality the existing lines con- tinue to Rio de J aneiro. The scientific commissions are authorized to search out and survey the best directions and routes. The above plan must only be considered as a general idea, which according to the plans drawn up at the Washington Central Bureau, would appear to serve most effectually the inter- ests of the American republics. INTERNATIONAL LAVV. For the scope and maintenance of PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW, see Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 190-197. \Ve speak here exclusively of PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW. Here the questions arise: If a marriage is valid in the state A, is it also valid in the state B ‘? If a child is legitimate in A, is it also legitimate in B ‘? If a will made in A is valid there, is it also valid in B ‘? If by the laws of A the property of a deceased per- son (the property lying in the state of B) passes to certain heirs, does it also pass to them by the laws of B ? Such questions are determined by private international law. The subjects of this branch of jurisprudence are private individuals, and its rules are administered by municipal courts. Its doc— trines resolve themselves into the doctrine of juris- diction and nothing more. It determines no legal relations whatever. Formerly, the private international law was based on the famous rule of Foelix and Auber, that all the effects which foreign laws can produce with- in the territory of any nation depend absolutely on the consent of that nation, either express or tacit. This rule has been abandoned by the majority of noted jurists, and in 1874 it was formally repudi- ated by the Institute of International Law at Ge- neva. The whole principle of this branch of law is 911 a direct corollary, or inference, from the doctrine of “ Recognition.” We recognize a foreign state as a sovereign and an equal, and the comity, or court- esy, between nations (comitas gentium) involves our duty to enforce the definitions which that state has imposed on legal relations. This rule holds good even when the definitions so imposed differ from those that are applied to the same legal relations when existing among our own citizens. Private international law rests, therefore, not upon the definition of the laws ruling in the recognizing state, but entirely upon the principles ruling in the recognized state; provided, there is nothing in these principles that contravenes the domestic pol- icy of the latter state. The increasing intercourse between individuals of different nations gives a growing importance to this branch of law, the rules being enforced by the various states as parts of their local laws. The rights to real property are, however, regulated by the law of the country wherein such property is situated. This lex loci rei sites, as it is called, gov- erns the tenure, title, descent of such property, the questions relating to letting, hiring, mortgaging, public burdens, taxation, etc., whether it belongs to an alien proprietor or a citizen. In most states of Europe, and in all American States, real and per- sonal property of every description may now be acquired, held, and disposed of by an alien in the same manner as by a citizen of the State; and a title to real and personal property of every descrip- tion may now be derived through, from, or in suc- cession to an alien, in the same manner as through from, or in succession to a citizen of the State. I. MARRIAGE falls under the private international law. In this country the prevailing rule is, that no specific form of solemnizing marriage is required to its validity. If two persons competent to marry consent to it and accept each other as husband and wife before witnesses, there is a valid marriage. No license, magistrate, or clergyman is necessary for its validity. But in Massachusetts and Rhode Island a license must be taken out, and a magis‘ trate or a domiciled minister of a religious denom- ination must solemnize it, else it is held to be in- valid. Similar rules are enforced in all European states. Now, the private international law makes it obligatory to acknowledge as valid any marriage performed in another State, if the same is valid in the latter State, even if no clergyman or magis- trate has officiated at its solemnization. II. DIvoRoEs a mensa et toro are not granted in the United States, though in some States married women can obtain decrees of court permitting them to act independently as feme sole traders. In all our States divorces a oinculo matrimonii are granted for adultery, cruelty, and desertion. But in some of the States the petitioner must reside there for six months, and in others for twelve months. In cases of desertion. the supreme court of Pennsylvania holds, that the petitioner can only sue in the State where the deserted party is domi- ciled. In most of the States it is now held that no divorce is extra-territorially valid unless granted by a State in which the petitioner was domiciled in accordance with the rules ofdnternational law. If only the petitioner is domiciled in the adjudicating State, and the defendant’s residence is known to the plaintifl, there must be personal notice given tolthe defendant. But this rule is not yet univer- sa . III. DoMIcIL is the legal conception of residence. A mere transient residence is no domicil; nor is a place selected for exceptional business purposes. There must be an intention to remain (animus ma- nendi) in the particular place as a fixed abode, or 912 permanent home. The law of domicil determines the questions of personal status. legitimacy, mari- tal rights, and succession to personal property. The place which a man selects as his permanent home properly supplies the law by which the legit- imacy of his children is regulated, his personal status is determined, his taxes to the government are fixed, and by which the distribution of his per- sonal estate is made. IV. The law of domicil also regulates the validity and interpretation of Conrrmors. The law of the State in which a contract was entered into (lerc loci contractus), determines the validity of the contract anywhere else, provided that the State where itis to be enforced, or where suit is brought does not de- clare its performance illegal in the place specified by the contract. If, for instance, suit is brought in the State of Rhode Island for the price of spirituous liq- uor to be delivered in NewYork, where such delivery is lawful, the Rhode Island courts will sustain such suit, although it would be unlawful to deliver spirituous liquor in Rhode Island. V. Although the Snocsssron to the real estates of deceased persons is governed by the lea: situs, their personal property descends according to the lea: domicilii, even if it is scattered over the whole civ- ilized world. All the American and European states unite on this rule. VI. In regard to CRIMINAL LAW, it is held, that the State in which a supposed offender is arrested, has jurisdiction over the offence. This so-called “ cosmopolitan” theory is based on the assumption that each sovereign has the right to punish offend- ers for past misdeeds; but it is limited to offenses against his own country only. Numerous statutes have been passed by Congress making it an offense to forge, in a foreign country, United States secu- rities and notes, and to take false oaths before United States consuls, and many convictions have been had under these statutes. We have also had many rulings that the State where an ofiense takes effect, has jurisdiction to punish the offender. If, for instance, a conspiracy is organized in Canada for the purpose of cheating parties in New York by letter, and the conspiracy is carried into effect in New York, then New York has jurisdiction over the of- fense, and can try the offenders, if found within her boundaries. If a shot is fired on the Mexican side of the boundary line between Mexico and Texas, and a man is killed by this shot, the offender can be prosecuted in Texas, if caught there. The place of consummation has jurisdiction over such and sim- ilar crimes. Were this not so, there is not a home that would be safe from explosive machines and other missiles sent by express from other places; business men would be daily exposed to the mach- inations of foreign swindlers; public and corpora- tion securities would be forged abroad with impu- nity; imported oods would be entered in the cus- tom houses un er false aflidavits, etc. With the present facilities for travel the right to punish for effenses operating in one State but concocted abroad, would be seriously impaired, if it were not for the “ extradition,” or surrender, of alleged criminals by one State to another. Adroit offend- ers would defy the laws by escaping to foreign lands, where they would be secure. Extradition is now made obligatory by treaties between all civil- ized countries. For extraditing an alleged offend- er the crime must be distinctly specified; it must be a common crime, not one of a political nature (except regicide) ; there must be a probable cause ef guilt, such as would justify the finding of a bill by a grand jury; and the surrender must not be made to a State in which punishments are inflicted arbitrarily and capriciously. INTER-OCEANIC CANAL INTER—OCEANIC CANAL, THE. In Britan- nica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 208, 209, will be found a de- scription of the Isthmus of Panama, with an ac- count of the difficulties to be overcome in construct- ing the proposed ship canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans at that point, and of the con- templated measures for accomplishing the work. M. De Lesseps’s first estimate of the entire cost of the work was 658,000,000 francs; he afterwards re- duced this estimate to 600,000,000, and upon open- ing his subscription lists twice as many shares as he deemed necessary were subscribed for in a short time. He’ announced that the canal would be opened to the traffic of the world in 1888. Soon after actual work had been begun, in 1881, it was found that the cost would rise above the estimated amount. Excavations were made at several points along the line. A very large plant of machinery was sent to the isthmus, and the preparations, in workshops, hospitals, means of transportation, etc., were designed for a vigorous prosecution of the work. The digging proceeded with more or less vigor till May, 1885. At that time the engineers re- ported to have excavated 12% millions of cubic meters out of a total of 125 millions of cubic me- ters required to be du in order to complete the canal. The tide-lock, t e breakwater at Aspinwall and the excavations in the Bay of Panama had not yet been commenced. The money expended up to that time exceeded 500 millions of francs and the obligations contracted amounted to over 766 mil- lions, on which the company had to pay 30% mil-, lions of francs yearly interest. From May till the end of 1885 very little progress was made in the work, because the Chagres River inundated a large portion of the district and caused a great deal of damage. A disastrous storm occurred also in the Bay of Aspinwall in December, 1885. After this it became more and more diflicult for the company to raise the necessary funds for the prosecution of the work. Still it went on, with some interruptions, till March, 1889. The cost was enormous. In December, 1888, the actual outlay had already exceeded the sum of 1,000 millions of francs = $200,000,000. Still De Lesseps was hopeful. When asked by the then German Crown Prince Frederick where the money for the completion of the canal was to come from, he answered airily: “From the woolen stockings of the French people,” alluding to the custom of French workmen, peas- ants and tradespeople, storing their small weekly savings in stockings. He asked the government to sanction a lottery for the raising of the money. It was refused. Although the public authorities fa- vored his last effort to obtain further subscriptions from the French people, it failed entirely. Only a guaranty by the government could put his scheme on a sure basis, and this the French gov- ernment was bound not to give. Work ceased in 1889 for lack of funds and the whole enterprise is now in the hands of a liquidator appointed by the government. A commission of French engineers has made a general survey of the isthmus, the condition of affairs and the state of the work. This commission has sent in a very unfavor- able report, which was laid before the French Chamber of Deputies. According to this report the construction of the canal at the calculated level would cost 1,737 millions of francs = $347 ,400,000, and the work could only be completed on the basis of an international agreement or a syndicate of the states interested. The report further states that, taking into account the interest to be paid during so long a period without any receipts; and also the general financial charges, the capital neces- sary for the completion of the canal must be es- INTERSTATE COMMERCE LAW timated at three milliards of francs, or, say, $600,- 000,000. Meanwhile, the unfortunate shareholders have petitioned the French congress, asking that the liquidator shall prepare a statement showing what has been done with all the money received by M. de Lesseps and his directors. More than twice the sum they stated would be required, has been sub- scribed and paid in, and the creditors now believe it was obtained upon false representations. They seek to have the directors made personally respon- sible for their losses, and hope in that way to re- cover at least a portion of their contributions to the Panama canal project, which may be considered dead now. American engineers who had studied the subject were of the opinion that the sea level canal, on which so much money was being expend- ed, was impracticable, and would never be com- pleted. Afterwards, when Mr. Eiffel (well known as the designer of the Eiffel Tower at the late Paris Exhibition) designed eight locks, four on the Atlantic side and four on the Pacific side, they were doubtful of the lock plan also, thinking the water too scarce at some seasons for the locks to work well. INTERSTATE COMMERCE LAW OF THE UNITED STATES.‘ On April 5, 1887, an act of Con- gress became effective, bearing the title “An act to Regulate Commerce.” Its authority rests upon the constitutional provision which confers upon‘ Congress the power to regulate commerce among the several States. This law was a new departure in Federal legislation, because up to 1887 there was no governmental supervision of railway construc- tion. Each State and Territory authorized the building of new lines, and by their consolidation with existing railroads the State lines were often entirely disregarded. The charters of the roads usually contained a clause authorizing them to fix their rates and fares, and the States relied solely on the influence of competing lines to keep rates and fares within proper limits. But very soon competiton bred discrimination, unjust partiality. A great deal of wrangling and litigation ensued, until the country was surprised in 1886 by a decision of the United States Supreme Court in the case of the Wabash Railway Company vs. the State of Illinois, which declared that a State law against discrimination was not valid in respect to “interstate shipments.” Upon the heels of this decision the report of the Select Committee on In- terstate Commerce came up for consideration in the Senate. This report complained bitterly against the discriminations practiced by the railroads all over the United States. Large shippers had private rates, rebates, free passes, and enjoyed various other concessions, generally kept secret. Small shippers and the public at large did not enjoy these favors. The Select Committee recommended a bill forbid- ding all injust discriminations under pains and penalties. This was the essence of the interstate commerce law. Its weak point was that it did not regulate competition nor restrictits excesses. The law as it first passed in the Senate imposed upon interstate carriers the three obligations of just and reasonable rates, the avoidance of all unjust dis- crimination, and the cessation of undue prefer- ences or advantages. Thus far it was good. But the House of Representatives insisted on stamping out the evils of competition, and passed an amended bill which radically changed the proposed enact- ment of the Senate. In the closing days of the session of the Forty-ninth Congress an agreement was patched up between the two houses which resulted in the present “Act to Regulate Com- 913 merce.” The two principal features grafted upon it by the House are on the “short-haul” clause, and the “anti-pooling” clause. The short-haul rule re- quires that rates at intermediate points shall be shrunk whenever competition forces lower rates at more distant points on the same line. Another beneficial rule demands that any rate made to one shipper must be granted to all and must for this purpose be published and open. The anti-pooling clause is especially severe against the pooling of freight, providing a fine of $5,000 for the offense, counting each day the pooling agreement continues as a separate offense. In 1887 and 1888, many small roads found that a great portion of their former traffic flowed to the direct and larger lines, which could give better service. Business was leaving them. As the “re- bates,” “drawbacks,” and“other devices,” by which they formerly secured traflic, were now forbidden, these roads resorted to the payment of “commis- sions” to a friend of the shippers, also to the pay- ments of rent, clerk hire, dock charges, elevator fees, drayage, free transportation within a single State, and many other specious forms of evading the plain spirit of the law. Rates upon interstate traf- fic are usually “joint.” It was soon found that, although the law requires the exact maintenance of the tariffs of each road, this important provision had been omitted to apply to “joint tariffs” in which two or more roads participate. Large shippers were prompt to strike for every advantage which they could obtain; to inform other lines of the favors offered them by this or that road for their patronage, thus playing one road against the other; and generally received the benefit of the violation of the law by one ingenious device or another. Therefore, Congress passed amendments to the law by which shippers as well as carriers were made sub- ject to its penalties, and the punishment of im- prisonment was added to the fine in cases of unjust discrimination. Joint tariffs were also distinctly brought within the jurisdiction of the Interstate Commerce Commission. These amendments be- came effective March 2, 1889, and their influence was felt immediately. Illegitimate methods of securing business ceased almost entirely. But in 1890,the spirit of obedience relaxed ; the law was secretly evaded in many cases; shippers again clamored for favors under the term of “relief,” and no prosecutions were commenced. It soon became a common statement among shippers and freight agents that the interstate commerce law was, after all, a dead letter, and that its penalties need not be feared. Irregularities existed, but were carefully concealed. In a few cases, however, freight agents were indicted by grand juries and fined, and some shippers were also indicted and fined for fraudu- lent practices. But the railway officials, as a final resort, refused to testify before grand juries upon the plea that by so doing they would incriminate themselves or their companies. This point was held by the local courts not to be well taken; but it is now pending before the United States Supreme Court for review. At the commencement of 1891, a number of roads west of Chicago and the Mississippi River associated themselves for the purpose of cutting down, by con- serted action, the cutting of freight rates. These lines appear to be determined to obey the law, and it is only fair to state here, that in the Southern States there has been little complaint with regard to unjust discriminations between large and small shippers, and none with regard to the maintenance of the tariff rates for all. The difficulty in our Eastern, Central,and Western States arises from the multiplicity of lines, many of which would find 2—21 M4 themselves impoverished by that strict mainte- nance of rates which is the most important require- ment of the public. The “railway pool,” as it formerly existed, was an agreement by which at stated periods, the common business of competing lines was aggregated and ap- portioned upon agreed percentages, the lines in ex- cess paying over to the lines in deficit such sums of money as were required to produce the neces- sary equalization among the shares of traflic as- signed to the several roads. This custom exists in England to-day. Our interstate commerce law has abolished it at short order. No railway pools ex- ist now in the United States. Most railroads charged greater proportionate rates upon a shorter than upon a longer haul on the same line of transportation. This was abolished by the “short-haul” section of the law. It over- turned customs, rate-sheets, and classifications of long standing in every part of the land, and in- volved a great loss of revenue to the roads. But it was generally submitted to by the companies, in spite of being felt as a grievous burden. Soon, how- ever, it was found that this section of the law is limited by the words “under substantially similar circumstances and conditions.” These “conditions” were held to include other carriers not subject to this law, with which the interstate roads had to compete. The commission therefore ruled that, if in cases of actual competition other carriers not subject to the law, as carriers by water or by roads confined to a single State, make a lesser charge for a longer than for a shorter haul, the interstate rail- roads are entitled to do the same under these par- ticular conditions; and also in the rare and peculiar cases of competition with other railroads subject to the law where the general rule would be destruct- ive of legitimate competition. The conclusion thus reached was generally accepted by the roads, and the section as thus constructed has been quite uni- formly obeyed. Taking everything into considera- tion the interstate commerce law has had a benefi- cial effect and justifies the new line of Federal leg- islation fully. INTONING, a modern popular term for the ut- terance in musical recitative of the versicles, re- sponses, etc., in a church service. This recitative consists mainly of a monotone, but may be varied by the introduction of certain simple inflections, which have the sanction of custom or tradition. INTUS—SUSCEPTION, or INvAeINA'rIoN, the term applied to the partial displacement of the bowel in which one portion of it passes into the portion im- mediately adjacent to it, just as one part of the finger of a glove is sometimes pulled into an adjacent part in the act of withdrawing the hand. It is one of the most frequent and fatal causes of obstruction of the bowels in children, butless common in adults. Even when inflammation is set up, the affection, although in the highest degree perilous, is not of necessity fatal. IN ULIN, a vegetable principle, isomeric with starch, derived from elecampane. INUNDATIONS, overflows of the land by the waters of streams and seas. We speak here only of the overflows caused by rivers. They are an- nual phenomena, though irregular. In spring they are produced by mountain snows, in summer and fall by rainstorms. The cure for floods is thought to lie in the planting of trees and forests in the regions above the inundated districts. This has been done in certain parts of France, but not sufficiently to prevent occasional floods. The scarping and terracing of the hills had a better ef- feet, as the sudden descent of the waters was there- by checked. But this is only a temporary make- INTONING—JOWA.AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE shift. The method mostly employed is the em- banking of the rivers with solid and substantial embankments, so as to hold back the flood-waters when the pressure becomes great. This system has been largely practiced on the Mississippi and Mis- souri‘ rivers. It has undoubtedly prevented many inundations. The proposal to build large reser- voirs on the upper course of streams, to receive and hold back their waters in the season of flood and give it out gradually in the season of low water, would be quite practicable on many small rivers, but would require immense basins to prevent rivers like the Mississippi from overflowing their banks. As forests retard the movement of the waters, they ought to be replanted wherever the land is not very valuable. This would retard the flow of the storm waters into the streams, and produce a more equable distribution of beneficial rains during the season when growing crops need them. In the United States the forests have been cut down regardless of any climatic effects; the land surface has been levelled, and the marshes and swamps have been drained as much as possible. We must therefore expect to hear of many freshets in the up-countries and of yearly inundations in low valleys. See RIVER ENGINEERING, Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 571-581, and HYDRO-MECHANICS, Vol. XII, pp. 502-535. INVALIDING, the return home, or to a more healthy climate, of soldiers or sailors who have been rendered incapable of active duty by wounds or the severity of foreign service. INVENTORY, a list or schedule of articles, de- scribing each separately and distinctly. INVERCARGILL, a town of New Zealand, in Southland county, at the mouth of New River, and at a railway junction. It has a hospital, news- papers, saw-mills, and ships much timber, wool, preserved meats, etc. The surrounding district is principally taken up with pastoral operations. Population, 4,500. INVERSION, in music, is of three kinds. (1) Of a chord, when any other of its component notes than the root is placed lowest. (2) Of an interval (within the octave),when the lower note is trans- posed an octave higher, or oice oersa. (3) Ofa subject or theme, when it is imitated in contrary motion; that is, the melody progresses by the same intervals as the original theme, but ascends or de- scends always in a contrary direction. INVOLUCRE. In a shortened inflorescence, as the umbel, the bracts, unless suppressed, are ne- cessarily close together, and form an apparent whorl around the group of pedicels. This is the involucre. In compound umbels the whorl of bracts of the secondary umbel is a secondary involucre, and is commonly called an involucel. IOLA, a city, railroad junction, and county-seat of Allen county, Kan., situated on Neosho River. The region is afine agricultural locality and the city manufactures furniture and other goods. An artesian well supplies mineral water and sufficient gas to heat and light the town. IONIA, a city and county-seat of Ionia county, Mich., situated on Grand River. Agriculture and the lumber business are the leading industries. The place contains railroad repair-shops and vari- ous mills and factories. Population, 4,999. IONIAN SEA, that part of the Mediterranean which lies between Greece and European Turkey on the east, and Italy and Sicily on the west. It forms the gulfs of Taranto and Patras, and communicates with the Adriatic Sea by the ‘Strait of Otranto. It contains all the Ionian Islands except Cerigo. IOWA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, THE, was established as a State institution in 1858, and bene- - IOWA CITY—IOWA fited by the land grants made by Congress in 1862, to such States as had established or should estab- lish colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. These land-grants formed the basis of the present endowment of the college—about $650,000. The college is equipped with a farm of 900 acres, build- ings costing about $270,000, apparatus required by the courses of study, a library, and a museum con- taining large collections. , IOWA CITY, the county-seat of Johnson county, Iowa, and the capital of the State from 1839 to 1856, situated in Lucas township, on the east bank of the Iowa River, 120 miles east of Des Moines, and 54 miles west by north of Davenport. It is the seat of the Iowa State University, organized in 1860. It -contains, besides many important public buildings, alarge paper mill, a foundry, manufactories of carriages, alcohol, flour, beer, linseed oil, pumps, plows, etc. Population in 1880, 7,123; in 1890, ’IowA COLLEGE. See COLLEGES, in these Re- visions and Additions. IOWA FALLS, a railroad junction of Hardin county, Iowa, on the Iow_a River, the falls of which, at this point, give the name to the town. It is 143 miles west of Dubuque. IOWA, STATE OF, for general article on IowA see Britannica,Vol. XIII, pp. 207-209. The census of 1890 reports the area at 56,025 square miles; popu- lation 1,911,896; population of the State capital, Des Moines, 50,067. The population by counties, as reported by the census of 1890, is given in the sub- joined table: Counties. 1890 1880 Adair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H . . . . . . . 14,534 11,667 Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,292 11,888 Allamakee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,907 19,791 Appanoose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,961 16,636 Audubon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .} . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,412 7,448 Benton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,178 24, Black Hawk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,219 23,913 Boone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,772 20,838 Bremer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,630 14,081 Buchanan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,997 18,541 Buena Vista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,548 7,537 Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,463 14,293 Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,107 5,595 Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,828 12,351 Cass ........................................ . . 19,645 16,943 Cedar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.253 18,936 Cerro Gordo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,864 11,461 Cherokee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.659 8.240 Chickasaw . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,019 14,534 Clark ...................................... . . 11,%2 11,513 Clay ........................................ . . 9.309 4,248 Clayton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . 26,733 28,829 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41,199 36 763 Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,894 12,413 Dallas ..................................... . . 20,479 18,746 Davis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 15.258 16.468 Decatur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,643 15,336 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 .349 17 .950 Des Moines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,324 33,099 Dickinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,328 1,901 Dubuque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,848 42,996 Emmet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,274 1.550 Fayette .................................... . . 29,141 22,258 Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,424 14,677 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,871 10,249 Fremont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,842 17,652 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . .. 15,797 12,727 Grundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,215 12,639 Guthrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,380 14,394 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,319 11,252 Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,621 3,453 Hardin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,003 17,807 Counties. 1390 1380 Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 ,356 16,649 Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,895 20,986 Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,182 10,837 Humbolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,836 5,341 da . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,705 4,382 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,270 19,221 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,771 23,771 Jasper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,943 ‘ ,963 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,184 17 ,46 Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,082 25,429 Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 233 21,052 Keokuk ................................... . . 23362 21,258 Kossuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,120 6.178 Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 ,715 34,859 Linn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 45,303 37,237 Louisa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,873 13,142 Lucas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,563 14,530 Lyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,680 1,968 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,977 17,224 Mahaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,805 25,202 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,058 25,111 Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.842 23,752 Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,548 14,137 Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 14,363 Monona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,515 9,055 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,666 13,719 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,848 15,895 Muscatine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,504 23,170 O'Brien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,060 4,155 Osceola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,574 2,219 Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,341 19,667 Palo Alto._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,318 4,131 Plymouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,568 8,566 Pocahontas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,553 3,713 Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65,410 42,395 Pottawattamie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,430 39,850 Poweshiek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. 18,394 18,936 Ringgold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,556 12,085 Sac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,522 774 Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43,164 41256 Shelby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,611 12.696 Sioux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.370 5.426 Story . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,127 16,906 Tama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,651 21,535 Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,334 15,535 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,900 14,980 Van Buren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . 16,253 17,043 Wapello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,426 25,285 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,269 19.578 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . 18,468 20,374 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,670 16,127 Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531,532 15,951 Winnebago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ,325 4,917 Winnesheik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,028 23,938 Woodbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.632 14,996 Worth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,247 7 .053 Wright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ,057 9,062 The census of 1890 reports the population of the cities of the State of Iowa having a population of 3,000 and over, as follows: Burlington, 22,528; Cedar Rapids, 17,997; Clinton, 13,629; Council Bluffs, 21,388; Davenport, 25,161; Des Moines, 50; 067 ; Dubuque, 30,147; Keokuk, 14,075; Muscatine, 11, 432; Ottumwa, 13,996; Sioux City, 37,862; Boone, 6,518; Preston, 7,195 ; Fort Madison, 7,906; Osca- loosa. 7,300; Waterloo, 6,679; Iowa City, 5,628; Ly- ons, 5,791; Fort Dodge, 4,869; Independence, 4,120; Mason City, 4,002 ; Mt. Pleasant, 4,918; Cedar Falls, 3,598; Fairfield, 3,379; Grinnell, 3,327 ; Washington, 3,234. The population of the State of Iowa was 1,624,615 in 1880; 1,753,980 in 1885 (State census); and 1,906,729 in 1890. The State ranked 10 in total population, and retained the same place in 1890. About one-half the State is underlaid with coal. The northern extremity of the great Fourth Coal Field occupies the southern portion of the State, ex- 916 tending across the southeastern counties of Ne- braska, thence southward into Texas and the Indian Territory. Coal is produced in 26 counties, and in quality it is adapted to steam and heating purposes. N o cannel or gas coal has thus far been found in the State. The product in 1880 was 1,461,116 tons ; in 1889, 4,061,704 tons, valued at $5,- 392,220. The number of persons employed during the year was 9,198, receiving as wages $3,903,291. , For other products of the State as reported in the census of Iowa, in 1890, see the article on such products, severally; also the article UNITED STATES. See Revisions and Additions. The subjoined table gives the complete list of governors, Territorial and State, from the date of the organization of the State: TERRITORIAL. Robert Lucas, . . . . . . . . . .1834-41 John Chambers, . . . . . . . .1841-46 James Clark, 1846. STATE. Anscl Briggs, . . . . . . . . . ..1846—50 Samuel Merrill, . . . . . . ..1868-72 Stephen Hemstead,. ...1850—54 Cyrus C.Carpenter.....1872-76 James W. Grimes, . . . . ..1854—58 Samuel J . K1'rkwood,. . .1876-78 Ralph P. Lowe, . . . . . . . ..1858-60 John H. Gear, . . . . . . . . ..1878-80 Samuel J. Kirkwood,. .1860-64 Buren R. Sherman,. . . . .1882-86 Wm. M. Stone, . . . . . . . . ..1864-68 William Larrabee,. . .. .1886-90 Horace Boies, 1890-(94.) IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY. See COLLEGES, i.n these Revisions and Additions. IPSARA, or PSARA, a small island belonging to Turkey, in the Grecian Archipelago, 9 miles west of Scio. It was very prosperous before the Greek re- volution ; but, taken by the Turks in 1824, its indus- tries fell into decay and its population diminished. Its inhabitants are chiefly engaged in fishing. IPSWICH, a village of Essex county, Mass., on Ipswich River, 3 miles from the Atlantic, and 27 miles northeast of Boston. The town was settled in 1642, and was originally the county-seat. It has manufactories of silk, hosiery, shoes, isinglass, soap, and woolen fabrics. It contains the Manninghigh- school, the Heard public library, a ladies’ seminary, a house of correction, and an insane asylum. IRBY, JOHN L. M., a United States Senator from South Carolina, a lawyer, born in Laurens county, South Carolina, Sept. 10, 1854. He was educated at the University of Virginia and Princeton College, and entered the profession of law in 1876. In poli- tics he is a Democrat, and an active member of the Farmers’ Alliance. He was elected a member of the State house of representatives in 1886, 1888 and 1890. In 1890 he was elected by the South Carolina legislature to the United States Senate, to succeed Wade Hampton. IREDELL, JAMES (1750-99), an American jurist. He was admitted to the North Carolina bar in 1775, and from 17 74 until the Revolution, was collector of customs at Edenton. In 1777 he was chosen a judge of the supreme court, and in 1787 was appointed a commissioner to compile and revise the laws of the State. In 1790 he became associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. IREDELL, JAMES (1788-1853), a United States Senator, son of the preceding. He was admitted to the North Carolina bar, and in 1816 became a mem- nor of the legislature, serving for many years. In 1827 he became governor of the State,and from 1828 to 1831 was in the United States Senate. He after- wards practiced his profession in Raleigh, and for many years was reporter of the decisions of the supreme court. He published a Treatzse on the Law of Executors and Administrators, and a Digest of ‘All the Reported Cases in the Courts of North Carolma, 1778 to 1845. ‘ IRELAND. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 214- 72 ; also GREAT BRITAIN, in these Revisions. IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY-—IRON IRELAND ISLAND, one of the Bermudas. \IRIDE]E, or IRIDAOE2E, a natural order of endog- enous plants, mostly herbaceous, with bulbous, tuberous, or creeping root-stocks. The leaves are generally sword-shaped and in two rows. The col- ored perianth is six-partite. The stamens are three, with anthers turned outwards. The ovary is in- ferior; there is one style, with three stigmas which are often petal-like. The fruit is a three-celled, three-valved capsule. About seven hundred species are known, of which the greater number are natives of warm countries. Iris Gladiolus and Crocus are examples. IRISH SEA, a body of water lying between the North of Ireland and the North of England, with the southwestern counties of Scotland on the north. It is connected with the Atlantic on the northwest by the north channel, and on the south by St. George’s channel. The Irish Sea has a width of 150 miles, its length north and south is about the same. Within its boundaries lie the Isle of Man, Anglesey, Holyhead, and other islands. IRON, PRODUCTION OF IN UNITED STATES. For the general article on iron, see Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 278-359. The latest reliable statistics of the pro- duction of iron in the United States are those of the census of 1890, reported by Doctor William M. Sweet, of Philadelphia, from which we quote the following summaries: ,The production of Pig-Iron during the year ended June 30, 1890, was the largest in the history of the iron industry of this country, amounting to 9,579,- 779 tons of 2,000 pounds, as compared with 3,781,021 tons produced during the census year 1880 and 2,052,821 tons during the census year 1870. From 1870 to 1880, the increase in production amounted to 1,728,200 tons, or nearly 85 per cent., while from 1880 to 1890, the increase was 2,798,758 tons, or over 153 per cent. The pig-iron industry of New England has been practically stationary during the past twenty years, while during the same period, and especially since 1880, there has been a wonderful development of the manufacture of pig-iron in all other sections of the country. The relative rank of the various States is seen to have undergone many changes since 1880. Penn- sylvania still retains its leadership as the pro- ducer of about one-half of the pig-iron that is an- nually made in the United States, producing 51 per cent. of the total production in the census year 1880, and over -49 per cent. in 1890. Ohio was second in rank in both 1880 and 1890, the output of pig- iron in the former year being over 14 per cent. of the total production in the United States, and in the latter year over 13 per cent. Alabama, which occupied tenth place in 1880, with an output of 62,336 tons, is now the third largest producer of pig- iron, the production of this State in 1890 amounting to 890,432 tons, an increase of more than 1,328 per cent. over the production of 1880. Illinois. which was seventh in rank in 1880, is fourth in 1890; and New York, which was third in 1880, occupies fifth place in 1890. Virginia, which was seventeenth in rank in 1880. is now sixth; while Tennessee has gone from thirteenth to seventh place. Notwithstanding the fact that the production of pig-iron has increased from 3,781,021 tons of 2,000 pounds in 1880, to 9,579,779 tons in 1890, the total number of completed furnaces has decreased during the ten years from 681 to 562. Many fur- naces whichwere in the active list in 1880, have since been abandoned, owing to their. inability to rofit- ably compete with the larger, better locate , and more modern furnaces of the present day. The majority of these abandoned furnaces were of small IRON BARK TREE—IRONY capacity, and were able to produce and market pig-iron only during periods of great demand and consequent high prices, while the large number of new and improved furnaces which have been built during recent years, and which are favorablylocat ed for the supply of materials at low cost and within easy access to market, have now made the operation of these antiquated furnaces un- remunerative even in periods of the greatest ac- tivity. Pennsylvania shows a decrease of 45 furnaces from 1880 to 1890, and during the same period the total number of furnaces in Ohio has decreased by 32. These figures, however, merely exhibit the net decrease in the number of furnaces, as many large bituminous coal and coke furnaces have been erected during this period in these as well as in other States to take the place of small stacks abandoned. Since 1880 there have been 282 furnaces abandoned in the United States, owing either to unfavorable location or to give place to larger and more modern ' plants, while during the same period 163 new fur- naces have been built, in addition to a large num- ber of plants that have been scientifically remod- eled and enlarged by the addition of new and more Bflicient machinery. At the close of the census year 1890, the total number of blast furnaces which were active or likely to be some day active was 562, of which 169 were anthracite or anthracite and coke furnaces, 253 coke and bituminous coal furnaces, and 140 char- coal furnaces. Of the total number of furnaces at the close of 1880, there were 229 anthracite or an- thracite and coke furnaces, 195 coke and bi- tuminous coal furnaces, and 257 charcoal furnaces. In the decade from 1880 to 1890, there is seen to have been a decrease of 60 in the number of anthra- cite or anthracite and coke furnaces, a decrease of 117 in the number of charcoal furnaces, and an increase of 58 -in the number of coke and bitu- minous coal furnaces. Of the 562 completed furnaces at the close of the census year 1890, there were 338 in blast, of which 110 ‘ were anthracite or anthracite and coke furnaces, 165 coke and bituminous coal furnaces, and 63 charcoal furnaces. The number of furnaces build- ing at the date mentioned was 39, of which 9 were in Virginia, 7 in Alabama, 5 in Pennsylvania, 4 in Illinois, 3 each in Kentucky, Tennessee and Michi- gan, 2 in Maryland, and 1 each in Georgia, Ohio and Wisconsin. -One of the most noticeable features in the growth of the manufacture of pig-iron in this country , during the past decade is the development of the blast-furnace industry of the southern States. In 1880, the Southalready commenced to appreciate the value of the extensive deposits of iron ore and coal within her borders and to realize the superior advantages which she possessed for the cheap pro- duction of pig-iron, owing to the close proximity to each other of these materials, and a number of large coke furnaces were built in that year and the few succeeding years. The greatest activity, how- ever, in undertaking new furnace plants was in 1887, during which year 5 new furnaces were -blown in and 25 others were under construction. There has been but little abatement in this activity to the present time. The greatest activity in the development of the Southern pig-iron industry during the past decade is seen to have been in Alabama. This State pro- duced in the census year 1890 one-half of all the pig-iron made in the South, and was only exceeded in production in the United States by Pennsylvania an Ohio. Virginia and Tennessee now occupy, respectively, second and third places among the 917 pig-iron producing States of the South. Prior to the census year 1890. Tennessee was the second leading manufacturer of pig-iron in that section, but the activity which has been noticeable during the past few years in Virginia in the erection of new fur- naces has placed this State next to Alabama among Southern States in the quantity of pig-iron produced. In 1880 West Virginia was the leading producer of pig-iron in the South,but in 1890 it was fourth in rank. ‘ The production of Bessemer pig-iron in the United States during the census year 1890, which is included in the figures of total production of pig- iron, amounted to 4,233,372 tons. Of this quantity Pennsylvania made 2,567,813 tons; Illinois, 616,659 tons; Ohio, 526,654 tons; New York, 174,574 tons; West Virginia, 101,178 tons; Maryland, 77,754 tons; Missouri, 68,629 tons; Wisconsin, 43,728 tons; New Jersey, 41,479 tons, and all other States a total of 14,904 tons. Of the total production of Bessemer pig-iron in Pennsylvania in the census year 1890, the Lehigh Valley produced 257,844 tons; the Schuylkill Valley, 148,026 tons; the Upper Susque- hanna Valley, 132,886 tons; the Lower Susquehan- na Valley, 493,288 tons; the J uniata Valley, 23,378 tons; the Shenango Valley, 298,792 tons; Allegheny county, 995,721 tons, and the remainder of the State, 217,848 tons. Of the total production of Bessemer pig-iron in Ohio in the census year 1890, the Mahoning Valley produced 96,605 tons; the Hocking Valley, 29,453 tons, and the remainder of the State, 400,596 tons. I The production of spiegeleisen in the census year 1890, which is included in the figures of total pro- duction of pig-iron, amounted to 149,959 tons, as compared with 12,875 tons produced in the census year 1880. Four States made spiegeleisen in 1890, viz., New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and (3010- rado, while in 1880, only New Jersey and Pennsyl- vania were engaged in its manufacture. IRON BARK TREE, aname given in Australia to certain species of Eucalyptus, particularly E. resinifsra, or red gum, on account of the extreme hardness of the bark. IRON ORO SS, 9. Prussian order, instituted March 10, 1813, by Frederick William III. to be conferred for distinguished services in war. The decoration is a Maltese cross of iron edged with siver. IRON MOUNTAIN, or Inox Mounr, a hill in St Francois county, Mo., 81 miles southwest of St. Louis. It is about 300 feet higher than the adja- cent plain and covers 500 acres. It yields from 50 to 60 per cent. of good iron, free from sulphur, magnetic, and softer than that of Pilot Knob. The amount of iron appears to be immense as it is 50 feet in thickness and of unknown depth. Iron Mountain village contains blast furnaces and factories. IRONTON, a city, the county-seat of Lincoln county, Ohio, situated on the Ohio River, 3 miles above Portsmouth, about 140 miles above Cincin- nati, and 50 miles southwest of Pomeroy. The city is built on a small plain or bottom at the base of hills which abound in iron ore and bituminous coal. At Ironton there are several rolling-mills, iron foundries, furnaces. and other manufactories. Iron is the chief article of export. Population in 1880, 8,857; in 1890, 10,922. IRONY (Gr. eirérneia, eiron, “a dissembler”), the name applied to a figure which enables the speaker to convey his meaning with greater force by means of a contrast between his thought and his expres- sion. It is properly a weapon of controversy, by means of which weight and point may be added to the gravest part of the argument. The dialogues of Plato are admirable examples of subtle irony, 918 and in modern literature the Provincial Letters of Pascal. IROQUOIS. See IND1ANS,AMERICAN in these Re- Visions and Additions. IRRATIONAL NUMBERS, a term applied to ‘those roots of numbers which cannot be accurately expressed by a finite number of figures. For in- stance, \/2 is an irrational number. If the di- ameter of a circle is one foot the circumference is an irrational number. Irrational numbers have been defined to be numbers which are incommensurable -With unity. They are also termed Surds. IRRITABILITY in plants, a term employed to designate phenomena very interesting and curious, but still imperfectly understood. Such are the sleep of plants, the motion of the spores of many cryptogamic plants by means of cilia; the motions of insectivorous plants, etc. IRVING, HENRY, the stage name of John Henry Brodrib, an English actor. He was born at Kein- ton, Glastonbury, in 1838 and educated at the school of Dr. Pinches in London, becoming a clerk in that city. In 1856 he made his first appearance on the stage in a London theater; then played in Scotland for nearly three years before returning to London, afterward in Glasgow, Liverpool and Man- ehester with increasing success until in 1874, in London, he created genuine interest by his render- ing of Hamlet. This established his reputation as a tragedian of real power and originality. Mr. Ir- ving has made three successful tours in the United States; in 1883, 1884 and 1886. In 1878 he entered on the management of the Lyceum Theater in London, England, and has written several papers on his art for the Nineteenth Century, as well as an introduction to the English translation of Diderot’s Paradox of Acting. IRVING, Tnnononn (1809-1880), an American educator. In 1836 he became professor of history and belles-lettres in Geneva college, and in 1848 in the free academy of New York. He resigned in 1852, and in 1854 was ordained priest of the Protest- ant Episcopal church. He held rectorships in Bay Ridge, L. I., Staten Island, and New York. He published The Conquest of Florida by Hernando de Soto (1835); The Fountain of Living Waters (1854); Tiny Footfalls (1869) ; and More than Conqueror (1873). IRVINGTON, a village of Westchester county, N. Y., on the Hudson River Railroad, 24 miles from New York. Sunny Side, the former residence of Washington Irving, is in the immediate vicinity. IRWIN, a post-borough of Westmoreland county, Penn., at the junction of the Pennsylvania and Youghiogheny railroads, 22 miles S.E. of Pittsburgh. Several coal companies operate in mines here. IRWIN, JARED (1750-1818), an American states- man. During the last four years of the Revolution he served in a Georgia regiment, and was a mem- ber of the first legislature that convened after the independence of the colonies was established, re- maining in that body continuously, except while governor of the State, from 1790 till 1811. He was a member of the State constitutional conventions of 1789, 1795, and 1798. ISAIAH. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 377- 384. ISAMBERT, FRANCOIS ANDRE, lawyer, born at Aunay, France, in 1792, died at Paris in 1857. In 1818 he began to practice as an advocate, soon at- taining political prominence as an opponent of the Restoration government, and later was prominent as a friend of liberty and opponent of the Jesuits. He was the author of several legal works and com- piled the old laws of France (29 Vols. 1821-1833). He also wrote a Life of .Iu.stinian (1856), and at the time of his death was engaged in compiling the _ ity with the continents. IROQUOIS-—ISLE LA Morrn more modern French laws, nances. ., ISAR, or ISER, a river of Bavaria, rises in the Tyrol, northeast of Innsbruck, and flows 220 miles, generally in a north and northeast direction, till it falls into the Danube near Deggendorf. Munich and Landshut are on its banks. Hohenlinden is twenty miles away. In the first part of its course it is an impetuous mountain torrent, and large quantities of wood are floated down from the moluntains. Area of its drainage basin, 3,545 square mi es. ISEO, LAKE, (Lacus Seuinus), a lake of Northern Italy, situated between the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia. Length, twelve and a half miles; maximum breadth, three and two-fifth miles; area, twenty-four square miles. It contains two small islands, and is fed by the Oglio. , ISHPEMING,a post-town in Ishpeming town- ship, Marquette county, Michigan, 15 miles W. SI/V. of Marquette, and 3miles west of Negaunee. It contains a foundry, a machine-shop, a blast-furnace, and a carriage-factory, besides several important public institutions. It is supported mainly by the iron-mines, which are. very rich, and there are sev- eral iron-furnaces in the vicinity. Population in 1880, 6,039 ; in 1890, 11,184. ISIAC TABLE, a flat rectangular bronze-plate, about 5 feet long and 3 feet high. It was bought of a locksmith by Cardinal Bembo in 1527, after the sack of Rome by Charles V, and finally passed ‘to Turin where it still remains. It is much muti- lated and was supposed to be agenuine relic of ancient Egypt, although more recently considered avery late monument. It is a representation of Isis, surrounded by most of the Egyptian dei- ties. ISLAND (A. S. igland, ig ‘island,’ and land), land surrounded by water. The larger masses of land surrounded by water, or parts of them, are conti- nents, and the term island is usually restricted to the smaller. Two classes of islands may be distin- guished—continental and oceanic. Continental islands are closely allied by the structure of their rocks to the nearest continental land, from which they are rarely far distant, although sometimes, as in the case of Madagascar and New Zealand, they are separated by depths exceeding 1,000 fathoms, and generally lie to the south and east of the continent with which they are associated; the only exceptions to this rule being islands separated by depths less than a hundred fathoms. With the exception of Madagascar and New Zealand, whose separation is unusually complete, the plants and animals of con- tinental islands are similar to those on the adja- cent continent, and from the differences detected the period of separation has sometimes been calcu- lated. Groups of continental islands inclosing seas stretch from the southeast peninsula of each of the northern continents towards the nearest southern continent. Oceanic islands rise abruptly from great depths, and show no geological continu- surface either as volcanic islands, usually rugged peaks or vast accumulations of lava, nearly as pre- cipitous below the surface as above, or as coral islands. Numerous submarine mountains have been‘ discovered in parts of the ocean, which only require moderate elevation, or the deposition of sediment or coral growth, to appear on the surface as islands. ISLE LA MOTTE, an island in Lake Champlain, about 30 miles north of Burlington, constituting the township of Isle la Motte, Grand Isle county, Vt. It is six miles long, and has extensive quar- ries of gray, black, and variegated marble. edicts and ordi- They appear above the, ISLES OF SHOALS—ITALY ISLES OF SHOALS, a group of eight small islands, 10 miles S. E. of Portsmouth, N. H., inhab- ited chiefly by fishermen. On VVhite Island is a revolving light, 87 feet above the level of the sea, and on Appledore and Star Islands there are hotels for the accommodation of summer visitors who re- sort to the islands to enjoy the sea-air. - ISLIP, a township and village of Suffolk county, Long Island, N. Y., situated on Great South Bay. It has flour, paper and planing-mills, a marine rail- road, a shipyard and establishments for putting up canned goods. This is the headquarters of several sporting clubs, and here fishing and the rearing of trout are important industries. Population of township, 8,747. ISMAIL PASHA, ex-Khedive of Egypt, born at Cairo in 1830. His father was Ibrahim Pasha. After Ismail’s education at Paris had been finished he returned to Egypt in 1849, his father having died. Said Pasha, viceroy of Egypt in 1856, em- ployed Ismail in various missions to European courts; and in 1862, when Said Pasha visited Eu- rope, he left the administration in charge of Ismail, and when Said Pasha died, in 1863, Ismail succeed- ed as viceroy. By means of his wealth he obtained in 1866 from the Sultan of Turkey the privilege of succession in direct line for his dynasty, and soon afterwards he obtained other concessions, which freed him from Turkish supervision, and procured for him the title of “ Khedive.” He introduced many foreign customs; opened the first Egyptian parliament in 1866; and pushed his conquests in the valley of the ‘White Nile with the aid of Sir Samuel WV. Baker. In 1869 he performed the cere- monies connected with the opening of the Suez- Canal. By contracting many loans in England and France he created a public debt of 400 million dol- lars, which forced him in 1875 to sell his shares in the Suez Canal to the British government. In 1876 he suspended payment of interest on the bonds he had issued, and was compelled to relinquish his es- tates to the creditors. As the army and the peo- ple became discontented, especially at his intro- duction of many foreign officials, and the heavy taxation, Ismail abdicated in 1878 in favor of his son Tewfik Pasha. ISOCHRONISM ( Gr. isos, “ equal ; ”- chronos, “ time”), the property of the pendulum which causes it to perform its vibrations in equal time. The character of being isochronous. A pendulum can only possess this property by being constrained to move in a cycloidal arc. See Britannica, Vol. VI, p. 14. ISOLA GROSSA, or IsoLA LUNGA (Great or Long Island), a long, narrow island in the Adriatic, twenty-seven miles by three, running parallel to the coast of Dalmatia. It belongs to Austria. Population, 12,000. ‘ ISONANDRA GUTTA,or Drcnorrs GUTTA, a large tree, of the order of Sapotaceze, whose inspissated juice is known as “gutta percha.” For an account of the methods of collecting and using the juice see Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 337-339. ISRAEL. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 396-432. ISRAELS, Josns, artist, born at Grtiningen, in the Netherlands, in 1824, studied at Amsterdam and in Paris. His first exhibited work was histori- cal, and attracted attention, but he has since de- voted his skill to the portrayal of scenes from humble life, and his work is highly esteemed. In 1867 he was awarded the ribbon of the Legion of‘ Honor and in 1875 the cross. Besides his work in oil and water-colors he is favorably known as an etcher. He resides at the Hague. ISSUE, in law, means the point of fact in dispute ' which is submitted to a jury. 919 ITALIC VERSION, a translation of the Scrip- tures into Latin. It preceded the Vulgate and is supposed to date from about the middle of the 3d century. The Italic Version was in general use down to the time of Jerome, who, dissatisfied with its imperfections, undertook to revise it, but pro- duced the translation known as the Vulgate. The Old Testament he translated from the Septuagint. ITALY. For general article on the kingdom of ITALY, see Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 434-516. The area of Italy in 1891 is the same as in 1881 when it was in official census reported at 286,588 square kilometres, or 110,620 square miles. The latest published census, that of Dec. 31, 1881, reported a total population Of 28,459,628, a net increase during the previous decade of 1,657,474. Rome, the capital city, had a population of 273,- 268. Rome was rapidly increasing in population, the total in the city, reaching in 1877, 372,778. A later semi-ofiicial census, estimated, in 1885, increased the above figures making the totals as follows: Area, 110,655 square miles (91,277 main- land, 19,378 islands), with a population of 29,699,- 781. The coast-line of the mainland is estimated at 1,999 miles; of Sardinia, Sicily, and Elba, at 1,389 miles; of the minor islands, at 557 miles; in all 3;945 miles. REIGNING KING AND RoYAL FAMILY.——Umberto I., was born March 14, 1844. He is the eldest son of King Vittorio Emanuele II. of Italy and of Archduchess Adelaide of Austria. He succeed- ed to the throne on the death of his father, J an. 9, 1878. He was married April 22, 1868, to Queen Margherita, born Nov. 20, 1851, the only daughter of the late Prince Ferdinando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa. Son of the King and Heir Apparent.—Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples, born Nov. 11, 1869. Sisters of the King.-1. Princess Clotilde, born March 2, 1843; married Jan. 30, 1.859, to Prince Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, born Sep. 9, 1822; offspring of the union are Napoleon Victor, born July 18, 1862; Louis, born July 16, 1864; and Leetizia, born Dec. 20,1866. 2. Prin- cess Pia, born Oct. 16, 1847; married, Sep. 27, 1862, to the late King Luis. I. of Portugal. Nepheus of the King.—Prince Emanuele Filiber- to, Duke of Puglie, born Jan. 13, 1869; Prince Vittoria Emanuele, Count of Turin, born Nov. 24, 1870; Prince Luigi Amedeo,born J an. 30, 1873; Prince Umberto-Maria, born June 22,1889-—child- ren of the late Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta. Aunt of the King. —— Princess Elisabetta, born Feb. 4, 1830, the daughter of King Johann of Saxony; married April 80, 1850, to Prince Ferdi- nando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa; widow Feb. 10, 1855; re-married, in 1856, to the Marquis of Rap- allo. Offspring of the first union are :——1. Prin- cess Margherita, born Nov. 20, 1851; married, April 22, 1868, to King Umberto I. 2. Prince Tommaso of Savoy, Duke of Genoa, vice-admiral, born Feb. 6, 1854, married, April 14, 1883,to Prin- cess Isabella, daughter of the late Prince Adal- bert of Bavaria; offspring, Prince Ferdinando Umberto, born April 21, 1884. The ‘Dotazione della Carona’, or civil list for the support of the King has been settled at 14,290,000 lire or $2,858,000. Out of this the children of the late Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta have an ‘Ap- pannaggio,’ or State allowance, of 400,000 lire; his cousin Prince Tommaso, Duke of Genoa, an al- lowance of 400,000 lire. The private domains of the reigning family were given up to the State in 1848. CoNsTITUTIoN AND GovERNMENT.—The constitu- tion of Italy in 1891 is the expansion of the ‘Stat- 9% uto fondamentale del Regno,’ granted on March 4, 1848, by King Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to this charter, the execu- tive power of tho. state belongs exclusively to the sovereign, and is exercised by him through responsible ministers; while the legislative au- thority rests conjointly in the King and Parlia- ment, the latter consisting of two Chambers- an upper one, the Senato, and a lower one, called the ‘Camera cle’ Deputati.’ The Senate is composed of the princes of the royal house who are of age, and of an unlimited number of members, above forty years old, who are nominated by the King for life; a condition of the nomination being that the person should either fill a high oflice, or have acquired fame in science, literature,or any other pur- suit tending to the benefit of the nation, or final- ly, should pay taxes to the annual amount of 3,000 lire, or 1201. On April 14, 1886, there were 315 senators. The deputies of the lower House are elected according to the electoral law of Sept. 24, 1882, which introduced the scrutin de liste, by ballot, by all citizens who are twenty-one years of age, can read and write, and pay taxes to the amount of 19 lire, or 80 centesimi. Members of academies, professors, persons who have served their country under arms for twenty years‘, and numerous other classes, are qualified to vote by their position. The number of deputies is 508, or 1 to every 57,000 of the population (census 1838). The number who had the right to 'vote in 1886 was 2,420,327. The number who voted in 1886 was 1,415,801, or 58.5 per cent. of those who had the right to vote. For electoral purposes the whole of the kingdom is divided into 135 elec- toral colleges or districts, and these again into several sections. No deputy can be returned to parliament~ unless at least one-eighth of the in- scribed electors appear at the poll. A deputy must be thirty years old, and have the requisites demanded by the electoral law. Incapable of be- ing elected are all salaried government officials, as well as all persons ordained for the priesthood and filling clerical charges, or receive 'pay from the state. Olficers in the army and navy, minis- ters, under-secretaries of state, and various oth- er classes of functionaries high in office, may be elected, but their number must never be more than forty, not including the ministers and the under-secretaries of state. Neither senators nor deputies receive any salary or other indemnity. but are allowed to travel free throughout Italy by rail or steamer. The duration of parliaments is five years; but the king has the power to dissolve the lower House at any time, being bound only to order new elections, and convoke a new meeting within four months. It is incumbent upon the executive to call the par- liament together annually. Each of the chambers has the right of introducing new bills, the same as the government; but all money bills must origi- nate in the house of deputies. The ministers have the right to attend the debates of both the upper and the lower House; but they have no vote unless they are members. The sittings of both chambers are public; and no sitting is valid unless an abso- lute majority of the members are present. The executive power is exercised, under the king, by a ministry divided into 11 departments. The two principal elective local administrative bodies are the communal councils and the provin- cial councils. According to the law of Feb. 10, 1889, each commune has a communal council, a municipal council. and a syndic. Both the com- munal councils and municipal councils vary ac- cording to population, the members of the latter ITALY being selected by the former from among them- selves. The syndic is the head of the communal administration, and is a government oflicial ; he is eleoted by the communal council from among its own members, by secret vote, in all the chief com- munes of provinces and districts, and in other com- munes having more than 10,000 inhabitants. Elec- tors must be Italian citizens, twenty-one years of age, able to read and write, be on the parliamentary electoral list, or pay a direct annual contribution to the commune, of any nature, or comply with other conditions of a very simple character. MOVEMENT or PoPULA'rIoN.-—Of the total pop- ulation in 1881, there were 11,258,968 males, and 11,292 females, exclusive of children under 9 years of age. Of proprietors of land there were 378,786 males. and 335,016 females; proprietors of build- ings, 482,058 males, and 299,876 females. In 1889 there were 229,094 marriages; 1,148,249 births; and 766,131 (exclusive of stillborn) deaths‘: The number of emigrants from the country reached in 1889, a total of 218,412, of whom 30,238 were to the United States. The following figures show the increase of the present territory of Italy from 1800, onward in round numbers: Year. Population. Incrgg‘:eanI:1e,§m?ent' 1800 18.124,000 1816 18,383,000 0.089 1825 19,727,000 0.812 1838 21,975,000 0.876 1848 23,617, 0.747 1861 25,000,000 0.450 1871 26,800,000 0.400 1881 28,460, 0.619 The agglomerated (not communal) population of the principal cities in Italy, as reported in last official census,was the following: Towns. P(%§)(1)1I118‘ Towns. P(.g)(;1I}a" Na les . . . . . . . . . . .. 463,172 Ferrara . . . . . . . . . . .. 28,814 Mi an . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295, Caltagirone . . . . . . .. 28,119 Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273,268 Mantova . . . . . . . . . . . 28,048 Turin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230,183 Vicenza . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,694 Palermo . . . . . . . . . . . 205,712 omo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,560 Genoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138,081 Taranto . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,246 Florence . . . . . . . . . . 134,992 Trani . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,173 Venice . . . . . . . . . . . . 129,445 Caltanissetta . . . . .. 25,027 Bologna . . . . . . . . . . . 103,998 Ragusa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,183 Catania . . . . . . . . . .. 96,017 Reggio di Cal . . . . .. 23,853 Leghorn . . . . . . . . . . . 78,998 Bergamo . . . . . . . . . . . 23,819 Messina . . . . . . . . . . . 78,438 Siena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,445 Verona . . . . . . . . . . . . 60,768 Udine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,254 Bari . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58,266 Termini Imerese.. 22,733 Padua . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,334 Bitonto . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,726 Parma . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44,492 Cerignola . . . . . . . . . . 22,659 Brescia . . . . . . . . . . . . 43,354 Acireale . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,431 Modica . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,390 Salerno . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,328 Pisa . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37,704 Castellammare di Alcamo . . . . . . . . . . . 37,697 Stabia . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,207 Foggia . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,852 Bisceglie . . . . . . . . . .. 21,765 Andria . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,795 Vittoria . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,755 Cagliari . . . . . . . . . . . 35,588 Lecce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,742 Piacenza . . . . . . . . .. 34,987 Torre del Greco. .. 21,588 Tra ani . . . . . . . . . .. 82,020 Partinico . . . . . . . . .. 21,000 Bar etta . . . . . . . . . .. 31,994 Catanzaro . . . . . . . . .. 20,931 Sasari . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,596 Terlizi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,442 Ancona . . . . . . . . . . . 31,277 Lucca . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,421 Cremona . . . . . . . . . . 31,083 Chioggia . . . . . . . . . . . 20,381 M odena., . . . . . . . . . . 31,053 Aversa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,183 Alessana . . . . . . . . . . 30,761 Vercelli . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,165 Corato . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,428 Torre Annunziata. 20,060 Pavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,836 Castelvetrano ... . . 20,053 Molfetta . . . . . . . . . . 29,697 ITALY AREA AND POPULATION BY Paovrnoas.-The kingdom of Italy is now (1891) divided into 69 provinces, whose names, area in English square miles, officia census of 1881 and care- fully estimated census of 1888, are as follows: Provinces and Com- ‘$33338 Census 1881. Estimated partimenti, miles. Total. Popliésgtion Alessandria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ,976 729,710 790,545 Cuneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,7 5 635,400 671,183 Novara. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,53 675,926 725,154 Torino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,068 1,029,214 1,077,506 Piedmont . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,332 3,070,250 3,264,388 Genova . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 1,572 760,122 802,102 Porto Maurizio . . . . . . . . . .. 467 132,251 136,121 Liguria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,039 892,373 938,223 Bergamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,088 390,775 424,145 Brescia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,644 471,568 496,860 Como . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,050 515,050 558,627 Cremona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 302,138 320,349 Milano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,155 295,728 318,275 Mantua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 1,114,991 1,210,662 Pavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,284 469,831 507,531 Sondrio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,261 120,534 126,938 Lombardy . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,075 3,680,615 3,963,387 Belluno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,271 174,140 191 Padova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 397,762 430,771 Rovigo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 217,700 235,464 Treviso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941 375,704 414,267 Udine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,515 501,745 547,381 Venezia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 356,708 378,742 Verona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,061 394,065 423,287 Vicenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,016 396,349 434,241 Venice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,059 2,814,173 3,055,441 Balogna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,391 457,474 492,074 Ferrara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,010 230,807 246,701 orli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 251,110 270,563 Modena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 966 279,254 300,195 Parma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,251 267,306 282,840 Piacenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965 226,717 239,408 Ravenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742 225,764 230,439 Reggio Emilia . . . . . . . . . . .. 877 244,959 262,928 Emilia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,921 2,183,391 2,325,148 Perugia (Umbria) . . . . . . .. 3,719 572,060 616,263 Ancona. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 267,338 286,255 Ascoli Piceno . . . . . . . . . . . .. 809 209,185 227,491 Macerata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,057 239,713 257,947 Pesaro e Urbino . . . . . . . . . . . 1,144 223,043 237,529 Marches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,746 939,279 1,009,222 Calt-anisetta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,455 266,379 294,275 Catama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,970 563,457 615,183 G1rgen ti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,491 312,487 348,330 Messma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,768 460,924 502,556 Palermo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,964 699,151 766.250 Snacusa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,427 341,526 384,692 Trapani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,214 283, 7 314,273 Sicily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,289 2,927,901 3,225,550 Cagliari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,257 420,635 447,056 Sassan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,142 261,367 283,184 Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,399 682,002 730,240 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114,410 28,459,682 30,565,253 r T-—- '____ 921 Conorvrns.-The government and people of Italy have long been seeking to come into possession of colonies, and since the annexation of Tunis to France, the opinion seems to have been strongly cherished, that in the probable breaking up of the Turkish Empire, Italy should get Tripoli and Barka as her part of the plunder. At present (1891), Italy \ claims possessions in Africa on the coast of the Red Sea, extending from Cape Kasar (180 2' N.) to the southern limit of the Sultanate of Raheita, on the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb (120 30’ N.). This tract comprises Massowah and its territory (with the ad- jacent Dahlak archipelago), and Assab and its ter- ritory, with Beilul and Gubbi to Cape Rakhmat and Cape Sintiar. The territory of Assab, on the Red Sea, apposite Aden, has an area of 548 square miles, with a population of 6,800 (1888). The length of coast is about 670 miles, and the population, which is to a great extent nomadic, is roughly estimated at 219,600; Massowah having 16,000 inhabitants, of whom 500 are Italians (exclusive of the garrison), 700 Greeks, 50 other Europeans, and 100 Banians (Indians). Trade of Massowah in 1887 (imports and exports), by land, 158,930 lire; by sea, 12,614,447 lire; vessels entered, 2,065 (1,241 Italian) of 200,997 tons; cleared, 1871, 1,200 Italian, of 211,143 tons. There are 17 miles of railway from Massowah to Saate. During the year 1889 Keren was occupied in June, Asmara in August, and the Sultanate of Obbia, on the Somali coast, was brought within the Italian protectorate in February 1889. In consequence of a recent treaty with the sultan of the Mijertain Somalis, placing the northern part of his territory under the protection of Italy, the sphere of Italian influence on the east Somali coast now reaches northwards to Cape Hafun, where it is conterminous with British protected territory. From this point it stretches southwards to the mouth of the river Jub, a few miles south of the equator, making a total coast line of about 800 geographical miles,with undefined landwardlimits. In 1889 an arrangment was concluded with the king of Abyssinia, whereby the whole of that country, including Shoa, was placed under the pro- tection of Italy. According to Professor Guido Cora, of Turin, the area and population of the territories under Italian influence (including Abyssinia and Shoa) are the following: Country. Ar§§’Liiéls.Sq' Populati’n Possessions : Country around Massowah, with Keren and Asmara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,100 250,000 Dahlak Archipelago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 2,000 Assab Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 6,800 Protectorate.- Territory of the Habab, Bogos,Beni- Amer, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18,000 200,000 Territory of the Afar or Danakil, in- , cluding the Suetanate of Aussa. .. 34,000 200,000 Somali coast (Oppia. etc.), with a tract of the interior country ex- tending to Wadi, Nogal and Mudug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,000 300,000 Kingdom of Abyssinia (Tigré. Lasta, Amhara, Gojam, Shoa, Kaffa, Harrar, etc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190,000 5,000,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336,070 5,958,800 *The Italian lira. is equivalent to the French fra-‘no. REVENUE, EXPENDITURE AND -FINANCIAL CONDI- TION.—-The oificial Budget estimates the reve- nue and expenditure for the financial year ending June 30, 1861, as follows: Ordinary revenue, 1,652,354,663 lire; extraordinary revenue, 197,893,- 509 lire; total, 1,850,248,142 lire. Ordinary expendi- tures, 1,579,911,316 lire; extraordinary expendi- 9% tures, 292,221,957 lire; total for year ending 1891, 1,872,133,271. Excess of expenditures over income for the year, 21,885,129. The following figures, compiled from the official exhibits, show the variations of the government balance sheet for the lasiaseven years, and are exceedingly suggestive to financial rea ers: Years. Total revenue. Total Expend. Difference. Lire. Lire. Lire. 1884-85 1,709,744,994 1,674,409,463 -|- 35,335,531 1885-86 1,745,515,911 1,730,598,385 - 14,917,576 1886-87 1,801,185,804 1,789,413,851 -;- 11,771,953 1887-88 1,936,724,649 1,993 875,769 —- 57,151,120 1888-89 1,913,946,799 2,105,765,840 —191,819.04l 1889-90 1,801,397,772 1,857,906,850 — 56,509,078 1890-91 1,850,248,142 1,872,133,271 —— 21,885,129 011 July 1, 1890, the capital of the consolidated and redeemable public debt was 11,241,000,000 lire, or about $2,255,000,000. The burden per head of the population was about $75. The value per head of the special exports in 1889 was about $6.12. On June 30, 1889, the public property of Italy was estimated at a total of 6,506,401,645 lire. Direct taxes are those on lands, on houses, and on incomes derived from movable capital and la- bor. The tax on lands, amounting to about 96,000,- 000, with an additional tenth, is spread over the nine cadastral compartimenti. That on houses is at the rate of 12.5 per cent (with three-tenths addi- tional) of the amount taxable, which is two-thirds of the real annual value in the case of factories, and three-fourths in the case of dwelling—houses. The tax on incomes from movable capital and la- bor is 13.2 percent. of the sum taxable. This, in incomes from capital alone, is the whole amount stated as income; in those from capital and labor (trade industries), it is six-eighths, and in those from labor alone (professions), it is five-eighths of the income stated. In the case of state, provin- cial, or communal employés, half the income is taxable. The communes and provinces also tax lands and buildings. The state grants to the com- munes one-tenth of the proceeds of the tax on in- comes as compensation for other communal reve- nues made over to the State by various laws. The principal indirect taxes are: the customs duties, the octroi, the taxes on manufactures, the salt and tobacco monopolies, lotto. Rnnreron AND EnUoA'rIoN.—The Roman Catholic Church is nominally the ruling State Church of It- aly; but many acts of the legislature, passed since the establishment of the kingdom, and more espe- cially since the suppression of the temporal govern- ment of the supreme pontiff, have subordinated the power of the church and clergy to the author- ity of the civil government, and secured perfect re- ligious freedom to the adherents of all creeds with- out exception. However, scarcely any other creeds as yet exist but Roman Catholicism. At the cen- sus of 1881, of the total population about 62,000 were Protestants, and 38,000 Jews. Of the Protest- ants 22,000 belonged to the Waldensian Church of Piedmont, about 10,000 to the other evangelical Italian churches, and 30,000 belonged to foreign Protestant bodies. In 1861 (exclusive of Veneto and the province of Rome),the total number of Protestants was 32,684, and Jews, 22,458; and in 1871 (inclusive of the Veneto and Rome), 58,651 Protestants, and 35,356 Jews. For article on B0- MAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, see said topic in Britannica and in these Revisions and Additions. The State regulates public instruction,and main- tains, either entirely or in conjunction with the communes and provinces, public schools of every grade. Every teacher in a public institution main- ITALY tained by the state, or by any other public body, must have the qualifications required by law; and in all public institutions not belonging to the state, the same programme must be followed, and the same rules observed. No private person can keep a school without having obtained the authori- zation of the state. Elementary education is compulsory for children between six and nine years of age. (Of these, ac- cording to the census of 1881, there were 1,808,129.) ' The compulsory clause is by no means strictly en- forced. The enactment, however, provided that education for children of school age should be com- pulsory only when the supply of teachers should reach the proportion to population, in the least populous communes, of one to every 1,000 inhabit- ants; in the most populous, one to every 1,500 in- habitants. The law (1889) has been applied to 8,178 communes out of 8,527. Schools in Italy may be classified under four heads, according as they pro- vide: (1) elementary instruction; (2) secondary instruction-—classical; (3) secondary instruction- technical; (4) higher education. Of these various educational institutions, the ele- mentary schools are supported by the communes, subsidies or free loans being occasionally granted by the state. In the normal schools and licei, the state provides for the payment of the staff and for scientific material. The ginnasi and technical schools should. according to the general law, be supported by the communes; but in many cases, the cost of these is borne, in great part, by the state. In the technical institutes, half the sum paid to the staff is provided by the state. The universities are maintained by the state and by their own ancient revenues, such expenses as those for scientific material, laboratories, etc., being, in some cases, borne by the various provinces of the university region. The higher special schools are maintained conjointly by the state, the province, the commune, and, sometimes, the local chamber of commerce. ARMY AND NAVY.——ThG Italian army in 1888, includ- ing the local and active militia, had a total nominal strength of 2,590.172 men on the war footing. The force is divided into regular army in peace, 265,889, in war, 630,582; movable militia, 379,908; local militia, 1,313,793. The navy in 1888, including ships building, consisted of 228 vessels manned by about 16,000 men ; 21 of the ships are ironclads, several of the most powerful construction. There are also 15 torpedo vessels and 156 torpedo boats. Naples, with a population of more than 500,000, is the chief naval and military port of the kingdom, and will shortly take the precedence of Genoa. In Italy, universal liability to arms forms the ba- sis of the military organization of Italy. A certain portion of all the young men who have completed their twentieth year, amounting to about 200,000, is levied annually, 82,000 of whom are drafted into the standing army, while the rest are entered in a second and third category. According to the law of August 6th, 1888, the time of service in the standing army for the first category of recruits is five years in the infantry, four years in the cavalry, and three years in the other arms. Having completed their service un- der arms, the men of the first category are granted unlimited leave, but are enrolled in the permanent army, the infantry for four years, the cavalry five years, when they are both transferred to the terri- torial militia. The men belonging to the other arms are enrolled in the permanent army for five or six years, when they are transferred to the mo- bile militia, in which they complete twelve years of service before being transferred to the territorial ITASCA LAKE--IZUCAR militia. Those of the second category are entered in the permanent army for eight years, and the mobile militia for four years, when they form part of the territorial militia. The men of the_ th1_rd category are entered at once 1n the territorial militia, but are given unlimited leave. The total period of service is 19 years. As In the German army, young men of superior education are permitted under certain conditions to serve as one-year volunteers. _ On Jan. 1, 1890, there were on the registers of_ the Italian mercantile mar.ne 6,442 sailing vessels with a total tonnage of 642,225 tons; and 279 steam vessels, with a total of 182,249 tons. Also at that date there were building for the navy three _1ron-clads with a total displacement of 40,456 metric tons; 6 torpedo rams of a total tonnage of 17,329 tons; also one gunboat and three torpedo cruisers. Total ton- nage building, 63,810, and horse power, 116,700. INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS.--A. large portion of the Italian railways belong to the state, but in accord- ance with a law of April 27, 1885, the workmg of the state lines has been transferred to private en- terprise. The contracts are for 60 years, but at the end of 20 and 40 years they may be termmated. On December 31. 1887, there were 7,625 kilometres ‘of state railway, 344 kilometres jointly state and compames’, and 3,862 kilometres of companies’ railway; In all 11,831 k110- metres. On June 30, 1888, the total was 11,984 kilometres. On June 30,1889, the length of the principal lines was: Medit- erranean, 4,744 kilometres; Adriatic, 5,145 kilometres; Sicilian, 700 kilometres; Sardinian, 411 kilometres; various, 1,891 kilometres; total, 12,891 kilometres. _ In 1887 the total receipts were 236,266,276 lire, of Wh1Cl1 95,- 132,681 lire were for passenger trafic. In the same year, the expenses were 156,604,100 lire. By slow trains there were for- warded 15,051,341 tons of goods, and by fast tra1ns 7,496,673 quintals of goods, to the value of 855,211,000 lire. The num- ber of passengers was in all 45,518,604. Up to October 1, 1888, there had been constructed 2,262 kilo- metres of tramway. , Statistics regardin the river and canal trafiic do not exist. The P0 is navigable or 543 kilometres, the Adige for 212 kilo- metres, the Tiber for 144 kilometres, and the Arno for 106 kilo- metres. There are besides upwards of 1,054 kilometres of navigable canal. . The public telegraph service is a monopoly of the govern- ment, certain concessions, however, being made to the rail- way and tramway companies. On June 30, 1888, the length of line and wire on land was: Government lines, 31,512 kilo- metres; railway lines, 2,336 kilometres; Government wire, 90,675 kilometres; railway wire,27,830; total railways, 33,848 kilometres; total wire, 118,505 kilometres. ITASCA LAKE, a lake in Beltrami and Cass counties, Minn., the supposed source of the Missis- sippi River. Its elevation is 1,575 ft. and it re- ceives vanous streams one of which is several miles in length ; this gives color to the theory that Itasca is not the source of the great river which here leaves the lake as a stream 12 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep. ITHACA, a village and county-seat of Gratiot county, Mich. It contains a furniture-factory. a foundry, a newspaper ofiice and several hotels and churches. ITHACA, the county-seat of Tompkins county, N. Y., situated at the south end of Cayuga Lake, 37 miles south of Auburn, 40 miles E.S.E. of Geneva, and 35 miles N.N.E. of Elmira. Ithaca is built partly on an alluvial plain, and partly on the slopes of high hills which inclose that plain on all sides except the north and are nearly 600 feet higher than the lake. The town contains many public buildings, and also manufactories of flour, paper, carriages, farmmg implements, iron castings, ma- ehinery, etc. It is the seat of Cornell University, Population in 1880, 9,105; in 1890, 11,557. ITU. a town of Brazil, in the province of San Paulo, forty miles north-northwest of the town of San Paulo, on the Tiete, in a very fertile district, surrounded by lofty hills. Most of the houses are built of earth in a frame of wood. Sugar-cane is extensively cultivated in the surrounding district. 923 The town contains a hospital a prison, and several churches and schools. Population 10,000. ITT./ES, Central American Indians, whose capi- tal was Chichen Itza, in Yucatan. Tribes of this name are still found near Lake Peten, in Guate- mala. See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 759. IUKA, a post-village, capital of Tishomingo coun- ty, Miss., situated on the railroad, 115 miles from Memphis, Tenn. It has a female institute, a male academy, and valuable mineral springs. Here oc- curred an indecisive battle between General Rose- crans and General Price on Sept. 19, 1863. IVES, LEVI SILLIMAN (1797-1867), an American Protestant Episcopal clergyman. In 1822 he was made deacon and in the following year was or- dained priest. He held pastorates in Batavia, N. Y., Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pa., and in 1831 was elected bishop of North Carolina. In 1852 he became a Roman Catholic, and was made professor of rhetoric in St. J oseph’s theological seminary, Fordham, N. Y. He afterwards established the Roman Catholic protectory for destitute children, and became its first president. He was the author of a Catechism; Manual of Devotion; Humility a Min- isterial Qualification; Sermons on the Obedience of Faith, and The Trials of a Mind in Its Progress to Catholicism; A Letter to His Old Friends. IVISA, IvIzA or IVICA, the most southerly of the Balearic Isles. See Britannica, Vol. III, p. 278. IVORY BLACK, a black pigment prepared from calcined ivory or bones. See Britannica,Vol. XIX, 88 p. . IVY. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 526-527. IXCAQUIXTLA, the chief town of the Chucon Indians, situated in the southern part of the state of Puebla, Mexico. It is noted in Mexican history as the scene of a battle fought Jan. 1, 1817, between Mexican insurgents under General Mier of Teran and Spanish troops under La Madrid. There are extensive remains of antiquity in the vicinity. IXTAPALAPA, a town of Mexico, 10 miles southeast of the capital. It was a large and im- portant city at the time of the conquest of Mex- ico, and was celebrated for its splendid gardens belonging to the Aztec emperors. Few traces of its former importance now remain. Near the town is the Cerro de la Estrella, or Star Hill, where the Aztec priests performed peculiar religious rites. Remains of the ancient altar and temple still exist on the summit of the hill. IXTLAN, a town of Mexico, in the State of Oax- aca, 40 miles from the capital of the state. There are silver mines in the neighborhood. The inhab- itants are mostly Indians. IZARD, Gsones (1777-1828), an American soldier. In 1794 he was appointed a lieutenant of artillery; in 1798, engineer of fortifications in Charleston har- bor; in 1799, captain; in 1812, colonel of artillery; in 1813 brigadier-general; and in 1814, major-gen- eral. From 1825 until his death he was governor of the territory of Arkansas. He published in 1816, Ofiicial Correspondence With the PVar Department in 181:? and 1815. IZARD, RALPH (1742-1804), an American states- man. In 1776 Congress appointed him a commission- er at the court of the grand-duke of Tuscany, and in 1780 he returned to the United States. In 1782-83 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress,and from 1789 to 1795 was a United States Senator from South Carolina. His Correspondence from 1774 to 1784, was published in 1844. IZUCAR, a town of Mexico, State of Pueblo, at the foot of the volcano Popocatepetl, in a fine sugar district. It is sometimes called Matamoros Iza- car, in honor of the Mexican patriot of that name. Population about 12,000. 924 J J ACK—-J AGKSON JACK, JAK, or JACA (Artocarpus integrifolia), a tree of the same genus as the bread-fruit, a native of the East Indies. It is alarger tree than the bread-fruit, and has larger fruit. See Britannica, Vol. IV, p. 242; also Anrocmnrus, in these Revisions and Additions. JACK, a name generally used as the equivalent of John, the most common of Christian names, but it is really the French Jacques. The contempt that follows on excessive familiarity attaches it- self in most European languages to the name, as in such vulgarisms as “J ack-of - all-trades,” “J ack- fool,” etc. “ Jack the Giant-killer,” and “Jack and the Bean-stalk” show the same sense of familiarity without the accompanying contempt. J ACK-BOOTS, tall boots of tough thick leather, reaching above the knee, formerly worn by cavalry. In some instances, as an additional protection against sword-cuts, they were lined with thin plates of iron. JACKSON, the county-seat of Amador county, Cal., 55 miles southeast of Sacramento, situated at the confluence of the north, middle, and south forks of Jackson Creek. It has quartz mills and the chief occupations are gardening, farming, quartz and placer mining. JACKSON, a city and county-seat of Jackson county, Mich., situated on Grand River, 76 miles west of Detroit, 37 miles south of Lansing, and 94 S. E. of Grand Rapids. It contains the State prison, several churches, schools, and banks, gas- works, water-works, flouring-mills, machine-shops, foundries, sash-and-blind factories, planing-mills, breweries, manufactories of furniture, agricultural implements, carriages and wagons, railroad-cars, pumps, and cigars, and also has several coal mines. Population in 1860, 4,799; in 1870, 11,447; in 1880, 16,105; in 1890, 20,779. JACKSON, the capital of the State of Mississippi, and the county-seat of Hinds county, situated on the west bank of the Pearl River, 183 miles north of New Orleans, 45 miles east of Vicksburg, and 96 miles west of Meridian. Lat. 320 18’ N., long. 900 6’ W. It contains the state-house, the penitentiary, and several charitable and educational institu- tions. Many thousand bales of cotton are annually shipped from this place. Population in 1880, 5,204; in 1890, 6,041. JACKSON or JACKSON COURT-Housn, a rail- road junction and county-seat of Jackson county, Ohio, containing pig-iron furnaces and coal mines. JACKSON, a city and county-seat of Madison county, Tenn., on the south fork of the forked Deer River, 90 miles E.NE. of Memphis, and 107 miles south by east of Cairo, Ill. It is the seat of the Southwestern Baptist University, and has a court-house, a bank, an opera-house, several white and colored female seminaries, gas-works, plan- ing-mills, an iron foundry, and railroad workshops. Cotton is the chief article of export. Population in 1870, 4,119; in 1880, 5,377; in 1890, 10,022. JACKSON, CHARLES (1775-1855), an American jurist. In 1796 he was admitted to the practice of law in Newburyport, Mass, and in 1803 removed to Boston, where he attained a high rank at the bar. From 1813-24 he was judge of the Massachusetts supreme court, and in 1833 was chairman of a com- mission to codify the State laws. In 1828 he pub- lished a treatise on Pleadings and Practice in Real Actions. JACKSON, CHARLES THOMAS (1805-1880), an American scientist. After studying medicine in America and Europe, he settled in Boston, Mass, and began the practice of his profession. In 1838 he opened a laboratory for research in analytical chemistry, the first of its kind in the United States. In 1836 he was made State geologist of Maine, in 1839 of Rhode Island, and in 1841 of NewHamp- shire, retaining the last ofiice until 1844. In 1847 Congress appointed him to survey the mineral lands of Michigan, but, after two years devoted to this work, he was displaced in consequence of polit- ical changes. Dr. Jackson made many important scientific discoveries, one of the most valuable be- ing that of etherization, for which he received a prize of 2,500 francs from the French Academy of Science. He published many papers and reports, besides a Manual of Etherization, with a History of its Discovery (1861). JACKSON, HELEN MARIA F1sKE, an American authoress, born at Amherst, Mass., Oct. 18, 1831, died at San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 12, 1885. She was edu- cated at the Ipswich, Mass., female seminary, and in 1852 became the wife of Major E. B. Hunt (1822-63), of the United States Engineers. In 1875 she contracted a second marriage, to William S. Jackson, of Colorado Springs, Colo., where much of her after—life was spent. In 1879 she became inter- ested in the treatment of the Indians by the United States Government, and in 1883 was appoint- ed special commissioner to examine into the condi- tion of the Mission Indians of California. Her literary productions, over signature “H. H.” began to attract attention about 1870, and soon won a brilliant popularity. Among her published works are Verses, Bits of TraveZ,A Century of Dishonor, Ramona, Easter Bells, Glimpses of Three Coasts, and Between Whiles. JACKSON, ISAAC W. (1805-1877), an American ed- ucator. From 1826 to his death he was aprofessor at Union College. He did much toward developing the art of landscape- ardening and horticulture, and contributed large y to the introduction, per- fecting, and distribution of the choicest flowers. Professor Jackson wrote Elements of Conic Sections (1854), and a Treatise on Optics (1854). JACKSON, JAMES (1757-1806), an American sol- dier. He studied law in Savannah, Ga.,and in 1776 was active in repelling the British from that city. He afterwards took part in many important bat- tles, and attained the rank of brigadier-general. In 1788 he was chosen governor of Georgia, but de- clined to serve, and from 1789 to 1791, was a mem- ber of the first Congress. From 1793 to 1795, he was United States Senator from Georgia, from 1798 to 1801, governor of the State, and from 1801 to his death was again Senator. JACKSON, JOHN ADAMS (1825-1879), an American sculptor. After studying in Boston, Paris, and New York, he settled in Florence, where he produced numerous popular works. Among his portrait busts are those of Daniel Webster (1851); Adelaide Phillips (1853); and Wendell Phillips (1854). Some of his other productions are Eve and the Dead Abel JACKSONVILLE--JAMES (1862) ;.Autumn; Cupid Stringing his Bow; Titania and Nick Bottom; The Culprit Fay; Dawn; Peace; -Cupid on a Swan; The Morning Glory; Reading Girl (1869); Musidora (1873); Hylas (1875), and ll Pas- torello. ' JACKSONVILLE, a city and county-seat of Mor- an county, Ill., situated 34 miles west by south of Springfield, 80 miles east-southeast of Quincy, 67 miles north of Alton, and 90 miles north of St. Louis, Mo. Jacksonville contains many handsome buildings, and is noted for its educational and charitable institutions. It is the seat of Illinois College, a high-school, a ladies’ athenaeum, the Illi- nois Female College, the Jacksonville Female Col- lege, a State asylum for the insane, an asylum for the idiotic, an institute for the education of the blind, and an institute for the deaf and dumb. ‘The institutions for the blind and deaf and dumb are supported by the State. The city has a large woolen mill, car-works, water-works, a foundry, and manufactories of candy, paper, furnishing goods, boilers, etc. Population in 1860, 5,528; in 1870, 9.203; in 1880, 10,927 ; in 1890, 12,357. JACKSONVILLE, the most populous city of Florida, and the county-seat of Duval county, sit- mated on the left or west bank of the St. J ohn’s River, about 20 miles from its mouth. It is 30 miles southwest of Fernandina, 155 miles south by west -of Savannah, and 165 miles east of Tallahassee. Latitude 300 19' 38" north, by longitude 810 30’ west. Jacksonville has several churches and banks, a high-school, the Stanton Institute, ‘and manu- factories of lumber, marmalade, moss, soap, and -machinery. Lumber is the chief article of export. Population in 1860, 2,118; in 1870, 6,912; in 1880, 7,650; in 1890, 17,160. JACMEL, or JACQUEMEL, a port and city on the south coast of Hayti, 30 miles southwest of Port Au Prince. It has a deep, commodious harbor and car- ries on commerce with the United States. JACOB, BIBLIOPIIILE. See LACROIX, Paul, in these Revisions and Additions. JACOBZEAN LILY (Spreckelia Formosissima), a plant of the order Arnaryllideae. The leaves are directly from the -bulb, which is long necked, pro- truding above the surface of the ground; the flowers are large, irregular, and of a brilliant crim- son color. It is native in Mexico, and cultivated elsewhere. J ACOBI, ABRAHAM, an American physician, born in 1830. After studying medicine for several years in Germany, he settle in -New York City. In 1861 he was made professor of diseases of children in the New York Medical College, from 1867 to 1870, held a similar chair in the medical department of the university of the city of New York, and in the latter year in the college of physicians and sur- geons. He has held important offices in various -scientific societies, and is the author of many valu- able works on medical topics. J ACOBI, MARY PUTNAM, an American physician, wife of the preceding, born in 1842. She studied medicine in Philadelphia, New York, and Paris. For twelve years she was dispensary physician in Mount Sinai hospital, was professor of materia ' medica in the woman’s medical college of the New York infirmary, and later became professor in the New York post-graduate medical school. She has contributed much to medical literature. J ACOB’S LADDER (PoZemon.ium caeruleum), an herbaceous perennial plant of the natural order Polemoniacae, common in the centre and south of Europe, and found also in the temperate parts of Asia and North America. It has pinnate leaves, with ovato-lanceolate leaflets, a smooth stem 1% to 2 feet high, and a terminal panicle of bright blue 925 (sometimes white) flowers, with wheel shaped, five- lobed corolla. See Britannica, Vol. XII, p. 252; ‘also P-HLOX, Vol. XVIII, p.798. JAGERNDORF, or KARNOW, a walled town of Austrian Silesia, 34 miles west of Ratibor. It has manufactories of woolencloth, linen, organs, etc. Population 11,792. JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG, known as Turnvater J ahn, born at Lanz, in Prussia, Aug, 11, 1778, died at Freiburg, Oct. 15, 1852. He studied theology at Halle and Giittingen, and in 1805 went to Jena to continue his studies, but soon afterward decided to enlist in the Prussian army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, and in the following year became a teacher in a gymnasium and published his Dos Deutsche Volksthum. In 1811 he opened the first turn es- tablishment in Berlin, and rendered the science of gymnastics so popular that it soon attracted the at- tention of the youth throughout the kingdom. It at once formed centres around which German pat- riotism gathered and developed, and its influence on the whole system of education was lasting and beneficial. In 1814 J ahn was placed in command of a volunteer corps, served in the subsequent campaigns, and entered Paris in 1815. After the war, however, he opposed the reactionary policy of the government, the turn-places became nurseries of liberal thought, and in 1818 he was seized by the Prussian government and imprisoned. He was lib- erated in 1825, but was not allowed to reside in any university town. He settled at Freiburg, where he wrote Neue Runenbldtter in 1828, and Merken Zum Deutschen Volksthum in 1833. In 1848 he was elected to the national assembly, but took no prominent art. P JAIL FEVER, known also as putrid or pestilen- tial fever, probably a severe form of typhus. Owing to improved sanitary regulations this form of disease is at present almost unknown. JAMAICA, the county-seat and railroad junc- tion of Queen’s county, N. Y., on Long Island, 10 miles east of New York City. The chief occupa- tions are manufacturing carriages, and market- gardening. JAMES, HENRY (1811-1882), an American theo- logian. He studied theology both in America and abroad, and became a follower of the tenets of the Sandemanian sect. For many years he resided in New York City, and for some time in Newport, R. I., but in 1866 went to Cambridge, Mass., where he remained until his death. He was a constant contributor to periodical literature, and published Moralisin and Christianity, or Man’s Experience and Destiny (1850); The Church of Christ Not an Ecclesias- ticism (1854); Christianity the Logic of Creation (1857) ; Substance and Shadow, or Morality and Relig- ion in their Relation to Life (1863); The Secret of Swedenbourg, Being an Elucidation of His Doctrine of the Divine Natural Humanity (1879) ; and Society the Redeemed Form of Man, besides many other Works. JAMES, HENRY, an American novelist, born in 1843. He studied in the United States and in Europe, and began to write novels at an early age. In 1869 he went to Europe where he has since re- sided, alternating between England and Italy. Among his works are: The Story of a Year; Poor Richard (1867); Gabrielle ole Bergenac (1869); Watch and Ward (1871); Roderick Hudson (1875); A Pas- sionate Pilgrim ( 1875); The American (1878); Daisy Miller (1878); The Europeans (1878); and Pension Beaurepas, besides numerous essays and short nov- els. JAMES, SIR HENRY, Q. C., M. P., born at Here- ford, England, in 1828, received his education at Cheltenham College, and was called to the bar of %6 the Middle Temple in 1852. In 1850, as again in 1851, he attained legal distinction as lecturer’s prizeman at the Inner Temple. He became the Queen’s Counsel in 1869, a bencher of his Inn in 1870; and in 1869 entered the house of commons for Taunton, which he continued to represent in the Liberal interest until 1885. In 1873 he was ap- pointed solicitor-general,andwas attorney-general in 1873-74 and again in 1880-85. During the latter period he introduced and carried through parlia- ment the Corrupt Practices Act. Returned for Bury in 1885, he refused to follow Mr. Gladstone upon the Home Rule question, and since then has been one of the active leaders of the Liberal Union- ist party. Sir Henry defended the case for the “Times” before the commission appointed to inves- tigate the charge against Mr. Parnell and the Irish members. JAMES, SIB. HENRY, an English engineer and in- ventor, born near St. Agnes, in Cornwall, in 1803. died at Southampton, June 15, 1877. He was edu- cated at the Royal Military Academy, ¥Voolwich, and in 1825 passed into the Royal Engineers. In 1844 he was appointed director of the Geological Survey of Ireland, in 1846 head of the Admiralty works at Portsmouth; in 1852 director of the Ord- nance Survey of the United Kingdom, and in 1857 chief of the Statistical and Topographical Depart- ment of the War Office. He was knighted in 1860, and made major-general in 1868. He is best known for his successful efforts to introduce applications of photography into the service of the exact scien- ces. By means of photozincography, a process which he invented in 1859, he produced fac-similes of Domesday Book, and of national manuscripts of England, of Scotland, and of Ireland. He is the author of several works on geology, surveying, etc. JAMES BAY, the southerly arm of Hudson Bay, about 250 miles long from north to south, and 175 miles wide. It is greatly beset with islands, and its navigation is dangerous. JAMES ISLAND, one of the sea islands of Charleston county, S. C., having James Island Creek on the landward side, and being bounded north by Ashley River and Charleston harbor. Sev- eral spirited engagements occurred upon this island during the late civil war. J AMESON, J oun ALEXANDER, an American jur- ist, born in 1824. He was tutor at the University of Vermont from 1850 to 1853, and then began the practice of law in Freeport, Ill., where he re- mained three years. In 1856 he removed to Chi- cago, and from 1865 to 1883 was judge of the su- perior court of that city. He wrote The Constitu- tional Convention, Its History, Powers, and Modes of Proceeding (1867.) JAMES RIVER, 450 miles in length, is formed by the union of J ackson’s and Cowpasture rivers in the west of Virginia, and has its entire course in that State. It flows in a general east-southeast direction, passing Lynchburg and Richmond, and falls into the Atlantic at the southern extremity of Chesapeake Bay. J AMES’S POWDER, the modern representative of an old nostrum of Dr. Robert James of London, The preparation in the pharmacopoea which is supposed to have similar virtues in febrile affec- tions, consists of oxide of antimony and phos- phate of lime. Medical opinion is divided as to its efficacy, and it is now but little used. JAMESTOWN, the county-seat of Stutsman county, N. Dak., 93 miles west of Fargo. It is on the North Pacific Railroad and contains an insane asylum. JAMESTOWN, a town of Chautauqua county, N. Y., on the navigable outlet of Chautauqua JAMES—JANS Lake, 27 miles east-northeast of Corry, Pa., 20 miles southeast of Mayville, and 69 miles south by west of Bufialo. It contains several churches, national banks, and hotels, and also has a union school, the Jamestown Collegiate Institute, a. piano-factory, a woolen-mill, a large manufactory of alpaca, a manufactory of tools, etc. Population in 1879, 5,336; in 1880, 9,357 ; in 1890, 15,991. JAMESTOWN, a ruined village of James City county, Va., where in 1607 the first permanent En- glish settlement was made in America. The place was burned by Bacon in 1676 and never rebuilt. JAMNOTRI, or JUMNOTRI, hot springs near the source of the Jumna, or Jamuna. 10,849 feet above the sea, in lat. 800 59’ N., and long. 780 35’E. Their temperature is 10407 F., nearly that of boiling water at their elevation. They are overhung by three connected mountains known as the J umnotri Peaks, 25,500 feet high. JANES, EDMUMD ronnn (1807-1876), an Ameri- can Methodist Episcopal bishop. In 1830 he was admitted to the Philadelphia conference, and from 1840 to 1844 was financial secretary of the American Bible Society. In the latter year he was elected and ordained bishop, and in 1854 he visited Europe as a delegate to the British Wesleyan conference. From his election to the episcopacy until his death he resided in New York City. For an extended and appreciative biography of Bishop James, see Bishops of M. E. Church, Methodist Book Concern, New York. J ANESVILLE, a city and county-seat of Rock county, \Vis., situated on both sides of Rock River 70 miles \V.S.W. of Milwaukee, 13 miles north of Beloit, and 91 miles N. W. of Chicago. It contains a court-house, several churches and banks,ahigh- school, a State institution for the education of the blind, a cotton-factory woolen factories, fiouring- mills, machine-shops, foundries, and manufactories of farming implements, carriages, boots, shoes, etc. Population in 1880, 9,018; in 1890, 10,631. JANET, PAUL, a French author, ,born at Paris April 30, 1823, and educated at the Ecole Normale, graduating in 1848. He was in turn teacher in the gymnasium at Bourges, and professor of philosophy in the faculty at Strasburg and of logic in the ly- ceum Louis-le-Grand. In 1864 he was elected to the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, and since that year has lectured in the Sarbonne at Paris. M. Janet is a leading representative of modern French philosophy. Among his numerous works are: Histoire de la Philosophie Mordle et Po- litique (1858) ; Le Materialisme Contemporain en Alle- magne (1864); Les Causes Finales (1876); and Les Origines du Socialisme Contemporain (1883). JANNEY, SAMUEL MACPHERSON (1801-1880), an American preacher and author. He was a minister of the Society of Friends, and traveled extensively in that capacity. In 1869 he was made United States Superintendent of Indian affairs in the northern superintendency. Among other works, he was the author of Conversations on Religious Subjects (1835); The Last of the Lenape, and Other Poems (1839); The Teacher’s Gift (1840); An Historical Sketch of the Christian Church During the Middle Ages (1847); and a History of the Religious Society of Friends, from Its Rise to the Year 1828 (1860). J AN S, ANNEKE (1600-1663) a Dutch woman, born about 1600; came to America with her husband, Roelof Jansen. They settled in New Amsterdam, now New York, and in 1636 obtained from Gov. Wouter Van Twiller, a grant of 62 acres lying be- tween Broadway and the North River. Jansen died soon and his widow married in 1637 Evardus Bogardus, a Dutch clergyman. Ten years later the latter was ship-wrecked and drowned near JANSEN—JAPAN Wales, England. Anneke Jans obtained in 1864 from Gov. Peter Stuyvesant a patent for the farm in her own name, and this grant was confirmed by the English government in 1664. But in the mean- time she had died in 1663,leaving the estate to her 8 children. In 1671 five of the heirs deeded the farm to Gov. Francis Lovelace, as representative of the proprietary, the Duke of York. In 1705 the same estate, then known as the Kmg’s Farm, _ was granted by the colonial government to Trinity Church,which owns the larger part of the land up to the present time. JANSEN, KRISTOFER, a Norwegian clergyman, born in 1841. While in Norway he was interested in the movement which had in view the replacing of the Danish language, which is the Norwegian language of literature, by the truly Norwegian language, and he wrote a large series of novels In this language. In 1882 he came to this country, and settled in Minneapolis, Minn., taking charge of the Unitarian‘ parish in that city. Among his books translated into English are The Spellbound Fiddler; The Children of Hell; and Wives, Submit Yourselves to Your Husbands. ' J ANTHINA, a genus of violet-colored ocean snails living in mid-ocean. They float on the open sea supported by a cartilaginous raft which con- tains numerous air-cells. Their eggs and young are attached below the float. " They are carnivor- ous gasteropods, feeding on little medusae, sea- nettles, jelly-fishes, etc. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 648, 651. JANUARIUS, ST., ORDER OF, an order founded by King Charles of Sicily in 1738. It was abolished after the French invasion of 1806, and re-introduced in 1814. JAPAN. For general article on the Empire of JAPAN, see Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 569-595. The official returns of 1888 report the area of Japan as 147,526 square miles, with a population of 39,069,007 (19,73l,354 males, and 19,337,653 females) as follows: D 't Sq. M. Population. Gglesrl y sq. mile. Central Nippon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36,588 15,112,169 413 Northern “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,198 5,898,191 195 Western “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,682 8,994,962 435 Total Nippon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87,468 30,005,322 343 Shikoku . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,932 2,802,666 404 Kiushiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,839 6,021,453 357 Hokkaido . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,287 239,566 6.6 Grand total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147,526 39,069,007 265 Tokio (formerly called Yedo) is the present capi- a . ' The following is a list of the principal cities, with their populations: Tokio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,165,048 Osaka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 432,005 Kioto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264,559 Nagoya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 .756 Kanazawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96,639 ' Hiroshima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84,094 Yokohama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115,012 Tokus hima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59,85 Wakayama... . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56,495 Sendai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71,517 Toyama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,914 Kagoshima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.858 Fukuoka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50,442 Sakai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43,836 Niigata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44,470 Kumamoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47,602 Hyogo & Kobé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103,969 Fukui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39,182 N asaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40,187 Ha odate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47,110 Shisuoku . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35,699 Takamatsu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38,361 Okayama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41,967 Morioka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32,646 Shimonoseki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,725 Matsue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,687 Kochi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32,680 Okinawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,112 Matsuyama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,037 Akita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,343 The population was divided among the various classes as follows: Imperial family, 38; kwazoku, or nobles, 3,816; shizoku, or knights (formerly re- tainers of the damios), 1,954,669; common people, 37,111,260. The number of foreigners was 7,560, of which 4,209 were Chinese, 1,421 English, 711 Ameri- cans, 467 Germans, 267 French. The number of Japanese residents abroad in 1886 was 11,580. There are four principal islands named above, and a large number of very small islands—the whole number being estimated as high as 4,223. EMPEROR AND ROYAL FAMILY.-— The present Mikado (1891) is Mutsuhito, born at Kioto, November 3,1852. He succeeded his father, KOmei Tenno, Feb. 13, 1867. He was married, Feb. 9, 1869, to Princess Haruko, born May 28, 1850, daughter of Prince Ichijo. Ofi”spring.—-Prince Yosh- ihito, born Aug. 31, 1877 ; Princess Masa, born Sept. 30, 1880. The Prince was installed “ Crown Prince” Nov. 6, 1889. By the Imperial House Law of February 11, 1889, the succession to the throne has been definitely fixed upon the male descendants. In case of failure of direct descendants, the throne devolves upon the nearest Prince and his descendants. The civil list for 1889-90 amounts to 3,000,000 yen—the gold yen being about equal to an American gold dollar. GovERNMENT.—The system of government which had long been that of an absolute monarchy, has been greatly modified by a constitution promulgated Feb. 11, 1889. By the provisions of this new con- stitution the emperor is the head of the empire, combining in himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercising the whole of the ea-ecutire powers with the advice and assistance of the cabinet ministers, who are responsible to him, and are appointed by himself. There is also a privy council, who delib-- erate upon important matters of state when they have been consulted by the emperor. The emper-- or can declare war, make peace, and conclude treaties. The emperor exercises the le islative power with the consent of the imperial par iament. It is the prerogative of the emperor to give sanc- tion to laws, to convoke the imperial parliament, to open, close, and prorogue it, and to dissolve the house of representatives. The imperial parliament consists of two houses, -—a house of peers and a house of representa- tives. Every lawrequires the consent of the im- perial parliament. Both houses may respectively initiate projects of law; can make representations to the government as to laws or upon any other subject, and may present addresses to the emperor. The house of peers is composed of (1) male mem- bers of the imperial family of the age of 20 and upwards; (2) princes and marquises of the age of 25 and upwards (11 princes and 28 marquises) ; (3) counts, viscounts, and barons of the age of 25 and upwards, and who have been elected by the mem- bers of their respective orders, never to exceed one-fifth of each order (80 counts, 355 viscounts, 29 barons); (4) persons above the age of 30 years, who have been nominated members by the emperor for meritorious services to the state or for eru- dition; (5) persons who shall have been elected in each Fu and Ken from among and by the 15 male inhabitants thereof, of above the age of 30 years, paying therein the highest amount of direct nation- 928 al taxes on land, industry, or trade, and have been nominated by the emperor. The term of member- ship under (3) and (5) is seven years; under (1), (2), and (4) for life. The number of members under (4) and (5) not to exceed the number of other members. The entire membership of House of Peers is to be about 300. ‘ The members of the House of Representatives number 300, a fixed number being returned from each election district. The proportion of the num- ber of members to the population is, about one member to 128,000. The qualifications of electors are (1) male Japanese subjects of not less than full 25 years of age; (2) fixed permanent and actual residence in the Fu or Ken‘ for not less than a year; (3) payment of direct national taxes to the amount of not less than 1.5 yen for one year in the Fu or Ken, and in case of income tax for three years. The qualifications of persons eligible for election are generally the same as those of electors, except that they must be of not less than 30 years, and need not have fixed residence in the Fu or Ken. The term of membership is four years. Disqualified for members of the House of Repre- sentatives are oflficials of the imperial household, judges, auditors, ofiicials connected with the col- lection of taxes, police officials, oflicials of electoral districts within their own districts, military and naval officers, and priests or ministers of religion. The president and vice-president of the House of - Peers are nominated by the emperor from among the members, and president and vice-president of the House of Representatives are nominated by the emperor from among three candidates elected by the house. The presidents of both houses re- ceive annual salary of 4,000 yen; vice-presidents, 2,000 yen; elected and nominated members of the House of Peers and members of the House of Rep- resentatives, 800 yen, besides traveling expenses. No one is allowed to decline these annual allowances. ' The Imperial Parliament has control over the finances and the administration of justice. Voting is by secret ballot, and the system is that of sera- tin ole liste. The Parliament must be assembled once every year. The first general election for members was held in July, 1890. Thefirst session was opened with elaborate ceremonies Nov. 29, 1890. At the head of local administration in the prov- inces are the governors, one of them residing in each of the 46 districts (3 Fus and 43 Kens) into which Japan is divided. In 1879 city and prefectu- ral assemblies were created, based on the principle of election; their power is confined to fixing the estimates of the local rates, subject to the con- firmation of the governors, and finally of the min- ister of the interior. Eligible to the assembly are all male citizens 25 years of age, resident in the -district at least three consecutive years. and pay- ing land tax of more than ten yen annually. The franchise is conferred on all male citizens of 20 years, residing in the district, and paying more than five yen land tax. Annually, or in every other year, gover- nors are summoned to the department of the interior to deliberate upon matters of local admin- istration. Each district is subdivided into cities (kit), and counties (gun), each with its chief magis- trate (ch6), who manage local afiairs. The island of Hokkaid6 (Yezo) has a governor and a special organization. To further carry out the principle of decentraliz- ation and self-government a system of local ad- ministration in shi (municipality), cho (town), and son (village) was established by imperial rescript, April 17, 1888, which came into effect April 1, JAPETUS--JARVES 1889, and is to be applied gradually, according to the circumstances and requirements of these localities. ARMY AND NAvY.—The emperor has the supreme command of the army and navy. Since the restora- tion of imperial authority and the consequent abo- lition of the feudal system, the army of the empire has been organized on a uniform system on the basis of conscription. According to the present law all males of the age of 20 are liable to serve in the standing army for seven years, of which three must be spent in active service, and the remaining four in the army of reserve. After quitting the army of reserve they have to form part of the landwehr for another five years; and every male from 17 to 40 years of age, who is not either in the line, the reserve, or the landwehr, must belong to the landsturm, and is liable to be ' called to service in times of national emergency. The army, on J an. 1, 1891, consisted of 60,455 men, on a peace footing. It may be increased in war to 245,311. The navy numbered 31 vessels of . which there were one iron-clad, 5 protected cruisers, and 26 “miscellaneous,” with 22 torpedo boats. TRADE, REVENUE, AND EXPENsEs.—Under treaties the ports of Yedo (Tokio), Kanagawa (Yokohama), Hiogo, and Osaka (on the inland sea), Hakodate (in Yezo) Niigata, and Nagasaki, are open to trade. Of the total trade in 1888 about 36 per cent. was with the United -Kingdom, 21 per cent. with the United States, 16 per cent. with China. Estimated public revenue, 1889-90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. £11,606,240 Estimated public expenditure, 1889-90 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,605,502 Total debt. J an. 1889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60,452,450 Total imports, 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,195,358 Total exports, 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,067,206 There were in May, 1890, open 1,079 miles of rail- way, and several lines in process of construction. The progress in education, as well as in commer- cial and in individual pursuits during the last few years, has been marvellous both in respect of rapidit and methods. JAPAN, GREAT EARTHQUAKE IN. On Oct. 28, 1891, one of the severest earthquakes ever known in Japan occured. Without any previous warning shocks were felt from Tokio to beyond Kobe, a dis- tance of more than 500 miles. The damage done in Tokio and Yokohama was very slight and no lives were lost, but as the rumbling and roaring of the earthquake gradually passed these cities, it seemed to gather strength, and at Nagoya, Gifu and Ogaki the damage done was severe indeed. The city of Nagoya, with a population of 165,000 and 40,000 houses, was almost totally destroyed. Ac- cording to the police reports, it lost 2,007 in killed and 2,158 wounded, with a total destruction of 31,764 houses. Gifu, with a population of 28,000 and 7,000 houses, lost in killed more than 2,000 and about an equal number wounded, with the total destruction of more than one-half of the city; of the remaining half, the streets were so badly littered with the débris caused from above and below, that it is doubtful if the city can ever be rebuilt. Ogoki, with a population of 20,000, lost in killed 1,000 (estimated) and in wounded about an equal number, with the almost complete destruction of the city; in fact, only four streets are said to remain, the others being completely upheaved and filled with wreckage. The Imperial Arsenal, situ- ated in Osoka, and the electric-light works were wrecked and the Naniwa Cotton Mills, employing 700 operatives, was destroyed, but. fortunately only 23 lives were lost and 45 persons injured, the remainder of the workmen having gained the open JASPER-JEFFERSON street before the buildings collapsed. Great dam- age was done to the railway and telegraph lines, an iron bridge over the Nagaragowa River being demolished. Near Lake Biwa saline water was forced from the earth, and rose to height of several feet; but the flow soon ceased from these cracks. Im- mediately following the convulsion the water in Owori Bay became greatly agitated, the waves rising to an unusual height and seeming to flow from all directions, causing the wreck of a great many j unks and other vessels. The bay continued very rough for two days following the disturbance, and steamers usually plying on it remained at anchor rather than attempt to get out to sea. Near Hamamotsu the railway sunk several inches for a space of more than five miles, and at Maizaka it settled down more than twelve inches. The entire roadbed had to be relaid in a great many places, and none‘ of the bridges were regarded as safe until the government en- gineers had inspected them. Much loss of life and property was experienced at all the small cities and villages lying in the path of the earth- quake, but as yet no trustworthy returns have been received from them. It is thought that more than 10,000 lives were lost with fully double this number in wound . The shock was the severest felt since 1854 and 1855. In 1854 the city of Simoda was destroyed, and the resulting tidal wave swept a Russian frigate from her anchorage a couplegof miles over the land. In the earth- quake of 1855 the city of Tokio suffered severely, a large part being destroyed and several thousand lives lost. JASPER, the county-seat of Dubois county, Ind., situated on the Patoka River. Block-coal is mined here, and lumber, flour, carriages, and farm-implements are manufactured. JASTROWV, IVIARCUS Monnncu, a Polish-Ameri- can rabbi, born at Rogasen, Prussia, in 1829. Af- ter studying at Berlin and graduating at Halle, he became preacher and assistant rabbi at War- saw in 1858. Being banished in 1862 he became rabbi at Mannheim, but was soon recalled to \Varsaw, where he remained till 1864. In 1866 a German-Hebrew congregation called him to Phil- adelphia, Pa., where he has since acted as rabbi. He published Die Lage der Juden in Polen; Vor- liiufer der Polnischen Revolution; Vier Jahrhun- derte, a history of the Jews of the second com— monwealth, and a valuable Hebrew-German Lexi- con. JATAKA (literally ‘relating to birth’), the name of a collection of legends, containing an ac— count of the 550 previous births of Sakya Muni, or the Buddha. It forms a part of the Suttapit- aka of Pali literature. These are of great im- portance as the earliest collection of popular stories. J AVELIN , a short spear intended to be thrown by the hand. -It was anciently used by horse- men and foot soldiers, and is a common weapon among modern savage tribes. JAY, BLUE JAY, one of our most common and most noxious birds. It is in the habit of destroy- ing the broods of other small birds, and commits depredations on the fruits and seeds of farms and gardens. Both the European and American jays are fully described in Britannica, Vol. XIII; pp. 610, 611. ' JAY, Jomv, an American diplomatist, born in 1817. He was admitted to the New York bar in 1839, and in 1869 was sent as minister to Aus- tria. He resigned in 1875, and in 1877 was chair- man of the commission to investigate the system 929 of the New York custom-house. Mr. Jay is a member of various geographical and historical societies, and has published many speeches and pamphlets. _ JAY, WILLIAM (1789-1858), an American jurist. In 1818 he was appointed to the bench of \Vest- chester county, N. Y., and was re-appointed until 1843. He was active in anti-slavery and temper- ance movements. Among his published works are Memoir on the Subject of a General Bible Society for the United States (1815); Life and Writings of John Joy (1833); Inquiry Into the Character and Tendency of the American Colonization and Ameri- can Anti-Slavery Societies (1834); A View of the Action of the Federal Government in Behalf of Slavery (1837); The Condition of the Free People of Color in the United States (1839); I/Var and Peace; the Evils of the First, With a Plan for Securing the Last (1848); Kossuth Excitement (1852) ; and Causes and Consequences of the Measican War (1849); besides many addresses and letters. J EAFFERSON, J OHN Connv, an English author, born at Framlingham, Suffolk, in 1831. Begin- ning the practice of law in 1859, he was employed in 1874 as one of the inspectors of records in var- ious parts of England. He has published a long series of novels of which the most notable is Not Dead Yet, partly occasioned by the famous Tich- borne case. Among his books bearing on the social history of England are A Book About Doctors; A Book About Lawyers; A Book About the Clergy; A Book About the Table; Brides and Bridals; Annals of Oxford; A Young Squire of the Seventeenth Cen- tury, Etc. His books are chatty, full of anecdotes, and very entertaining. JEBB, RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE, a distinguished Greek scholar, born at Dundee, Scotland, Aug. 27, 1841. He passed with marked distinction through St. Columba’s College, Dublin, Charterhouse School, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduat- ing as senior classic in 1862. Soon after he was elected Fellow of his college, and took a prominent part in organizing the system of inter-collegiate classical lectures, and served as secretary of the newly founded Cambridge Philological Society. In 1869 he became public orator of the university, in 1872 classical examiner in the university of Lon- don, and tutor of his own college, in 1875 profes- sor of Greek in the university of Glasgow, and in 1889 regius professor of Greek at Cambridge. He has received from the King of Greece the Gold Cross of the Order of the Savior, in recognition of his services in promoting the study of both clas- sical and modern Greek. Amongst the most im- portant of his works are The Attic Orators, Modern Greece, and a Life of Richard Bentley. Dr. Jebb has for some time past been engaged in editing the complete works of Sophocles. JEFFERSON, a railroad junction and the county- seat of Greene county, Iowa, on Coon River, 50 miles northwest of Des Moines. JEFFERSON, a dairying and farming town of Schoharie county, N. Y. It has manufactories of cabinet-wares and shoes. JEFFERSON, a city, railroad centre and county- seat of Marion county, Tex., at the head of naviga- tion on Big Cypress Bayou. It is a thriving man- ufacturing city, the largest of northeastern Texas, and the center of river commerce, exporting cat- tle, barreled beef, tallow, hides, wool, osage orange seed, and large quantities of cotton. Large beds of coal and iron are found in the vicinity. Popu- lation, 3,070. JEFFERSON, a post-village, capital of Ashta- bula county, Ohio, situated on the Franklin di- vision of the Lake Shore Railroad, 13 miles south 2-22 930 of Lake Erie. It is surrounded by a rich grazing and dairy country. JEFFERSON, a city and county-seat of Jefferson county, Wis., situated at the union of Crawford and Rock rivers. It is the seat of Jefferson Lib- eral Institute, and has manufactories of cream- brick. ‘ JEFFERSON CITY, the capital of the state of Missouri, and the county-seat of Cole county, situ- ated on the south bank of the Missouri River, 150 miles from its mouth——lat. 380 36’ N., long. 920 9' ~W. It is 125 miles west of St. Louis, and 158 miles east-southeast of Kansas City. Jefferson City contains a state-house, a court-house, a state-pris- on, the Lincoln Institute, a female seminary, sever- al banks and churches, and manufactories of farm- ing-implements and wagons. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity. Population in 1870, 4,420; in 1880, 5,271; in 1890, 6,732. ' JEFFERSON, Josnrn, an American actor, born in 1829. At the age of three he figured as the child in “Pizarro, or the death of Rolla,” and in 1843 traveled through Texas and Mexico with a party of strolling players. He has since appeared in nearly every city of note in the United States, and in many of various other countries. He is best known through ‘his performance as “Rip Van VVinkle.” JEFFERSONIA, a genius of Berberidaceee, con- taining two species, one American and one Chinese. J. dyphylla, popularly known as twin-leaf, is in- digenous to the eastern interior of the United States. It has two-parted leaves, rising in a tuft from the roots, and white blossoms, appearing in April or May. The root is reputed to have tonic and emetic properties, and in some places the plant is called “rheumatism root.” It was named in honor of Thomas Jefi”erson. JEFFERSONVILLE,a city of Clark county, Ind., I on the Ohio River, opposite Louisville, Ky., 5 miles above New Albany, and 108 miles south of Indian- apolis. It contains several churches and banks, the Southern State prison, an arsenal, high-school, iron foundries, machine-shops, and manufactories of railroad-cars, steamboats, farm-implements, etc. Population in 1880, 9,357 ; in 1890, 11,274. J EFFRIES, J OHN (1745—1819), an American phy- sician. He began the practice of medicine in Bos- ton, Mass., in 1769, and-from 1771 to 1774 was sur- geon of a British ship of the line at that port. In 1776 he went to Halifax, where Lord Howe made him surgeon-general of the British forces in Nova Scotia, and in 1780 he became surgeon-major to the forces in America. He resigned in less than a year, however, and went to London, where he practiced with marked success. In 1789 he returned to Bos- ton, and gave a series of public lectures on anato- my. He published in 1786, A Narrative of Two Aérial Voyages, which he took while in London. JELALPUR, a town of India, in the Punjab, on the River Jhylum, or Jhelum. JENKINS, EDWARD, a British author, born in 1838. He was admitted to the bar in London in 1864, and practiced till 1873, when he entered poli- tics. From 1874 to 1876 he was agent-general for Canada, and then became a member of parlia- ment. Among his published works are Gina:’s Baby (1870); The Colonies and Imperial Unity (1871); and The Coolie (1871.) JENKINS, THORTON ALEXANDER, aUnited States naval officer, born in 1811.. He entered the navy in 1828 asa midshipman; was made a lieutenant in 1839; was engaged in several important actions during the Mexican war; in 1852 became secretary of the light-house board; was promoted comman- der in 1855; was made captain in 1862; commo- JEFFERSON-——JE“RSEY CITY dore in 1866; and rear-admiral in 1870. He was re- tired in 1873, and at the Centennial exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876 had charge of the exhibit of the navy department. Admiral Jenkins wrote many reports for the government. J ENNER, SIR WILLIAM, an English physician, born at Chatham in 1815, and educated at Univer- sity College, London, where he himself was profes- sor' from 1848 till 1879. He was appointed physician in ordinary to the Queen in 1862, and to the Prince of Wales in the following year; was made a baro- net in 1868, and a K. C. B. in 1872; and was elected F. R. S. and president of the College of Physicians. His professional eminence is chiefly based upon his discovery of the symptoms which differentiate typhus from typhoid fever. 62gEREMIAH. See Britannica, V 01. XIII, pp. 626- J ERKIN—HEAD, a form of roofing which is half- gable, half-hip. The gable generally goes as high as the ties of the couples, above which the roof is hipped off. - JERUSALEM CHERRY, the popular name of Solanum Pseudo-capsicum. It is cultivated as an ornamental house plant, grows only two or three feet high, and bears berries about the size of cher- ries. It is also called Winter Cherry. J ERROLD, VVILLIAM BLANCHARD, an English author, born in London in 1826, died in 1884. After being educated partly in France, he became a journalist, and also produced many farces and come- dies. In 1855 he attended the Paris exhibition as agent of the London “Daily News.” In 1862 he wrote a series of articles on the “London poor” for the “Morning Post,” and during the next year he went to Paris to examine its institutions for the poor, and some years latter he visited Netherlands for the same purpose. Among his published writ- ings are At Home in Paris; Trip Through the Vine- yards of Spain; The Cocaynes; Lmidon, illustrated by Doré, and Life of Napoleon III. JERSEY CITY, a city and county-seat of Hud- son county, N. J., on the right or west bank of the Hudson River, opposite New York City, with which constant communication is maintained by five fer- ries. The streets are generally laid out at right an- gles, and are of good width, well paved, sewered, lighted with gas and electricity, and borded by many handsome residences. The most prominent public buildings are the city-hall, court-house, and school-' houses. Jersey City is the terminus of the Red Star line of steamships to Europe, and of a dozen railroads running in various directions. Im- mense quantities of iron, coal, produce, and general merchandise are brought to and shipped from this city. There are horse and electric railroads to Hoboken and various parts of the city itself. It contains upwards of 60 churches, a high-school, a normal-school, several banks, and many charitable and educational institutions. The city is supplied with water conveyed in pipes from the Passaic River by means of hydraulic works which are at Belleville, 6 miles distant. Jersey City has many and various manufacturing establishments, among which the more important are the works of the United States Watch Company, several extensive glass-works, crucible-works, steel-works, foundries, machine-shops, boiler-works, locomotive and rail- road supply works, sugar refineries, zinc-works, breweries, planing-mills, potteries, manufactories of chemicals, j ewelry,fireworks, lead pencils,cand1es, soap, hydrants, chains, rubber goods, castor and linseed oil, copper ware. oakum, chains and spikes, car springs, etc. The mines of Europe, as well as those of this country, obtain their crucibles from the works of Jersey City. Here are located large JERSEY SHoR11.it_JEsUITS stock-yards and an extensive abattoir where vast quantities of cattle and sheep are slaughtered for the New York markets. This city is governed by a mayor and board of aldermen, assisted by numer- ous executive boards. There is an efficient police force, and a well equipped fire department. Pub- lic education isr directly controlled by a board of education, who elect a city superintendent. The site whereon Jersey City stands was formerly called Paulus Hook, but in 1820 was chartered “as the City of Jersey,” and in 1838 as “Jerse City.” Popula- tion in 1850, 6,856; in 1860, 29,226; in 1870, 82,546; in 1880, 120,722; in 1890, 163,987. JERSEY SHORE, a post-borough of Lycoming county, Pa., 10 miles southwest of Vvilliamsport, on the west branch of the Susquehanna. The region has fine scenery, is fertile and produces lumber and tobacco. J ERSEYVILLE, a city, railroad junction and county-seat of Jersey county, Ill., 50 miles north of St. Louis. It manufactures flour, plows, reapers, and carriages. JESSEL, SIR GEORGE, an English jurist, born in London, of Jewish parents in 1824, died March 21, 1883. After studying at the University College, London, he was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1847, and in 1865 he became a queen’s counsel. In 1871 he was appointed solicitor-general by Mr. Gladstone, knighted in 1872; made master of the rolls in 1873, and became the usual president of the court of appeals. He was the first Jew to hold a judicial ofiice in England. In 1880 J essel was made vice-chancellor of the University of London. JESUITS IN NORTH AMERICA. On JESUITS in general, see Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 645-656. In.1611 the Jesuit Fathers Biard and Masse, accom- panied the French expedition which laid the foun- dation of Acadia. Called upon by the original Recollet missionaries to take part in their labors in the then new colony of Quebec, the Jesuits settled in the valley of the St. Charles, near the confluence of that river with the Lairet, and there established the nursery of their order in America known as Notre-Dame des Anges, in 1625. \Vhen Quebec was captured by the English, four years later, the Jesuit ' mission was suspended and the fathers driven off. In 1632 when the French recaptured the St. Law- rence River, the Jesuits returned; opened schools, especially the College of Quebec, and sent out mis- sionaries who went up the river in canoes. After many hardships and a travel of 900 miles by land and water, the missionaries found themselves in the Huron country, near the shores of Lake Huron. Here they founded mission schools, preached, farmed, and traded in furs with the French of Montreal and Quebec. But, alas! in 1649 the Iro- quois conquered the Hurons, burnt their villages, devastated their corn-fields, took their women and children prisoners, and burnt and tomahawked the Jesuit fathers. But the Jesuits did not give up the task of estab- lishing missions among the Indians. In 1649 they had establishments at Montreal, Three Rivers, and Quebec; a missionary post on the island of Miscon, iii the gulf of the St. Lawrence, another at Tadousac near the mouth of the Great Saguenary River; and also posts along the Algonquins on the Kennebec River, in Maine. Besides their activity as mission- aries we find the -Jesuits in North America taking part in many exploring expeditions. In 1671, when the Intendant Talon of New France, resolved to take possession of the large valley of the Ottawas, in the name of the king of France, the Jesuit Father Claude Allouez assisted him very materially, and took the chief part in the ceremonies incident a to the great meeting of Indian tribes at Sainte- 931 Marie-du-Sant. In the following year the French urider St. Simon and the Jesuit Father Albanel, re- discovered Hudson’s Bay. Talon also sent in the same year a Quebec mer- chant named J oliet, and the Jesuit Father Marquette west to discover “Cathay” and the “South Sea.” After wintering at Machelimackinac, these two explorers advanced early the next spring into the valley of the Illinois River, passing by way of the Fox River and the lVisconsin into the Miss- issippi as far as its confluence with the Arkansas, they returned in the fall and wintered at St. Francis Xavier, a missionary station on the west of Lake Michigan. As La Salle descended the Mississippi to the gulf in 1681, we see that Marquette and J oliet preceded him by 8 years in discovering the “Father of Waters.”' For the next hundred years the Jesuits contin- ued their missionary, farming, teaching and ex- ploring work with undiminished zeal and gratifying success, so that in 1720, when Charlevoix, a mem- ber of their society, visited Canada, he was prompt- ed to congratulate his brethern warmly on their eminent services. But the English were at war with the French everywhere. So it came that Father Sebastian Rasle was shot down on the bat- tle-field at Norridgewock, Maine, surrounded by his Indian neophytes; and when in 1769 the British conquered New France, the College of Quebec. after flourishing for nearly 150 years, received its first severe blow. But it was still further crippled in 1773, when Pope Clement XIV, suppressed the whole Jesuit order by a papal bull. Father Well, the last Jesuit survivor in Montreal, died in 1791; and Father Cazot, the last one in Quebec, passed away in 1800. After this the British government took all the Jesuit property in Canada, and turned the College of Quebec into barracks. It served as such until 1869, when England withdrew her troops from Canada. In 1880 the college building was torn down by order of the Provincial government. At present, the Jesuit property at Quebec, Three Rivers, Montreal and elsewhere, summing up thousands upon thousands of acres, is under litiga- tion between the Dominion government and the Pope in Rome. The work of the Jesuits begins in the United States, when it ends in New France. After the war of independence, Father John Carroll, an ardent Jesuit in Maryland, corresponded with the Holy See with a view to establishing a hierarchy iii the United States. His scheme was accepted, and he himself was appointed and consecrated first bishop of Baltimore in 1790. The diocese of Baltimore re- mained for years the only Roman Catholic diocese in the United States, and embraced all the States and Territories of the Union. Carroll was the founder of Georgetown College, near \Vashington, in 1791, and he established a theological seminary in connection with this college, which in 1792, was merged in that of St. Mary’s, Baltimore. In 1815 Georgetown -College was chartered as a university by act of Congress, and in 1833 it was empowered by the Holy See to confer degrees in philosophy and theology. This university is at present the largest school under J esuitic control in the Union, and withal one of the best in the land. / One of its prin- cipal ofishoots is the college of the Holy Cross, at ‘Worcester, Mass. In 1823 two Jesuits from Maryland traveled to Missouri and took 10 young Marylanders with them. At Florissant, a few miles north, northwest of St. Louis, Mo., they opened a school for Indian boys. In 1828 the Missouri Jesuits founded the St. Louis University, which was the first scholastic institu- tion west of the Mississippi, and stands to-day high 932 on the roll of American schools. Similar schools were gradually established by the Missouri fathers in Cincinnati, O.; Louisville and Bardstown, Ky.; Grand Coteau, La.; Chicago, Ill.; Milwaukee,\Vis. ; Detroit, Mich., and Omaha, Neb. They have also %‘1r1xii1;iary stations in all the important towns of the es . In their effortk to convert and civilize the In- dians, the Jesuits \enetrated into the various In- dian countries, beginning with the Pottowattomies in Kansas, ascending the Missouri to the Sioux en- campment, and the Yellowstone to the Blackfeet. They labored among the Flatheads and the various other tribes of Indians west of the Rocky Moun- tains. One of them, Father De Smet, was on several occasions deputed by the United States Government to pacify the Indians, when they became violent by their unjust treatment at the hands of Indian agents or swindling traders. Father De Smet visited many of the tribes, and obtained from the govern- ment even the right of nominating agents for Catholic tribes. During the revolutionary troubles in Europe in 1847-48, many Jesuits were driven from their col- leges and sought refuge in America. The provinces of Maryland and Missouri, obtained large rein- forcements from these refugees. A number of the latter went to California in 1854, and began there a mission and a school, the College of Santa Clara, near San Francisco. The mission has since spread into Oregon and New Mexico. Some French Jes- uits took possession of St. Mary’s College, Marion county, Ky., in 1833, and laid also the foundation of another college in Louisville Ky., in 1845. Early in 1846 they left the latter to take charge of St. J ohn’s College, N. Y., and also to establish a college for externs in New York City. About the same time a number of Jesuits went to New Orleans, where they opened a house, and took soon after also the flourishing college of Springhill, ne‘ar Mobile, Ala. They have since added several stations throughout the Southwest. The order of Jesuits was restored in 1814 by Pope Pius VII. After an absence of more than 40 years from Canada, the Jesuit fathers appeared once more on the banks of the St. Lawrence in 1839; and the old College of Quebec was soon replaced by St.Mary’s College at Montreal, which stands un- rivaled among the many flourishing institutions in Canada. In 1865 the Jesuits opened their beautiful church in Montreal, which is the counter- part of the Gesie, the mother temple of their society in Rome. In 1885 the college of St. Boni- face, opposite Winnipeg, in Manitoba, was trans- ferred to the Jesuits of the Dominion. The preceeding array of facts shows that the Jesuits of America represent a large percentage of the whole number of educational institutions, both in the United States and the Dominion of Canada. And we may add that their schools and colleges are generally crowded with students. Taking priests, scholastics, novices, and lay-brothers together,they number about 1,000 men. But the mental and moral influence on the large number of _their pupils can scarcely be estimated. The recruits of their order are taken from the most gifted and promising native American youth. At Woodstock, Md., a central institute has been established in which young Jesuits are thoroughly instructed in philosophy, physical science, mathematics, and theology, with a view of preparing them for the riestly offices, and also for teaching all the higher branches of learning in the colleges and schools of their order. J ETTIES are pier-like structures of wood or stone and earth built on either side of a river’s JETTIES--JEWFISH mouth in order to contract its current and to cause it to scour away the mud and sand of the bar, thus deepening the channel. Many of the river- mouths along our great lakes have been converted into good ports by harbor-works embodying the jetty-system, but the most conspicuous examples of this kind of river engineering are Captain J . B. Eads’ jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi. River. For the details, see MISSISSIPPI, Britan- nica, Vol. XVI, pp. 520, 521, and RIVER ENGI- NEERING, pp. 580, 581. We add the following remarks: Eads built two jetties along the South Pass. The east jetty is 12,100 feet long, the west one is somewhat shorter. They consist mainly of willow-mattresses. The willows for these mattresses were obtained in large quantities from the “jump,” a sub-delta 12‘ miles above the head of the passes. Willow rods 2% inches thick at the butt and from 15 to 30‘ feet long were used, and the brushy tops left on them. Barges carried them to Port Eads, a town of small houses built just above the mouth of the South Pass on both banks of the latter. The mat- tresses were about 2 feet thick and many of them as much as 100 feet long. They were towed by a steam-tug to their places and were sunk there by placing rubble stones evenly upon them. These stones had to be brought down the Mississippi from quarries at Rosiclair, in Southern Illinois. Guide- piles marked out the course of each jetty. For the greater part of their length four courses of mat- tresses and stones were laid. Towards the sea- ward ends the works were protected by cribs of palmetto logs filled in with stone; and towards the: landward end some portions were constructed of yellow pine sheet piling. But as the current. tended to undermine the latter part of the work, it had to be protected by willow mattresses lowered between the rows of piles. Afterwards an “ inner east jetty” was built to reinforce the landward end of the east jetty. The west jetty is connected with the main land by adam of willow mattresses 550 feet long and running at right angles with the main work. After both jetties were constructed, temporary wing- dams were built inside to hasten the erosive ac- tion of the current, and they served their purpose well. Three years after the jetties were laid, when all the work was well settled together, their tops were capped toward their seaward ends with huge blocks of concrete, and their sides were pro- tected with a revetement of stone and gravel. The jetties are still slowly settling, and a slight shoal- ing to seaward is reported. But the entire pass is now all along at least 30 feet deep. J EVONS, VVILLIAM STANLEY, an English political economist, born at Liverpool in 1835, died in 1882. After being educated at the University College, London, he spent 5 years at Sydney, Australia, as an employé in the mint there. In 1866 he was appointed professor of logic, political economy, and mental philosophy at Owen’s College, Manchester. In 1875 he became professor of political economy at University College, London. After 1881 he de- voted himself entirely to literary work, but was accidentally drowned at Bexhill in 1882. His main published works are A Serious Fall in the Price of Gold, which treated of the economic results of the gold discoveries in California; The Coal Question, speaking of the future exhaustion of the British coal mines; A Theory of Political Economy; The State in Relation to Labor; a treatise on Money,, and the Principles of Science. J EWFISH, one of the several different fishes of the family Serranidx. The jew-fish of the south- ern and eastern coasts of the United States is- JEWSBURY-—JOHNSON the Promicrops guasa, which sometimes attains a weight of 700 pounds; that of California is Stereo- lepsis gigas. JEWSBURY, MARIA JANE (c 1800-1833), an En- glish writer, born in Warwickshire about 1800, and resided in Manchester during the greater part of her life. In 1833 she married Rev. William Fletch- er,a missionary to India, and died at Bombay in the same year. Author of Phantasmagoria, Let- ters to the Young, Lays of Leisure Hours, and Three Histories. JEW’S EAR,a fungus, one of the Hymenomy- cetes, which grows on decaying parts of living trees, and bears some resemblance to a human ear. It is soft but cartilaginous, wrinkled, generally brown, and stemless. The spores are produced on the upper surface. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, P J IB-BOOM, an extension of the bowsprit towards the front, running out beyond it. It gives greater spread for jib-sails, and a more extended base for the top-gallant-mast-stay. In large vessels, a fly- ing jib-boom is run out in a similar manner beyond the jib-boom. JIMENA, or XIMENA, a town of Spain, twenty- one miles north of Gibraltar. It has some remark- able caves and the remains of aMoorish castle. Population, 8,500. J INN , in Mohammedan mythology, spirits made of fire, and capable of assuming any form at will. They inhabita world called J innistan, but often visit the earth, and exert an influence over man- kind for both good and evil. In the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments they are called genii. The word in this form is sometimes regarded as singular, with a plural jinns. JOACHIM, JOSEPH, a German violinist, born near Pressburg, in Hungary, in 1831. Already fam- ous asayouthful prodigy, he went to Leipzig in 1843, to the Conservatoire founded by Mendels- sohn, who saw his genius and encouraged him. He made his first visit to London in 1844, and has since made annual visits there. In 1869 he be- came the head of the newly developed Academy of Music at Berlin. Herr Joachim has written sev- eral works for his instrument and the orchestra, the chief being the Hungarian Concerto. In 1887 he visited Paris, and had an enthusiastic recep; tion. In 1877 the University of Cambridge con- ferred on him the degree of Musical Doctor and the University of Oxford recently conferred upon him the honorary degree of D. C. L. JOB, Boox on See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 697-703. J OGUES, IsAAc (1607-1646), a French missionary. He was ordained a Jesuit priest in 1636, and then went to Canada as a missionary to the Hurons and Chippewas. In 1642 he was captured by the Mo- hawks, but after over a year’s confinement and torture escaped to the Dutch at Albany, N. Y. He then visited France. but returned shortly after- ward, and in 1646 concluded a peace with the Mo- hawks. The same year, however, he was murdered by a member of that tribe. He wrote Description of New Netherlands in 1642, a Notice of Rene’ Goupil, and a Journal, all of which have been published. JOHN O’GROAT’S HOUSE, the most northerly in Scotland, in Caithness,13/4 miles west of Dun- can’s Bay Head, was, according to tradition, an octagonal building with eight doors and windows and an eight-sided table within, built by John O’Groat to prevent dissentions as to preced- ence_ among the eight different branches of his amily. JOHN HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. See COLLEGES in these Revisions and Additions. 933 JOHNSON, OLIVER (1809-1889), an American edi- tor. He served an apprenticeship in the printing office of the Montpelier, Vt., “ Watchman,” and in 1831 became editor of the “Christian Soldier,” from 1865 to 1870 he managed the “Independent,” and then accepted the editorship of the New York “Tribune,” which post he resigned two years later, in order to take charge of the “Christian Union.” He was active in the cause of anti-slavery, and was an organizer of the New England anti-slavery soci- ety in 1832. He was the author of William Lloyd Garrison and His Times, or Sketches of the Anti-slao- ery Movement in America (1880). JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796-1876), an American statesman. He was admitted to the bar in 1815, and began practice in Prince George county, Md. In 1817 he removed to Baltimore, and in 1821 be- came a member of the state senate. He was ap- pointed attorney-general in President Taylor’s cabinet, and from 1845 to 1849 was in the United States Senate. In 1868 he went to England as min- ister, and while there negotiated the “Johnson- Clarenden” treaty for the settlement of the Ala- bama claims, besides settling several other important controversies. On his return to the United States in 1869 he resumed the practice of law, which he continued to within afew days of his death. JOHNSON, RICHARD hlnnron (1781-1850), a vice- president of the United States. He was admitted to the Kentucky bar, and from 1804 to 1807 was in Congress as a Republican. He was reélected in 1807, and served, with the exception of a few months, until 1819. At the beginning of the war of 1812 he raised abattalion of three companies, and commanded it in active service for ten months. Shortly afterwards he raised a regiment of one thousand mounted volunteers, and was himself in command until the fall of 1813 when he was wounded several times in the battle of the Thames, and compelled to give up his post. From 1819 to 1829'he was a United States Senator, and then was again a member of the house till 1837, when he was chosen vice-president on the ticket with Martin Van Buren. He was afterward sent to the legisla- ture. and was a member of that body at the time of his death. JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1696-1772), an American ed- ucator. From 1716 to 1719 he was a tutor at Yale, and then was ordained pastor of the Congrega- tional church in \Vest Haven, but in 1722 was con- verted to episcopacy. He was assigned to a mission at Stratford, where he remained until his death, with the exception of the years from 1754 to 1763, when he was president of King’s (now Col- umbia) college, New York. Among his works are A System of Morality (1746) ; A Letter from a Minister of the Church of England to his Dissenting Parishion- ers (1733); A Second Letter (1734); A Third Letter (1737); A Demonstration of Reasonableness, Useful- ness, and Great Duty of Prayer (1760); and An En- glish and Hebrew Grammar (1767), besides many pamphlets and sermons. JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1822-1882), an American Unitarian minister. His first charge was the church in Harrison square, Dorchester in 1847, and from 1851 to 1870 he was pastor at Lynn, Mass. He lec- tured often upon anti-slavery topics. His most important published work is Oriental Religions, com- prising India (1872), China (1877),and Persia (1885). JOHNSON, SIR JOHN (1742-1830) Baronet, son of Sir William Johnson, born near Albany, N. Y., and during a visit to England in his youth knighted by George III, as a compliment to his father. He was made a major-general of militia in 1774, and when American independence was declared he went to 3 9321 Canada, and returning at the head of troops raised there by himself took an active part in aid of the British in central New York. After the war he re- sided in Canada, where he was given large tracts of land by the British government. JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM, Baronet (1715-1774), a British soldier. He emigrated to America in 1738, and established himself on a tract of land on the south side of the Mohawk, a few miles west of Schenectady. He became a trusted friend of the Indians, and was appointed superintendent of In- dian affairs in 1743. In 1750 he was appointed by the king a member of the governor’s council, and in 1755 was created a baronet of Great Britain. During the French war he distinguished himself at Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and other places,and concluded several treaties with the Indians, among them the great treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768. His extensive correspondence with the British and colonial governments -is extremely valuable for a correct understanding of the early history of New York and of America in general. JOHNSON, WILLIAM SAMUEL (1727-1819), an American jurist. He was admitted to the bar in 1746; and in 1761, and again in 1765, represented Stratford Conn., in the general assembly. In the latter year he was chosen a member of the first colonial congress that met to consider the Stamp Act, and in 1766 was sent to the upper house, or governor’s council. In 1772 he became a judge of the superior court, but held oflice only a few months. From 1784 to 1787 he was a member of the Continental Congress, and in 1789 became the first United States Senator from Connecticut. From 1787 to 1800 he was president of Columbia College. JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1889), an Ameri- can author. In 1876 he was admitted to the New Jersey bar, and then taught in the Rutger college grammar school till 1879. He then became princi- pal of the Norwalk Latin-school and from 1883 to the time of his death was professor of jurisprudence and political economy at Princeton. He published a History of American Politics (1879) ; The Genesis of a New England State (1884); Representative American Orations, with an Outline of American Political His- tory (1885); History of the United States for Schools (1886), and History of Connecticut (1887). JOHNSTON, JAMES F. W., a Scottish chemist, born at Paisley in 1796. died at Durham, Sept. 18, 1855. He studied at Glasgow University, and was afterwards the pupil of Berzelius, the chemist. In 1833 he was invited to take the leadership in chem- istry and mineralogy in the newly-established uni- versity of Durham. It is as an agricultural chem- ist that he is chiefly known. His Catechism of Agri- cultural Chemistry and Geology has gone through more than fifty editions, and has been translated into almost every European language; and his Lec- tures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology (1842; 13th ed. 1883) are held in high esteem. The last of his works, Chemistry of Common Life (1854) has passed through several editions. JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1809-1891), an American soldier. In 1829 he entered the artillery service, and served with distinction against the Seminole Indians, and in the war with Mexico. At the beginning of the civil war he had attained the rank of brigadier-general in the United States Army, but resigned and immediately became major- general in the Confederate Army. Later he commanded in all the peninsularbattles, in Tennes- see, and in Carolina, where he surrendered to Gen. W. 'I‘. Sheridan, April 26, 1865, after receiving in- telligence of Gen. Lee’s surrender. After the war Gen. Johnston became president of a railroad in Arkansas, and also of the National express company JOHNSON—JOLIET in Virginia. Later President Cleveland appointed him commissioner of railroads of the United States. He wrote Narrative of Military Operations (1874). J OHNSTOWN, a post-village, capital of Fulton county, N.Y.,situated on the railroad four miles from Fonda, and on a branch of the Mohawk River. It has an academy, gas works, skin and leather dress- ing establishments, and glove and mitten fac- tories. JOHN THE PARRICIDE, commonly called John of Swabia, son of Rudolph II., and grandson of Rudolph I. of Austria, was born in 1289. After many attempts to induce his uncle, Albert I. of Austria, to resign to him some estates in Swabia, he formed a conspiracy with others and murdered Albert in 1308 and then fled to Italy, where he died. See Britannica, Vol. X, p. 493. J OINTURE, a law term signifying that portion of an estate which is settled upon a woman before her marriage to be enjoyed by her after her hus- band’s decease. The jointure bars a wife from her dower, if the deed of conveyance states that it shall take effect immediately upon the death of the husband; that it is for her own life; that it is made to herself and no other in trust for her; and that it shall be in full satisfaction of her dower, and not of any particular part of it. J OINVILLE, FRANQOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE Lours MARIE D’ORLEANS, PRINCE DE, a French sol- dier and author, born at Neuilly in 1818, being the third son of King Louis Philippe. In 1836 he be- came a lieutenant of the French navy, and in 1840 he commanded the frigate which brought the re- mains of Napoleon I. from St. Helena to France. In 1843 he married the daughter of Dom Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil. Being made rear-admiral in 1844 he commanded the fleet which bombarded Tangiers. His father being driven from the throne in 1848 Prince J oinville relinquished his command and went to England. Afterward he devoted him- self to travel and study; came to America in 1861; and accompanied Gen. McClellan during his com- mand of the Army of the Potomac. Since 1870 he has lived in retirement in France, and has pub- lished L’Angleterre and La Campagne du Potomac. J OKAI, MAURUS, a Hungarian novelist, born at Komorn, Feb. 19, 1825. He qualified for an advo- cate, but never practiced, and after 1849 devoted himself exclusively to literary pursuits. Among the best of his works are The Turks in Hungary (1852); The Magcar Nabob (1853), and its continua- tion Zoltan Karpathy (1854); The New Landlord (1862); The Romance of the Coming Century (1873); The Comedians of Life (1876); The White Woman of Lentschau (1884); and Timar’s Two Worlds (1888). Most of his novels have been translated in- to German, and several of them into English. Jokai has gained fame as a journalist, as editor first of the revolutionary weekly “Pictures of Life”, then of the political daily “Fatherland”, and lastly of the humorous weekly “The Comet” and the gov- ernment organ “N emzet”. He is a prominent mem- ber of the House of Representatives, being one of the cleverest debaters of the party of the liberal government. J OLIET, a city and county-seat of Will county, Ill., on Des Plaines River, 37 miles southwest of Chicago, 44 miles east-northeast of Ottawa, and 22‘ miles south-southwest of Aurora. It con- tains many handsome stone buildings, several churches, chapels, schools, banks, a Catholic acad- emy, a convent, and a State prison. J oliet has ex- tensive flour-mills. machine-shops, breweries, lime- k1lI1S, brick-yards, foundries, manufactories of boots and shoes, cigar-factories, Bessemer steel- JOLIETTE-JORDAN works and rolling-mills, carriage-shops, marble- works, and manufactories of builders’ hardware, cooperage, farming implements, stoves, sash doors, and blinds. At this place there are large quarries of excellent Silurian limestone, called Joliet lime- stone. Population in 1880, 11,657 ; in 1890, 27,407. J OLIETTE, the county-seat of J oliette county, Quebec, Canada. It has excellent water-power, building-stone, a college, mechanics’ institute, con- vent, and manufactories of castings, lumber and leather. J OLLY-BOAT (Dutch, jolle a yawl), a small boat kept on board ship for the purpose of communi- cating with the shore. It is abroad, safe boat, rowed with four oars. JOMARD, EDME FRANQOIS, a French geographer and archaeologist, born at Versailles, Nov. 17, 1777, died at Paris, Sept. 22, 1862. He studied in the Ecole Polytechnique, and accompanied the expe- dition to Egypt as a member of the scientific com- mittee. After his return to Paris he devoted more than twenty years to the preparation of the celebrated work, Description de l’Egypt. He was one of the founders of the Geographical Society of Paris, and held a position in the geographical de- partment of the Royal Library. J ONAH. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 736-737. JONES, ANSON (1798-1858), a president of Texas. He began the practice of medicine in 1820 at Litch- field, Conn., and in 1833 settled in Brazoria county, Texas. During the war between Texas and Mexico he was a surgeon in the Texan army, and in 1837 was chosen to the Texan congress. From 1837 to 1839 he was minister to the United States Govern- ment, in 1840 President of the Senate, from 1841 to 1844 Secretary of State, and from 1845 to its annexa- tion to the United States was president of Texas. His last years were devoted to agriculture. JONES, CHARLES COLOOOK, Jr., an American lawyer and antiquarian. In 1856 he was admitted to the Savannah, Ga., bar, and was mayor in 1860- 61. During the civil war he was a lieutenant-colo- nel in the Confederate army. He has since de- voted much time to the history of Georgia and the antiquities of southern Indians. Among his pub- lished works are Monumental Remains of Georgia (1861); Historical Sketch of the Chatham Artillery during the Confederate struggle for Independence (1867); Historical Sketch of Tomo-chi-chi, Mico of the Yamacraws (1868); Reminiscences of the Last Days of Gen. Henry Lee (1870); Antiquities of the Southern Indians (1873); Siege of Savannah in 1779 (1874); Dead Towns of Georgia (1878) ; Hernando de Soto and his March through Georgia (1880) ; History of Georgia (1883), and Life, Labors, and Neglected Grave of Richard Henry Wilde (1885). JONES, HUGH BOLTON, an American artist, born in 1848. He studied in Baltimore, Md., and later in Europe, and in 1877 made a sketching tour in Brittany and Spain. Among his pictures are Tangier; Return of the Cows; Brittany; October; On Herring Run; Baltimore; Summer on the Blue Ridge; The Poplars; The Wayside Pool, and The Ferry Inn. JONES, JAMES KRINBROUGH, a United States Sen- ator, born in 1839. He was a Confederate soldier in the civil war; commenced the practice of law in 1873; and became a member of the Arkansas state senate the same year. He was chosen to the 47th Congress, and was reelected to the 48th and 49th. He was then elected to the United States senate, gggd took his seat in 1885. His term expired in ’ l. JONES, JOHN PERCIVAL, a United States Senator, born in 1830. In the early part of the California excitement he went to that State, and engaged in farming and mining in one of the inland counties, 935 which he subsequently represented in both houses of the state assembly. In 1867 he went to Nevada, and since then has been engaged in the develope- ment of the mineral resources of that State. In 1873 he was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate, and has been twice reélected. His term of service expired in 1891. J ONESBORO’, a city and county-seat of Clayton county, Ga., 20 miles south of Atlanta. It has a large cotton trade and manufactures flour and furniture. J ONESBORO’, a city and county-seat of Union county, Ill., celebrated for the fine fruit grown in the region. It has good building stone, a state in- sane asylum, mills and factories. JONESBOROUGH, the county-seat of 1Vashing- ton county, Tenn., 100 miles northeast of Knoxville. It is the oldest town in the state, was the first cap- ital, contains a female academy, and a normal in- stitute. J ONESIA, a genus of trees of the natural order Leguminosa, sub order Cwsalpinea, having a two- leaved calyx, a funnel-shaped corolla, seven sta- mens, and a scimitar shaped pod. The leaves are abruptly pinnate. The asoca of Sanskrit poetry (I. asoca) is one of the loveliest trees in the east. Its orange and crimson flowers grow in graceful racemes. Indian poetry abounds in its praises. J ONESVILLE, a railroad junction of Hillsdale county, Mich. It has manufactories of carriages, cotton and woolen goods. J ONQUIL, the name given to a species of Narcis- sus with rush-like leaves, allied to the daffodil. The common Jonquil (N. Jonguilla) has from two to six yellow or white flowers at the summit of its scape. The sweet-scented Jonquil (N. odorus) is very generally cultivated. Both species are indig- enous to the South of Europe. Perfumed waters are made from the flowers. JORDAN, DAVID STARR, an American naturalist, born in 1851. In 1870 he became instructor in botany at Cornell, in 1875 professor of biology at Butler university, and in 1879 at Indiana univer- sity. He has held many appointments as assist- ant to the United States fish and other commis- sions. Besides numerous papers on ichthyology, he has written a Manual of the Vertibrates of the Northern. United States (1876). JORDAN, Mns. DOROTHEA, DORA BLAND, an Irish actress, born near ‘Waterford, about 1762, died at St. Cloud, France, July 3, 1816. She appeared first in Dublin, under the name of Miss Francis, and soon became popular in the roles of romps and boys. In 1782 she crossed the channel and obtained an engagement from Wilkinson, of the York circuit, with whom she acted for three years. It was during this period that she assumed the name of Mrs. Jordan. She made her debut at Drury Lane in “The Country Girl” in 1785, became at once very popular and retained her hold on the public for nearly thirty years. In 1790 commenced her connection with the Duke of Clarence, after- wards \Villlam IV., which continued until 1811. Notwithstanding her youthful follies there is no reason to doubt that she was faithful to him, and in return he was warmly attached to her. There was no satisfactory explanation of the sudden breaking-Ofl’ of their relations, but it is supposed to have been for political reasons. She played in London and the provinces until 1814, when she retired to France,and though not in actual want, died their friendless and alone. In 1831 King Wil- liam raised her eldest son to the peerage, as Earl of Miinster, and gave the other Fitz-Clarences the rank and precedence of the younger sons and daughters of a marquis. 936 JORDAN. THOMAS, an American general, born in 1819. He entered the United States Infantry service in 1840, and served in the war against the Seminole Indians, and later in the war with Mexico. At the outbreak of the civil war he re- signed his commission and entered the Confed- erate army as adjutant-general, becoming brig- adier-general shortly afterward. In 1869 he be- came chief-of-staff to the revolutionary army in Cuba, and the same year succeeded to the chief command, but a little later resigned. He has since devoted himself to literature, and has writ- ten The Campaigns of Lieut.-Gen. Forrest (1868.) JORDAN, a village in Anondaga county, N. Y., 17 miles west of Syracuse. It has good water- power, and among its manufactures are wheel- barrows, sleds, furnaces, wagons and flour. JOUFFROY, D’ARBANS, CLAUDE, IVIARQUIS DE. a French mechanician, born in Francha-Comté about 1751, died at Paris in 1832. In early manhood he served in the army, and while in Provence studied the navigation of sailing vessels. The ap- plication of steam to navigation was suggested to him by the sight of a fire engine, and in 1783 he served in the army, and while in Provence suc- ceeded in making a small paddle-wheel steam- boat sail up the Rhone at Lyons. The vessel was, however, too defective to be available for purposes of actual navigation, and a patent was refused by the French government. Compelled by the Revo- lution to emigrate, he failed on account of finan- cial ruin, to float a company till after Fulton had made his successful experiments on the Seine in 1803. In 1816, having obtained a patent, J ouifroy formed a company, and in the same year launched a steamer on the Seine, but he was unable to compete with other enterprises of the same kind. JOUGS, Juees, or Joees, the name given in Scotland to a form of pillory which was used also in Holland and probably in other countries. The jougs were an iron ring or collar, fastened by a chain to a pillar or wall in some public place, such as a market-cross, a prison-door, a churchyard gate, etc. The ring or collar opened by a hinge, so as to enclose the culprit’s neck, when it was secured by a loop or staple and a padlock. The jongs were employed as a punishment as well for ecclesiastical as for civil offenses. They may be traced as far back as the 16th century, and al- though they have not been in use for the last hun- dred years, they may still be found hanging at few country churches. JOULE. JAMES Pnascorr, an English physicist, born at Salford in 1818, died in 1889. Instructed in science by Dr. John Dalton, he became a chemical experimenter; and afterwards he discovered the law that all mechanical motion has its equivalent in heat, and vice rersa. The final result of his ex- periments is expressed in this statement, known as "Joules Law :” “To raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahr. requires as much heat as is produced when 772 pounds of metal or stone, etc., fall through a height of one foot, or one pound falls through a height of 772 feet.” In other words: “The heat required for raising 1 pound of water 10 Fahr. is equal to 772 foot-pounds.” Joule announced this law in 1878. With Sir Wil- liam Thompson he prosecuted researches on the thermal effects of fluids in motion, and with Dr. L. Playfair on the varying volume of space occupied by the same body in the solid and in the liquid state. J oule’s experiments demonstrated the doctrine of correlation of forces, and also that of the kinetic theory of gases. The universities of Dublin and Edinburg conferred upon him the degree of L. L. D. and the university of Oxford gave him the de- JORDAN-JOURNALISM gree of D. C. L. He also received many marks of honor from abroad; and in 1878 a civil-list pen- sion of £200 was conferred upon him. JOURNALISM is the art of making newspa- pers. For the history and development of news- papers in the Old and New World see NEWSPAPER, Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 412-437. The newspaper is the product of skilled labor. For successful results this labor must be nicely divided and systematized. To the daily newspa- pers of our large cities more than one hundred intelligent minds and as many skilled hands con- tribute. The former may be located in widely separated parts of the world, even at the opposite ends of a diameter of the globe. Each contribu- tor has his space to fill; and when all the con- tributions are fitted together, the whole must not contain any repetitions, and still less any contra- dictions. All must be harmonious. Information considered desirable for publica- tion is called “news.” It is bought, sold, copy- righted, and traded in like stocks or grain. Its value is perishable. Only news has real value. It must therefore be obtained and published with promptness. The reporters and special correspond- ents furnish most of the daily items. The former satisfy the curiosity for local information, and the latter send news in from abroad. Since the curios- ity for news developed faster than the literary taste and culture of the readers, the literary nice- ty of the newspaper was often sacrificed to the tendency for satisfying mere curiosity, and since the advertising columns furnish the financial backbone of the enterprise, every proprietor of a newspaper strives to outdo his competitor in ob- taining the largest amount of advertising matter. But of late newspaper readers want more than a dry statement of the daily occurrences accom- panied with lists of advertisements. The major- ity clamors for graphic illustrations, and descrip- tive embellishments; for attractive, entertaining, and sometimes even sensational narratives; and above all for a fearless and unbiased presentation of the truth about allpublic measures and men in pub- lic life. No paper published to-day supplies all these demands. Charles A. Dana at first in the New York “Tribune” and afterwards in the New York “Sun”, was the first to foster the demand for a higher literary standard, and did it with good effect. Many editors throughout the country fol- lowed his example; but some, with a tendency for “fine writing and cultured style,” pitched their key too high and wrote far above the ideas and vocabulary of their constituency, so that their pa- pers could not be sold in paying numbers. The ideas and the language of a newspaper must be- fore everything be within the grasp of its read- ers. As to the personnel of a newspaper, there is first ,and foremost the “editor-in-chief” who directs the political policy of the journal. The editor-in- chief has a staff of sub-editors. These include the city editor, with his staff of reporters; the for- eign editor; the telegraph editor; the commercial editor; the financial editor or VVall street report- er; the literary editor; all the special correspond- ents, paragraph writers, theatrical editors,sporting editors, art reviewers, the agricultural editor, live- stock reporter, and special essayists. The “city editor” is, after the chief-editor, the most important person of the editorial department. This applies particularly to papers in large cities, like NewYork, Boston, Chicago, etc., where only a man of keen judgment, prompt decision, and unusual energy can fill this office well. He and his reporters must have the faculty of seeing or finding out every oc- JOURNALISM currence worth telling, and of describing it with a lively interest. The “ reporter,” who is on the lowest rung of the editorial ladder, begins his career without a salary, and is at first paid only for what he writes. After he has had two or three years’ experience in gath- ering news and writing it up, first of unimportant meetings and small matters generally, the city edi- tor assigns to him work of a higher plane, as of important gatherings, of startling murders, of new social movements, etc., and his future will depend on how quickly, completely,and spicily he writes them up and gets them into his paper next morning. If he fails in this his discharge and disgrace will fol- low; because his paper is bound to bring the first, most accurate, and most lively news every day, and he cannot allow it to “be beaten” by any other paper. If the reporter is slow and inefficient on important occasions, and loses an interesting piece of news for his paper, every one of the many thousand readers will constitute himself acensor and pass the verdict of inferiority, carelessness, and insufficiency upon the paper. This verdict means decline of circulation, shrinkage of advertising pat- ronage, and, in consequence, a loss of money to the publisher, because the reader, after looking in vain for the details of the coveted news in his favorite journal, if he finds it more fully in a rival paper, is very apt to take in the future the paper that gives the most detailed news, even if it is colored with sensationalism and wrong-sided politics. The various sub-editors are recruited from the ranks of the reporters. In a morning journal the “night-editor” puts the paper to press. He de- cides in what part of the paper this or that matter shall appear; in what type it shall be set and how much “ display” shall be given to it. As there is usually twice as much matter collected daily as can be printed, the night editor also decides what matter shall be thrown away or kept for another issue. In making up a large paper, say, of 8, 10, 12, or more pages, he apportions the reading matter in a miniature folio page by page. At 9 p. m. he rings for the foreman of the composing room. The latter has by this time “cast up,” or estimated, all the advertisements already in type or to be given out to the compositors. He can, therefore, state how many columns of advertisements he has. And the night editorthereupon casts up his paper, by cal- culating how many columns he requires for editor- ials, for foreign news, for Washington, State capital and city news; for domestic telegrams, for shipping, commercial, and financial news, and for emergencies. If he finds that the matter on hand is for one or two pages more than his paper will hold, some of the items are “boiled down” into shorter paragraphs, some portions are kept for an- other issue, and other ones are thrown into the waste basket. Telegrams are treated according to their internal value, no matter how much t ieir procurement may have cost. The autocratic night editor does not hesitate to curtail the articles of every other editor or reporter, the city editor not excepted. Even the leading articles are sometimes contracted. Paragraphs written by reporters, if they do not contain some startling news, are very often thrown into the waste basket, in order to make room for other matter. No advertise- ments can be left out, because they have been paid for in advance. The question arises: “ Shall the size of the journal be increased in order to make room for all the reading matter on hand? This question is for the proprietors to decide; the night editor has no authority over it. When a reporter is assigned to write up some out-of-town disaster, as the wrecking of a railroad 987 train or a great conflagration in another city, this raises him to the grade of a “ special correspond- ent.” He gathers the facts with all the harrowing details as rapidly as possible, dashes them down on his pad‘, and hands page by page to a telegraph operator to be forwarded to the telegraph editor of his paper with the utmost dispatch. After five or six years’ experience in the hunt for stray news the reporter is sent to the State capital while the legislature is in session. Here he begins the study of State politics. Not only in the hall of the Senate and Assembly, but especially in the committee rooms, the lobbies, and the corridors of the capitol, he has to pursue his unceasing quest for news. He finds that every one he meets here is a politician, and that politics is the most interesting news matter. He now makes numerous acquaintances, establishes friendly relations with the governor, the chairmen of committees, the ofiicials of the capitol building, and a goodly number of political hod-carriers. He visits the party rallying-places, interviews the party leaders, and stuffs his mind and reports with all sorts of party ideas, not omit- ting the party fustian, bombast, and glittering gen- eralities. ‘ After working himself successfully through a few legislative sessions at the State capital, the reporter is sent to ‘Washington while the United States Congress is in session. Here he is at the fountain-head of national politics. His political views now widen with the wider field of his studies. The United States capital interests him greatly, al- though its “ magnificent distances ” soon tire him. He hears and reports a great deal of very wise talk. The new members he finds talk too much in order to get into the Congressional Record. Nine- tenths of all their talk he finds is for mere rhetori- cal efl’ect or political reasons. He encounters polit- ical falsehood wherever he goes. If he does not stand like a moral rock, the avalanche of deceit, perfidy, falsity, and treachery which he encounters will swallow him up. But he sifts out the truth and sticks to it in his dispatches. After a while a great event, as a war, may occur in Europe. Our reporter is sent there as a compli- ment to his worth. Most of our large papers have offices~in Paris and London. At one of these points the news of the continent is gathered, digested, and cabled to America. Alert correspondents send the cream of the news in the London morning jour- nals here in time to be printed in our morning papers of the same date. They can do this by tak- ing advantage of the five hours difference of time in favor of this country. Our reporter is assigned to one of these European bureaus for the collection of news. In the personnel of a large newspaper the “man- aging editor ” is very often not the same person as the editor-in-chief. As general manager he selects the working force of the establishment and controls it. This gives him the greatest influence on the success or failure of the paper. He assigns the various sub-editors to their special posts, and sends the special correspondents to all parts of the world. He is therefore the main-spring in making the newspaper “pay.” The work of the sub-editors is mostly mechanical and technical. Each of them reports and reviews the occurrences in his particu- lar branch, as commerce, finance, theatres, live- stock exhibitions, etc. Our reporter may be pro- moted to any one of the editorial chairs according as he developes a fitness for one or the other, and as vacancies in the staff occur. The commercial value of news to the manage- ment of a daily journal may be learned from the following figures which give the percentages of in- %8 crease of copies sold on the occasions mentioned: Presidential elections 73 per cent.; State and mu- nicipal elections 35 per cent.; last days of a well- advertised walking match 20 per cent. ; elections in “ October States ” in Presidential years 18 per cent.; great fires 9 per cent.; notable disasters, such as the wrecking of a passenger train, the sinking of a passenger steamer, etc., 9 per cent.; great crimes (excepting Presidential assassina- tions) 7 per cent., etc. \Ve see from this that great crimes are not especially desirable news. The bet- ter class of newspapers will, therefore, not cater to depraved tastes by publishing narrations of such crimes more than is expected of them by the better class of their readers. We also see from the extras sold on the mornings aftei Presidential, State and municipal elections, that American readers are pre- eminently interested in politics. The sooner our rising journalist learns to know this fact in all its bearings the better it will be for him. On the importance of writing attractive “ adver- tisements” for the newspapers, see the article AD- VERTISING in these Revisions and Additions. In studying the art of making up newspapers we must not forget the publisher. He is the commer- cial factor of the enterprise. He procures the materials from which each day’s issue of his paper is to be fashioned. These include white paper, ink, addressed wrappers, machine oil, etc., also the stereotype plates, cast from a matrix of papier maché paste and plaster of Paris. His printing presses are of the most improved patterns, using long rolls of paper, cutting, folding, gumming, and counting the number of papers printed. He pro- cures safe steam boilers and powerful engines to do the work of the press-room expeditiously. Lately, the publishers provide also various machines for settmg the ordinary type used in the news column. J O WETT, BENJAMIN, an English classical scholar, born at Camberwell in 1817. After being edu- cated at Oxford he became a tutor in 1842 and in the same year he was ordained as a clergyman. He served afterwards as an examiner of classical schools and for the Indian civil service. In 1855 he was appointed Regius professor of Greek, in 1870 master of Balliol College, and in 1886 vice-chancel- lor of the University. His most important pub- lished works are Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians, Galatians, and Romans; The Dialogues of Plato, translated into English with analysis and introductions, and his translations of Thaeydides and Aristotle. The degree of Hon. LL.D. was conferred on him by Cambridge in 1890. JOY, CHARLES ARAD, an American chemist,born in 1823. In 1853 he became professor of chemistry in Union College, remaining there till 1857 when he accepted a similar position in Columbia. He retired in 1877 on account of failing health. For a time he was editor of the “Scientific American,” and later of the “Journal of Applied Chemistry.” Died 1891. JUBZEA, a genus of palms of the same tribe as the cocoa-nut. J. Speetabilis, ainative of Chili, is a palm 30 or 40 feet high, with a spreading crown of pinnate leaves. The Chilians cut off the crown and collect the sap, which, when boiled down to a syrup of the consistency of treacle, is an important article of the domestic economy of their country. See PALM SUGAR, Britannica, Vol. XXII, p. 628. J UDD, SYLvEsTER (1813—1853), an American Uni- tarian clergyman and author. In 1840 he became pastor of the church at Augusta, Me., and remained there until his death. Amo other works he published Margaret (1845); Philo (1850), and Rich- ard Edney and the Goyernor’s Family (1850). JUDGES, Boox or. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 768-764. JOWETT—JUNKER JUDGMENT (By default), is a judgment ren- dered in consequence of the non-appearance of the defendant. It is against the defendant when he has failed to appear after being served with the writ; to plead, after being ruled so to do, or, in Pennsylvania and some other states, to file an affi- davit of defence within the prescribed time, or, generally, to take any step in the cause incumbent on him. J UJ UY, the most northerly province of the Ar- gentine Republic. It is a mountainous tract, bounded on the west and north by Bolivia, and has an area of about 27,000 square miles. Its minerals are rich, but not worked to any extent. The chief industries are agriculture and cattle-raising ; sugar and wheat are the principal crops. The exports (mainly to Bolivia) consist of cattle, mules, fruit, chicha brandy, skins, gold-dust, and salt. Popula- tion 90,000. The capital, Jujuy, on the San Fran- cisco River, has 6,000 inhabitants. JULIA, the only child of the Roman Emperor Augustus, his daughter by his second wife, Scribe- nia, was born B. c. 39, died A. D. 14. See Britan- nica, Vol. I, p. 418; XVIII, p. 79; XXIII, p. 336. JUNCEE, or JUNCACEJE, a natural order of endogenous plants of which the common rush is the type. The species are about two hundred in number. JUNCTION CITY, the capital of Davis county, Kan., finely situated between Smoky Hill and Re- publican rivers, at the junction of several rail- roads. Its manufactures are various and in a thriving condition, comprising, among other items, flour, furniture, etc. Population, in 1890, 4.477. J UNE—BERRY ( Amelanchier Canadensis ), a shrub or small tree of North America, of the natur- al order Rosaceae. The size of the tree differs greatly in the varieties, in some attaining a height of 39 feet, and in others not more than 3 or 4. It is covered in spring with abundant white flowers, and yields later a small berry-like fruit of a deep pur- ple color and pleasant flavor. The june-berry is variously known in different localities as the ihad-bush, service-berry, and mountain whortle- erry. JUNGFRAU (“The Maiden”), a peak of the Ber- nese Alps, surrounded by precipices and capped with perpetual snow. The summit was first reached in 1811; it is 13,671 feet high. JUNGLE, a term adopted into the English lan- guage from Bengal (Sanskrit jangala, “desert”) and employed to designate a dense overgrowth of vege- tation, as the thickets in many parts of India, par- ticularly in the unhealthy tract along the southern base of the Himalayas, and in the Sundarbans, at the mouth of the Ganges. The jungles are often impassable from the thick growth of underwood, tall grasses and climbing plants. The soil is gen- erally swampy, and fever and other diseases abound. Beasts of prey and gigantic snakes may be found in great numbers in these thickets, and the flora and fauna are very peculiar. JUNGLY GAU (Bos Sylhetanus), a species of ox inhabiting Sylhet and other mountainous parts of the north-east of India. It is nearly allied to the common ox, and is easily domesticated. JUNK, a Chinese vessel, often of large dimen- sions, which. although clumsy and incapable of much seamanship or speed, has proven seaworthy on voyages extending even to America and Europe. Junk is also a popular term for the salt meat sup- plied to vessels for long voyages. J UNKER, WILHELM, an African traveler, born of German parents resident in Moscow in 1840, and studied medicine in Gfittingen, Berlin, and Prague. Proceeding to Africa in 1874, in the first instance to» JUNKIN—-JYNX Tunis and Egypt, he in 1876-88 carefully explored the Makaraka country. After spending some time in Kabayendi itself, he made Khartoum the centre from which he traveled on various excursions. A friend of Gordon and of Stanley, Dr. Junker holds a high place among those who have thrown light on “Darkest Africa.” His Reisen in Africa was translated by A. H. Keane in 1890. J UNKIN, GEORGE (1790-1868 ), an American cler- gyman and educator. In 1819 he was made pastor of the Associate Reformed church at Milton, Pa., with the majority of whose members in 1822 he en- tered the Presbyterian church. In 1832 he became president of Lafayette college, which he had assist- ed in founding. From 1841 to 1844 he was presi- dent of Miami university, then again of Lafayette 3ollege, and from 1848 to 1861 of Washington Col- lege, Lexington, Va., but resigned at the begin- ning of the war and went to Philadelphia, where he resided until his death. He wrote The Vindica- tion (1836); Treatise on Jus1‘ification (1839); Lectures on the Prophecies (1844) ; Political Fallacies (1862) ; Treatise on Sanctification (1864) ; Two Commissions (1864), and The Tabernacle (1865). JUPITER SERAPIS, TEMPLE OF, a temple at Pozzuoli (near Naples), whose ruins afford a re- markable instance of the changes which have taken place and are still taking place in the relative posi- tion of the land and water on the earth. Only three of the original forty-six pillars exist. They rise out of the water, the pavement of the temple being at present submerged; but they bear evi- dence that they were at one time submerged to half their height, which is 42 feet. The base of the pillars as high as 12 feet is quite smooth; for the next nine feet they are completely riddled with the burrows of a species of stone-boring molusk, the Lithophaga lithophaga of conchologists. which still inhabits the Mediterranean waters. The water must have cov- ered this portion of the pillars, and while the mol- lusks were busy, the lower 12 feet must have been protected from their ravages by being buried in mud. The changes of level have been so gradual that the pillars have not been moved from their original position. J URY—MAST, a temporary spar used to replace a mast which has been lost or broken. J USHPORE, or J ASHPORE, India, one of the seven tributary states of Ghutia Nagpur. See Brit- annica, Vols. XIII, p. 594; V, p. 768. J US MARITA, a phrase used in Scotch law to denote the legal right accruing to a husband over his wife’s property. J US RELIGT./E: in Scotch law. the right of a widow to share in the movable or personal proper- ty of her deceased husband. JUSTE, THEoDoRE,a Belgian historian, born at Brussels in 1818, died in 1888. After finishing his education the minister of the interior employed him first, and soon afterward he became secretary of the board for public instruction. In 1858 he be- 939 came custodian of the royal museum of antiquities at Brussels. and in 1870 he was appointed professor of history in the military school. Juste published many valuable works on history, especially H Moire de Belgique; Précis de l’ hisloire du '/noyen dge; La Revolution des Pays Bas sous Philippe II. ; Histoire du Congres national, and Les Fondaleurs de la Monar- chie belge. JUSTIGE—GENERAL, Lonn, the highest judge in Scotland, also called the Lord President of the Court of Session. For the legal system of Scotland, see Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 417. J USTICE’S CLERK, an oflicer, generally a solic- itor, appointed by justices of the peace in England to assist them in their duties. He is, properly speaking, not a public ofliicer, but in the nature of a servant of the justice. J UTE, the fibre of several plants belonging to the family of Gorchorus, has been largely im- ported into the United States for making gunny sacks and for other purposes. It comes mostly from Bengal. In order to encourage the cultiva- tion of this fibre at home, the Department of Agri- culture distributed in 1870 jute seed to the planters in the Gulf States. The results showed afterwards- that the jute plant can be successfully grown wherever there is a hot damp climate and a moist soil of sandy clay or alluvial mould. While the crop in Bengal is about 1,500 pounds of jute per‘ acre, it was in South Carolina from 2,000 to 3,500" pounds per acre. It grows luxuriantly in the damp bottoms of all our Gulf States. For prepar- ing the fibre machines have been invented which do as much work with three persons as is done by one hundred and sixty Hindoos at hand labor. The jute culture is increasing gradually in our Southern States, especially in Louisiana. Where jute is grown the caterpillars so destructive to the cotton fields are driven away. The imported fibre cost from 8 to 12% cents per pound, and our planters can raise it of a superior quality at four cents per pound. It is claimed that the jute culture yields a net profit of $70 per acre, when the new machines are available for the prepara- tion of the fibre. Jute is now very largely used for making coarse paper stock for the so-called manilla wrapping paper; it also enters largely into the manufacture of carpets, mats, and various low- priced fabrics. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 798-803. J YNTEAH, or JAINTIA, a district of India, in the province of Assam. See JAINTIA HILLS, Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 544, and KHATI and JAINTIA HILLS, Vol. XIV, p. 58. J YNX, Ivnx, or YUNX, a genus of birds includ- ing the wryneck or “snake bird.” See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 698. In Grecian mythology J ynx was the daughter of Pan, or of Pierus, transformed into a bird, and also the name of the bird given by 1A/Iplérodite to Jason by which he won the love oi e ea. 940 K KAOLIN-—KAMEHAMEHA KAOLIN, PORCELAIN-CLAY. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 1, 90, 651 ; XVI, p. 424; XIX, pp. 600, 633. KABA -NAGY, a small town of Hungary, situated in a plain twenty miles southwest of Debreczin. Population, 6,600. KAGOSHIMA, or KAGOSIMA, a town of Japan, situated on a large bay of the same name, at the south end of Kiu-siu Island. It has manufactories -of pottery and porcelain, arms, and cotton. Popu- 1lation, 49,855. It was bombarded in 1863 by the English, who thus compelled the execution of the murderers of an English subject. KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST, a German theologian, born at Greitz in 1814. After being educated at Halle, he became a prioat-doeent at Berlin in 1842 and professor-extraordinary at Bres- lau in 1844. Here he published Lehre oom Heiligen Geist andLehre com Abendmahl, which gained him a call to Leipzig as professor of theology in 1850. Among his other works are Lutherische Dogmatik; Christenthum und Lutherthum; Die Deutsche Reforma- tion and Christenthum und Philosophie. KALAKAUA, DAVID (1836-1891), a king of Ha- waii. See HAWAII, in these Revisions and Ad- ditions. KALAMAZOO, the capital of Kalamazoo county, Mich., a village, though it ranks as the sixth town in the State. It is surrounded by a rich farming region with which it carries on an active trade. Four lines of railway, intersecting at this point, afford excellent shipping facilities. It is largely engaged in the manufacture of plows, harrows, wind-mills, steel-springs, paper, and sash, doors, and blinds. The town is noted for its beautiful streets and public places, and for its excellent in- stitut'ons. Kalamazoo is an important educational center. Population, 17,857. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 826. KALGUEV, or KOLGUEF, an island in the Arc- tic Ocean, belonging to the government of Archan- gel, Russia. Area 1,350 square miles. It is visited in summer by fowlers on account of the multitude of eider-ducks, swans, and other sea-birds which breed there, and whose feathers and eggs are valu- able. The only permanent inhabitants are a few Samoyedes. KALISCH, DAVID, a German humorist of Jewish parentage, born at Breslau in 1820, died in Berlin in 1872. As a young man he was in Paris as corres- pondent of German newspapers. Returning to Germany in 1846 he became acontributor to the Charioari, a humoristic paper published at Leipzig. But in 1848 he founded the K ladderadatsch, a similar paper, published at Berlin. He also published some humorous plays, such as Hunderttausend Tha- ler; Peschlce; Berlin, wie es weint und lacht; Einer con unsere Leut’, etc. KALISCH, MARCUS, a Jewish theologian, born at Treptow, Prussia, in 1828, died in 1885. After being educated both at the Berlin University and the Rabbinical College he became embroiled in the po- litical troubles of 1848 and went to England, where he was secretary to the chief rabbi. Subsequently he wrote A Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament; Exodus; Genesis; Leviticus; The Prophecies of Balaam; and The Book of Jonah. He also published a Hebrew grammar. KALKASKA, the county-seat of Kalkaska county, Mich.,137 miles north of Grand Rapids. The region produces much lumber while the neigh- boring streams afford a large supply of brook trout. KALM, PETER (1715-1779), a Swedish botanist. From 1748 to 1751 he was investigating the botany and natural history of North America for the Swedish government, and then became professor of natural history at Abo, Sweden. He published, be- sides other scientific works, A Voyage to North America (1753), which was an account of the soils and natural curiosities of this country. KALMIA, a genus of North American plants of the natural order Ericaceee consisting of beautiful, poisonous evergreen shrubs, mostly about two or three feet high, with red, pink, or white flowers, generally in corymbs. The flowers are delicate and beautiful, and the corolla is in the shape of a wide, shallow bell. There are four species, one of which, K. latifolia, the mountain laurel, was pro- posed by Darlington as the national emblem. It grows to the height of ten feet, and is one of the most widespread of American shrubs, being com- mon on the Atlantic slope from Canada to Florida, and extending west to Ohio, Kentucky and Ten- nessee. In the mountains from Pennsylvania southward it forms dense thickets and often at- tains a height of 30 feet. The wood, which is very hard, is sometimes called “spoon¢wood,” as it was used by the Indians for making spoons. K. angusti- folia, known as “sheep-laurel” and “lambkill,” from the reputation it has for poisoning animals, is a common shrub from 1 to 3 feet high, growing on hillsides from Newfoundland to Michigan, south to Georgia. The flowers are two-thirds smaller than those of the preceding species. K. glauca (pale laurel) is a shrub about 1 foot high found in peat-bogs on mountains from New- foundland to Pennsylvania, and across the con- tinent to Alaska. K. hirsuta, a shrub 1 foot high, is found in pine-barren swamps from Virginia to Florida. KALNOKY,COUNT GUs'rAv SIEGMUND, an Aus- trian diplomatist, born at Lettowitz, Moravia, in 1832, served for a few years in the army, and in 1850 entered the diplomatic service. From 1860 to 1870 he was councillor of legation at the Austrian embassy in London, and in 1874 went as minister to Copenhagen, whence he was transferred in 1880 as ambassador to St. Petersburg. In the following year he was recalled to assume the important office of the joint Austro-Hungarian minister of foreign affairs, in succession to Baron Baymerle—a post which Count Kalnoky has since filled with much ability, pursuing the peace policy which is the foundation of the Central European Alliance. KAMEHAMEHA I. (1753-1819), the conqueror and first King of the entire group of the Hawaiian Islands, better known as the Sandwich Islands. With the aid of some European vessels and firs- arms he subdued one chief and one island after the other until he became master of the whole group in 1809. He was very vigilant, crafty, and coura- geous. Among the many social reforms he introduced were the abolition of human sacrifices, the promo- tion of agriculture and commerce, the suppression KAMEHAMEHA-— of the taboo system, and the introduction of skilled mechanics. KAMEHAMEHA II., LIHOLIHO (1797-1825), son of the preceding, was born in Hawaii in 1797. He was intemperate and given to pleasure. After suc- ceeding to the throne in 1819 he abolished idolatry, and prepared the way for the missionaries, who came from Boston in 1820 and soon taught the Ha- waiian people to read and write, to cipher and sew. The King and Queen visited London in 1824, where both died of the measles in 1825. KAMEHAMEHA III, KAVIKEAVULI (1814-1854), brother of the preceding, was born in 1814 and came to the throne in 1833. Though educated by the American missionaries, he was wild and dissipated in his youth, but in 1840 he granted his people a written constitution and a code of laws, and made considerable progress in educating and civilizing his subjects. In 1842 and 1843 the independence of the Hawaiian Kingdom was acknowledged by the United States and by the French and English gov- ernments. The King died childless at Honolulu in 1854. KAMEHAME HA IV, ALEXANDER LIHOLIHO (1834- 1863), nephew of the preceding, was born in 1834. He was also educated by the American missiona- ries. After visiting the United States, England, and France, he succeeded to the throne in 1854. He was handsome, amiable,fond of sports and military parades, but when excited with wine he became passionate and reckless. Through his son he hoped to perpetuate his dynasty; but the child died when 5 years old. This loss grieved the King so badly that his health gave way. He died at Honolulu in 1863. KAMEHAMEHA V, Lor ( 1830-1872 ), elder brother of the preceding. While his brother was King, he was commander-in-chief of the forces and minister of the interior. Although dissipated while young, he reformed when he succeeded to the throne in 1863. Thinking that the constitution was too democratic for the good of the people, he granted the present constitution and took the oath to support it. He was strong-minded, fearless, and firm, yet superstitious; generous and confiding to- ward some people, yet close. avaricious, and sus- icious toward others. He was never married, and eft no heir to the throne. KAMELA, or KAMILA, an East Indian dye-stuff consisting of a reddish-brown powder which invests the capsules of the tree Mallotns Philippinensis (Rottlera tz'nctoria). It is extensively used for dye- ing silk, to which it imparts a deep orange color. It is also used in medicine as a vermifuge. KAMPFER, ENGELBERT, a German botanist and traveler, born at Lemgo, in Lippe, Sept. 16, 1651, died Nov. 2, 1716. After studying medicine at K6- nigsberg, he in 1863 accompanied a Swedish embassy to Persia, and during the following ten years trav- eled in India, Java, Siam, and Japan. He published Arncenitates Exoticze (1712), and after his death ap- peared his Htstory of Japan and Siam. Most of his writings exist in manuscript in the British Museum. KANE, J OHN KINTZING (1795-1858), an American jurist. In 1817 he began the practice of law in Philadelphia, Pa., and in 1823 was sent to the legis- lature. From 1828 to 1830 he was solicitor of Phila- delphia, and in 1832 was appointed a commissioner of the French spoliation claims. In 1845 he was made attorney-general of Pennslyvania, and the following year United States judge for that district. From 1856 to his death he was president of the American philosophical society. KANE, SIR ROBERT, an Irish chemist, born in Dublin in 1810, died Feb. 16, 1890. He was educated (or the medical profession, in 1832 was received as KANSAS RIVER 941 a member of the Royal Irish Academy, and in the same year projected the I)ublz'n Journal of Medical Science. In 1840 he received the gold medal of the Royal Society of London for his researches into the coloring matter of lichens, and in 1847 the Cun- nin ham gold medal of the Royal Irish Academy for is discoveries in chemistry. From 1834 to 1847 he was professor of natural philosophy to the Royal Dublin Society. In 1846 he originated the Museum of Industry in Ireland, was appointed the first director, and the same year received from the Lord- lieutenant the honor of knighthood. He was for a number of years president of the Queen’s College, Cork, resigning this position, together with the di- rectorship of the museum, in 1873. In 1876 he was elected president of the Royal Irish Academy. His chief books are Elements of Chemistry (1842), and Industrial Resources of Ireland (1844). KAN GAROO APPLE, a species of Solanum, with a somewhat shrubby, succulent stem, smooth pin- natifid or entire leaves, and lateral racemes of flowers; ,a native of Peru, New Zealand, Australia, and Tasmania. When perfectly ripe it is whole- some. KANGAROO GRASS (Anthistiria Australis), the most esteemed fodder-grass of Australia, to which island-continent, however, it is not confined but stretches through Southern Asia and also through the whole of Africa. It affords abundant herbage. The genus is allied to Andropogon, and has clusters of flowers with an involucre. The awns are very long and twisted. Several species of Anthistz'rz'a oc- cur variously dispersed from South Africa to Japan, deserving introduction and naturalization in coun- tries of warm-temperate or tropical climates. KANIZSA, OLD, a town of Hungary, on the Theiss, fifteen miles from Szegedin. Population about 4,000. KANSAS CITY, Mo., the chief city in VVestern Missouri and the second city of importance and population in the State. Itis situated on the west- ern boundary of Jackson county, on the right bank of the Missouri River, near its confluence with the Kansas River. Kansas City is a very important railroad center, numerous trains going out and coming in daily at its Union depot, and the trains of several lines here cross the Missouri River on a great railroad bridge built by O. Chanute. The location of Kansas City in the midst of a region of great agriculture resourses, and the nearness of iron, coal and lead mines, with the enterprising spirit of the citizens, account for the city’s very rapid growth in size and wealth, and insure its fu- ture prosperity. Kansas City is doing a large busi- ness in grain, live-stock, agricultural implements, in the packing of pork and beef, in manufacturing railroad iron, flour, butterine, soap, furniture, car wheels, bricks. cigars, beer, cooperage, boxes and machinery. It is the wholesale distributing point for the vast regions to the westward and southward, and the chief collecting point of the products from the same regions. The growth of this city has been so rapid that from a town of a few thousand inhabi- tants immediately after the civil war it has be- come a place containing 132,416 inhabitants, not including KANSAS CITY, K.-ms., its western sub- urb, which contains 38,170 inhabitants and full shares its progressive spirit. See Britannica, Vo . XIII, p. 844. KANSAS (or KAW)RIVER, formed by the union of Republican and Smoky Hill rivers about 10 miles west of Abilene. Kan., flows eastward and enters the Missouri River at the western boundary of the State of Missouri, about 1 mile above Kansas City. The main stream is about 300 miles in length, but is not very important for navigation. The valley 942 of the Kansas includes about a third of the surface of the state. KANSAS. STATE or. For general article on the State of KANSAS, see Britannica, Vol. XIII, pp. 842- 844. The United States Census of 1890, reported the area as 81,700 square miles; population 1,425,- 096; capital, Topeka, with a population of 31,007. The following is a list of the other cities of the State which had a population of 8,000 or over in 1890: Arkansas City, 8,347; Atchison, 13,963; Fort Scott, 11,946; Kansas City, 38,316; Lawrence, 9,997; Wichita, 23,853. The population and area in 1890 by counties were as follows: Population. Counties. Area" 1890. 1880. Allen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 13,509 11,303 Anderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 576 14,203 9,057 Arapahoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ , _ , . ,. .. 3 Atchison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 26,758 26,668 Barber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,134 7,973 2,661 Barton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 13,172 10,318 Bourbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 28,575 19,591 Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 20,319 12,817 Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. 191 Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,428 24,055 18,586 Chase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 8,233 6,081 Chautauqua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 12,297 11,072 Cherokee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 27,770 21,905 Cheyenne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,020 4.401 37 Clark. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 975 2,357 163 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 16,146 12,320 Cloud ........................... . . 720 19.295 15,343 Coffey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 15,856 11,438 Comanche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 2,549 372 Cowley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,122 34,478 21,538 Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 30,286 16,851 Decatur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 8,414 4,180 Dickinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 22,273 15,251 Doni han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 378 13,535 14,257 Doug as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 469 23,961 21,700 Edwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 3,600 2,409 Elk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 12.216 10,623 Ellis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 625 7 .942 6,179 Ellsworth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 9,272 8,494 Finney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 3,350 . . . . . . . .. Foote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 411 Ford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,040 5,308 3,122 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 20,279 16,797 Garfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 432 881 . Geary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 10,423 6,994 Gove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,020 2,994 1,196 Graham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 5,029 4,258 Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 1,308 9 Gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 2,415 . . . . . . . . . Greeley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 780 1,264 3 Greenwood . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 1,155 16,309 10,548 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922 2,027 163 Harper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810 13,266 4,133 Harvey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 17,601 11,451 Haske 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 576 1,077 . . . . . . . .. Hodgeman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 2,395 1,704 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 14,626 10.718 J eife rson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 16,620 15,563 Jewell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 19,349 17,475 J 0hnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 17,385 16,853 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 Kearny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 1,571 15,9 Kingman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 1,1 .823 3,713 Kiowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 720 2,873 .. Labette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 27,586 22,735 Lane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 720 2,060 601 Leavenworth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 38,485 32,355 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 9,709 8.582 Linn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 637 17,215 15,298 Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,080 3,3 . . . . . . . . . . Lyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858 23,196 17,326 McPherson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 21 ,614 17,143 KANSAS Population. Counties. Area‘ 1890. 1880. Manon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 594 20,539 12,453 Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~ . . . . . .. 900 23,912 16,236 Meade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 2,542 296 MI_l&I1'11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 533 19,614 17,802 Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 720 15,037 14,911 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (348 23,104 18,213 M orns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 684 11 ,381 9,265 Morton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..‘. 729 724 . . . . . , . ... Nem aha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 19 ,249 12,462 Neosho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 18,561 15,121 N ess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 080 4,944 3,722 Norton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 10,617 6,998 Osage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 25,062 19,642 Osborne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 12,083 12,517 Ottawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 12,581 10,307 Pawnee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 756 5,204 5,396 Phllhps . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 900 13,661 12,014 Pottawatomie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 17,722 16,350 Pratt_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 720 8,118 1,890 Rawhns . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,080 6,756 1,623 Reno . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,260 27,079 12,826 Repubhc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 19,002 14,913 Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 14,451 9,292 Riley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 13,183 10,430 Rooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 8,018 8,112 Rush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 5,204 5,490 Russell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 7,333 7,351 Sahne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 17,442 13,808 Scott .' . ........................ .. 720 1,262 43 Sedgwmk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,008 43,626 18,753 Sequoyah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Seward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 1 ,503 Shawnee . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 49,172 29,093 Sheridan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 3,733 1,567 Sherman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,080 5,261 13 Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 15,613 13,883 Stafford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792 8.520 4,755 Stanton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 672 1,031 Stevens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 1,418 12 Sumner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,188 30,271 20,812 Thomas . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,080 5,538 1 161 Trego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 2,535 2,535 Wabaunsee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804 11.720 8,756 lace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. 900 2,468 686 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 22,894 14,910 Wichita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 720 1,827 14 Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 15,286 13,775 Woodson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 9,021 6,535 Wyandotte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 54,407 19,143 Population of Kansas by decades: In 1860, 107,- 206; 1870, 364,399; 1880, 996,096; 1890, 1,425,096. That part of Kansas east of the 100th meridian was a part of the Louisiana purchase in 1803, and was embraced at different periods in Louisiana and Missouri territories. By the “ Missouri Compro- mise ” (Congressional Act, of 1820) in all the region north of latitude 36° 30' except such part as was in- cluded in the State of Missouri, slavery was forever prohibited. As one of the results of the war with Mexico, the United States territory was extended westward from the 100th meridian to the Pacific Ocean, and southward to 32° 30' north latitude. In May, 1854, Congress passed the Act organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and declaring that the Missouri Compromise should be inoperative and void with regard to them. During the en- suing five years many of the citizens of Eastern Kansas who were largely opposed to slavery re- sisted the introduction of slaves from Missouri and other southern states; and in some cases hostile conflicts arose between the opposing partisans and the general condition of society was one of turbu- lence and apprehension. Governors of the terri- tory were frequently changed, and four successive> KAPP-—KATYDID constitutions were voted upon by the people during the four years previous to October, 1859. The con- stitution finally adopted was that passed by the Wyandotte Convention July 5, 1850, and ratified Oct. 4, 1859. Kansas was admitted as a State, J an. 29, 1861. The following is a complete list of the governors, both territorial and state: TERRITORIAL. A. H. Reeder . . . . . . . ..1854-55 Robert J . Walker .. . . . ..1857-58 Wilson Shannon.. ...l855-56 James W. Denver . . . . . . . ..:1858 John W. Geary.. . . . .1856-57 Samuel Medary . . . . . . . . ..18o8-59 Frederick P. Stanton, 1859-61. STATE. Charles Robinson........1861 George T. Anthony....1877-79 Thomas Carney... ....1861-65 John P.St. John ..... ..1879-83 Samuel J . Crawford.. ..1865-69 George W. Glick .. . ...1883-85 James M. Harvey .. . ..1869-73 John A. Martin . . ..1885-89 Thomas A. Osborn... ..1873-77 Lyman U.Humphrey.. .1889-91 Lyman U. Humphrey, * 1891-93. *Term expires J an. 11, 1893. The Census Educational report of 1890 contains the following summaries for Kansas State: Public schools. 12,260; with 12,175 white teachers, and 85 colored teachers; also 399,322 white pupils, and 9,619 colored pupils. The gain of population during the decade was 43.27 per cent; the gain of enroll- ment in public schools, 62.24 per cent. There were reported 8,811 school-houses. There were also re- ported over 5,500 pupils in Catholic, near 3,000 in utheran, some in Mennonite, and a few in German Evangelical schools. Kansas had in 1890, 5,542 acres in vineyards, with an average yield per acre of 2 tons, with a market value per ton of $58; 8,294 tons of grapes were sold for table use, and 790 tons for wineries,—yielding 130,990 gallons, valued at 80 cents per gallon. For numerous other items of interest relating to Kansas, see the numerous tables embraced in the article UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. KAPP, FRIEDRICH (1824-1884), a German author. He practiced law in Hamm, Unna, and Frankfort- on-the-Main, and from 1850 to 1870 in New York city. In 1867 he was made commissioner of emigra- tion, and in 1871 became a member of the German Diet. He published The Slave Question in the United States (1854); Life of the American General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben (1858); History of Slavery in the United States of America (1858) ; The Trading in Sol- diers of the German Princes with America, 1775-’85’ (1864) ; A History of the German Migration into Amer- ica (1867); On Immigration and the Commission of Emigration (1870) ; Life of the American General Johann Kalb (1870), and Frederick the Great and the United States (1871). KARAGUE, one of the large Central African states formed after the dissolution of the former empire of Kitwara. It was for many years peace- fully and wisely governed by the late King Ruma- ika, who died in 1888 and was succeeded by his son. The present territory is bounded on the east by Lake Victoria Nyanza, on the north by the river Kagera (Tanguré), separating it from Uganda, and on the west by the upper course of the same river, separating it from Ruanda. Southwards Karagwe merges in the region between Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika—total area, about 6,000 square miles; population consists mainly of Bantu peasants, gov- erned by Wa-Huma (Galla) chiefs. Warahanje, the capital, is on a terrace overlooking the Lake Raveru, Windermere. Near the capital the Arabs have founded the trading station of Kufro (Kafuro), where they take ivory, coffee, and other produce in exchange for salt, textiles, and European wares. 943 KARELIA, an old name for the southeast part of Finland, annexed to Russia by Peter the Great in 1721. The Karelians properly so called are a branch of the Finnic race, about 303.000 in number, who inhabit the eastern parts of Finland and the adjoining provinces of Russia. KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHoNsE, a French author, born at Paris in 1808. After being educated at the College Bourbon he became an instructor there. He wrote his personal love-romance under the title Sous les Tilleuls, which was succeeded by other romances entitled Une heure trop tard, and Vendredi soir. In 1839 Karr became chief editor of Figaro, and soon after issued Les Guepes, a satiri- cal review, which became very popular; and his fanciful romantic outpouring Voyage autour de mon Jardin (1845). For many years he practiced flori- culture and horticulture at Nice. His miscellan- eous writings have been gathered anda selection from them was published in 1877, called L’Esprit d’Alphonse Karr. He died in 1890. KARSTEN, HERMANN, a German botanist and traveler, born at Stralsund, Prussia, in 1817. He spent the years 1843-47 and again 1848-56 in scien- tific journeys in Venezuela, Colombia, and Equa- der. On his return to Germany he was appointed professor of botany in the University of Berlin, and in 1868 he was called to a similar professorship in Vienna. After his resignation in 1872 he went to Switzerland and gave private lessons there. His published writings are Die Vegetations—Organe der Palmen; Flora Colombiaz; Anatomic und Physiologic der Pflanzen ;Chemismus der Pjlanzenzelle; Zur Ge- schichte der Botanik, and Deutsche Flora, pharmaceut- medicinische Botanik, all exclusively on botany. KARTTIKEYA, the Hindoo Mars, or god of war, a being represented by the Puranic legends as having sprung miraculously from Siva. KASKASKIA, a post-village of Randolph county, Ill., on the right bank of the Kaskaskia River, about 7 miles from its mouth. It was settled by the French in 1673, and was the first capital of Illi- nois. It was once a large and important place, but has declined. KASKASKIA, a river of Illinois, rising in the east center of the State, flowing southwest. and en- tering the Mississippi at Chester. Its length is nearly three hundred miles. On its right bank, a few miles from the mouth, is the village of Kaskas- kia, which was the first capital of Illinois Ter- ritory. KATAHDIN, the highest mountain of Maine. Its summit is 5,385 feet above the sea. KATKOFF, MIOHAEL Nrxrronovrrcn, a Russian politician and journalist, born at Moscow in 1818, died at Snamensky. Aug. 1, 1887. He studied at the University of Moscow, KOnigsberg, and Berlin, and for some time filled the chair of philosophy at Moscow. In 1861 he became editor of the Moscow Gazette, the organ of the university, and eventually made it the most influential journal in Russia. At first an advocate of parliamentary overnment and reform, Katkoff was converted by t e Polish risin of 1863 into a leader of the Panslavist movement, an a supporter of reactionary government in Russia. He acquired much influence in the government, and is said to have been mainly instrumental in determining Alexander III. to his conservative and reactionary policg. KATTIMUND O, or CATTIMANDOO, a substance somewhat resembling gutta- percha. It is the milky juice of the East Indian plant, Eu horbia cattimandoo, used in India as a cement. See rita.n- nica, Vol. II, p. 339. KATYDID, a name applied to numerous Ameri- can insects nearly related to grasshoppers, which 944 insects they resemble. They are aboreal in habit. The true katydid, abundant in the western and central states, is Cyrtophyllus concavus. KAUFMANN, CoNsTANTINE voN, a Russian gen- eral of German descent, born near Ivangorod in Russian Poland, May 3, 1818, died May 16, 1882. En- tering the army as lieutenant of engineers in 1838, he fought against the Circassians in the Caucasus, and especially distinguished himself at the siege of Kars in 1855. In 1867 he was appointed gover- nor-general of Turkestan, and at once set himself to organize this province, then newly conquered; in 1868 he occupied Samarcand, and in 1873 con- ducted a successful campaign against Khiva. It was through his energetic policy that Russia be- came the predominating power in central Asia. KAUTZ, AUGUST VALENTINE, an American soldier, born in 1828. He entered the 1st regiment of Ohio Volunteers, served through the Mexican war, and then served on frontier duty until the beginning of the civil war, when he became a captain in the United States cavalry. At the conclusion of the war he had attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel through gallant and meritorious conduct in num- erous battles. He then commanded on the New Mexican frontier till 1874, when he was promoted colonel and placed in command of the department of Arizona. From 1878 to 1886 he served in Califor- nia, and then went to Nebraska. He is the author of The Company Clerk (1863); Customs of Service for Non-Commissioned Ojficers and Soldiers (1864), and Customs of Service of Ofiicers (1866). KAZIMIRZ, a town of Poland, in the government of Lublin, on the Vistula, thirty miles east-south- east of Radom. Population, 7,000. KEARNEY, a city, a railroad center, and the county-seat of Buffalo county, Neb., in the Platte River valley. It has good water-power, graded schools, and manufactories. KEARNEY, LAWRENCE (1789-1868), a United States naval officer. He entered the navy as a mid- shipman in 1807, and in 1813 had become a lieuten- ant. During the war of 1812 he was employed in the defense of the coast of South Carolina, and later cleared the Vilest Indies and Gulf coast of pirates. Subsequently he was active in the sup- pression of opium smuggling. He then held vari- ous shore appointments, including the command of the New York station, and the presidency of one of the naval boards of inquiry. In 1867 he was made commodore on the retired list. KEARNY, PHILIP (1815-1862), a United States soldier. He entered the army in 1837, and in 1839 went to Europe to examine the tactics of the French cavalry service. He entered the cavalry school at Saumur, and then enlisted in the French army, attracting the attention of the government by his daring exploits during the campaign in Al- geria. In 1840 he returned to the United States, was made aide to Gen. Alex. Macomb, and then was attached to the stafi of Gen. Winfield Scott from 1841 to 1845. In 1846 he was made a captain, and during the assault upon the city of Mexico he lost an arm. In 1859 he returned to France and served with his old comrades at Magenta and Sol- ferino. In 1861 he re-enlisted in the United States army, was promoted major-general, and was killed at Chantilly. Gen. Scott referred to Gen. Kearny as “the bravest man I ever knew, and the most perfect soldier.” KEARNY, STEPHEN VVATTS (1794-1848), an Amer- ican soldier. At the beginning of the war of 1812 he enlisted in the 13th infantry as a lieutenant, and the following year was made a captain. In 1846 he became a brigadier-general, and at the outbreak of the Mexican war took possession of New Mexico. KAUFMANN\-—-KEITH 1 In 1847 he was governor of California, in 1848 of Vera Cruz, and the same year of the City of Mex- ico. He wrote Manual of the Exercise and Manoeuv- ring of U. S. Dragoons (1837), and Laws for the Gov- ernment of the Territory of New Mexico (1846). KEELHAULING, a punishment used in the navy during the 17th and 18th centuries. The cul- prit was suspended from one yard-arm, dropped into the water, and hauled beneath the keel to the other side. Keelhauling was practiced on an Egyptian corvette as recently as August 1882. ‘ KEEN, VVILLIAM \VILLIA‘.MS, an American physi- cian, born in 1837. From 1862 to 1864 he was a sur- geon in the United States army, and then settled in Philadelphia, Pa., where he lectured for nine years in J eiferson Medical College, also conducting the Philadelphia School of Anatomy. In 1884 he was made professor of surgery in the VVoman’s Medical College of Philadelphia. He is the author of Gunshot Wounds and Other Injuries of Nerves (1864) ; Reflex Paralysis (1864) ; Clinical Charts of the IIuman Body (1872); Complications and Sequels of Continued Fevers (1876) ; and Early History of Prac- tical Anatomy (1875). KEENE, a city of New Hampshire, the county- seat of Cheshire county, on the Ashuelot River, 50 miles west-southwest of Concord. It is at the junc- tion of several railroads. Keene is a beautiful, well- built city, with wide, shaded streets. It is the seat of varied and extensive manufactures. Among the goods produced are furniture, leather, pottery, bricks, woolen goods, carriages, etc. There are also extensive granite quarries. The city has a fine central square from which radiate the five princi- pal streets, and in which is a handsome monument to the memory of soldiers who fell in the civil war. An abundant water supply is derived from a lake three miles distant. Keene is the business-center of a fertile agricultural region. Population in 1890, 7,446. KEESEVILLE, a post-village of Essex and Clin- ton counties, N. Y., lying on both sides of the Au Sable River, four miles west of Lake Champlain. In 1813 a woolen-factory was erected here and three years later a rolling-mill. The water-power is abund- ant and the leading industry is the manufacture of iron and steel. Population, 2,548. KEIGHTLEY, THOMAS, a British author, born at Dublin, Ireland, Oct. 1789, died at Erith, Kent, England, Nov. 4, 1872. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1824 settled in England to a life of letters. His histories of Rome, Greece, and England long held their place as school manuals. Other works are Fairy Mythology (1850) ; Life, Writ- ings, and Opinions of Milton (1855); and Shakespeare Expositor. KEIL, KARL AUGUST GoTTLIEB, aGerman theo- logian, born at Grossenhain, Saxony, i11 1754, died in 1818. After being educated at the University of Leipzig he became professor of philosophy there in 1785, and two years later he was transferred to the chair of theology which he held until he died. He was noted for special proficiency in explaining the Scriptures, giving closest attention to the gram- matical and historical elements of the text. His principles in this direction are set forth in his Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments (1810). KEITH, ALEXANDER, a Scotch author and clergy- man, born at Keith Hall, Aberdeenshire in 1791, died at Buxton, England, in 1880. After graduat- ing at Aberdeen he was for a short time minister at St. Cyrus in Kincardineshire. His Evidence of the Truth of the Christian Religion derived from the Literal Fulfillment of Prophecy proved very popular. In 1839 Keith was sent by the Church of Scotland to inquire into the state of the Jews in Palestine it * ' J DEATH TAKES it ,%PR0F.KE_LSEY l I ,. FRANCIS W. KELSEIZ . nn Arbor, May 14. ‘(kZ’.)— Pr essor Francis W. esey, pro- fes r of Latin and literature at the Uni wersity of Michigan and director of tie archeological research of the uni ersity in the Near East, died ; her today. Heart congestion was if giv as the cause of the death. Q-, 1 A director of exploration in it iEg t and Asia. Minor for the uni- vers ty, Professor Kelsey headed , Qfou expeditions and attracted na- , tion 1 attention by his discoveries. :1-Ie eturned from the last expedi- | tionllast month, arriving in New Yorl} on the steamer\‘Leviathian on 1 *‘,Apr '4. At that time he reported Idisc, veries'in Fayoum, Egypt, which iwerei expected to throw light on an jin1po%taut epoch in early history. ;_ I-‘x-Qfessor Kelsey was 69 years jold aim! was born in Ogden, N. Y. Gcfiiiig his A. B. degree from “Roch ster university in 1880I Pro- ‘fesso Kelsey earned his Ph. 1). in 1886 ml was honored with the de- greejoi LL. D. in 1910. From 1383 to 1 ‘85 he studied in Europe. He beca%e an instructor at Miclfigan in 18_ 9, coming from Lake Forrest nniveirsity where he spent several years on the faculty. \ Th first expedition headed by Profe sor Kelsey went- to the Near i i East in 1919. Discoveries made added‘-greatly to the known arche- ‘Gontln ed on Page Three. Golumn Six. ‘ _—__.._.h_,_ thought his condition serious. DEATH TAKES ‘ PR"0j.._KELSEY Continued From_Page One. Dlogical data and to the early his- tory of civilization, _He\ returned to (the Near East as the head of ex- ‘peditions in 1924 and again in 1925 and 1926. ‘ F _ Excavations which herna ped out are being carried on now on the edge of the Lybian desert in Egypt. Professor Kelsey was on a leave of absence from teaching at the uni-. versity and had returned to Ann :Arbor to report vvork he was carrying on. Friends jknew, that he was not in the best of health when he arrived at Ann Arbor on April 7, but few persogs t was the c_hang;e from the warm climate of Egypt to the cold spring weather of Michigan that brought on the illness vvhichproved fatal, it is believed. - In addition to‘ his fame‘ as an archeo1;ogist, Professor Kelsey was widely known for his writings. particularly his editing" of Latin text books. The best known of these is his C‘.easar’s Commentaries on the Gallic TVars, used as a Latin text book in high schools through- out the United States. Other books which he had edited include writ- ings of Cicero, Ovid, and Xenophon. After his death it was learned Professor Kelsey, had left a sick bed to address the Classical association of the middle ‘west and south at its rneeting here .April 15. at that time advised him not to Physicians speak,.bu't he was anxious to tell his fellow workers -in classical literature and arts of the discov- eries» made. by the University of ‘l\d'.iclIig‘a.~n explorers. Professor Kelsey was president of the _/\merica'.n ,P.hilologica1 associa- tion in 1906 and 1907 and headed the Archeological Institute of America i‘I"0m 1907 to_1912. In addi- tion to these organizations he was a. member‘ of the American torical association, the- American-As- sociation for the ,Advancement of Science, as well as classical organi- zations in Paris. London and Berlin. progress of the_1 His-_ KEITH—KENDRICK and Eastern Europe. He published his observa- tions in 1843in The Land of Israel and some later works. When the Church of Scotland was divided in 1843, he joined the Free Church. Keith was very active in the work of converting the Jews to Christi- anit Y. KEITH, GEORGE (1645-1715), an English clergy- man. In 1664 he became a Quaker, and in 1684 emi- grated to America. In 1689 he took charge of a Friends’ school in Philadelphia, but left it soon afterward to travel in New England. He then formed a society of his own, known as the Chris- tian or Baptist Quakers, or Keithians, but, again becoming dissatisfied, he was ordained in the Church of England. In 1702 he was sent on a mis- sion to New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and seven hundred Quakers received baptism in the Episco- al church under his influence. Subsequently he Eecame rector of Edburton, Sussex, England. He wrote Journal of Travels from New Hampshire to Caratuck (1706) ; Standard of the Quakers (1702); and New Theory of Longitude (1709), KEITH, GEORGE KErrH—ELPHI:vs'ro.vE, Viscount, a British admiral, born near Stirling, Scotland, Jan.7, 1746, died March 10, 1823. Entering the navy in boyhood, he saw service in various parts of the world, and distinguished himself in numerous engagements in the American war and the French wars. He was in command of the expedition in 1795-97 which took possession of Cape Colony in South Africa, Ceylon, Cochin, Malacca, and the Molucca Islands. and for these distinguished ser- vices was made Baron Keith. He also coéperated with Abercromby in the Egyptian expedition, and was made Viscount in 1814. KELLEY, IVILLIAM DARRAH (1814-1890), an American congressman. In 1841 he was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar, in 1845—’6 was attorney- general of the State. and from 1846 to 1856 was judge of the Philadelphia court of common pleas. In 1860 he was elected to Congress as a Republican and retained the position until his death. He wrote Address at the Colored Department of the House of Refuge (1850); Reasons for abandoning the Theory of Free Trade and adopting the Principle of Protection to American Industry ( 1872 ); Speeches, Addresses (1872) ; Letters on Industrial and Financial Questions (1872); Letters from Europe (1880); and The New South (1887). KELLOGG, CLARA Loursn, an American singer, born in 1842. She acquired her musical education in New York City, and in 1861 made her first public appearance as Gilda, in “ Rigoletto.” Her success was almost immediate, and after singing in her own country, she went, in 1867, to London where she made her debut as Marguerite, winning instant popularity. The following year she returned to America, and after singing for a while in the United States, appeared in many European countries, al- ways carrying her audience to the highest pitch of enthusiasm. Her voice is a pure soprano of ,a wide range, and is tuneful to the highest point of perfection. Among the operas with which her name is most identified are Faust, Crispino, Traviata, Aida, and Carmen. In 1887 Miss Kellogg became the wife of Mr. Paul Strakosch. KEMBLE, FRANCES ANNE, an Anglo-American actress and Shakespearian reader, born in 1809. In 1829 she made her debut at Covent Garden, Lon- don, and in 1832 came to the United States with her father, Charles Kemble, where she met with great success. In 1834 she married Pierce Butler, of Philadelphia, and retired from the stage; but the marriage being unhappy, they obtained a di- vorce, and Mrs. Butler went to live in Lennox, Mass. In 1849 she came before the public at Phila- 945 delphia in her first course of Shakespearian read- ings, and these entertainments were afterwards re- peated in many cities of America and Europe. “Fanny” Kemble has also written considerably, among her works being Francis the First, a drama (1832); Journal (1835) ; The Star of Seville, a drama (1837) ; Poems (1844) : A Year of Consolation (1847); Plays (1863); Journal of a Residence on a Georgia Plantation (1863); Records of a Girlhood (1878); Records of Later Life (1882) ; and Notes on some of Shalcespeare’s Plays (1882). KEMPEN, a town of Rhenish Prussia, seven miles northwest of Krefeld. It manufactures silk goods, wax candles, vinegar, etc. Population 5,952. Also a town in the Prussian government of Posen, forty-eight miles north-east of Breslau. Popula- tion 5,787. KEMPER, REUBEN (1770-1826), an American ad- venturer. He became a leader in the movement to rid western Florida of Spanish rule, and in 1808 was kidnapped by Spanish authority, but was res- cued shortly afterward. He then was engaged in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Mobile, and was an organizer of an expedition against Spanish authority in Mexico. In 1812 he commanded a force of six hundred Americans that cotiperated with the Mexican insurgents. He then joined the United States army as a volunteer, and served at the defense of New Orleans, performing important duties. He subsequently settled in Mississippi as a planter. KENDAL, MARGARET Bnuxsrox, an English act- ress, born at Great Grimsby in 1849. She was pop- ularly known as “Madge” Robertson previous to her marriage with Mr. Kendal, with whom she has since always appeared on the stage. Her first ap- pearance was made at the Haymarket as Ophelia in 1865, and her first triumph was achieved as Blanche Dumont in 1\Iarston’s “ Hero of Romance " at the same theatre. Mrs. Kendal has played many parts, of which the most successful perhaps has been those of Lillian in “New Men and Old Acres,” and Dora in “Diplomacy.” In 1890 Mr. and Mrs. Kendal made a successful American tour, which was repeated later in the year. KENDALL, Amos (1789-1869), an American jour- nalist. In 1814 he was admitted to the Kentucky bar, and then for a time was tutor in the family of Henry Clay. He afterward became postmaster, and editor of a local newspaper, at Georgetown, and in 1816 became part owner of “The Argus of IVestern America.” In 1829 he was appointed fourth auditor of the treasury, and in 1835 was made postmaster-general. In 1840 he retired from the cabinet. A year later he started a bi-weekly called “ Kendall’s Expositor,” and in 1842 a weekly called the “Union Democrat.” In 1845 he became connected with Samuel F. B. Morse’s telegraph patents, and soon amassed a large fortune. He was afterwards active in works of philanthropy. Among his publications are Life of Andrew Jackson, Private, M ilitarg/, and Civil (1843); and Full Ect- posure of Dr. Charles F. Iachson’s Pretensions to the In— vention of the American Electro-magnetic Telegraph (1843). KEN DALLSVILLE, a city of Noble county, Ind., located in a fertile agricultural region. KENDRICK, ASAIIEL CLARK, an American edu- cator, born in 1809. In 1831 he became a tutor in Madison University, and a year later professor of Latin and Greek, acting in this capacity till 1850, when he was made professor of Greek in Rochester University. He is the author of A Child’s Book in Greek; Introduction to the Greek Language; The Greek Ollendorf (1852); Echoes (1855); Life of Linus W. Peclc; Life and Letters ofEnzily C. Judson (1860) ; Our 2-23 946 Poetical Favorites (1880), besides many translations and sermons. KENNEBUNK, a post-village of York county, Me., on the Kennebunk River, three miles from the Atlantic. It has a good coast trade and manufac- tures twine, leather board, lumber, plows, and boots and shoes. Population 3,100. KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL, an English classical scholar, born near Birmingham, Nov. 6, 1804, died at Torquay, April 6, 1889. He was educated at King Edward’s School, Birmingham, at Shrews- bury, and at St. J ohn’s College, Cambridge, gradu- ating in 1827 as senior classic, senior Chancellor’s medallist, and senior optime, and subsequently took orders in the Church of England. In 1828 he became Fellow and classical lecturer of his college, in 1830 an assistant-master at Harrow, and in 1836 was appointed to succeed his old master Dr. Butler, at Shrewsbury. Here for thirty years he labored with conspicuous success. The famous Sabrinae Corolla (1850, 4th ed. 1890) is a memorial at once of his own brilliant scholarship and of the spirit he could inspire. In 1866 Dr. Kennedy was appointed professor of Greek at Cambridge and Canon of Ely. Among his books are Palaestra Latina (1850) ; Curriculum Stili Latini (1858) ; The Public School Latin Grammar (1871) ; and editions, with verse translations, of the Birds of Aristophanes, the Aga- memnon of ZEschylus, and the (Edipus Tyrannus of Sophocles. KENNEDY, J OHN PENDLETON (1795-1870), an American author. In 1816 he was admitted to the Maryland bar; in 1820 was chosen to the house of delegates, was reélected two years later, and was appointed secretary of legation to Chili in 1823. In 1838 he became a member of Congress, and was re- turned in 1840, 1842, and in 1846. In 1952 he was made secretary of the navy, and in 1867 acted as United States commissioner to the Paris exhibition. Among his books are Swallow Barn (1832) ; Horse- Shoe Robinson, a Tale of the Tory Ascendency (1835); Rob of the Bowl, a Legend of St. Inigoes (1838) ; Annals of Quodibet (1840) ; and Memoirs of the Life of William Wirt ( 1849) ; besides numerous essays and addresses. KENOSHA, a city of Wisconsin,the county-seat of Kenosha county, on Lake Michigan ,fifty-two miles north of Chicago and thirty-five miles south of Mil- waukee. The court-house and several large school- houses are among the principal public buildings. Its manufacturing establishments are extensive flour- ing-mills, planing-mills, wa on- and machine-shops, malt houses, tanneries, an furniture shops. Ke- nosha stands in a pleasant locality, has good har- bor and dock facilities, and is a thriving, well-built, attractive place. Population 6,529. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 36. KENRICK, FRANCIS PATRICK (1797-1863), an Irish- American Roman Catholic bishop. In 1821 he came to the United States and took charge of the theological seminary at Bardstown, Ky., and in 1830 was nominated coadjutor bish‘op of Philadel- phia, and was consecrated bishop of Arath in parti- bus infidelium at Bardstown by Bishop Flaget. In 1851 on the death of Archbishop Eccleson he was transferred to the see of Baltimore, and a few years later was invested with a "primacy of honor” over the other archbishops. Among the works that he wrote are Letters of Omicron to Omega (1828) ; Theo- logia Dogmatica (1839) ; Theo-logia Moralis (1841) ; Letters on the Primacy of the H oly See and the Author- ity of General Councils (1837); The Catholic Doctrine on Justification explained and vindicated (1841) ; Trea- tise on Baptism (1843); and l'indieation of the Catho- lic Church (1855). KENRICK, PETER RICHARD, an Irish-American Roman Catholic arch-bishop, brother of Francis KENNEBUNK—KENTON Patrick Kenrick, born in 1806. In 1833 he came to the United States, and was made assistant pastor at the cathedral in Philadelphia. In 1835 he was appointed pastor of the cathedral parish, and then was made president of the diocesan seminary, also filling the chair of dogmatic theology. In 1841 he was appointed coadjutor bishop of St. Louis, and in 1843 became bishop. In 1847 he was made arch- bishop. He wrote The Holy House of Loretto, or an Examination of the Historical Evidence of its Mir- aculous Translation, and Angelican Ordinations. KENSETT. JCIIN FREDERICK ( 1816-1872 ), an American artist. He studied for a time in the United States, and in 1840 went to Europe where he remained until 1848. In that year he returned to New York, and iii 1849 became a member of the National academy of design. His productions, chiefly landscapes, include Mount Washington from North Conway; Sketch of Mount Washington; High Bank on the Genesee River; Sunset on the Coast; Sun- set in the Adirondacks; Autumn Afternoon on Lake George; Glimpse of the White Mountains; Afternoon on Connecticut Shore; Noon on the Sea-Shore; Lake Conesus; Coast of Massachusetts; New Hampshire Sceneqg; Lake George; and Narragansett. KE T, formerly FRANKLIN MILLs, a railroad junction of Portage county, Ohio, on the Cuyahoga River, thirty-one miles southeast of Cleveland. It has machine and car-shops, cotton and flour mills, and fine window-glass is made from white sand rock found in the vicinity. KENT, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1767-1820), Duke of, a British soldier, son of King George III., and father of Queen Victoria. In 1790 he entered the army, and served in the attack on the French West India islands. In 1796 he was appointed governor of Nova Scotia, made Duke of Kent and Strathe- arne and Earl of Dublin, with a seat in the house of lords. He was also appointed commander-in- chief of the British forces in North America. In 1802 he was made governor of Gibraltar, and in 1818 he married the Princess Maria Louisa Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Saxe—Coburg and widow of the Prince of Leiningen. Fort Royal in Martin- ique was changed to Fort Edward, and the Island of St. John to Prince Edward island, in the Duke of Kent’s honor. KENT ISLAND, the largest island in Chesa- peake Bay, belonging to Queen Anne county, Md. It was colonized in 1631 by Claiborne, who here es- tablished the first settlement in the state. The island is 15 miles long, and has a very fertile soil and important oyster fisheries. It contains the village of Stevensville. KEN TISH RAG, the local name given to a gray- ish blue limestone which occurs at Hythe, and other places on the coast of Kent in the lower greens and measures. It is sometimes sixty to eighty feet thick. KENTLAND, a post-village, count -seat of New- tdn county, Ind., situated on Gran Prairie, four miles east of the western boundary of the state. KENTON, a post-village, county-seat and rail- road junction of Hardin county, O., situated in the center of the state, in a farming district, on the headwaters of the Scioto River. Lumbering and manufacturing are the industries. Population 5,648. KENTON, SIMON (1755-1836), an American pio- neer. At the age of sixteen he had an aifray aris- ing from a love affair, and believing that he had killed his adversary he fled from Virginia to Ken- tucky where he ranged the country as a spy against the Indians till 1778. He was then captured by the Indians, but escaped some months afterward, and during the invasion of Kentucky by the British and KENTUCKY RIVER—KENTUCKY Indians Kenton led a company and aided in driv- ing out the invaders. In 1782 he again commanded acompany, and then, learning that the man he supposed he had killed was still living, he visited his old home, but soon afterwards réentered the army. In 1793 he was major of a battalion of Ken- tucky volunteers, in 1805 became a brigadier-gen- eral of Ohio militia, and fought at the battle of the Thames in 1813. In all his undertakings Kenton displayed remarkable courage, sagacity, and en- durence, and Kenton county, Ky., was named 1I1 his honor. KENTUCKY RIVER, a river of Kentucky, formed by two forks which rise in the Cumberland Moun- tains, and, after a winding northwest course of about two hundred and fifty miles, entering the Ohio about twelve miles above Madison, Indiana. The river runs through part of its course between perpendicular limestone walls, and is navigable for steamships beyond Frankfort. KENTUCKY, STATE OF. For general article on the State of KENTUCKY, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 41-44. The census of 1890 reported the area 40,000 square miles; population, 1,118,587. Capital, Frankfort, with a population (1890) of 8,250. _ The populations of other chief cities and towns III 1890 were as follows: Louisville, 161,005; Coving- ton, 37,375; Lexington, 22,355; Newport, 24,938; Paducah, 13,024; Owensborough, 9,818; Henderson, 8,830; Bowling Green, 7,790; Hopkinsville, 6,457; Paris, 5,505; Maysville, 5,350; Richmond, 4,737; Danville, 3,765; Harodsburg, 3,194; Mt. Sterling, 3,627; Shelbyville, 2,676; Elizabethtown, 2,259; Leb- anon, 2,805. _ The population and area of the State by counties are shown in the following table: Population. , Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 13,721 13.0"'8 fiiilglff '. ......................... . . 13,692 12.089 Anderson ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 10,610 9,361 Ballard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 8.390 14.378 Barren. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 21,490 22,321 h. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 12 ,81“ 11,982 gab] .............................. . . ~ 350 10,312 6,055 Boone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 12,246 11,996 Bourbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 244 16,976 15,956 oyd ............................ . . 180 14,033 12,105 B 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 12,948 11.9“ Bggcien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 12,369 13,589 Breathitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 8,705 7,742 Breckinridge .................... . . 520 18,976 17.486 Bullitt ......................... .. 272 8,291 8,521 Butler. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 452 13.956 12.181 Caldwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 13,186 11,282 Galloway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 14,675 13 .295 Campbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 44,208 37,440 Carlisle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 7,612 . Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 9.266 8,953 Carter ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 544 17.204 12.345 Casey . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . 444 11.848 10,983 Christian.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708 34,118 31,682 Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 15,434 12,115 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 12,447 10,222 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 7,047 7,212 Crittenden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 13,119 11.688 Cumberland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 8,452 8.894 Daviess.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 33,120 27,730 Edmonson ...................... . _ 348 8.005 7,222 Elliott .......................... . . 270 9,214 6,567 0 | 0 0 o Q c n o Q I 0 Q o ~ 0 ' o o n u - - Q O - Falyette“‘IIl0\IOlOIIIIOUIDOD o c I o on 252 Fleming................ . . . . . . . . .. 340 16,078 15,931 947 Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Floyd .......... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 11,256 10,176 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 21,267 18,699 Fulton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 10,005 7 ,977 Gallatin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 4,611 4,832 Garrard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 11,138 11,704 Grant .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 280 12,671 13,083 Graves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 28,534 24,138 Grayson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 18,688 15,784 Green . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 11,463 11,871 Greenup ........................ . . 352 11,911 13,371 Hancock ........................ . . 200 9,214 8,563 Hardin .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 21,304 22,564 Harlan .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 6,197 5,278 Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 16,914 16,504 Hart . . . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 410 16,439 17,133 Henderson. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 29,536 24,515 Henry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 14,164 14,492 Hickman. . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . 249 11,637 10,651 Ho kins . . . . . . .. . . . .. ........... .. 550 23,505 19.122 J ac son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 8,261 6,678 Jefferson ...... . . . ............... . . 375 188.598 146,010 Jessamine ...................... . . 162 11,248 10,864 Johnson. ........................ . . 300 11.027 9,155 Kenton ..... . . . .. ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 54,161 43,983 Knott.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 5,438 . . . . . . . Knox ...... . . . . . . . . . ............. . . 350 13,762 ‘ 10,587 La, Rue . . . - . . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . Laurel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 13.747 9,131 Lawrence. . . . ................... . . 465 17,702 13,262 Lee. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . 228 6,205 4,254 Leslie ........... . . . . ............ . . 420 3,964 3.740 Letcher .......................... . . 310 6,920 6,601 Lewis .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 14,803 13,154 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 15,962 15,080 Livingston .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 360 9,474 9,165 Logan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . 544 23,812 24,358 Lyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 7 .628 6,768 McCracken. ..................... . . 250 21,051 16,262 McLean. . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . 256 9,887 9.293 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 24,348 22,052 Magofiin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 9.196 6.944 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 15,648 14,693 Marsh all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 11,287 9,647 Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 4,209 3,057 Mason.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 225 20,773 20,479 Meade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .. 332 9,484 10 323 Menifee . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 4,666 3,755 Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 15,034 14,142 M e tcalfe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 9,871 9,423 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . .............. . . 272 10,989 10,741 Montgomery ................ . . 200 12,367 10,566 Morgan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 11,249 8,455 Muhdenberg .................. . . 484 17,955 15,098 elson. ......................... . . 380 16,417 16,609 Nicholas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 10,764 11,869 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 22,946 19,669 Oldham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 6,754 7,667 Owen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 17,676 17,401 Owsley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 975 4.942 Pen dleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 16,346 16,702 Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 6,331 5.607 Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 17,378 13,001 Powell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 4.698 3,639 Pulaski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 25,73 21.318 Robertson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 4,684 5,814 Rockcastle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 9.841 9,670 Rowan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 6,129 4,420 Russell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 8,136 7,591 Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 16.546 14,965 Shelby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 16,521 16,813 Simpson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 10,878 10,641 Spencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 6,760 ,040 Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 9 ,353 9 .259 Todd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 16 .814 15,994 Trigg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 13,902 14,489 948 Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Trimble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 7,140 7,171 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 18,229 17,809 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 30,158 27 ,531 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 13,622 14,419 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 12,852 12,512 Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 17 .196 14,246 Whitley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 17,590 12,000 Wolfe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 7,180 5,638 Woodford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 12,380 11,800 Total population of Kentucky by decades—cen- sus of 1790, 73.677; 1800, 220,955; 1810, 406,511; 1820; 564,135; 1830, 687,917; 1840, 779,828; 1850, 982,405; 1860, 1,155,684; 1870, 1,321,011; 1880, 1,648,690; 1890, 1,858,635. . Kentucky was organized as a Territory in 1790, and admitted into the Union as a. State in 1792. The following is a complete list of the State gov- ernors: Isaac Shelby . . . . . . . . . . ..1792-96 William Owsley . . . . . . ..1844-48 James Garrard. . . .1796-1804 John J. Crittenden. . . . .1848-50 Christopher Greenup. .1804- 8 John L. Helm . . . . . . . . . ..1850—51 Charles Scott . . . . . . . . . ..1808-12 Lazarus W. Powell... ..1851-55 Isaac Shelby . . . . . . . . . . ..1812-16 Charles S. Morehead. . .1855—59 George Madison . . . . . . . .1816 Benah H. Magoifin. . . . .1859—61 Gabnel Slaughter . . . . ..1816—20 James F. Robins0n.. . . .1861-63 John Adair. . . . . . . . . .1820-24 Thomas E. Bramlette. .1863—67 Joseph Desha . . . . . . . . . 1824-28 John L. Helm . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1867 Thomas Metcalfe . . . . . ..1828—32 John W. Stevenson. .1867—72 John Breathitt . . . . . . . . . .1832-34 Preston H. Leslie . . . . . . .1872—75 James T. Morehead.. . . .1834-36 James Clark . . . . . . . . . . ..1836—37 Charles A. Wicklifie .. .1839-40 Robert P. Letcher . . . . . .1840—44 James B. McCreary . . . .18_75—79 Luke P. Blackburn. . . . .1879-83 J . Proctor Knott . . . . . . . .1883-87 Simon B. Buckner... . . .1887—91 The Census Educational Report of 1890 furnishes the following summaries for the State: Public schools, 8,722, with 7,515 white teachers and 1,207 colored teachers; also 352,955 white scholars, and 54,612 colored scholars. The gain in the population during the decade was 12.73 per cent.; the gain in the public school enrollment was 39.37 per cent. There were reported 7,337 school-houses, of which 2,839 are log. One hundred and eighty-five churches were used as school-houses, 136 being.used for col- ored schools. Seven thousand pupils classed as private were in schools reported as public and pri- vate. The parochial schools reported are mostly Catholic. For numerous other items of interest relating to the State of Kentucky, see the tables embraced in the article UNITED STATES in these Revisions and Additions. KEOKUK, a thriving city of Iowa, one of the county-seats of Lee county, in the southeastern part of the state. It occupies an elevated situa- tion on the Mississippi River, at the foot of the Lower Rapids. It is a very important railroad cen- ter, since nine important railroads either traverse the city or terminate in it. The river is crossed at this point by a fine railroad bridge which connects Keokuk with the towns of Warsaw and Hamilton, Ill. The Mississippi is navigable at this point for the largest steamboats, and the United States gov- ernment has constructed a ship canal, ten miles long and three-hundred feet wide, around the Des Moines rapids, which extends from Keokuk north- ward. The city is built on a limestone foundation, and the limestone affords excellent material for building purposes. It has numerous factories and mills, including flour-mills, saw-mills, foundries, etc. The manufactures are various, and the busi- KEOKUK-—KEY ness of the town is prospering. Population in 1890, 14,075. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 45. k , KEPPEL, SIR HENRY, a British admiral, a younger son of the fourth Earl of Albemarle, born June 14, 1809. He saw service as a captain during the war against China in 1842, and in the campaign against the pirates of the East Indian Archipelago shortly afterwards. During the Crimean war he com- manded a vessel in the Baltic and Black seas, and finally the operations of the naval brigade before Sebastopol. In 1857 he took an important part in the destruction of the Chinese fleet in Fat-shan or Fuh-Shan Bay. He was promoted to be vice-ad- miral in 1867, admiral in 1869, G. C. B. in 1871, and admiral of the fleet in 1877. Sir Henry Keppel has written Expedition to Borneo with Rajah Brooke’s Journal (1847), and Visit to the Indian Archipelago (1853). KERKI, a town belonging formerly to Bokhara, Central Asia, about a hundred and twenty miles south of Bokhara City, on the left bank of the Amu- Daria (Oxus). It is a halting place of the caravans trading from Bokhara to Herat, and stands near the chief ferry over the Oxus. KERMESS (Flemish kerhmess, from kerk, church, and mass-),a religious and parochial festival ob- served in the Low Countries and in French Flan- ders, characterized by dances, banquets, target- shooting, and various other forms of amusement, which at one time reached such extravagance that Joseph II., then ruler of Flanders, ordered that all the celebrations should.be held on the same day. That rule disappeared with the Austrian domina- tion. The kermess was originally, and is still in many places, held on the feast-day of the patron saint of the place. Recently, in the United States, the term has been applied to a kind of entertain- ment in which the Flemish costumes and sports are imitated. KEROSENE, a term applied by Abraham Ges- ner, in 1846, to oil distilled from coal in Prince Edward Island, and since then generally applied to mineral oil, from whatever source derived,which is suitable for use as illumihating fluid. Most of the kerosene now in use is distilled from petro- leum. VVhen of good quality it is nearly colorless, and its specific gravity varies from 0.780 to 0.825. It is the same, or very nearly the same, as the British parafl-ln-oil. KERSEY, or KERREYMERE, a variety of woolen cloth distinguished by the diagonal ribbed ap- pearance of its upper side, where the nap not being raised allows its structure to be seen. A thin, fine make of Kersey is called cassimere. KETCH, abroad, strongly-built vessel with two masts, formerly much used for carrying mortars. and called a bomb-ketch. KEWANEE, a post-village of Henry county, Ill., on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad, 132 miles west of Chicago. It has foundries and machine-shops, several wagon and carriage shops, and manufactories of agricultural implements and of steam-heating apparatus. In the vicinity are inexhaustible beds of bituminous coal. Population in 1890, 4,554.’ KEY, FRANCIS SooTT, an American poet, born in Frederick county, Md., in 1780, died at Baltimore in 1843. He studied law in the oflice of his uncle, and practiced law at Frederick City, Md., until he became district attorney in Washington, D. C. When the British invaded Washington, in 1814, they seized Dr. William Beanes, a planter, as a prisoner, and Key, aided by President Madison, re- solved to release him. He went with John S. Skin- ner, 'agent for the exchange of prisoners, in a cartel- ship to the British general Ross, who finally KEY-—KILLER consented to Dr. Beanes’s release, but detained the party during the attack on Baltimore. From their ship they could see the flag on Fort l\/IcHenry nearly all night by the glare of the battle; but be- fore morning the firing ceased and they watched most anxiously to ascertain which colors floated on the ramparts in the morning. Key’s feelings,when he saw that the stars and stripes had not been hauled down, found expression in the Star Spangled Banner, which gained for him a lasting reputation. It was to be sung to the tune “Anacreon in Heaven.” The verses and tune soon became popu- lar throughout the United States. A collection of Key’s poems was published in 1857. James Lick, of California, bequeathed the sum of $60,000 for a monument to Key. It was erected in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, in 1887. See Britannica, Vol. I. . 722. IEEY, THOMAS HEWITT, an English philologist, born at Southwark, March 20, 1799, died in Novem- ber, 1875. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, studied medicine, and was for thirteen years professor of Latin in the University of Lon- don. He subsequently became professor of com- parative grammar and head-master of the prepara- tory school, which positions he retained to the time of his death. He published a Latin Grammar, Philological Essays, and Language, rits Origin and Development. His chief work is a Latin-English Lexicon. KEYES, ERASMUS DARWIN, an American soldier, born at Brimfield, Mass., in 1810. He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1882, served in Charleston harbor during the nullifica- tion troubles in 1833 and was in 1887—41 aide to -Gen. VVinfield Scott. After being made captain he served as instructor of artillery and cavalry at West Point from 1844 to 1848, and afterwards he served in the field on the northwestern frontier. During the civil war Keyes fought as brigade-com- mander in the first battle of Bull Run ; commanded the 4th Corps of the Army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan, and was actively engaged in the Peninsular campaign, which gained for him the promotion to major-general of volunteers. In 1863 he took part in Gen. Dix’s expedition against Rich- mond. He resigned in 1864. In 1884 Gen. Keyes published Fifty Years’ Obse-r1.'atz'0n of Men and Events. KEYPORT, a post-town of Monmouth county, N. J., on Raritan Bay, twenty-five miles from New York City. Many summer guests visit the place. Here are flour-mills, a fruit-canning factory, and an :important enterprise of the town is growing oysters which have been brought from Virginia. Popula- tion about 2,700. KEYSER, a town on the Potomac River, IV. Va., .and the count -seat of Mineral county. KEY WES'l, a city and port of entry in Florida, the southernmost city of the United States, on a small coral island in the Gulf of Mexico. Among the prominent buildings are a city-hall, county \court-house, custom-house, government-barracks, marine-hospital, United States court-house, and Fort Taylor, a casemated pentagonal brick struc- ture, forming the principal fortification of the island. Many of the inhabitants occupy themselves with the business of salvage and wrecking, others with sponge-fishing, while others catch fish and turtles. The most important business, however, is the making of cigars. As the climate of Key West is remarkably equable and free from the extremes -of cold and heat, Key West has of recent years be- -come a famous winter resort, especially for con-- sumptive patients. “ Key West” is a mispronun- -ciation of the Spanish name of the island, Ca-"yo Haeso, meaning Bone Key. The population is cos- mopolitan, and amounted in 1890 to 18,058. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 55. KHAFALOUN, or KHAPALU, a town of Bulti or Little Tibet, on the Shayook, a short distance above its junction with the Indus, 110 miles north- east of Serinagur, in India. Population, 12,000. KHANPUR, a town of northwestern Hindustan, in the dominion of Bhawlpur, on a canal which con- nects it with the Indus. The surrounding country is populous and, where irrigated, fertile. The town is badly built; there is, however, a good bazaar, and a fine mosque. It was formerly of much greater importance than it now is, although it has still a considerable trade. Population, 20,000. KHAYA,a genus of trees of the natural order Meliacew. The Kassou-Khaye, a tall and abundant forest tree of Senegal, is much valued for its tim- ber, called African mahogany, which is reddish colored, hard, durable, and of beautiful grain. The bark contains a peculiar alkaloid. KIDDJVILLIALI (c.1650—1701), an American navi- gator. He went to sea at an early age, and soon acquired a reputation as a bold and skillful sailor. He did good service in the American colonies, and in 1691 New York city council awarded him £150. -In 1696 he was put in command of the “Adventure,” a galley of 287 tons, with 30 guns, and sent to put down the abuses of the pirates, and also to act against the French. It soon became understood . that Kidd himself had turned pirate, and in 1698 orders were sent to the governors of the various English colonies to apprehend him if he came with- in their jurisdiction. In 1699 he was arrested and sent to England on charges of piracy, burning houses, massacring peasantry, brutality to prison- ers, and murder of one of his men. He was found guilty of this last charge, and hanged, with nine of his accomplices, at Execution Dock, London. Capt. Kidd protested his innocence to the last, claiming that the man he killed was mutinous, and there are many of the opinion that his trial was high- handed and unfair. KIDNEY—VETCH (Anthyllis 'vulnera'ria), a genus of plants of the natural order Legum/in0sa>., sub- order Papilionaceze, consisting of a number of spe- cies, some shrubbery and some herbaceous, natives chiefly of Europe and Asia. They were formerly used in medicine, and also to stop the flow of blood from wounds. KIEKIE (Freycinetia Banlcsii), a climbing shrub of the natural order Pandanaceaz. It yields an edible fruit said to be the finest indigenous to New Zealand. It is found in the northern part of that country. KIEPERT, HEINRICH, a German geographer, born at Berlin in 1818. After studying geography as a specialty he explored Asia Minor in 1841-42 and became director of the geographical institute at VVeimar in 1845. After 1852 he delivered numerous lectures in Berlin, in 1859 was made pro- fessor in the University of that city, and in 1865 was appointed to a position in the statistical bureau there. His most important publications are Atlas von Hellas; Histom'seh—geograplz/ischer Atlas der alten Welt, which has passed through numerous editions, and Neuer H and-Atlas der Ercle. KILBOURN, or KII.BoURN CITY, a post-village of Columbia county, Wis., on lVisconsin River, 108 miles northwest of Milwaukee. It is at the foot of the noted “Dalles of the VVisconsin,” and is a pleasant summer resort. It is the center of the hop-trade of the Northwest and it manufactures doors, sash and blinds, flour, and other articles° Population about 1,000. KILLER, a name applied to the delphinoid, Orca gladiator, and other species of that genus, in allu- 949 ' 950 sion to their sanguinary and ravenous habits. Killers hunt in companies, and are noted enemies of the right whales as well as of such small species of their own kind as dolphins and porpoises. KIMBALL, RICHARD BURLEIGH, an American author, born in 1816. He began the practice of law in Waterford, N. Y., and later removed to New York City. He founded the town of Kimball, Texas, and from 1854 to 1860 was president of the railroad running from Galveston to Houston. Among his works are Letters from England (1842) ; St. Legar, or the Threads of Life (1850) ; Cuba and the Cubans (1850); Romance of Student Life Abroad (1852) ; Lectures before the Law Institute of New York City (1853); Undercurrents of Wall Street (1861); Was He Successful? (1863); The Prince of Kashna (1864); Henry Powers, Banker, and how He Achieved a Fortune and Married (1868) ; To-day in New York (1870); and Stories of E.vceptional Life (1887). KIN RN, or KILBURN, a former fort of South Russia, situated opposite Otchakofi’. Paul Jones first suggested to Suvaroif that it should be forti- fied. It figured prominently in the Russo-Turkish wars of 1771-74 and 1787, and during the Crimean ‘Var it fell before the allies, Oct. 17, 1855. The for- tifications were razed in 1860. KINDERGARTEN (Ger., children’s garden; see Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 79), a place of training for children of both sexes from three to six years of age. Kindergartens have developed rapidly in the United States during the last ten years. The “Froebel Union” in Boston has devoted itself to the diffusion of Froobel’s principles and methods. “The New Education” appeared in Milwaukee, and was soon united with Miss Peabody’s “Kindergar- ten Messenger,” which insists on applying Froe- bel’s methods of educating the children in the reg- ular schools. Dr. Felix Adler established in New York City a Kindergarten in connection with his “United Charities,” where poor children are taken care of and instructed free of charge. His example roused the Californians to start many similar charity Kindergartens. The wealthy Mrs. Quincy Shaw, of Boston, soon caught the enthusiasm. She gave large sums of money for maintaining free Kindergartens through all parts of Boston. Sim- ilar schools were maintained and yearly increased in St. Louis, Milwaukee and various other cities. A new impetus was given to this work by Froe- bel’s centennial anniversary, celebrated April 21, 1882, in many towns in the United States. On this occasion the souls of many were stirred by appro- priate addresses and the sight of small children engaged in song, declamation and suitable games. Soon after, the “Froebel Institute of North America” was or anized at Detroit, Mich. This institute assume the work of the Froebel Union. It also showed the applicability of Froebel’s principles to primary schools. In 1884 it united with the Na- tional Educational Association, and exhibited at the educational meeting in Madison, VVis., the re- sults and possibilities of Kindergarten-work in all its bearings. This meeting was attended by people from the East, lVest, North and South. It removed all doubts as to the usefulness and practicability of this work, and kindled an abiding enthusiasm which has spread wherever parents care for the training of their smaller children to self-activity. The numerous free Kindergartens in San Fran- cisco, Chicago, Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Boston, New York and other large cities show how highly Froebel’s principles are now appreciated all over the United States. Large sums of money are now an- nually expended by private persons in maintain- ing free Kindergartens in the neighborhood of the poor laboring population. In the Kentucky Insti- K1MBALL—KING tute for the Blind in Louisville, and in the Perkins Institute for the Blind in Boston the Kindergarten- method of education has also been applied in edu- cating small blind children. A good many un- wonted playthings and other working devices had to be procured for this purpose. But the success was beyond the most sanguine expectations, in fact so favorable that subsequently many other schools for the blind have established Kindergartens for their youngest inmates. Froebel had insisted that “all education must be founded on religion,” that “all our social virtues must be expressions and embodiments of God’s Being in ourselves,” and that “our true calling is to reveal God as our original type” (Urbild). The Kindergarten in the United States lays greatest stress upon this intensely religious foundation of its work, and upon its great effect in developing social virtue in the young. But it lays also proper stress on the mental development, on the technical skill it gives, the preparation it furnishes for the regular school studies, and especially on habitu- ating children to think and act spontaneously. Notwithstanding its great usefulness the Kinder- garten is not yet admitted to the public school, although the primary grades, quickened by its spirit, have lately adopted many of its methods, and in the normal schools a Kindergarten depart- ment is instructed in the principles and methods of Froebel. In other countries the Kindergarten has also made suitable progress. For instance, in many cities of Ontario it has been incorporated with the public schools. It has been given similar recogni- tion in Brazil, Mexico and the Argentine Republic. In many of the Swiss cantons the Kindergartens are integral parts of the public school system. The same is true of Belgium and some parts of Austria. Germany leaves it still to private effort and the philanthropic zeal of its many educational associa- tions. The same is true of England, where private Kindergartens are flourishing. In France there are some 6,000 coles Maternelles, or public nurseries and Kindergartens united. They admit children from 2 to 7 years of age. Well-prepared teachers instruct the pupils according to Froebel’s principles and methods. KINDERHOOK, a village of Columbia county, N. Y., twenty miles southeast of Albany. It has a cotton-mill. The township includes the villages of Niverville and Valatie. Population about 4,000. KING, CHARLES (1789-1867), an American educa- tor, son of Rufus King. In 1813 he was elected to the New York legislature, and later engaged in the publication of the “New York American.” From 1827 to 1845 he was its sole editor, and then became editor of the “Courier and Enquirer.” In 1849 he was chosen president of Columbia College, retain- ing the position till 1863, when he resigned and began a tour in Europe. He died in Frascati, Italy. KING, RUFUS (1755-1827), an American states- man. In 1781 he was admitted to the Massachu- setts bar, and two years later was sent to the Leg- islature. In 1784, in 1785 and in 1786 he was a dele- gate to the old Congress, sitting at Trenton. In 1788 he removed to New York City, and the follow- ing year was chosen to the assembly. He was almost immediately elected to the United States Senate, and, while serving a second term, was ap- pointed in 1796 United States minister to England. In 1803 he was relieved at his own request, and re- mained in private life till 1813, when he was again made a United States Senator. In 1819 he was reelected, and in 1825 accepted the mission to Eng- land. After a few months, however, he was obliged, KING-—-KING’S DAUGHTERS through failing health, to return to the United States. KING, SAMUEL ARCHER, an American aéronaut, born in 1828. At the age of twenty-one he con- structed a balloon, and in 1851 made his first ascen- sion from Philadelphia. He has since taken nearly 300 voyages, and has traversed the entire country east of the Mississippi. and much that lies west of it. He has often been accompanied by United States signal service men, besides other scientists, and many important observations have been made from his balloon. Mr. King has had many strange and dangerous experiences while navigating the air. KING, THOMAS STARR (1824-1863), an American clergyman. In 1840 he was made an assistant teacher in the Bunker Hill grammar-school. and in 1842 became principal of the West grammar-school of Medford, Mass. In 1845 he began to preach, and in 1846 was called to a church in Charlestown. In 1818 he became pastor of the Hollis Street Boston Unitarian Church, and held this post for eleven years. In 1860 he accepted a call to San Francisco, Cal., remaining there until his death. Mr. King was the author of The White Hills; their Legends, Landscape and Poetry (1859). KING, WILLIABI Rurus (1786-1853), a vice-presi- dent of the United States. In 1806 he was ad- mitted to the North Carolina bar, and in the same year became a member of the State legislature. He was reelected in 1808, and in 1809 was sent to Congress, where he remained until 1816, when he was made secretary of legation to Naples, holding the position till 1818. He then removed to Dallas county, Ala., and on the adoption of the State con- stitution became a United States Senator. He served until 1814, when he was appointed minister to France. In 18-18 he again became United States Senator, and in 1852 was chosen Vice-President of the United States on the ticket with Franklin Pierce. KING—FISHER, a bird of which there are two species in America, the Belted Ceryle alcyon, and the Green or Texas King-fisher (Ceryle Americana). Both nest in holes in the river-banks, and are pisci- vorous. The Belted King-fisher has a long, straight, and strong bill, short wings, long broad tail, and a crest on the back of the head. Its color is ashy- blue above and white beneath. Length 12x13 inches. This species extends through all North America, being only forced south by the freezing of the water in winter. It is rather unsocial, keep- ing nearly always alone by the sides of rivers, mill- ponds, or lakes, watching the water into which it seldom plunges in vain. It swallows the fish whole. Its loud, harsh, and rattling cry is particularly annoying at night. In digging a hole for its nest, this bird excavates the ground from 4 to 15 feet in depth, making at the end of the hole a wider space where it deposits its eggs. The Green King- fisher is a much smaller species than the preceding, of a glossy-green color, with a collar around its neck. It is abundant on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and in the interior of Central America. Its habits are the same as those of the Belted King- fisher. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 81, 82. KINGLAKE, ALEXANDER IVILLIAM, an English historian, born at \Vilton House, near Taunton, in 1811, died .1 an. 2, 1891. After his education at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, was finished, he was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1837, but retired from the preictice of law in 1856. In 1844 he wrote his experiences of eastern travel in a book entitled Eothen, which at once secured for him a high literary reputation. Elected to Parliament, he showed on many occasions his bitter feelings 951 against Napoleon III., especially in his opposition to the Conspiracy Bill. This feeling of hostility was still further manifested in his history of The Irwasion of the Crimea (1863-1881), a very interest- ing partisan work. KINGLET, a dainty little song bird; the ruby- crowned wren. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. , 83. KING—POST, the middle or chief post of a roof, standing on the tie-beam, and reaching up to the ridge; it is often formed into an octagonal column with capital and base, and small struts or braces, which are usually slightly curved. spreading from if above the capital to some of the other tim- ers. KINGS, FIRST AND Sncoxn BooKs OF. See Brit- annica, Vol. XIV, pp. 83-86. KINGSBOROUGH, EDWARD Ki.\'G, Viscount, (1795-1837), an Irish statesman and author. From 1820 to 1826 he represented Corkin parliament, and then devoted himself to his great work, The Am‘iqui- ties of Meccico, comprising Fae-Similes of Ancient Mex- ican Paintings and lllierogli/phics, together yaith the llfonuments of New Spain by M. D1/2)(l’l.T, with their re- spective Scales of Measilrement, and accompanying De- scriptions, the Whole illustrcu‘ed yxitlz many Valnczble ineclited JISS. The first of nine volumes was pub- lished in 1831, and the eighth and ninth after his death, which occurred in Dublin,Ireland, in a debt- ors’ rison. KING’S DAUGHTEBS, THE ORDER OF THE, a. Christian sisterhood of service composed of many small circles of women united in one great organi- zation now (1891) numbering over 150,000 members. It is a Christian but unsectarian order, and its members may be found in all churches and in al- most all nations. It originated in New York City. and has spread over nearly every state in the Union, and has its representatives in Canada, Eng- land, France, Italy, India, Australia, New Zealand, and other countries. Its members are bound indi- vidually and collectively to serve the needy and the suffering, to consider the poor and to be help- ful in good work. Each individual circle may choose its own field of labor, but cannot escape the obligation of service. The badge is a small Maltese cross of silver, often worn with a knot of purple ribbon. The order is an incorporated society, of which this little cross is the seal. Its headquarters are at No. 47 West Twenty-second street, New York City. State sec- retaries are appointed in twenty-five States and the District of Columbia. Six Provincial secretaries in the various provinces in Canada; Lady Henry Somerset is the honorary secretary for England, and Miss Violet Vida Keane, acting secretary. Its original circle of nine women, to which have been made some additions, forms now the Central Council of the order. The general ofi‘:lcers are members of this Council. The first meeting of this original circle was held in New York City on Janu- ary 13, 1886. It is now five years old, and it ranks among the strongest and most useful societies of the world. It issues a monthly magazine called The Silver Cross, which is most helpful to the mem- bers of the order, and takes a high rank among the religious and philanthropic periodicals of the country. It deals with every topic by which women may be made helpful to humanity. Its work in aid of every charitable object is effective and increasing. OFFICERS or THE CENTRAL CoUNcIL——Office, No. -17 ‘Vest Twenty-second street, New York City. Presi- dent, Mrs. F. Bottome; Yice-President, Miss Kate Bond; General Secretary, Hrs. Mary Lowe Dickin- - son; Treasurer, Miss G. H. Libby ; Recording Secre- 952 tary, Mrs. James F. Ruggles: Corresponding Secre- tary, Mrs. Isabella Charles Davis. KINGSLEY, CALVIN (1812-1870), an American Methodist-Episcopal bishop. He taught school for a while, and in 1841 became professor at Alleghany college, Pa. The same year he was admitted on trial to the Erie conference of the Methodist-Epis copal church, was elected a delegate to the general conference in 1852, and in 1864 was chosen bishop. From 1856 to 1864 he was editor of the “ ~Western Christian Advocate.” He published a review of Bush on the- Resurrection (1847) ; and Round the Ii’orZd (1870). KIN G’S SILVER, an ancient fine paid to the king, in the Court of Common Pleas in England, on alienation of certain lands. KINGSTON, a city of New York, the county-seat of Ulster county, on the west bank of the Hudson River,90 miles north of New York City. The Rond- -out Creek joins here the Hudson and affords ex- cellent harbor facilities. The city includes the former villages of Kingston, Rondout, and VVilbur. It is on the West Shore& Buffalo Railroad and is the terminus of the Ulster and Delaware and Wal- kill Valley Railroad. It is also near the northeast terminus (Eddyville) of the Delaware and Hudson Canal which connects it with the coal region of Pennsylvania. Large quantities of coal are brought here by this canal and re-shipped on the Hudson. At Kingston many steamboats are owned which are engaged in the river traffic. Kingston is the center of a large ice industry, and does animmense business in making hydraulic cement. It also ships great quantities of bluestone, a metamorphic Devonian sandstone, and an excellent material for flagging. Population in 1890, 21,181. See Britan- nica, Vol. XIV, p. 89. KINGSTON, a post-borough of Lucerne county, Pa., in the anthracite coal region and on the north branch of the Susquehanna, opposite Wilkesbarre. An imposing monument here erected commemo- rates the massacre of Wyoming. KIN G-WOOD, or VIOLET VVooD, a very beau- tiful wood, in small pieces, used for ornamental work. It is brought from Brazil and is supposed to be the wood of a species of Dalbergia (natural order Leguminosee, sub-order Papilionaceae). The generic name Jacaranda is given to several Brazil- ian trees producing these beautiful woods. KINIC, or QUINIc AoID, an acid existing in the bark of the cinchonas, the leaves of the coffee tree, holly, mate, and many ericaceous plants. KIN K, a twist or loop in anything, as in a rope, thread, or cord, or in the hair, caused by spontane- ous doubling on itself. KINMUNDY, a city of Marion county, Ill., 229 miles south of Chicago. Brick is here manufac- tured, and farming and fruit-raising are the chief industries of the neighborhood. KINNAIRE’ S HEAD,a promontory with alight- house on the northeast coast of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, near Frazerburgh. KINNIKINICK, or KILLIKINICK (Algonkin, “a mixture”), a name given by the American In- dians to the prepared leaves or bark of several plants which they used for smoking, either mixed with tobacco or as a substitute for it. Also, the plants so used, as the bearberry, Arctostaphylos Ura- ursi, and the silky cornel, Cornus sericea. KINSTON, the county-seat of Lenoir county, N. C., on the Neuse River. It has manufactories of carriages and plows and is a shipping port for cotton. KINTYRE, or CANTYRE, a peninsula of Argyll- shire, Scotland, between the Atlantic and the Firth of Clyde. forty-two miles long, and four and a half to eleven and a half miles broad. At the north end KINGSLEY-—KIRCHHOFF it connects with the mainland by the isthmus of Tarbert. The surface is diversified bya ridge of low, moorish hills, with many lochs. Coal is found near Campbelton. A lighthouse, 297 feet above sea-level, stands on the Mull of Kintyre, which is overhung by Ben-na-Lice (1405 feet), and is thirteen miles distant from Ireland. Kintyre contains numerous ruins of ancient architecture. KIOSK (Turkish) a small open summer-house or ornamental pavilion used in the East and imitated in the parks and gardens of the V7est. The name is also applied to small shops for the sale of papers in French towns. KIOWAS, a tribe of North American Indians, formerly living from the Platte River south-west- ward to the Rio Grande, but now confined to a reservation in the southwest part of the Indian Territory. According to the census of 1890 the Kiowas new number 1,140 souls. For further in- formation see the article INDIANs, AMERICAN, in these Revisions and Additions. KIP, WILLIAM INGRAHAM, an American Protes- tant-Episcopal clergyman, born in 1811. In 1835 he took orders, and was called to St. Peter’s church, Morristown, N. J . He then served as assistant at Grace church, New York City, and in 1838 became rector of St. Paul’s at Albany. In 1853 he was made missionary bishop of California, and four years later bishop. He is the author of The Lenten Fast (1843); The Double Witness of the Church (1844); The Christmas Holidays in Rome (1845); Early Jesuit Missions in America (1846); Early Con- flicts of Christianity (1850); The Catacombs of Rome (1854); Unnoticed Things of Scripture (1868); The Olden Times in New York (1872); and The Church of the Apostles (1877). KIPLING, RUDYARD, an English author, who became very opular in 1890. He was born in Bombay in 1 , and from his residence in India has been able to depict Anglo-Indian life—espe- cially the military side of it—with striking fidelity. The publication of Soldiers Three, Plain Tales From the Hills, and The Light That Failed attracted a good deal of attention, and resulted in Mr. Kipling be-~ ing much sought after by editors of magazines. During 1890 he visited the United States, and pub- lished In Black and White and other sketches. KIRATARJUNIYA, the name of one of the cel- ebrated poems of Sanskrit literature. Its author is Bharavi, and its subject is the conflict of Arjuna with the God Siva in his disguise of a Kirata, or mountaineer. See Britannica, Vol. XXI, p. 284. KIRCHENTAG, an influential association of ministers and laymen of the Lutheran, German Reformed, United Evangelical, and Moravian churches in Germany, for the promotion of the inter- ests of religion, without reference to denominational differences. It holds an annual meeting, whose place is changed every year. The first meeting took place in 1848. KIRCI-IHOFF, GUs'rAv RoRER'r, a German phy- sicist, born at Kbnigsberg in 1824, died in 1887. Af- ter studying mathematics and natural sciences in the University of Kbnigsberg, he lectured in Ber- lin on mathematical physics in 1848, and in Bres- lau on experimental physics in 1850. In 1854 he was made professor of natural philosophy at Hei- delberg. He made researches on electricity, heat, and the tension of vapors which attracted much attention. But his fame as a physicist is chiefly based on his discovery of “spectrum analysis” which he developed in connection with Bunsen. Among Kirchhoff’s publications are Untersuchungen iiber das Sonnenspectrum und die I pectren der Chemischen Ele- mente (1861); and Vorlesungen ilber Analytisehe Mechanilc (1874). ‘KIRK-—KLACZKO KIRK, EDWARD NORRIS, (1802-1874), an American Presbyterian clergyman. For a time he traveled in the South as agent of the Board of Foreign Mis- sions, and in 1827 was ordained assistant pastor of the Second Presbyterian church in Albany. In 1828 he became pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian church, and in 1842 accepted a call to the Mount Vernon Congregational church in Boston, remain- ing there until 1871. when he resigned on account of old age. He published Memorial of the Rev. John Chester, D. D. (1829); Lectures on Christ’s Parables (1856) ; Sermons (1860) ; and Canon of the Holy Scrip- tures (1862); besides many translations. KIRK, JOHN FOSTER, LL.D., an American author, born in 1824. From 1847 to 1859 he was secretary to William H. Prescott, the historian, and from 1870 to 1886 edited Lippincott’s Magazine. In the latter year he was made lecturer on Euro- pean history at the University of Pennsylvania. He is the author of History of Charles the Bold (1868). KIRKBRIDE, Tnouxs STORY (1809-1883), an American physician. In 1832 he was made resident physician of the Friends’ asylum for the insane at Frankfort, Pa., and from 1833 to 1835 held a similar position in the Pennsylvania hospital, Phila- delphia. From 1840 till his death he was superin- tendent of the Pennsylvania hospital. He pub- lished Rules and Regulations for the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane (1850); The Construction, Or- ganization, and General Management of Hospitals for the Insane (1854) ; and Appeal for the Insane (1854); beiides numerous articles in various medical jour- na s. KIRKDALE CAVE, a cave near Pickering, Yorkshire, England, twenty-eight miles west of Scarborough, discovered in 1821. Its length is 245 feet, and in it there are only two or three places where a man can stand erect. The remains of many animals have been discovered in it. The fossil bones are contained in a deposit of mud on the floor of the cave, covered by stalagmite formed by the water dropping from the roof. See Britan- nica, Vol. V, p. 267. KIRKHAM, a market town of Lancashire, eight and a half miles north of Preston. It has a gram- mar school and manufactures cotton, flax, sack- cloth,sacking and cordage. Po ulation (1881),3,840. KIRKLAND, CAROLINE 1)‘ ATILDA STANSBURY (1801-1864), an American authoress. She married William Kirkland, the author, in 1827, and in 1842 established a girls’ boarding-school in New York City. Later she became the editor of the “Union Magazine”. Among her works are: A New Home, Who’ll Follow? (1839) ; Forest Life (1842) ; Western Clearings (1846) ; Holidays Abroad (1849) ; The Even- ing Boolc, or Sketches of Western Life (1852) ; A Book for the Home Circle (1853) ; The Helping Hand (1853) ; Autumn Hours and Fireside Readings (1854) ; Garden lVallcs With the Poets ( 1854) ; Memoirs of Washington (1857); School Girl’s Garland (1864); and The Des- tiny of Our Country (1864). KIRKLAND, SAMUEL (1741-1808), an American clergyman. In 1766 he was ordained to the Con- gregational ministry, and commissioned Indian Missionary of the missionary society. previously having spent eighteen months among the Six Na- tions. During the Revolutionary War he was for a time chaplain to the Continental forces at Fort Schuyler and at Stockbridge, Mass. When peace was declared he resumed his labors among the In- dians. In 1793 he established Hamilton college for the education of American and Indian youth. KIRK—SESSION, or CHURCH-SEssIoN, the lowest court of the Presbyterian churches. It is the gov- erning body of a particular congregation, and is composed of its minister and elders. A 953- KIRKSVILLE, the county-seat and a railroad junction of Adair county, Mo., 6 miles east of Chairton River. The county is well supplied with coal and wood, and has fine farming lands. The village has manufactories of hubs and spokes, woolens, cheese, furniture. and plows. A State Normal School is located here. Population, 3,491. KIRKWOOD, DANIEL, an American mathemati- cian, born in 1814. In 1843 he was made principal of Lancaster,Pa.,high school, and in 1848 of Pottsville Academy. In 1851 he became professor of mathe- matics in Delaware College, and in 1854 president of that institution. In 1856 he was made professor of mathematics in the Indiana University, and in 1866 of J eiferson College, Pa. In 1867 he returned to Indiana University,where he has since remained. He has published Meteoric Astronomy (1867) ; Comets and Meteors (1873); and The Asteroids or Minor Planets Between Mars and Jupiter (1887), besides numerous articles for various scientific journals. KIRIVIN, a post-village and a township of Phil- lips county, Kan., 60 miles west of Jewell City. It is on a branch of the Union Pacific Railroad, and on the north fork of the Solomon River, and con- tains a United States land ofiice, hotels, and a flour- mill. Population, 824. KIS-KOROS (“LITTLE Korros”), a small town, the birthplace of Pettifi (see Britannica, Vol. XII, p. 378). 66 miles south by east from Budapest. It manufactures wine. Population, 6,734. See NAGY- KoRos, Britannica,Vol. XVII, p. 165. KIT, a small narrow-bodied violin, about sixteen inches long, capable of being carried in the coat pocket. It was chiefly used by teachers of dancing. KIT, in military language, the equipment in nec- essaries of a soldier, not including his uniform, arms, or accoutrements. The soldier must replace necessaries worn out or lost at his own expense, but he obtains the articles at wholesale, and at very low prices. As these necessaries are so cheaply procured, it is held a very heavy military offense make away with them, and is ordinarily punishe with great severity. KITE, a bird of prey of the hawk kind. Kites are smaller than the average falcons, but are very active, and subsist on insects, mice, reptiles, and other small game. There are four genera of kites. THE Mrssrssrrrr KITE (Ictinia Jfississippiensis) is common in the Gulf States, and in southern Illi- nois. It is a strong rapid flyer, sailing through the air in graceful circles, much like the turkey-buz- zard. THE VVIIITE-TAILED or BLACK-SIIOULDERED KITE (Elanus leucurus) is also common in the southern States, but most abundant in California. THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE (Elanoides forticatus) is allied to the old world kite (Mz'lrius). The Gulf States are its home. THE SICKLE-BILLED KITE (Rostrhamus soeiabilis) is common in the everglades of Florida, and is-. therefore known as the everglade kite. See BRITANNICA, Vol. XIV, page 103-1. KITTANNING, the county-seat of Armstrong county,Pa.,on Allegheny River. It contains a rol- ling-mill, oil refineries, woolen-mill, a college and other institutions of learning. Population, 3,095. KLACZKO, JULIEN. a Polish author, born at. Wilna, Lithuania, in 1826. After graduating at the Kdnigsberg University as Ph. D. in 1846, he became one of the writers for the Revue des Deurr Mondes in Paris. In 1869 Count von Beust, chancellor of Aus- tria, called him to a position in the Aulic council, which he resigned in 1870. His most noted work is Les Deva: Chanceliers, a bitter attack upon Bismarck and Gortschakotf. He has also published La Poésie . wards under Sohn and Schadow at Diisseldorf. 954 Polonaise an XIX Siécle, and some political works. KLAPKA, GYCRCY, a Hungarian general, born at Temesvar in 1820. In 1832 he entered the imperial life-guards of Austria, and in 1847 he became an oflicer in one of the frontier regiments. In 1848 he joined the Hungarian revolutionary army, where he distinguished himself so much that he was placed at the head of an army corps in 1849. Under Gbrgei he contributed to several victories over the Austrian troops, most particularly at Komorn. But finally he had to surrender. In 1866 he raised a Hungarian legion to fight against Austria, but in vain. hVhen Austro-Hungary was reconstructed in 1867 he was permitted to return to his native land, where he was elected a deputy and helped in reorganizing the army. Klapka has published Zllemoirs of the l/Var of Independence in Hungary; The National War in Hungary and Transylvania, and The War in the East (1855). KLEIST, HEINRICH voN, a German poet, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, in 1776, died in 1811. VVhen a young man he served in the army against Na- poleon, and was afterwards employed in the civil service. To see his country degraded under the French tyranny weighed heavily upon his mind and finally drove him to despair. In one of his des- pairing fits he committed suicide at Wansee, near Potsdam, after shooting his friend, Henrietta Vogel, a highly-gifted woman who shared his in- fatuation. Kleist was a gifted dramatist, but his works only obtained popularity since his death. KNAPP, JACOB (1799-1874), an American clergy- man. In 1825 he was ordained to the Baptist min- istry and settled in Springfield, N. Y. In 1830 he removed to I/Vatertown, N. Y., but two years later began to labor as an evarigelist, and travelled through nearly all the States of the union. He preached over 16,000 sermons, led 200 young men to become clergymen, and baptized 4,000 persons. Previous to 1830 he had acquired a considerable amount of wealth by farming and business, which, when he died, he left to his church. KNAPP, SAMUEL LCRENZC (1783-1838), an Ameri- can author. He was admitted to the bar in 1806, and during the war of 1812 commanded a regiment of militia on the cost defenses. In 1824 he became editor of the “Boston Gazette,” and in 1826 of the “National Republic.” In 1828 he went to New York and returned to the practice of his profession. He published Travels in North America by Ali Bey (1818) ; Biographical Sketches of Eminent Lawyers, Statesmen and Men of Letters (1821) ; Memoirs of Gen. Lafayette (1824) ; The Genius of Free-Masonry (1828) ; Discourse on the Life and Character of De Witt Clinton (1828); Lectures on American Literature (1829) ; Sketches of Public Characters by Ignatus Loyola Rob- ertson, LLID. (1830) ; American- Biography (1833) ; History of the United States (1834); Life of Thomas Eady (1834); Advice in the Pursuit of Literature (1835) ; Memoirs of the Life of Daniel Webster (1835); Life of Aaron Burr (1835); Life of Andrew Jackson ( 1835) ; The Bachelor and Other Tales (1836) ; and Female Biography (published posthumously in 1843). KNAUS, LUDWIG, a German painter born at Wies- baden in 1829. He studied under Jacobi, and aftI:iI_'- 1S admirable pictures of German peasant life soon made him famous. After residing in Paris from 1853 to 1861, Knaus lived in Diisseldorf. Among his best pictures brought to America are The Old Beau, My Little Brother, and Priest and Poacher. His works are rich in humor and command high prices. KNAVESHIP, iI1 old Scotch law, a certain quan- tity of grain or meal to which the servant (knave) of the mill was legally entitled. KLAPKA-KNIGHTS or YTHIAS KNEELAND, ABNER (1774-1844), an American editor. For atime he was a Baptist clergyman, then a Universalist and finally a Pantheist. From 1821 to 1823 he edited a Universalist magazine in Philadelphia, Pa., and in 1828 the “Olive Branch and Christian Enquirer,” in New York City. In 1832 he founded the “Investigator” in Boston, and in 1836 was tried before -the supreme court for blasphemy. He published A Columbian Miscellany (1804);The Deist (1822); A Translation of the New Testament From the Greek (1822); Lectures on Uni- versal Benevolence (1824) ; Lectures on the Doctrine of Universal Salvation (1824); and Review of the Evi- dences of Christianity (1829). KNEELAND, SAMUEL, an American naturalist, born in 1821. He studied medicine in the United States and in France, and then began the practice of his profession in Boston, Mass., also acting as demonstrator of anatomy in Harvard Medical School from 1845 to 1848. During the civil war he was a surgeon in the army, and in 1866 was mus- tered out with the brevet rank of lieutenant-col- onel. From 1867 to 1869 he was instructor in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and from 1869 to 1878 professor of zotilogy and physiology. He has since devoted himself to literature, and has written Science and Mechanism (1854); The Wonders of the Yosemite Valley and of California (1871) ; and An American in Iceland (1876). KNIGHTS OF LABOR. See LABOR in these Re- visions and Additions. KNIGHTS OF PYTHIAS, a benevolent and friendly order, founded Feb. 19, 1864, at Washing- ton, D. C., by Justus H. Rathbone. It is intended to disseminate the principles of friendship, charity and benevolence, and nothin of a political or sec- tarian character is permitte to exist. The early growth of the society was very slow, there being at the end of the year 1865 only one lodge, with a membership of 52. From that time on new lodges were rapidly founded, and at present (1891) there are grand lodges in every State of the Union, with a total membership of 263,847. A table showing the various grand lodges, with their respective memberships, is given below: U! (D H H Grand Lodges. 3% Grand Lodges. 15-3 0 <19 Q Q.) Z2 Z2 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,927 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,510 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . _ 2,523 New Hampshire.. . .. 2,491 California . . . . . . . . . .. 10,279 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . 9,781 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,734 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . 628 Connecticut . . . . . . . .. 8,570 New York . . . . . . . . . .. 14,000 Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 996 North Carolina . .. 886 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,106 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,426 Dist. of Columbia... 1,145 Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 945 Florida . . . . . . . . . . .. 617 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,456 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,152 Pennsylvania... . . . .. 41,041 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13,871 Rhode Island... . . . .. 2,280 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17,897 South Carolina. 1,311 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,021 Tennessee. . . . . . . . . . . 3,767 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,898 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,547 Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,341 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . 5,046 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,483 Virginia. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,096 Maritime Provinces. 507 Washington. . . . . . . . . 2,489 Maryland... . . . . . . . . . 6,697 West Virginia . . . . . .. 2,257 Massachusetts . . . '. .. 8,108 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . .. 3,406 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,828 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 Minnesota . . . . . . . . .. 3,284 Subordinate lodges. 806 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . 2.311 Missoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,564 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263,847 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,005 The phrase, “subordinate lodges,” above, desig- nates lodges in Manitoba, Northwest Territory, Ok- KNIGHTSTOWN—-KOCH lahoma and the Hawaiian Islands, where there are no grand lodges. Membership of the uniform rank (military branch) 29,070. Membership of the endowment rank (life insurance branch), 21,255, representing an endowment of $45,776,000. The office of the supreme keeper of records and seal is at Nashville, Tenn. The following list gives the names of the oth- cers of the Supreme Lodge of the world: Sitting Past Supreme Chancellor—Wi1liam Ward, New Jer- $8 . ySupreme Chancellor—George B. Shaw, Wisconsin. Supreme Vice-C'hancellor—W. W. Blackwell, Kentucky. Supreme Prelate—E. T. Blackmer, California. Supreme Master of E:cehe( uer—S. J. W1l1ey, Delaware. Supreme Keeper of Reeor 8 and Seal-R. L. C. White. Supreme Secretary of the Endowment Rani.-—W. B. Kennedy, hlinois. di Major-General of the Uniform Rank—J. R. Carnahan In- ana Supreme Master-at-Arms—G. H. Morrison, Nevada. Supreme Inner Guard—-M. C. Barkwell, Wyoming. Supreme Outer Guard—John W. Thompson, District of Co- iumbia. KNIGHTSTOVVN, a village of Henry county, Ind., situated on Blue River, 34 miles east of Indianapo- lis. It is the seat of an academy and contains ma- chine-shops, mills, a bank, and three newspaper of- fices. KNIGHTSVILLE, a village of Clay county, Ind., in‘ the centre of the block coal region of the State. It is a great shipping point for freight between In- dianapolis and St. Louis, and has extensive blast- furnaces, and manufactures sashes and doors. KN OBEL, KARL AUGUST, a German theolo ian, born at Tzschechelin, Lusatia, in 1807, died at fes- sen in 1863. After studying theology at Breslau he became professor extraordinary of theology at the University of Breslau in 1835, and four years later professor of the same branch at Giessen. His hermeneutics of the Old Testament, especially the commentaries on Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, and the Pen- tateuch, have a high standing. He also published Prophetismus der Hebrder and Viilkertafel der Ge- neszs. KNOLLYS, HANSARD (1598-1691), an English clergyman. In 1629 he was made deacon of the Church of England, and shortly afterward priest. Having become aBaptist, he came to America in 1638, and the same year settled in Dover, N. H. and there founded a church, probably the first in that State. In 1641 he returned to England, and in 1645 was formally ordained pastor of the Baptist church which he had gathered in London. He re- tained this charge until his death. He wrote Flaming Fires in Zion (1646) ; Rudiments of .Hebrew Grammar (1648) ; and Autobiography (1672). KNORTZ, KARL, a German American translator and author, born in 1841. He was educated at Wetzlar, London, and Heidelberg, and in 1864 emi- grated to the United States, shortly afterwards be- coming a Unitarian minister. Since 1882 he has resided in New York. He has published besides translations of poetry, M drchen und Sagen der Nord- amerilcanischen Indianer (1871); Amerikanische Skie- zen (1876) ; American Shakespeare Bibliography (18761 ; H urnoristisehe Gediehte (1877); Longfellow, Eine Lite- rarhistorische Stu-die (1879); Aus dem Wigwam(1880); Kapital und Arbeit in Ameriha (1881); Aus der trans- atlantisehen Gesellschaft (1882); Staat und Kirche in Ame-rika (1882); Shakespeare in Amerilza (1882); Amerilcanische Lebensbilder (1884); Eines deutschen Matrosen Nordpolfahrten (1885); Representative Ger- man Poems (l885); Giithe und die Wertherzeit (1885); Brook Farm und Margareth Fuller (1886); and Gus- tav Seyjfarth (1886). KNOVVLES, JAMES, an English architect and editor, born in1831. He studied architecture under 955 his father and in Italy, and afterward executed some fine architectural work in London. In 1870 he became editor of the “Contemporary Review,” making it an influential paper, and in 1877 he assumed the editorship of the “Nineteenth Cen- tury,” on the plan of permitting writers of ability to discuss questionsof public interest over their own signatures. KN OWLTON IA, a genus of South African plants of the natural order Ranuculacew K. T’esieatrria is remarkable for its acridity and for its blistering power. The bruised leaves are used at the Cape of Good Hope instead of cantharides. KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806), an American general. See UNITED STATES, in Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 789. KNOXVILLE, a city of Knox county, Ill., fifty miles west of Peoria. It is the seat of the Illinois Protestant Episcopal diocesan school for girls, and of a Swedish college. Coal-mining and manufac- turing are carried on, and carriages, plows, wagons, flour and woolen goods are produced. KNOXVILLE, a village, county-seat and railroad- center of Marion county, Iowa, situated 40 miles southeast of Des Moines. It has an iron-foundry, steam-mills and woolen factories. KNOXVILLE, a city of Tennessee,county-seat of Knox county, and the chief city of East Tennessee. It lies on the north bank of Holston River, at the head of steam navigation. Knoxville is one of the oldest towns of the State and was the first state capital. Its situation is elevated and the surrounding country is "ery beautiful. The city is at the junction of the Knoxville & Charleston and Knoxville & Ohio railroads. The East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia Railroad passes by it. It does a large wholesale and retail trade. The leading manufactures are machinery, carwheels, nails, flour, lumber and wooden ware. They are increas- ing and the city is growing in wealth. Knoxville is the seat of the University of Tennessee and the State Agricultural College, also of the Tennessee School for Deaf Mutes, and of the Austin Industrial School for Colored Pupils. Population in 1890, 22,447. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 134. KNUTSFORD (Canute’s ford), town of Cheshire, England, fifteen miles southwest of Manchester. It has manufactories of cotton, worsted and leather goods. Population, 1881, 4,290. KNYPHAUSEN, BARON Dono HENRY, a German general, born in 1730, died at Berlin in 1789. He entered the Prussian army as a youth and served under Frederick the Great against Austria. After being made lieutenant-general, in 1776, he fought against the Americans as one of the corps of H essians hired by England. He took part in the battles of Long Island, lVhite Plains, Fort Washington and Brandywine. VVhile in command at New York he made two raids into New Jersey, in which he sacked the village of Connecticut Farms and burnt Spring- field. KOALA (Phascolarctos cinereus), tailless mar- supial of Australia, also called Australian bear. See l\'IAl\IMALIA, Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 382, 383. KOBELL, FRANZ voN (1803-1882), a German min- eralogist and poet, born at Munich in 1803, died there in 1882. In 1834 he became professor of min- eralogy at the University of Munich, and from 1850 to 1860 he wrote a history of mineralogy. He also published Hoehdeutsche Gedichte. a book of poems, and Die Urzeit der Erde. Many of his dialect poems were widely circulated in Germany. KOCH, KARL, a German naturalist, born at Weimar, June 6, 1809, died at Berlin, May 27, 1879. He studied at the universities of IViirzburg and Jena, in 1836 undertook a scientific journey to 956‘ Southern Russia, and in 1843-44 visited Armenia, Kurdistan, Transcaucasia and the Crimea. In 1836 he was appointed extraordinary professor of Botany at Jena, and in 1848 at Berlin. His chief work is his Dendrologie (1869-72). KOCH, RoBERT, an eminent German bacteriolo- gist, born in 1843 at Klausthal in the Harz Moun- tains, and educated at the University of Gbttingen, Germany, where he graduated. Soon after taking his degree he established himself in a village near Hanover and began to practice as a physician. Finding, however, that it was impossible to make ends meet, he migrated to Rackwitz, a malarious little town in Prussian-Poland, which he subse- quently deserted for Wollstein. It was while there that his name came before the public, in 1880, as an expert in connection with the famous Speichert poisoning case. The conviction of the prisoner in this cause célébre was entirely owing to the remark- able analyses and medical testimony of Dr. Koch, which attracted such widespread attention by reason of their profound erudition that he was sum- moned to Berlin to take his seat as a member of the Sanitary Commission of the metropolis and as a professor of the Royal School of Medicine. Two years later (in 1882) Dr. Koch made the great dis- covery that tuberculous diseases were due to the existence of bacilli—a discovery that excited the attention of the entire medical world. He an- nounced with the greatest emphasis that all tuber- culous disease depends upon the presence of a specific germ, which he called the bacillus tubercu- loses. His experiments demonstrated that the germ exists in the tissues of all consumptive patients; that if this germ were lodged in the bodies of animals previously healthy they would die of tuberculosis; that there is no tuberculosis without this germ, and that the disease is propa- gated by the transmission of this germ, and not otherwise. Thenceforth Dr. Koch devoted his en- tire eflorts to finding some rival microbe or ‘chem- ical antidote powerful enough to neutralize the operations of the tuberculous bacilli. In 1883 his labors in this direction were interrupted by his being placed at the head of the medical commis- sion_dispatched by the German government to Egypt and India for the purpose of making re- searches into the origin and the causes and pre- vention of cholera. It was while at Calcutta that he succeeded in discovering in the water of a native cistern the comma-like germ or microbe of the cholera, for which until now no one has suc- ceeded in discovering any antidote. On his return to Germany he was rewarded by the government for his researches with an honorarium of 1.00,000 marks, with the rank of Privy Councilor, and with the rectorship of the imperial institute of Hygiene. " Soon after his return Dr. Koch resumed his re- searches, and in September, 1890, startled the med- ical world by the announcement that he had discovered a remedy which would destroy the bac- illus tuberculosis and expel it from the human system without injuring the tissues in which the germ is doing its deadly work. (For a full descrip- tion of _t,he discovery see the article BACTERIUM in Vol. I, pp. 182-185, of these Revisions and Additions. Dr. Koch’s works include Zur Etilog-ie des Mitz- brandes (1876), Untersuchungen ilber die Etiologie der Wundinselctions-Kranlcheiten (187 8) and Ueber die M ile- brandimpfung (1882). KOKOMO, a city and county-seat of Howard county, Indiana, on the Wild Cat river, fifty-four miles north of Indianapolis. It has fine railroad facilities and manufactures hubs and spokes, doors, furniture, flour and woolen goods. It has banks, I Kocrr-lKossUTH churches, high-schools and several weekly news- papers. Population, 8,224. KOLA, the most northern town of European Russia. It is situated on the peninsula of Kola, is the capital of Russian Finland, and has a capacious harbor. Population, 770. The Peninsula of Kola is a dreary expanse of forests and lakes, but has sev- eral ranges of mountains, one of which, the Umb- dek Mountains, on the east side of Lake I mandra, rises to 3,300 feet. KOLLAR, J AN, a Slavic poet, born at Mossocoz,. in northwestern Hungary, in 1793, died at Vienna in 1852. In 1819 he became pastor of a Slavic Prot- estant congregation at Pesth, and in 1849 he was made professor of Slavic archaeology in the Uni- versity of Vienna. He wrote poems in the Czech language, which poems very powerfully influenced the spirit of his race. In a treatise Ueber die lite- rarische Wechselseitigkeit zwischen den Stdmmen und llfundarten Slavischer Nationen he advocates the use of a common Slavic literary language for the unification of the various branches of his race. KOLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBRECI-IT, a Swiss physi- ologist, born at Ziirich in 1817. After being edu- cated at the Universities of Ziirich, Bonn and Berlin he entered upon microscopic investigations which made him famous. In 1849 he became pro- fessor of anatomy at VViirzburg, and assisted in founding a medico-physical society there. His works on histology and physiology are acknowl- edged as standards and have been translated into most European languages. Among K6lliker’s works are Milcroskopische Anatomie; Handbuch der Gewebe- lehre des Menschen, and Grundriss der Entwickelungs- Geschichte. ' KONIGSWARTH, a town of Bohemia, fifteen miles south-southwest of Elbogen, with mineral springs. Its noble castle, the property of Prince Metternich, contains a splendid collection of works of art. Population, 1,767. KOORIA MOORIA ISLANDS, a group of six islands on the south coast of Arabia, the only in- habited one of which supports from twenty to thirty fishermen. They were ceded to England in 1854. Guano of inferior quality is obtained from them. KOPECK, a small bronze coin of Russia. KORA VVOOD or Cocus “loop, a wood of the Indian tree, Lepidostachys Roa*burghii, which be- longs to the very small natural order, Scepacew. It is imported in logs of six or eight inches in diam- eter, having the heart-wood of a deep brown color and very hard. It is much used in the manu- facture of musical instruments. KOSCIUSKO, the county-seat of Attala county, Miss., situated in the center of the state, on Yock- anockany creek, and on a railroad. Its chief in- dustry is raising and shipping cotton. KOSSUTH, Lours, leader of the Hungarian Revo- lution, born at Monok in Hungary in 1806. In 1832 he commenced his political career at the Diet of Presburg as the proxy of a Hungarian magnate or member of the Upper House. Afterward he published a lithographed liberal paper at Pesth, but the government prohibited its issue. Kossuth was arrested in 1837, tried for high treason and condemned to four years’ imprisonment. He was released after 18 months’ confinement because the Liberals in the diet refused to grant supplies to the government unless he were set free. In 1847 elected to the Diet, he soon became its leader. On the dissolution of the ministry in September, 1848, he became the head of the Committee of National Defense. For the events of the revolutionar war of 1848-9 the reader is referred to the artic e on HUNGARY in the Encyclopedia Britannica. In 1849 ' Manchuria. KRAKEN—--KUCKEN Kossuth, who had been dictator of Hungary, fled to Turkey, where he was made a prisoner. In 1851 he was liberated and sailed to England, and after- wards to the United States, where he met with a most enthusiastic reception. In 1852 he returned to England, residing there until the Italian war of 1859 broke out. He resides now at Turin. Many of his speeches were published in the Europdische Bibliothek in 1860-70. See Britannica, Vol. III, p. 187 ; Vol. XII, p. 371. KRAKEN, a fabulous animal said to have been seen in the Norwegian seas. Its back is described as about a mile and a half in circumference; it rises from the sea like an island, stretches out mast-like arms capable of dragging down the largest ships, and when it sinks again into the deep causes a whirlpool in which large vessels are involved to their destruction; it also makes the waters around it thick and turbid. The fable of the kraken has considerable analogy to the more recent stories of the sea-serpent. KRAPOTKIN, PRINCE PETER ALEXICVITCH, a Russian anarchist, born at Moscow in 1842. He was aide-de-camp to the military governor of Transbaikalia, in Eastern Siberia, in 1863-7, during which time he made many journeys in Siberia and After studying at St. Petersburg from 1868 to 1872 he joined the most advanced anarchist section of the International lVorkingmen’s Associ- ation in Belgium. He then returned to Russia, took part in the Tchaykosky conspiracy, was arrested, and after two years’ imprisonment escaped to England. In 1879 Krapotkin founded the an- archist paper “La Revolte” at Geneva, whence he was expelled in 1881. Then he commenced a cru- sade against the Russian government in the Eng- lish and French press. But in 1882, while on a visit to Thonon, a French town on the south bank of the Lake of Geneva, he was arrested and con- demned by the Police Correctionnelle at Lyons to five years’ imprisonment for participating in the International Workingmen’s Association. In 1886 he was released and returned again to England. Krapotkin is a frequent writer and able lecturer on socialistic questions. KRASINSKI, ZYGMUNT NAPOLEON, Count, a Polish author, born at Paris, in 1812, died in 1859. He lived at various European capitals, and pub- lished many volumes of patriotic poems. Among his most noted works are Kiebosca Komedia, which furnished the material to Owen l\Ieredith’s Fool of Time and Psalmprzypszlosci. A collected edition of Kransinski’s works appeared at Leipzig, in 1863. KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH, a German philosopher, born at Eisenberg, May 6, 1781, died at Munich, Sept. 27, 1832. He studied philosophy at Jena, under Fichte and Schelling, and qualified as a privat—docent in that university in 1802, but re- moved in 1805 to Dresden, where he lived till 1813. After residing for a time in Berlin, lecturing in the university there, he settled in Gtittingen, where he lectured on all the branches of philosophy, and drew around him a number of enthusiastic disci- les. In 1831 he removed to Munich. Krause is eservedly ranked as one of the masters of the German philosophical movement inaugurated by Kant. The most popular of his writings is his ideal of humanity (Das Urbild derMenschheit, 1812),which has been rendered into Spanish, Italian and English. KRAUTH, CHARLES PORTERFIELD (1823-1883), an American clergyman. In 1841 he entered the Lutheran ministry. and was pastor successively of Lutheran congregations in Baltimore, ‘Winchester, Va., and Pittsburgh and Philadelpha, and in 1864 became professor of systematic theology in the Lutheran Theological Seminary, in the last named 957 city. In 1868 he was made professor of intellectual and moral philosophy in the University of Penn- sylvania. and in 1873 was chosen vice-provost of that institution. Besides many translations, he published Christian Liberty in Relation to the Usages of the Evangelical Lutheran Church Maintained and Defended (1860); The Conservative Reformation and its Theology (1872) ; Ulrici’s Review of Strauss (1874); Berlceley’s Principles, Prolegomena, Notes of Neberueg, and Original Annotations (1874), and Ohronical of the Augsburg Confession (1878). KREMS, a town of lower Austria, at the con- fluence of the river Krems with the Danube, 47 miles from Vienna. Population, 11,042. KRONENBERG. an iron manufacturing town of Rhenish-Prussia, four miles south of Elberfeld. Population, 8,358. KROSSEN, or CROSSEN, a walled town of Prussia, on the left bank of the Oder, 42 miles southeast of Frankfort. It has manufactories of woolen, linen, leather. and earthenware. Population, 6,786. KRUPP, ALFRED, a German iron-worker and steel-gun manufacturer, born at Essen, in West- phalia, in 1810, died in 1887. IVhen Alfred was 14 years of age, his father died, leaving a small iron forge shop for the support of his widow and son. In 1848 the shop was taken over by Alfred. At first he employed only two workmen. Krupp soon after discovered the method of casting steel in very large masses. After this discovery the progress of his works became very rapid. In 1851 he sent to the London exhibition a block of steel weighing 4,500 pounds. But he was able to cast steel in one mass weighing 200 tons. Beside rails, tires,wheels,engines, and all kinds of cast-steel work, Krupp manufactured principally the large steel guns with which the Germans did such terrible execution when they besieged Paris. These guns are all “built up” b shrinking steel hoops over a central steel tube. 'yl.‘here is a single layer of hoops around the tube for guns below nine inch calibre, while those above this size have two layers of hoops in the after parts. Some 20 years ago the Krupp steel guns were bought in large numbers by all the European powers, and Krupp had to extend his works time and again to fill the pressing orders; so that now over 20,000 workmen are employed in them. They include the extensive foundries and shops at Essen; the coal mines at Essen and Bochum; several iron mines in Germany and Spain; a series of smelting furnaces, and some branch works at N erdweid and Layn. In 1864 Krupp declined to ac- cept the letters of nobility ofifered him by the king of Prussia. He was one of the wealthiest men in Germany, and did a great deal for the welfare of employés and their families. But he kept some of his processes jealously secret. A commission ap- pointed some years ago by the United States Government to study his system of making large castings for steel guns, tried in vain to et Krupp’s permission to enter his works, only wor men being admitted to his great foundries. KUCKEN, FRIEDRICH IVILIIELM, a German musi- cal composer, born at Bleckede, Liineburg, in 1810, died at Schwerin, in 1882. He studied music at Berlin and published there his first opera, Die Flucht naclz der Schweiz, which was a success. At Vienna he enjoyed afterwards considerable popu- Iarity. In 1843 he went to Paris,where he composed the opera Le Prétendant, and wrote many pieces of music to the words of Heine. For some time he was chapel-master to the king of Wiirtemberg. Some of his compositions were gathered in Les Echos del’ Allemagne, and Friedenshymne. They are noted for the sweetness of their melodies. KUENEN, ABRAHAM, aDutch theologian, born at 2 958 Harlem, Holland,in 1828, became professor of theol- ogy at Leyden in 1855. He was a thorough student of the Old Testament. In his publication enti- tled H istori-co-critical Investigation of the Origin and Collection of the Books of the Old Covenant,he criticised the old books with much skeptical research, and was himself severely criticised for doing so. After- wards he wrote his Worship of Israel till the Over- throw of the Jewish State, and lastly, his Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. Since 1867 he has edited the Theologisch Tydschrift. KUFIC COINS, the early Mohammedan coins engraved with inscriptions in the Kufic or epigraphic Arabic character, as distinguished from the Neskhi or cursive writing. A. H. 76 and 77 (A. D. 695-96), the Calif Abd-el-melik issued gold coins with his own image instead of that of the Byzantine em- peror; but the representation of living creatures being opposed to the law of Mohammed, this coin- age was discontinued, and a reformed gold cur- rency, engraved solely with Kufic inscriptions, was inaugurated A. H. 77. This was Supplemented with a silver currency on similar lines A. H. 79, and the earliest dated copper coin appeared A. H. 80. The names of the Califs first appear on gold and silver under the Abbasis ; but with this addition, and sometimes the names of governors and viziers, the gold and silver currency of the Moslem empire re- mained practically unchanged until the 4th cen- turv of the Hegira. During the 'whole of this period the Arabic character on the coins is still al- most universally Kufic; but in the 4th century local peculiarities begin to appear, and various styles are developed, which may be termed transitional Kufic. Examples of these are seen in the coinage of the Ghaznavis of northwest India, and still more marked in the issues of North America and Spain. In the 7th century of the Hegira, the Kufic was generally superseded by the Neskhi character throughout the coinage of the Mohammedan world, and attained its greatest per- fection on the currency of the dynasts of Granada and Fez, the shahs of Persia, and the rulers of Delhi. Kufic coins are of inestimable value to the historian, for they supply him generally with the names of kings, governors and Califs, and often a short pedigree of their ancestry, together with the city where they struck the coins and the date of the issue. KUHN ER, RAPHAEL, a German philologist, born at Gotha, in 1802, died at Hamburg, in 1878. After studying philology at the University of Gbttingen, he became a teacher in the lyceum at Hanover, in 1825, and there devoted himself chiefly to the Greek language and to Cicero. His Ausfilhrliche Grammatik der Griechischen Sprache arranges the syntax of that language on scientific principles and marks a new epoch in the teaching of Greek. Kiihner’s Elementary Greek Grammar and his Ele- mentary Grammar of the Latin Language passed through numerous editions and translations in Germany, England, and America. KUNG-CHIN-WANG, known as PRINCE KUNG, a Chinese statesman, born in 1833. Being emperor Hin-Fung’s brother he was in 1861, when Hin- Fung died, made one of the regents, as the new em- peror, Tung-Che, was then only 7 years old. For the suppression of the Taping rebellion which occured while he was a regent, he availed himself largely of the assistance of foreigners. In 1866 and again in 1869, Prince Kung went on special embassies to Europe and America. When. in 1874, he concluded peace with Japan after the Formosan troubles, he was accused of having yielded too much to foreign influence, and was condemned to death. But on the next day an imperial decree restored him to his KUFIC COINS-—KUSTENLAND former high office. In the difficulties with France in 1883-84, Prince Kung’s conduct gave his enemies again an opportunity to drive him from power. This prince is noted for his steady endeavors to in- troduce the ideas, methods, and inventions of modern European civilization into China, and he has largely succeeded in so doing, in spite of many hindrances and a powerful inimical clique. When General Grant visited China, Prince Kung enter- tained him royally. KUNIGUNDE, ST., wife of Duke Henry of Ba- varia, who was crowned king of the Germans in 1002, and emperor in 1014. According to legend she vindicated her chastity by walking barefoot over hot ploughshares. After her husband’s death in 1024, she retired into the convent of Kaufungen, near Cassel, which she had founded, and here she died, March 3, 1040. Pope Innocent III. canonized her in 1200. KUNZE, J OHN CHRISTOPHER (1744-1807), an American clergyman. In 1770 he was called to the Lutheran congregations in Philadelphia, Pa., and from 1780 to 1784, was a professor in the University of Pennsylvania. He then accepted a call to New York City, where he labored until his death. Among his published works are Concise .History of the Lutheran Church; Something for the Understand- ing and the Heart; A Table of a New Construction for Calculating the Great Eclipse Expected to Llappen June 16, 1806; Hymn and Prayer Book, for the Use of Such Lutheran Churches as Use the English Language (1795), and a Catechism and Liturgy (1795). KUPFER-SCHIEFER, one of the series of strata which made up the “Dyas” type of the Permian system as it is developed in Germany. The organic remains are abundantly coated and even replaced with copper ore, which has been extensively worked along the flanks of the Harz. See Britannica, Vol. X, p. 351. KURNOOL, KARNUL, or CARNCUL, the chief town of a district of the same name in the presi- dency of Madras, in latitude 150 50’ north, and longitude 780 5’ east. The district itself contains about 7,470 square miles. The country possesses considerable works for the purpose of irrigation. Population, 956,068. URTZ, BENJAMIN (1795-1865), an American Lutheran clergyman. In 1815 he was licensed to preach, and then for 16 years was pastor at Hagers- town, Md. From 1831 to 1833, he had charge of the "Lutheran Observer,” a post which he held for nearly 30 years. Among his works are First Prin- ciples of Religion for Children (1821); Sermons on Sabbath Schools (1822); Faith, Hope, and Charity (1823) ; Infant Baptism and Afusion, with Essays on Related Subjects (1840); Why are You aLutheran? (1847), and Lutheran Prayer Book ( 1856). RTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH, a German theolo- gian, born at Montjore, near Aix-la-Chapelle, Dec. 13, 1809. He was first destined for a commercial career, but early devoted himself to the study of theology at Halle and Bonn, and became in 1835 religious instructor at the gymnasium of Mitau, and in 1850 professor of church history- at Dorpat. He retired from active service in 1870. His writings "are numerous, and some of them have been exceed- ingly popular, as the Lehrbuch der I-Ieiligen Ge- schichte (1843, 16th ed. 1883), Biblische Geschichte mit Erlduterungen (1847, 34th ed. 1882),and Abriss der Kirchengeschichte (1852, 11th ed. 1886). His most important books, however, are those devoted to church history, his HandbuchderAllgemeinen Kir- chengeschichte, and Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte filr Studierende. KUSTENLAND. or LITTCRALE, a crown-land of Austria, consisting of the principality of Goritz and KUVI*lRA--KYRIE ELEISON Gradisca, the markgrafdom of Istria, and the town of Trieste with its territory. It lies between the crown-land of Carniola on the northeast and the Gulf of Venice on the southwest. The surface is mountainous and the chief rivers are the Isonzo and the Quieto. The soil is in general fruitful and wine is extensively made. In the mountainous dis- tricts in the North and Northeast the breeding of cattle is the chief industry. Commerce is carried on at the various seaports. Area 3,075 square miles. Population, 647,943. KUVERA, the Hindu Plutus, or God of wealth. He owes his name, which literally means “having a wretched body,” to the deformities with which he is invested by Hindu mythology. He is seated in a car which is drawn by hobgoblins. His residence is situated in the mines of Mount Kailasa, and his garden is the abode of all riches. Nine treasures, presumably gems, are especially entrusted to his care. His wife is a hobgoblin. KWICHPAK, or HWIKHPAK, one of the outlets of the Yukon, Alaska. It is 52 miles long, and is broad and shallow. The Russians also give this name to the whole river. See Britannica,Vol. I, p. 444. KYANITE, or CYANITE, a mineral of a blue color,a silicate of aluminium, and of the same com- position as andalusite and fibrolite. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 408. 959 KYANIZING, a process for preventing decay in wood by saturating it with a solution of corrosive sublimate. The process is named from its in- ventor. KYLE, JAMES H., United States Senator from South Dakota, a clergyman, born in Centerville, Ohio. in 1854. He graduated from Oberlin (Ohio) College in 1878, and studied theology in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. He was for 8 years a teacher of mechanical and civil engineer- mg in Pittsburgh, Pa., and studied law; was pastor of a church in Salt Lake City, Utah, 4 years, and was an officer of the Utah commission; was apastor in Ipswich, S. D., and Aberdeen, S. D.; was finan- cial agent of the Congregational College at Yank- ton, S. D. In politics he is a believer in the princi- ples of the Farmer’s Alliance, and was elected a State Senator in 1890. In 1891 he was elected by the South Dakota legislature to the United States Senate, to succeed Gideon C. Moody. KYRIE ELEISON, “Lord have mercy,” the only form of prayer used in the mass of the Roman Catholic church which has never been translated mto_Latin out of the Greek of the early church service. In the church of England and in the Protestant-Episcopal church service it is the namg given to the response to the command- men s. 960 L LAAGER——LABOR LAAGER, a South African word meaning an en- campment more or less fortified. The original laager of the Boers was an inclosure formed by drawing together several wagons, within which in- closure the cattle could be herded at night. LAALAND, or LOLLAND, a Danish island in the Baltic, at the southern entrance to the Great Belt, 36 miles long by 9 to 15 broad. The surface is re- markably fiat, and the soil exceedingly fruitful. Forests of beech and oak cover upwards of 50 square miles. Area 445 square miles. Population (1880) 64,420. The capital is Maribo, and the larg- est town Nakskov, with a good harbor and consid- erable trade. ‘ LABARRAQUE’S SOLUTION, a solution of chlorinated soda, liquor sodas chloratw, formed by mixing the solution of sodic carbonate with that of the best bleaching-powder. It is used as a disin- 'ectant. LABIATJE, a natural order of exogenous plants, containing almost 2,500 known species, mostly na- tives of temperate climates. They are herbaceous, and have four-cornered stems and opposite branches; also opposite leaves without stipules, abounding in receptacles of volatile oil. The flowers are often in cymes or heads, or in whorls, or sometimes solitary. Some are used in medicine. Mint, rosemary, lavender, sage, etc., are examples of this order. LABIOHE, EUGENE MARIN, a French dramatist, born at Paris May 5, 1815, died Jan. 23, 1888. He was educated at the College Bourbon and studied law, but afterwards decided to devote himself en- tirely to literature. His first dramatic piece was the popular farce M. de Ooyllin (1838), which was followed during the next 40 years by aseries of over a hundred comedies, farces and vaudevilles. He collaborated with Gondinet, Delacour. E. Le- gouré, Angier and other dramatists. Labiche was elected to the Academy in November, 1880. Among the most important of his pieces are Le Chapeau de Pa/ille d’ItaZie (1851) ; L’Afl"airs de la Rue de Lourcine (1857) ; LesPetv.'tes Oiseaux (1868) ; La Cagnotte (1864) ; Le plus Heureua: des Trois (1870) and La Ole’ (1877). LABLAOHE, LUIGI, an Italian singer, born at Naples, Dec. 6, 1794, died there Jan. 23, 1858. His first engagement as a singer was at the San Oarlino Theatre, at Naples, in 1812. He afterwards sang with much success at Palermo, Milan, Rome, Turin and Vienna; in theolast-named city a medal was struck in his honor. From 1830 to 1857 he sang al- ternately in Paris and London, making occasional visits to St. Petersburg and Naples. His voice, a deep bass, has hardly ever been equalled, either in volume or quality; and his acting, particularly in the characters of Figaro, Don Bartolo, Don Pas- quale, Leporello, etc., was almost as remarkable. I LABOR and LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. For the general history of LABOR, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 165—175. The terms “labor” and “labor question” stand for the wants and demands of the wage-workers. The demands are directed against the capitalists, the employers of labor. They aim at an equitable distribution of the profits derived from labor, the laws of ethics and economics being in favor of such distribution. The labor question of to-day and social science are nearly synonymous terms. It is the broadened and deepened intelligence of the working people which has widened their demands to such proportions that they are now made not only to their employers, but upon the State legisla- tures, the United States Oongress, and the entire body politic. Under the present system of compe- tition the workingman’s wages are not paid accord- ing to his necessities, but according to his capa- bility and efiiciency. The output of finished work is the measure of his pay. The United States have now about 20,000,000 of wage-workers, comprising four to five males to one female. Any stoppage in the industrial progress throws out of employment large numbers of these people, and involves a great loss to the country. A general reduction of wages at any time produces a similar loss. As these losses bear on the consum- ing power of the country they affect indirectly all classes of inhabitants. It is clear that the best- paid conditions of labor in general mean the best economic condition of the whole country, all other things being the same. Whereas, on the other hand, if a large proportion of the great number of workers is subsisting on a low consumption of pro- ducts there must ensue stagnation of industrial prosperity, depression of employment, cessation of house and railroad building, etc., as the inevitable result. As the increased intelligence of the workingmen increases their wants and demands, part ])u.s'su, and the aggregation of large numbers confers upon them greater power for enforcing their demands, the wage-workers of all free countries have formed powerful labor organizations during the last 20 years. But each organization involved only the workers in a particular industry in a particular locality. There was no cohesiveness betweemthe several organizations. They could, consequently, have very little influence as a whole. In order to give them greater influence the American workingmen have built up a centralized and well-organized association, under the name of the “Knights of Labor.” (See Britannica, Vol. XXIII, pp. 786-787.) It comprises the intelligence of the wage-earners of this country, and is radi- cally different from the Internationals of Europe, who are imbued with the principles of revolution- ary socialism, communism, anarchism and nihilism, and cannot free themselves from such principles. The Knights of Labor are a secret order under the- guidance of able leaders, who comprehend the labor question in its entirety, and seek to bring about the highest results by legitimate propa- ganda, instead of revolutionary means. They are organized on a basis which appeals to the sym- pathy of the general public. Their order has there- fore grown rapidly, not only in numbers, but also in power and social and political influence as well. The platform of the Knights of Labor, as adopted at Philadelphia in September, 1884, proclaims its desire to make moral and industrial worth, not wealth, the true standard of individual and na- tional greatness, to secure to the workers the full and equitable share of the wealth they create, with sufficient leisure to improve themselves and their LABOR \ families, and their just share in the benefits and pleasures of advancing civilization. In order to secure these results the Knights of Labor demand that each State shall establish bureaus of labor for giving information of the financial, moral and edu- cational condition of the working masses. They demand that public lands be reserved for actual settlers, that no more land-grants shall be made to railroads, and that all lands now held for specula- tive purposes shall be taxed to their full value. They demand the abrogation of all laws that do not bear equally on capital and labor, and the removal of unjust legal technicalities, delays and discrimi- nations in the administration of justice. They also ask for the adoption of laws that provide for the health and safety of men engaged in the mining, building and manufacturing industries, and an in- demnification for injuries received through lack of necessary safeguards; also the recognition, by in- corporation, of trades-unions, orders and such asso- ciations as may be organized by the working masses to improve their condition and protect their rights. They demand frequent payments in lawful money, and the right of a mechanic to a first lien upon the products of his labor to the extent of his wages in full. They also ask for legislation which shall abolish the contract system on State, National and Municipal works; which shall provide for arbi- tration between employers and employés; which shall prohibit the employment of children in work- shops, mines and factories, and the hiring out of convict labor. They also ask that a graduated in- come-tax be instituted. They protest against the importation of foreign labor under contract. They 961 demand the establishment of post-office savings banks, and that the government shall obtain pos- session, by purchase, of all business relating to transportation of passengers, freight and intelli- gence. They pledge their own endeavors to secure the introduction of a co-operative industrial sys- tem which shall in time supersede the wage system ; to secure equal pay to both sexes for equal work; to lessen the hours of labor, and to persuade em- ployers to have all differences between themselves and their employés arbitrated, in order to render strikes unnecessary in the future. Most men can endorse the aims of the Knights of Labor as represented in the above platform. It is the aim of their leaders to seek reforms very grad- ually, partly by the ballot-box, but principally by a better education of the masses, so that they can fully see their own degradation, and also get the moral stamina to lift themselves out of it and up to a higher plane. The final success depends upon universal education and the moral rectitude of the laboring masses. This is what their energetic chief, Mr. T. V. Powderly, fully recognizes, as well as that success will be attained only by steady. slow and almost imperceptible development. In the end the adjustment of labor difiiculties must rest upon the general recognition of human rights, which cannot be ignored by the employers. The first Industrial Congress convened at New York. Oct. 12. 1845. The first National Labor Congress met at Baltimore, Aug. 20, 1866. The Knights of Labor were organized at Phila- delphia in 1869. Congress created a National Bureau of La- bor in 1884, and this was erected into an independent depart- ment of the Government in 1888. ' BUREAUS OF LARQR AND LABOR STATISTICS IN THE UNITED STATES. Title of Bureau. Where Located. Orgzllégled. Chief Ofiicer. Title. United States Departnunt of Labor. . .. Washington, D. C... 1885 Carroll D. Wrigl_It . . . . ..‘CcmI_nissioner. Bureau of Statistics of L‘l.l)Ol‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Boston. Mass., . . . . .. 1869 Horace G. Wadhn . . . . .. Ch_iei_. Bureau of Industrial Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Harrisburg, Pa.. ... 1872 Albert S. Bolles .. .. Chmr. _ Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Hartford, Conn... .. 1873 Samuel M. _Hotchk1ss.. Commissioner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Columbus,O . . . . . . .. 1877 John Mc_Br1de . . . . . . . . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Statistics of Labor and Industries , Trenton. N. J . . . . . .. 1878 James Bishop . . . . . . . . . .. Ch1cf. _ _ Bureau of Labor Statistics and Inspection... Jefferson City, Mo.. 1876 Lee Menwether . . . . . . . . Commissioner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Springfield, Ill... 1879 John S. Lord . . . . . . . . . . .. Secretary. Bureau of Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Indianapolis, Ind.. 1879 William A. Peelle, Jr.. .,Ch1ef. _._ _ Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Albany, N. Y . . . . . . .. 1883 Charles F. Peck . . . . . . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. San Francisco. Cal. 1883 J. J. Tob1n . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Labor and Industrial Statistics... Lansing, Mich . . . . .. 1883 Alfred H. Heath . . . . . . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Madison, Wis . . . . . .. 1883 H. M. Stark 1 . . . . . . . . . . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Des Moines. Ia .... .. 1884 J. R. Sovereign . . . . . . . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Statistics of Labor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Baltimore, Md . . . . 1884 Thomas C. \\ eeks . . . . .. Chief. _ _ Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Topeka. Kan . . . . . 1885 Frank H. Betton ._ . . . . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Providence, R. 1.... 1887 Almon K. _Goodwm. . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Labor and Indus trial Statistics... Lincoln, l\'cb . . . . . .. 1887 John Jenkln . . . . . . . . . . .. Deputy Com. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Raleigh, N ,C . . . . . .. 1887 J. C. Scab_orough.... . Commissioner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Augusta, Me . . . . . . .. 1887 Samuel W. Matthews .. Commissioner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. St. Paul, Minn . . . . .. 1887 John Lamb.. . .' . . . . . . . . .. Comm Issloner. Bureau of Labor Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Denver, Col . . . . . . . .. 1887 John W. Lackm . . . . . . .. Deputy Com. Department of Labor and Statistics... Aberdeen. S. D... 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Commissioner. Department of Agriculture and Labor.. . Grand Forks, N. D. 1890 H. F. Helgesen... . . . . .. Commissioner. Bureau of Immigration, Labor and Statistic Boise City, Id . . . . .. 1890 . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In Nebraska, the Governor, and in Colorado the Secretary of State are ex-ofiicio commissioners. The first strike in this country occurred in the city of New York in 1803, when a number of sailors struck for an advance in wages. The tailors, in 1806, established the first trades- union. The first local union of printers was organized in 1831. The ten-hours’ movement began as early as 1882, among the shipwrights and caulkers in New England, and was a failure. President Van Buren gave success to the ten-hours’ movement when he established the system in the Govern- ment navy-yards in 1840, and President Johnson signed the firsjtsgéght-hours’ law, for the benefit of Government laborers, 111 . ‘ \ In California eight hours of labor constitute a day’s work, unless it is otherwise expressly stipulated by the parties to a contract. A stipulation that eight-hours’ labor constitute a day's work must be made a part of all contracts to which the State or any municipal corporation therein is a party. But in the case of drivers, conductors and grip-men of street-cars for the carriage of passengers, a day’s work con- sists of twelve hours. It is a misdemeanor for any person having a minor child under his control. either as ward or ap- prentice, to require such child to labor more than eight hours in any one day, except in vinicultural or horticultural pursuits, or in domestic or household occupations. In Connecticut eight hours of labor constitute a lawful dav’s work, unless otherwise agreed. In Illinois eight hours are a legal day’s work in all me- chanical employments, except on farms, and when otherwise agreed; does not apply to service by the day, week or month. or revent contracts for longer hours. II New Mexico eight hours of labor actuall_v_ performed upon a mining claim constitute a day's work, the value of the same being fixed at four dollars. In New York eight hours constitute a day’s work for me- chanics, workingmen and laborers. except in farm or domes- tic labor, but overwork for extra pay is permitted, The law 2-24 9% applies to those employed by the State or municipality, or by persons contracting for State work. In Pennsylvania eight hours, between rising and setting of sun. constitute a day’s work in the absence of an agree- ment for longer time. The law does not apply to farm labor or to service by the 3ear, month, etc. In Wisconsin In all engagements to labor in any manufac- turing or mechanical business. where there is no express contract to the contrary, a day's work shall consist of eight hours; but the law does not apply to contracts for labor by the week, month or year. In all manufactories, workshops or other places used for mechanical or manufacturing purposes, the time of labor of children under the age of eighteen, and of women employed therein, shall not exceed eight hours in one day. The following States have laws which may be construed as prohibiting both boycotting and blacklisting: Dakota, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New York, Tennessee and Utah. The States having laws prohibiting boycotting are Illir ‘DIS and Wisconsin. The States having laws grohibiting blacklisting are Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Pennsy vania and Wisconsin. In New York it is a misdemeanor for any employer to ex- act an agreement, either written or verbal. from an employ/e not to join or become a member of any labor organization, as a condition of securing or continuing in employment. Most of the trades-unions organizations in the United States were represented at a convention held at Columbus, O., in December, 1886, when a national organization was formed, a constitution adopted and the title taken of “The American Federation of Labor.” This body and the Order of Knights of Labor of America are the two rincipal national labor organizations of the Unite States. Besides the encouragement and formation of trade- and labor-unions, and the establishment of national and international trade-unions, the objects of the American Federation of Labor are: to aid and as- sist the local unions; to secure national legislation in the interest of the working people, and to in- fluence public opinion by peaceful and legal meth- ods in favor of organized labor. For this purpose the American Federation of Labor aids and en- courages the labor press of this country, there being a large and constantly increasing number of labor publications in the United States. The pres- ent headquarters of this organization are at 21 Clinton Place, New York City, and its president is Samuel Gompers of New York. Some of theunions in the following list are not formally affiliated with the Federation of Labor, but all are united by virtue of a common polity, and are agreed in ac- cording the Federation the hegemony of the labor movement. (See table on following page.) The “Central Labor Union” of New York con- sisting of delegates from each bona fide trade and labor-union of New York City, has the same objects with regard to the city unions as the American Federation of Labor has with regard to the unions of the country at large. LABORDE, ALEXANDER Lows Josnrn CCMTE DE, a French archaeologist, born at Paris in 1774, died in 1842. After serving for some years in the Austrian army, he went, in 1800, to Spain to explore that country. He described his experiences in a mag- nificent work entitled Voyage Pittoresgue et Histor- ique de l’Espagne. Afterwards he published Les Monuments de la France; Voyage Pittoresgue en Aut- riche; and Versailles, Anciens et Modern. He partici- pated in the revolution of 1830. ‘ LABORDE, LECN EMMANUEL SIMCN J OSEPH, CCMTE DE, a French archecologist, son of the pre- ceding, born in Paris in 1807, died there in 1869. He was educated at Paris and Giittingen. He trav- eled in the East and published an account of his visit to Arabia in his Voyage en Orient. Afterwards he held several diplomatic positions. In 1846 he published Les Anciens Monuments de Paris. He was curator of the antiquities at the Louvre for some years, and after 1857 director of the archives of the Empire. I LABORDE—LACLEDE LABOUCHERE, HENRY, an English journalist, and M. P., born in 1831. He was educated at Eton. He entered the diplomatic service in 1854 through the influence of his uncle the late Lord Taunton, and was successively attaché at Washington, Mun- ich, Stockholm, Frankfort, St. Petersburg, Dresden, and Constantinople, and sat as member of Parlia- ment for Windsor in 1865-66, for Middlesex in 1867-68, and for Northampton since 1880. Mr. La- bouchere is an advanced Radical, and one of Mr. Gladstone’s most energetic supporters. He edits and owns “Truth,” and is part proprietor of the “Daily News.” LABOULAYE, EDCUARD RENE LEFEVRE (1811- 1883), a French author. In 1842 he was admitted to the practice of law in Paris, and in 1849 became professor of comparative legislation in the College of France. In 1871 he was chosen to the national assembly for the department of the Seine, in 1875 became a life senator, and in 1876 was made ad- ministrator of the College of France. Among his works are PoliticalHistory of the United States (1855) ; The United States and France (1862); Paris en Ame’r- igue (1863); and Memoirs of Franklin (1866). The sons of M. Laboulaye will give the library and manuscript lectures of their father, at the College of France, to Johns Hopkins University. LABRADOR, a dependency of Newfoundland, and under the administrative supervision of the governor of that island. For general article on LABRADOR, see Britannica,Vol. XIV, p. ‘175. The latest official reports place the area at about 56,- 000 square miles, and the population at 4,211. In- cluded in the population of Labrador were 609 Indians. The statistics of trade, and productions are reported in connection with those of Newfound- land. The governor of Newfoundland and Labra- dor receives a salary of $12,500. LACEBARK TREE (Lagetta Lintearia), a tree of the natural order Thymelaaceze, a native of the ‘Vest Indies. The inner bark of the tree has all the appearance of coarse lace. LACHES, LACIIE (from the French ldche, lax, in- dolent), a law term signifying negligence, or re- missness in asserting or enforcing a right. Where aremedy is discretionary, and not compulsory, laches on the part of the person seeking to enforce the remedy will prejudice and sometimes defeat his case. In courts of equity the maxim is “Equity aids the vigilant, but not the indolent.” Laches are only excused if the party is laboring under a legal disability, as insanity, coverture (a feme cov- ert, or married woman, has no right to sue in her own name), infancy (if the party had not attained legal majority), imprisonment, and the like. No laches can be imputed to a State. LACHINE, a town of Quebec, Canada, situated on a railroad, eight miles from Montreal, and con- nected by a bridge with Caughnawaga. A ship canal eight and one-half miles long extends hence to Montreal harbor to avoid the Lachine Rapids of the St. Lawrence. It is a favorite summer resi- dence and a place of resort for pleasure-parties during the winter. LACKAWANA, or LACKAWANNOCK, a river of Pennsylvania, rising in Susquehanna county, flow- ing southwest and entering the Susquehanna at Pittston. Its basin is a very productive coal re- gion whence one-half the anthracite coal of the United States is obtained. Scranton and Carbon- dale, important mining cities, are the largest towns on the river. LACLEDE, a post-village of Linn county, Mo, ninety-seven miles east of St. Joseph. It is a grain shipping point and is located in a coal re- gion. LACON--LACROIX 963 AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR. No. of Total Trades Unions led by the American Federation of Labor. Ofiicial Addresses. L0_0a1 MeIn_be1'- Unions. ship. J ourneymen Bakers’ National Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Nas_sau_ street, New York City . . . . . . . 11 National Union of Barbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,418 Michigan street, Toledo. 0 . . . . . . . .. 29 i=,OO International Boatmen’s Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 Albany street, New York City . . . . . . . . 36 81800 International Brotherhood of Iron Shipbuilders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Spring street, New York City . . . . . . . no 2,000 Federation of Book-keepers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 711 Parade street, Erie, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20 ’,O0 Box Sawyers’ and Nailers’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,005 N. 14th street, St. Louis, Mo... . . . .. 30 1,300 Brewery Workmen National Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171 Allen street, New York city . . . . . . . .. 26 49,00 Druggists’ Ware Glass-blowers’ League, E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19 Third avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y . . . . . _ .. 35 -2,900 Druggists’ Ware Glass-blowers’ Leage, W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Michigan City, Ind.. L. Arrington . . . . .. ,,_, ‘$9 Brotherhood of Railroad Brakemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Galesburgh, 111., E. F.‘O’S11e& . _ _ , , _ _ _ , __ 310 15,000 International Bricklayers’ & Stonemasons’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . .. Cohoes, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 3 05,000 Brush-makers’ International of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93 North Elliott Pl. Brooklyn, N. Y. . . .. H18 %,020 Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America . . . . . . . . . .. P. O Box 884, Philadelphia, Pa . . . . . . . . . . '28 /-.2-0 Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 226 W. 20th_street, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0'35 2500 Cigar-makers’ International Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Fitch Institute, Buffalo, N. Y . . . . . . . . . .. 315 29,000 Carriage and Wagon-makers’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,135 Arapahoe street, Denver, Col . . . . .. 81, 1000 National Union of Coopers of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Titusville, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,500 United Mine Workers of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Clin. Building,Co1umbus, O . . . . . . . . . . .. 245 35,000 Order of Railroad Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Cedar Rapids, Ia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57 10,000 Amalgamated Society of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 238 E. Twenty-first street, N. Y. City. . .. 401 3,500 Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Cleveland, 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 120 29,000 Brotherhood of Stationary Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cincinnati, 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,000 Electrical Protective Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68 Third avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa . . . . . . . .. é_-id 1-300 Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen.‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Terre Haute, Ind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40 21,000 Furniture Workers’ Union of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 351 E. 32d street, N. N. City . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 7,400 16 Excelsior Block, Pittsburgh, Pa . . . . .. 4 9,000 Flint Glass-workers’ Union of North America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Green Glass Pressers’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.641 Salmon street, Philadelphia, Pa. . . . 15 0,000 Glass Packers’ and Sorteré’ Protective Union ...... ..\ . . . . . . . . .. Millville, N. J .. W. J . Dummet-t; . . . . . . .. 1 1500 Table Knife Grinders’ National Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Northampton, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1,800 Granite-cutters’ National Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barre, Vt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8° 204200 Hat-finishers’ International Association of N. A . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56 Pulaski street, Brooklyn, N. Y . . . . . .. 1?’ 2,000 Hat-makers’ International Association of N. A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 523 Snyder ave., Phila. Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 5,500 Sill: Hatters’ Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 212 Broadway, New York City . . . . . . . . . .. ' - 1-000 Wool Hatters’ Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Matteawan, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ' ; 2-000 Hair-spinners’ National Union of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Frederic avenue. Baltimore. Md. . .. 2° 1-000 Saddle and Harness-makers’ National Federation of America 107 Chestnut street. Boston, Mass . . . . . .. 0 @300 Horseshoers’ Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 E. Sixty-seventh st.. N. Y. City . . . . . . ; 9,000 Horse-collar-makers’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 918 Geiger street, Lousville, Ky . . . . . . . .. 93° 3,000 Iron-moulders’ Union of North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. P. O. Box 388, Cincinnati, 0.. .- . . . . . . . . . . 369 40-000 Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel-workers . . . . . . . . .. Pittsburgh, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. °Q1 531000 Buildin Laborers’ and Hod-carriers’ National Union . . . . . . .. 26 Colony street, Boston, Mass . . . . . . . . .. 90 12,000 Nationa Association of Machinists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139 19,000 Metal-workers’ Union of North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Baltimore, Md . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. °° 19,000 Musicians’ National League . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Philadelphia, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24 10,000 National Pattern-makers’ League . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Philadelphia, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36 11,000 Brotherhood of Painters and Decorators of America . . . . . . . . .. 1,314 N. Fulton ave., Baltimore Md . . . . . . L9 14,000 Piano-makers’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. New York City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6' 6-000 Operative Plasterers’ International Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Pittsburg, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80 14,000 J ourneymen Plumbers’ and Gasfitters’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Newark, N. J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 294 7,000 International Typographical Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Indianapolis, Ind. . . _ . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ' 24 22,000 German- American Tvpographia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200 Worth street, New York City . . . . . . .. 2% °>0OO Quarrymen’s National Union of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quincy, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 1,400 Sailors’ and Firemen’s International Amalgamated Union. . . 276 Spring street, New York City . . . . . . .. 16 12900 Lasters’ Protective Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Box 219, Lynn,Mass . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. §l 101000 Boot and Shoemakers’ International Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Washington st., Boston, Mass . . . . . .. "3, 10,000 National Federation of Silk workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 759 Tenth avenue, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1° 1,100 Mulespinners’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Box 143, Fall River, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 9,900 Stereotypers’ Union of New York and Vicinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. J. Dean, (Telegram Oflice), N..Y. C.. . .. - -- ’/00 Stone-cutters. . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Box 2,260, St. Paul, Minn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 1,400 Swi tchme11’s Mutual Aid Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Pacific avenue, Chicago, Ill . . . . . . . . . .. 107 I -000 Tack-makers’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Whitman, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 400 J ourneymen Tailors’ Union of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 E. Seventh st., New York City . . . . . . .. 112 17300 Brotherhood of Telegraphers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219 W. Jefferson st., Louisville, .. 70 . -300 Textile-workers’ Progressive Union of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Philadelphia, Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25 9:000 Mosaic and Encaustic Tile-makers’ National Union . . . . . . . . . .. 137 W. 100th street, New York City . . . . .. 3 5900 Elastic lilleb-weave_rs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 800 Linden street, Camden, N. J . . . . . . . .. 0 300 Wood-carvers’ Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30 Pitt street, New York City _ . . . . . . . . . .. 13 ---- -- Machme Wood-workers’ International Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,465 Arapahoe street, Denver, Col . . . . .. 20 1,000 Total, 1889-90 ............................................................................................................ .. 692,940 LACON, a city, the county-seat of Marshall county, Ill., on the Illinois River and on a branch of the Chicago & Alton Railroad. It is a grain shipping point, contains a distillery, a shawl-mill, and flour-mills. The Illinois River is navigable to this point for steamboats. LACONIA, the county-seat of Belknap county, N.H., twelve miles north of Concord, on VVinne- piseogee River. It has manufactories of hosiery, flannel and cars. LACONIC. The Spartans, or Lacedaemonians, Whose country was called Laconia, systematically endeavored to confine themselves to a sententious brevity in speaking or writing; hence the term laconic has been applied to this style. LACROIX, PAUL, a French writer, better known by his pen-name of P._ L. Jacob, Bibliophile, born at Paris, Feb. 27 , 1806, died there Oct. 16, 1884. He was educated at the College Bourbon, and while still at school began to prepare editions of the old French classics. It was in the field of the histor- ical romance, however, that he won reputation as a writer. Besides actively assisting in more than one journalistic enterprise he wrote romances, plays, books on history, on manners and costumes, and on bibliography, and edited memoirs, biographies, 964 etc. His most valuable productions were a series of works on the habits, manners, customs, costumes, arts. sciences, and intellectual condition of France from the middle ages down to the nineteenth cen- tury. From 1855 Lacroix was custodian of the Arsenal library of Paris. LA CROSSE, a city, the county-seat of La Crosse county, WVis., situated on the Mississippi River, op- posite La Crescent, Minn. On the Black River, which flows into the Mississippi a little to the north of La Crosse, a great many logs are floated down and here converted into lumber. This makes the town an important lumber distributing center. Six railways center here. The city stands on a sandy tract and is spread over a large area. Large quan- tities of grain and other farm products are shipped by rail and river. The population was 14,505 in 1880, but amounted to 25,053 in 1890, showing an increase of 72 per cent. during the intervening decade. See Britannica, Vol. XIV. p. 195. LACUNARS. or LACUNARIA, the panels or coffers of ceilings. and also of the sofiits of cornices. They are much used in the ceilings of porticoes and simi- lar structures, and are frequently ornamented with paterze. LA CYGNE, a post-village of Linn county, Kan., sixty-three miles south of Kansas City, on the Osage River. It has superior water-power. LADANUM (Arab ladun), or LARDANUM, a curious, delicately scented resinous gum which exudes from certain kinds of Cistus growing in Crete, Cyp- rus, and parts of Asia Minor, used in fumigating, as incense, and for other similar purposes. In Cyprus at the present time the gum is collected from the beards of the goats that browse among the bushes, a custom mentioned by Herodotus. LADY CHAPEL, a chapel in a Roman Catholic Church dedicated to the Virgin Mary (“Our Lad ”), and usually placed eastwards from the altar when attached to cathedrals. Henry VII.’s chapel at Wvestminster was the lady chapel of that church. LADY FERN (Anthyrium filixfcemina), a bean- tiful fern with bipinnate fronds, common in moist woods. See Britannica, Vol. IX., p. 101. LADY’S MANTLE (Alchemilla), an Old VVorld genus of herbaceous plants, of the natural order Rosaceee, sub-order Sanguisorbeze. The Common Lady’s Mantle (A. vulgoris), abundant throughout Great Britain, has a bitterish, astringent taste; it was formerly used in medicine as an astringent. LADY’S SLIPPER, any orchid of the genus Cy- pripedium. The corolla has a large inflated lip which resembles a slipper. In America the most conspicuous wild lady’s slippers are the larger yellow, C. pubescens; the sn_-al‘er yellow, C. parvi- florum; the showy C. spectabile; and the stemless C. acaule. The roots of the first yield an officinal remedy, regarded as a nervous stimulent and anti- spasmodic. C. barbatum is a native of Java. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 818. LA FARGE, JOHN, an American artist, born in 1835. He was first a draughtsman on wood, then a painter of flowers, landscapes and portraits. and then a decorator of church interiors and a mural painter on biblical themes. His most notable works in church decoration are the interiors of Trinity Church, Boston; of St. Thomas’s; of the Church of the Incarnation, and of the Church of the Ascension, New York City; and of Trinity Church, Buffalo. Among his paintings are.New England Pasture Land, View over Newport, A Gray Day, A Snowy Day, The Triumph of Love, The Last Valley, St. Paul, The lVolf Charmer and Sleeping Beauty. LAFAYETTE or CHAMBERS COURT Housn, a town, the county-seat,of Chambers county, Ala., situated LA CROSSE-LAGRANGE eighty-six miles not Uheast of Montgomery. It has a good cotton trade and contains a female college. churches, hotels, and a newspaper office. LAFAYETTE, a city, the county-seat of Tippe- canoe county, Ind., pleasantly situated on the WVabash River, sixty-three miles northwest of In- dianapolis. The Wabash and Erie canal passes by this town, and five important railroads intersect it. Lafayette is the seat of Pardue University, a well- endorsed State institution of learning, giving special attention to industrial training and scien- tific agriculture. The town manufactures farming- implements, machinery, wagons, cooperage, rail- way cars, and does a good business in pork packing and the shipment of grain and other farm products. Population, in 1890, 16,407. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 201. LAFAYETTE COLLEGE. these Revisions and Additions. LAFITTE, JEAN (1780-1826), an American ad- venturer, who, with his brother Pierre, established, upon the Island of Barataria, a colony which car- ried on smuggling and a species of piracy. During the war of 1812 these brothers, with their band of buccaneers, became temporarily law-abiding and did good work for the United States Government. LAGAN, MATTHEW D., of New Orleans, La., a manufacturer, born in County Derry, Ireland, June 20, 1829. He received a common school education; emigrated to the United States in 1843 and settled in New Orleans. He was elected a member of the common council of that city in 1867 and 1882, serving as president of the body during the latter year, and was a member of the Constitutional Con- vention of 1879. In politics he is a Democrat and was elected a Representative from the second con- gressional district of Louisiana to the 50th Con- gress. In 1890 he was elected from the same district to the 52d Congress. LAGERSTRCEMIA, a genus of plants of the nat- ural order Lythrarieze, distinguished by winged seeds, and containing some of the noblest trees of tropical forests. Lagerstraemia Flos-Reginae or queen’s flower is the Jarul of India, a magnificent tree with red wood, much used for boat building. LAGOON, a species of lake formed by the over- flowing of the sea or of rivers, or by the infiltration of their water, hence lagoons are sometimes di- vided into fluvial and marine. In some cases they are dried up in summer, in others they preserve throughout the whole year the character of stag- nant marshy pools, and in others the sea reunites them to itself in winter, but is separated from them in summer by a bar of sand or shingle. See Brit- annica, Vol. XIV, p. 217. LAGOSTOMINZE, a sub-family of Chinchillidae, whose only known species, the viscacha—L. trichod- actylus, is a characteristic rodent of the Pampas of South America. It is distinguished by a rat-like form, but with a bushy tail, the lip cleft, the fore, feet four-toed and the hind three-toed. LAGOTIS or LAGIDIUM, a genus of rodents of the family Chinchillidse, with two species, L. cuvieri and L. pallipes, inhabiting the Andes of Chili, Bolivia and Peru. They have long ears, long bushy tail, and are about the size of a hare. LAGRANGE, a city, the county-seat of Troup county, Ga., seventy-one miles southwest of At- lanta, on two lines of railroad. It contains a furni- ture factory, banks, churches and two female colleges. Population, 3,099. LAGRANGE. a post-village, the county-seat of La Grange county, Ind., forty-five miles northwest of Fort Wayne, on the Grand Rapids & Indiana Railroad. It has high and normal schools, churches, foundry, bank, pump and carriage factories. See CoLLEeEs, in s LAGRANGE—- LAGRANGE, a town of Lewis county, Mo., on the Mississippi River, 175 miles north of St. Louis. It has considerable river trade, very large rolling- mills for turning out railroad-iron, flour and planing mills, tobacco factories, and is the seat of La Grange (Ba tist) College. LA GRANG , a post-village, the county-seat of Fayette county, Texas, on the east bank of the Colorado River, thirty miles northeast of Columbus. Steamboats can ascend the river to the place. LAGRIMOSO, or LACRIMOSO, an Italian term used in music, similar to lamentoso. The delivery should be heart-stirring, but free from mannerisms. LAHIJAN, or LAHAJAN, an important trading town of Persia, in the province of Gilan, close to the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, thirty miles southeast of Reshd. Population, 15,000. LAIS, probably the name of two Greek courte- sans, celebrated for their extraordinary beauty. The elder is believed to have been born at Corinth, and flourished during the Peloponnesian Vllar. The younger appears to have been born in Sicily, but came to Corinth when still a child. She sat as a model to the painter Apelles, and is said to have been stoned to death by some Thessalian women whom she had made jealous. LAKE BUTLER, apost-village, the county-seat of Bradford county, Fla., situated eleven miles south of Olustee. It has grist and saw-mills. LAKE CITY, a post-village, the county-seat of Columbia county, Fla., surrounded by beautiful lakes containing excellent fish. It is the seat of the State Agricultural College, and a Peabody School, and is a winter resort for invalids. LAKE CITY, a post-village of Lake county, Minn., on beautiful Lake Pepin. It is a wheat market, and has manufactories of flour, plows, and wagons. It occupies a picturesque site on a small plain between the lake and the bluffs. LAKE FOREST, apost-village of Lake county, Ill.,twenty-eight miles northwest of Chicago, on Lake Michigan. It contains Lake Forest Univer- sity, a female seminary,a boys’ academy, churches and elegant residences. Picturesque ravines and bluffs diversify its site. LAKE MALAR. one of the largest lakes in Sweden, studded with upwards of twelve hundred islands, mostly well wooded. Its east end is close by Stockholm, where its waters are poured into the Baltic Sea. The shores are adorned with castles, country-seats, and villas, including the royal pal- aces of Drottningholm and Gripesholm. See Brit- annica, Vol. XXII, pp. 736,737. LAKE OF THE THOUSAND ISLANDS, an ex- pansion of the St. Lawrence, extending about forty miles below Lake Ontario. It contains the group called the Thousand Islands, some fifteen hundred rocky islets, the largest, Wolf Island, measuring twenty-one miles by seven. LAKE VILLAGE, a post-village of Belknap county, N. H., on the outlet of Lake Winnipiseogee, twenty-seven miles north of Concord. It has rail- rosiill-shops, machine-shops, a foundry, and hosiery- mi s. LAKSHMI, or SRI, in Hindu mythology, the goddess of good fortune and beauty, the name of the consort of the god Vishnu. See BRAIIMANISM, in Britannica Vol. IV, p. 208. LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINoINNATUs, an Ameri- can statesman, born in 1825. In 1847 he was ad- mitted to the Georgia bar, and in 1849 became adjunct professor of mathematics in the University of Mississippi, but resigned the following year. He then returned to the practice of law in Covington, Ga... and in 1853 was chosen to the legislature. In LANCASTER 9% 1854 he settled in Mississippi, and from 1857 to 1860 was a member of Congress. During the civil war he fought with the Confederate army, and attained the rank of colonel. In 1866 he became professor of political economy in the University of Missis- sippi, and in 1872 was again elected to Congress. In 1874 he received a reélection, and in 1877 became a United States Senator. During President Cleve- land’s administration Mr. Lamar was Secretary of the Interior, and afterwards became an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. LA IWIARMORA, ALFONSO TERRERO, Marquis de, an Italian general and statesman, born at Turin, Nov. 17, 1804, died Jan. 5,1878. He was educated at the military academy, entered the army in 1823 with the rank of lieutenant of artillery, subse- quently visited almost every country in Europe for the purpose of military study, and became known as a zealous reformer of the army. He was deco- rated for distinguished services in the national war of 1848, and promoted general of brigade. In 1849 he entered the cabinet as Minister of ‘Var, with- drawing in 1855 to assume command of the Sardin- ian troops in the Crimea. At the close of the war he was invested with the Order of the Bath and the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor, and re- entered the university in his former capacity. He took part in the war of 1859, by which Lombardy was acquired by Italy, was appointed commander- in-chief of the Italian army in 1861, and became prime-minister in 1864. He was minister to Paris in 1867, and was governor of Rome in 1870-71. LAMBERTVILLE, a city and railroad junction of Hunterdon county, N. J., on the Delaware River, 14 miles above Trenton. It has excellent water- power, running cotton, paper, twine and spoke mills, and also a rubber-factory, foundry and rail- road construction and repair shops. LAMELLIROSTRES, an order of aquatic birds including the flamingoes (Pheenicopteridze) and the geese, ducks, swans, etc., which belong to the Ana- tidze. The name refers to the lamellae, in the beak (Lat. rostrum). Each mandible of their bills has a series of lamella or tooth-like projections at its margin, those of the upper mandibles alternating with and fitting into those of the lower. LAMOV, or Loxov, two towns of Russia, in Penza, on the Lomov River. Nizhnee or Nijni Lamov (“New” or Lower), is 65 miles from Penza. Popula- tion 4,526. Verknee or Verknii Lamov (“Old” or Upper), is 68 miles from Penza. Population, 8,414. LAMMAS. or LAMMAS DAY, the first of August, the festival of the wheat harvest, or "loaf mass.” It was customary to ofl’er first fruits on that day in the form of loaves of bread. "Lammas lands” were lands tilled by individual occupiers until harvest or lammas time, and then thrown open as common pasture. LAMPRIDID./E, a family of acanthopterous fishes, of which a single genus, Lampris, is known. The genus is represented by one species—L. luna, the opah, found in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. See OPAH, Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 777. LAMP-SHELL, a brachiopod of the genus Tere- bratula and allied genera, or a popular name for the whole class. The name refers to the shape of the shell, which at one end resembles an ancient lamp with the wick. LANARK, a post-village of Carroll county, Ill., 21 miles southwest of Freeport. It contains a fl )ur- mill, elevators and warehouses. LANCASTER, a post-village. the county-seat of Garrard county. Ky., in the “blue grass” region. It has a tobacco factory, a wheat-fan factory and a high-school. 966 LANCASTER, a post-village, the county-seat of Coos county, N. H., on the Connecticut River. It has a paper-mill and several starch and saw-mills, hotels, churches, and is a popular summer re- sort. LANCASTER, a city, the county-seat and rail- road center of Fairfield county, Ohio, on the Hock- ing River and the Hocking Canal. It has a State reform farm for boys in the vicinity, a fine school- building and court-house, flour-mills, foundries and manufactories. Population,8,297. See Britan- nica, Vol. XIV, p. 255. LANCASTER, a city, the county-seat of Lancaster county, Pa., near Conestoga Creek, on the main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Its streets are straight and cross each other at right angles. Among its institutions of learning are Franklin and Marshall College and a theological seminary, both under the control of the Reformed Church. Lancaster has a large trade in coal, tobacco and lumber. Among its manufacturing establishments are several cotton-mills, breweries, tanneries, pot- teries, paper-mills and machine-shops, several iron- foundries and blast-furnaces. It is the oldest in- land town in the State. Population, 32,090. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 255. LANCASTER, a city, the county-seat of Grant county, IVis., 20 miles north of Dubuque, situated in a fine agricultural and lead ore region. It '\ ‘\ /P L 5/ ~"\.. ) 5 /I/\’\ Q CF f ) 1 K <: \ /‘x _?/‘-Q A ‘$03 3 P-_ Q '-~_ /— § ‘ ___Q:_\ '-\~-\ \ , ‘ r ‘b/\ , ’ -‘ :3...“ ~-.»\ I-_ — \ \'~-~-\ ‘ \ \ I “ v&\-Q \ \: ‘ -II ____ ~ ,\\\ ¢ Pm! 9. - -_ Q ‘_-‘j'i';nh"' III‘-?T§ _-., \ LANCASTER——LANDL()RD AND TENANT corliitains a sash and door factory and a woolen- mi . LANCASTER HERALD, one of the six heralds of England, ranking second in point of seniority. His ofiice is said to have been instituted by Ed- ward III, when he created his son, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. LANCASTER GUN, a species of rifle cannon, which was named after its inventor and which had a bore of oval section. It failed during the Crim- ean war and was superseded. LANCASTER SOUND, a western outlet of Bafiin Bay, in 74° 21’ N. lat., connected with Boothia Gulf on the south by means of Prince Regent Inlet. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 257. LAND. See PUBLIC LANDS in these Revisions and Additions, and HOMESTE.-ID in Britannica, Vol. XII, p. 122. LANDERNEAU, a small seaport of France, at the head of the harbor of Brest, twelve miles from that town. It has linen manufactories, tanneries, candle-works, and carries on ship-building. Popu- lation, 8,008. LANDGRAVE, a title of‘ distinction borne by certain counts of Thuringia and Hesse, in the former German empire, who claimed the rank of princes of the empire. LANDLORD AND TENANT. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 272-278. " “~:.:=."' “ ' 1‘ "2’ .---. , ' 3'1 ._\‘.' 12- . '15 ' 2" " .-4 .\$ 13‘; :~ .6 '£\ §\%\"€\'.‘=€?"‘.:"?f“‘\'.‘.‘-‘I-8 '2 2 '-:j' 1' ‘ _ ' =-\\‘\\ " '- 1 ' - _ ‘NV K '. F‘-‘N “ I’ 5 -J ':'z>'J?"'. \‘. $5.1‘ " \ IQ - ...‘. pi _ ._, ‘ _nlI _- |ll“ m\‘ ‘ l h ' § \‘\ _|ll\‘“.'||\\l““‘“" -.__~\‘,1_;fiE\ .|l\l“‘ |“|§lI““,¢‘f,.’\:"{\.\_‘l_“._'__.__ = I | =; I '.r"v',‘|‘,’ _ ‘l"""‘:"§ !l‘-l"'\'l'\‘“““:-1-*-=- ‘ _ v r |[lll|i““\- __ . H. _ ‘ll-'1'-' -'..‘.’. ’ .... _ __ -r _ \_::;__-;:—;_ Fig. 1.—ISOLA BELLA, \‘ - - Q ~lT_a___—-__'ne' g Q --—-_-I-_-_ '- ' --_- .__ '___'£_'_'=.‘_‘~':'!;: "_ ,1 \_ ‘.1 .--a;-as *”<“‘~‘---.~w.~> G‘ -. :"‘.'A\...:""' :1 ~_ .~¢>.-.-,‘ . 1,.’ ‘ wn -\.'-_¢c‘_. -|'-,; ‘-1’, ‘_\\,,.'\'\‘z .-' ct.-‘-#\s‘.~,‘.'.‘..\\. - - IN LAGO MAGGIONE. . .. '1‘/" - -“4_‘ ‘REE. '4 S1; \\ 9W LANDSCAPE- LANDSCAPE—GARDENING is the improving of grounds by laying off various pleasant walks, bordering them suitably, and covering the remain- ing surfaces with living plants which produce, under skillful cultivation, the impression of natural growth, and give the grounds the appearance of a beautiful natural landscape. ‘When dwellings are surrounded by extensive grounds, and the owners have wealth and refined tastes, they will try to beautify the grounds by laying them off skillfully into walks, flower beds, patches of shrubbery, groups of small and large trees, greensward, ponds, lakes, and rivulets, utilizing slopes and levels, natural sources of water, and taking advantage of all the opportunities presented by nature for adorn- ment and producing pleasing effects. The first re- quisite is the laying off of walks and drives. The second necessity is the providing of spaces for grass, flower beds, hedges, bushes, and trees. Next come the pools, ponds, brooks, and lakes, which must have proper outlets and inlets. The rockwork along lake-shore, brooks, and in forest patches, comes last. If this is introduced artificially the hand of art must be carefully concealed and the The art of landscape-garden- GARDENING work made to appear natural and in harmony with its surroundings. Small cascades and other fall- ing waters add greatly to the beauty of a land- scape. They should not be omitted. After the laying off of the grounds, the walks and drives must be constructed of material hard enough to stand the intended use; the grass-plots must be prepared, sowed with the proper seed, and the growing grass must frequently be cropped off in order to obtain a thick, velvety greensward, a natural carpet for the lawn. The border plants, fringes of shrubbery, and hedges are to be attended to next. The flowering-plants are then raised in their intended beds and by their appropriate methods. The bushes and shrubs are planted single and in groups, as it may appear most suita- ble for the particular spots. The large trees should nowhere be thickly crowded together, except where their shading effect is the object desired. Large trees are usually best interspersed with smaller trees. In all this work the main point is to retain the interesting features of the landscape, and to preserve and improve every natural characteristic of the site. ing obtained its first great im- petus in the construction of the “ Hanging Gardens ” of Nineveh and Babylon, which gardens we know were built on lofty terraces. The Greeks and . Romans, especially the Romans, spent a great deal upon their gardens, which, from Pliny’s descriptions, must have been very tastefully arranged. After the fall of the Roman Em- pire the art of landscape-garden- ing declined, with all the other arts, but it revived again in the 17th century, mainly through the taste of Cardinal D’Est, whose celebrated gardens were made on the site of those of the emperor Adrian, and adorned with the dis- covered vases, statues and other ornaments of the imperial pleasure grounds. “ Balustraded terraces of masonry; magnificent flights of steps; arcades and architectural grottos; lofty clipped hedges, with niches and recesses, enriched with sculpture, were the components of the ITALIAN STYLE of gar-~ dening.” This style is shown in Figure 1, which represents the gardens of Isola Bella. A barren rock, without an inch of earth on it, was by Vital- iano Borromeo. in 1671, converted into a paradise of fertility and luxury by bringing earth from the banks of the Lago Maggiore to one of the Bor- romean Islands (see Britannica, Vol. IV, p. 64). He built ten terraces on arches, one above the other to the top of the Island Isola Bella, on which the palace stands. These terraces he covered with tine exotic and native flowering plants, and with groves of bay, lemon and orange trees, interspers- ing statuary in rich abundance. At Monza, near Milan, Italy, the royal residence has the finest garden scenery in Italy. The park, shown in ground plan in Figure 2, contains 3,000 acres of gently varied, fertile land. It is chiefly laid out in the'regular style; but contains also an xtensive and beautiful English garden. The cu- linary, flower, botanic and fruit gardens, orangeries and hot-houses are all good and well managed. The river Lambro (b) passes through the grounds and adds greatly to their picturesqueness and use- fulness, since it serves to irrigate them. The palace (0) is a very large building; d is the town of Monza. The double avenue (6) to Milan is bor- dered by tulip trees, magnolias, melias, robinias and other flowering trees, interspersed with ever- green and American oaks, and l1as a very beautiful effect. The Italian style of gardening made its way with some rapidity over Europe, with the revival of art. But it was quickly altered by the French and Dutch to accord better with the character of their climates and more level countries. Gardening was first brought to a high degree of perfection in Holland. The wealth acquired by the Dutch merchants and seafarers enabled them to indulge in fine country residences and luxurious gardens. They imported flowering plants, seeds and bulbs from the foreign countries they visited. The most cultivated Dutch flowers, as the tulip, anemone, hyacinth, narcissus, etc., are all Oriental, and came to them mostly from Constantinople in the sixteenth century. Bulhous flowers were ex- tensively cultivated in Holland because the climate 968 and soil of that country are singularly favorable for their cultivation. The DUTCH and the FRENCH landscape-gardening are cljaracterized by sym- metry and an abundance of ornaments. But the gardens of Holland are moreconfined than the LANDSCAPEiGARDENING# we represent in Figure 3 the gardens and palace at Loo during the time of I/Villiam III. The gardens, to compensate him for which the Hampton Court gardens in England were laid out, are a work of magnificence and great variety, yet with geomet- rical symmetry of design. The palace (a) ranks with the finest in Europe. It has a broad green walk in front with a double row of oaks a half mile French, more covered with frivolous ornaments, and more intersected with still waters. As a speci- men of the Dutch style of the seventeenth century -\-__._- ~7- .. -\ . , .- |_-_I_-_._-~ - 1 I -:~. . . _, I ,. . . , .1 | . ‘- _ , ‘\. 1 ' ' .1 | . ._ _ I. ,_ 1 I |, I " . ,_- - I ‘ . i U ;. . ' I . , D ;_ , - ‘ ' - . - ' . ~ - '/ "I. ': 1. \- | . -; \ - I , . _ - » . ': | __ _ ~ ; 3 I ' . , :_ . "A . . ‘, - - -' r, ‘ - .. - - - - r. \. . _, I \,_ ‘. _ . I1 I " ‘ - ' ._ - ' I ‘ . ' .- . ’ . . . .. - I I 'I '. J. ,; -' .’ } .- .. 1 ' ' ' _ - w ' :- .- . I . - - .- . - :- " . ‘... I _ ' ¢_ 1 - 4 L . ' . -; I I ‘ -.- . \‘ ' \' \ . \ II - 1' ,<**_~,-,,,,? W I -.5\\ “ n " -ls-M ‘J ' ' H -.1‘: E ,- Y I __.4 WQZ ' l H n i!li1~ " if 1' lP“'| - if _'_ ll ‘Elli __ 5,. _ I _f___ :1 ''‘;'':M r: * v~vr .- _. ' ...: - - I :. -4H-at C3-3 am‘ .......|\.._ " " Iii-it Hl'ii ;=-1:51;;-r,qi;; 1;"-W "' ".__..'.-..‘i*'*__ .1‘ 7. s ., I J - 5 '~ I . . Q , |'IlT“_ a. ll. _L , J- aL- .\ rk Q»- _ __‘:'7:\_{~;“€ \"‘ _- :3‘; ‘K .' ' ‘F7 24 3}“ ' \ ‘D l. 4 " ~,... , \‘=.‘+"*,~q *8! ‘. -1 ‘ ' ‘ V = ‘*5: - 1 . . . \?~ ~ \ . "-" L . ~ .— -1. A-_, _<.y.;,,_,\ . K) 3-? .I \'_H . *§a"":‘u§"“>\.'-'¢' \ y‘<£’5c _ _' A ax “H "1, Y ‘ - ' If ‘P’? . ii - 14: a‘. 4 '.bj. ;: - . y _, _ . _ - '9 ‘ ~‘~-I-1‘ “"5 ' Q £7‘ ‘Eb . ' I '".|"3.¢ 4_:_ —=':=-_- -*““"\"¢ \ <~\~._~‘—~ -.\_ . \ \ . ‘__‘,_ _ __ __ __ _ _ _ Va-_.__,~ -, -2- ‘\\~ “ .-.-1 -\—=\‘-* *-\‘\‘— ., -\-<,, ‘\ ~ ' ' ‘ \§\ \ v \. .-\—\\r$--‘*<§--..\\ .,:=.".-_-. .- - - -‘ ‘\ ~ '\-"'.4- Q ‘ . - , ' Q‘ .\ ‘:~§‘§\..\'.< \\“‘ " , -- - ' “ ‘ ‘ - "" \\";:.\_‘\_§\..\‘:__' '*"- —-- -—--:_'.-...-"Elf--i~T?\lb,\\b - _ E M ‘ ~ \--- .\ - -L r~ \ .. ~ ..._\_. ‘- _\ ‘——~--~:._>- \: ~'~- W ,_,-\.—__ \~AxL-_ -._ _ _-_ _ ._..-.-- \ _ _,...___.._ ~, ,. g g - - -- \ /‘ P -_<_ ~ _ '-" __ _ ‘\_,.\~:-=\\\‘\§\‘N_\‘\‘\§ v\-.\_\&\ \\ ‘ K ~.— ' ‘ 4 '- - - .0 \V‘ “ 1- .- -I‘'’‘' _ . \ "P __ -: , <1-'_—.—1§ s:\ -_:---. I-\?\ ‘.12 M gi- \. s arse " _‘~’-* 3: —:f— as F m.~ -‘as-' _-. 1:7)‘:-1m)s-"°. . ,r - , \ -’-.‘5.~P-. , _ . . \_4 ‘$~\ I‘ : ll .' ' “ ' J‘ | \ 1 ’\ '_I ‘ Fig. 3—PALACE AND GARDENS AT LOO, HOLLAND. in length; I) and c are stables and coach-houses; d, domestic ofiice; e, orangery; f, fountain; g, lower garden; h, upper garden ; i, the king’s garden, with a large fountain; Z, the queen’s garden; m, the king’s labyrinth of clipped hedges; n, the queen’s labyrinth or wilderness with fountains, statues, ~w .-.-...... .A=-=%".-=-_ ~'» nr.aw'v?!‘"'w- ‘lg ""El?l“.':1'li1iH;£1;\'fl1‘mmqgpnm!rn‘$sm‘ ‘ I\l¢!HUFfiB. . n 1" ll ' __~ is not presented as worthy of imitation in the present age; but to show the historical develop- ment of landscape-gardening, as it is one of the most magnificent specimens of its time. - FRENCH gardening revived with André le N6tre, who lived at the time of Louis XIV. He delighted in long clipped alleys, triumphal arches, richly decorated parterres, fountains and cascades, with grotesque ornaments. a profusion of statues and ( walks, etc.; 0, the old castle; p, the fowl garden; and q, the park, containing a fountain and diverse long green walks, nurseries of young trees, groves, and canals, besides six fish ponds on different levels, the water flowing from the first through all the others. This picture of a Dutch palace and garden thermes, and many deep grottos. All these won- ders, springing up in a desert-like open country, dazzled and enchanted the beholders-'and caused the king to make him director of the royal gardens, to create him a knight, and to commission him with the improvement of the gardens of the Tuil- leries, the Champs Elysées, Trianon, Neudon, St. -Cloud, Chantilly, and the celebrated Terrace of St. Germain. England, Sweden and all Europe -LANDSCAPE-GARDENING 9% adopted Le N6tre’s manner. The gardens of Ver- sailles are the grand effort of Le Notre and the model of excellence in the geometrical school of landscape-gardening. In Figure 4 we give a rep- resentation of these gardens, showing numerous orange trees which are set out in favorable Weather, some of these trees being as much as 30 T_ ' DH/7 p""[.'l “' x ' ' e: F’ i Y. I q " I 4/‘ ',- ,2 (P;/I,,l ' J? J 1; ' - v-4 ' £1, - 0 I “ flu‘. g./71 ;"Il'°\ willie / 0 J I I ~ 1 F. I‘-ax.’ - To 9%?‘ “ ~ - Er:-—._~ 'I? Y \n -I V O W I. ‘ -; v. 6’ 9 A l D': . -2' R;-:?=e N 3;;- ,_._;5'f~ '-; '-"' \_:; \ \ ) I . E‘ _ W 2 \\\~.\;\-.1a!mzJ../4//,-._ ‘ 5 an 4 "“= J]/I/1/l,I," II‘ V Fig. 5-—GARDENS AT EPINAL. feet high. The English poet Gray was struck with the splendor of these gardens when filled with com- pany, and when the water-works were in full action; ‘ and the German physician, G. A. Agricola said: “When I reflect on Versailles and what I have seen‘ there, I think I had a foretaste of paradise.” The modern ENGLISH STYLE of landscape-gardem ing was created by Bridgeman and Kent. William Kent especially vindicated the natural style against the artificial, and rejected entirely the mathemat- ical symmetry of ground-plan then in vogue for laying out gardens. (See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 40). “Nature, not art, must be the model .of the landscape-gardener,” he said. if he straight lines and stiff terraces of the ancient stv ie were succeeded by flowing lines and wide smooth iawns and slopes; the formal avenues and geometrical clumps in which trees had been arranged w ere succeeded by pleasing curves and an irregularity of grouping that relieved the eye and beautified the scene. This idea made its way but slowly, especially since Kent insisted on dicing away with the walls for boundaries and their replacement by light fences. Kent was a landscape painter; walls around parks and gardens were an abomination in his eyes. This style was gradually introduced in France as well as England. The gardens and pleasure grounds of M. Doublat at Epinal, have the reputation of being the finest specimen of English gardening in France‘. Their great merits depend more on the natural beauties of the situation and of the surrounding scenery than. on the exercise of any style of art. M. Doublat’s grounds are shown in Figure 5. They consist of a rocky bill (a), rising abruptly from the town of‘ Epinal to the height of 400 feet, and stretching away to the east for a mile in the form of a narrow ridge, gradually declining till it terminates in the- valley of the Moselle; bb is the town of Epinal. It embraces the hill on three sides. 0 is the mansion; cl the ruins of the castle of Epinal, on a high rock; c the moat, filled with water; f are broad terraced walls planted with fruit-trees and vines; g ter- raced kitchen-gardens, 2' is a public road which in- tersects the grounds; kk is the grand drive which crosses the public road on a bridge (Z). On tracing this drive we find that it is very in-igeniously con- trived for going and returning over the same bridges, and also for combining the greatest length with the greatest variety of line. ' The gardening of GERMANY, as compared with that of Great Britain, is, on the whole, inferior in the splendor of its productions; but it is neverthe- less pursued in Germany with greater ardor in proportion to the wealth of the inhabitants. If there are no gardens in Germany in the natural style equal to the parks of Great Britain, it is not for want of skill on the part of the Germans in laying them out tastefully, but attributable more to the severity of their winters, the scarcity of good gravel for walks, and the economical closeness practiced in their country. Yet there are good botanic and pleasure gardens at Munich, Bavaria; at Ludwigsburg, Wiirtemberg; at Schwetzingen and Oarlsruhe, Baden; at Ivilhelinsliolie, Hessen- Cassel; at-Berlin, Prussia, etc. The French style has prevailed in Germany from the earliest period. This is especially seen from Figures 6 and 7, which represent the garden or park in the center of Carls- ruhe. Figure 7 is the palace (marked a. in Figure 6). It is noted for having the wings at oblique angles with the main building. The circle (Z2) in Figure 6 is the promenade. In its center (0) is a tower which commands a fine view over the entire park. The whole place is a natural forest of pines and oaks, pierced with thirty-two avenues, all radi- ating from the central tower; at are flower and kitchen-gardens; 0, the town, which has greatly in- creased in size since the park was laid out (the present extent of the city of Carlsruhe can be seen in Britannica, Vol. V, p. 112, together with the recent alterations in the Schlossgarten). In the Here the introduced along the alleys and walks. hemlock spruce, Norway spruce, silver fir, Wey- mouth pine and arbor vitae have an admirable LANDSOAPEQGARDENING I I parterres of the park there are now many open lawns, varied by groups of trees. A great many exotics, especially evergreens, have lately been 0% . . .11. W W U 6 PM p 9. h t m +.U UH.-1.. n h 0 n _.w .w .. _.%£.h . f .?.. . _ . ,,.”,,,,,,,,H,W./”H.,,. .. me W AW-M J D: , _ nfm_ . “R S D m Q. ...... ..f_vi_. .09 f . .. ea M fin‘ .19 6,. all) mwn Dnn%~_ 11:: .3... In .... 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MMIJM 5. __ e 8.3. fw .r .2 1 on WJMQJ 0 90¢,“ onn_.w.M 0| naaovirsu J».._,J.J9o D :.1.,n1l|.. :1 r C t u 0 pt H 6 £1 0 0 d X S n 8 3 E d a g t r .m 0 g W mm W O 6 f m emmtmm eSC.Z.,®.,..I corn,” eemh 1% hrruot L68 tenf,;b nleemat aJ.,,2nO hfmadah LlUTn| ~LIA e gwpe mzmnwce mwwerm nemae crlrro uFgOO..b memwfw ehwrdr 1.5 One y 0:138 tfHS n f 1 hy nac .wumm& .M.o6+udS_.m nmwbra mmmmma mmmawm waumwum. a.mgCO nrfi .hm% ermweoirmm .mmmb,hg _ GSGS MM t b D H whee P. ITWS o M em ms f..w h omsnh R t.mM W wept d, %ra% e C_ber h P.m.e .m.%ww n, dnn®wm MHQHMG StmnwB dflbh 87H m.m Mei Ommmw roaegd gmm1.1r 8 r..WUFa hmes g SO 110 r h .1 mfecnn as,hnWa 11T€Ot Una r.hO bV Ffib LANDSTURM-—LANG raising seeds; p, structure for twining plants: q, compost ground; rr, places for under-shrubs, hardy perennials and biennials; s, place for annuals; t, place for water and bog plants; a, place for setting ; ,- , -1-‘\' ‘rhn . .. ‘ r‘. - .-. . I _ -.‘.-.. ,,,,£_-I H,‘ :~.., I £5’ 3‘ .. ‘£5. . j b‘.:‘_- L (é 0 I __ .§_-ll ' ' 4 "5' ._-ii :- .'~ '5' ¢{:\ ‘9 __ I l‘._1!' '3 “fill \"'~ 1-9:? 3 ‘ '5‘-: ‘.."="."- ' 5-’ J ‘IE1 er" ~~='i'-' 2.-.-gr \ [I 4 ‘Hald- : I, ., at? I M _=-¢ ~',-1 ‘- la .. - .'.-'-:-7: ‘\ r ;- \_ a,_ " ‘ Ii K1. . .49., '. .1~ . ; 1 '. F '- '2: “ ‘."-, ‘Qn ‘-= ‘ ‘£0.41 .,, . - “ -a-.1 - 3: :1’ . \. rg} " sf?=— f-‘I-20 .-Q;-‘F =- :::'.:'i' "s_ ’-'1: _ I #§-;.' _ 53 #1‘ x F7‘ :13; _. .~Ski~E‘¥l'-Ei:"'§,::,. s I lm ' ‘ '0 I I I ‘:0!-‘|‘:“ “ M £5’ \ ».~'- ; ‘- X _ Ks .-§$= f A "'~"-83 . .\.--- \ 0 \ '" 4 ::;(\?/q\\\\\ - , 1 Ll_k:__: 4_‘_ Y 4! H mo 0 1005: Fig. S—BO'1‘ANIC GARDENS IN BERLIN. out the greenhouse plants during summer; 1), road from Berlin to Potsdam. This garden contains a s ecimen of the fan-palm, camaerops humilis, 18 eet high, which was the subject of the experi- ment cited by Linnaeus as a proof of his sexual sys- 971 tern of botany. This specimen is supposed to be 17]. years old. Linnaeus called it Phwnix dactylifera; but this mistake was afterwards corrected. In AMERICA the art of landscape-gardening has as yet made rather slow progress. But the increase of wealth since the close of our civil war, and the accompanying development of the artistic taste in painting, sculpture and allied branches, have given an impetus to this art which promises to bring it very soon to the level with the best works in Europe. Some cemeteries and the public parks of our cities have up to this time been the main fields for its exercise. The climate and other conditions of America will modify the art to some extent. Yet we hope, and have reason to expect from the laying out of the Central Park (see PARKS in these Revisions and Additions) and of the several other parks in the cities of New York, Brooklyn, Phila- delphia, Chicago, etc., that the natural English style, with its gentle flowing lines, will ultimately predominate over the stifi, geometrical Dutch and French styles of landscape-gardening in this country. LANDSTURM, in Germany, Austria, etc., that part of the reserve force consisting of men who do not belong either to the standing army, the navy, or the Landwehr. It is called out and organized to the extent required when the country is threatened by a hostile invasion. LANE, JAMES HENRY (1814-1866), an American politician, born at Lawrenceburg, Ind., in 1814. In 1840 he was admitted to the bar, and in 18-16 he en- listed in an Indiana regiment, of which he was soon made colonel. At the battle of Buena Vista Lane commanded a brigade. In 1848 he was elected lieutenant-governor of Indiana. From 1853 till 1855 he was a representative in Congress, hav- ing been chosen as a Democrat. There he voted for the Kansas-Nebraska bill, that is, for the repeal of the Missouri compromise. After moving to Kan- sas, in 1855, Lane took an active part in the forma- tion oi the State government there. He was the leader of the Free-soil party. As such he presided over both the Topeka and the Leavenworth consti- tutional conventions. The free-state forces elected him major-general, as he was most active in driv- ing out the “border ruflians.” In 1858 he shot a neighbor dead in a quarrel about a well. He was tried for murder, but acquitted of the charge. VVhen Kansas was admitted as a State of the Union, Lane was elected United States Senator. He ‘served on the committees of Indian affairs and agriculture. time brigadier-general of volunteers. In 1865 he was reelected for the United States Senate. But in the following year, when on his way home, he had an attack of paralysis, and committed suicide at Leavenworth on July 11, 1866. LANESBCRCUGH, a town of Fillmore county, Minn.,5O miles southwest of La Crosse, VVis. It contains a newspaper oflice, churches, a bank, a high-school and various manufactories. LANG, Axnnnw, an English writer, born at Sel- kirk in 18-14, and educated at Edinburgh Academy, St. Andrews University and Balliol College, Ox- ford, where he graduated first-class in classics. Engaging in literature, he soon became known as one of the busiest as well as one of the brightest writers in the world of London journalism. His Ballades in Blue Clzinct (1881), brought him into prominent notice, and his subsequent works, espe- cially Helen of Troy, Rhg/‘mes (i la mode and Custom, R'2It'u-al and Myth, increased his reputation. He is joint translator with Professor Britcher of the Odyssey, and with Mr. Myers and Mr. Leaf of the Iliad. Mr. Lang was in 1888 appointed Giifard During the civil war he was for a ' 912 Lecturer on natural religion at St. Andrews Uni- versity. His recent works include The Gold of Fairmlee, Lost Leaders and Prince Priglo; he has also edited the Blue Fairy Tale Book and the Red Fairy Tale Boole. In 1890 he wrote, in collaboration with Mr. Rider Haggard, The World’s Desire. LANG, JOHN DUNMCRE, an Australian clergyman and statesman, born at Greenock, Scotland, in 1799, died at Sidney, Australia, in 1878. After being or- dained by the Presbytery of Irvine, Lang went to Australia in 1823 as the first minister of the Church of Scotland. There he was repeatedly elected to the legislative assembly, and assisted in securing the independence of Victoria and Queensland from New South Wales. He also worked for the union of the Presbyterian churches in Australia, and was active in founding the Australian Presbyterian College, of which he was made principal. Lang published The History of New South Wales (1834), and similar works on the other Australian colonies. LANGDON, JOHN, an American statesman, born at Portsmouth, N. H., in 1739, died there in 1819. He engaged in mercantile business there till 1774, when he secured the ordnance stores of Fort \Villiam and Mary in Portsmouth harbor for the colonists. In 1775 he was elected to the Continen- tal Congress, and in 1776 he became a navy agent. In 1777, while he was speaker of the New Hamp- shire assembly, and means were needed for equip- ping Gen. Stark’s brigade, Langdon gave all his money, pledged his silver plate, and subscribed the proceeds of 70 hogsheads of tobacco for that pur- pose. He commanded a company in the brigade and took part in the battle of Stillwater. In 1779 he presided in the New Hampshire convention, and in 1787 he was a delegate to the convention at Phil- adelphia which framed the constitution of the United States. In 1788 he became governor of New Hampshire, and in the next year he was elected United States Senator, holding office till 1801, when he was chosen president of the Senate. From 1805 till 1812, with the exception of one year, Langdon was governor of New Hampshire. LANGE, JCHANN PETER, a German theologian, born at Sonnborn, near Elberfeld, in 1802, died at Bonn in 1884. After studying theology at the Uni- versity of Bonn, he became pastor in several Ger- man places until 1841, when he was called to Ziirich as professor of church history and dogmatics. In 1854 he was made professor of theology at Bonn, and in 1860 he became counsellor of the consistory. His great Bibelwerlc, a commentary on the Bible, has given him extensive and deserved fame. Lange’s other theological works comprise Das Leben Jesu, arefutation of Strauss; Die Christliehe Dog- matik, and Das A postolisehe Zeitalter. LANGEVIN, SIR HECTOR Lours, a Canadian statesman, born at Quebec in 1826. After studying law he was admitted to the Canadian bar in 1850. and became a Queen’s counsel in 1864. For one term he was mayor of Quebec, but for several terms he served as representative in the Dominion Parliament. From 1864 till 1865 he was solicitor- general for Lower Canada, and from 1865 till 1867 he was postmaster-general. In the last-named year he became secretary of state for Canada, which portfolio he retained until he was appointed minister of public works in 1869. In 1878 he be- came postmaster-general again, and in the next year again minister of public works. Langevin is a Conservative in politics. He wrote Le Canada, ses institutions, and Droit administratif, ou manuel des paroisses et fabriques; also Report on British Colum- bia (1872). LANGHOLM, a market-town of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, at the junction of the Ewes and Wau- 1 LANG——-LANKESTER ~ chope VVaters with the Esk, 23 miles south-south- west of Hawick, and 22 miles north of Carlisle. In 1890 Thomas Hope, a New York merchant and native of Langholm, left $400,000 to found a hos- pital here. On the site of the town the Douglases were defeated in the battle of Arkinholm (1455). Population in 1881, 4,209. LAN GSTON, J OHN MERCER, an American lawyer and educator, born in Louisa county, Va., in 1829. By birth he was a slave, but was emancipated in childhood. He studied theology at Oberlin in 1853, and afterwards he studied ‘law. From 1854 till 1869 he practiced law in Ohio. In 1869 he was made professor of law in Howard University, Washing- ton. In 1873 he became dean of the faculty of the law department of the university. From 1877 till 1885 Langston was United States minister and con- sul-general in Hayti. After his return to this country he was appointed president of the normal and collegiate institute in Petersburg. He is the anthor of a volume of selected addresses entitled Freedom and Citizenship (1883), and has published many papers on political, biographical, literary and scientific subjects. LANGUAGES. The number of spoken languages in the world is estimated at a little more than 1,000. The number of written languages is much smaller. The British and Foreign Bible Society and the American Bible Society up to Jan. 1, 1891,, had printed and circulated the Bible, or portions thereof, in 291 different languages and dialects. Samples of 213 of these are printed on pages 263- 278 of Vol. I of these Revisions and Additions. For- general article on LANGUAGES, see PHILOLOGY, in Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 765-790. LANIER, SIDNEY, an American poet, born at Macon, Ga.. in 1842, died at Lynn, N. C., in 1881. He graduated at Oglethorpe College, Midway, Ga.,, in 1860. In the next year he enlisted in the Con- federate service, and took part in the seven days" fighting near Richmond. In 1863, while in com- mand of a blockade-runner, Lanier was captured and for five months was kept imprisoned at Point Lookout, Fla. This experience he afterward pic- tured in a novel entitled Tiger Lilies. After being clerk, school-teacher and lawyer in turn, he settled. in Baltimore in 1877, and delivered lectures on English literature. In 1879 he was appointed lec- turer on this subject in Johns Hopkins University. Of his many writings we mention Science of English Verse; Florida, its Scenery, Climate and Ilistory; Poems; The Bog/’s King Arthur; The Boy’s Froissart; The Boy’s Percy, and The English Novel and the Prin- ciple of Its Development (1883). He was scholarly, accurate, and presented the metrical technicalities in a novel form. LANKAVATARA, one of the religious works of the Buddhists, which treats of their religious law and of some of their most abstruse philosophical roblems. ~ LANKESTER, EDWIN, an English physician,. born at Melton, in Leicestershire, in 1814, died in 1874. After studying medicine at University Col- lege, London, and at Heidelberg, where he gradu- ated in 1839, he became professor and lecturer in various schools in London. He published Vegetable Physiology, School Manual of Health and various other medical works for popular use. LANKFZSTER, EDWIN RAY, an English physicist, born at London in 1847. After being educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he first became lecturer in Exeter College, Oxford, in 1872, and then professor of zoblogy and comparative anatomy in University College, London, in 1874. By prosecuting the spirit- medium Slade in 1876 he compelled him to leave England. Beside his work as editor of the “Quar- LANMAN-LARGESSE terly Journal of Microscopical Science,” and as sec- retary of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, Professor Lankester found time to publish Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone; Comparative Longevity, and Developmental H {story of the Mollusca (1875). He is prominent in the defense of scientific vivisection. LANMAN, CHARLES. an American author, born at Monroe, 1YIich., in 1819. After he had been clerking for ten years in New York business houses, he re- turned to Michigan and took charge of the “ Mon- roe Gazette” in 1845. In 1849 he became librarian of the war department at VVashington; in 1866 he was librarian of the House of Representatives, and from 1871 till 1882 secretary of the Japanese lega- tion. He also practiced landscape painting as an amateur. Among Mr. Lanman’s published writings we mention Essays for Summer I-Iours; Letters of a Landscape Painter; A Summer in the lVll(Z€I‘7'L€S3,' Private Life of Daniel Webster (Lanman had been VVebster’s private secretary for some time) ; Diction- ary of Congress (this work was published by order of Congress); Resources of America (this book was compiled for the Japanese government); The Ja- panese of America; Leading Men of Japan; Curious Characters and Pleasant Places, and Haphazard Per- sonalities. LAN NION, a town in the French department of Cotes-du-Nord, on the Guer, which is navigable for sea-going ships to this point, 69 miles from Brest. Population 5,893. LANSING, a city of Allamakee county, Iowa, on the Mississippi River, 81 miles north of Dubuque. It has a furniture factory, flour-mill. agricultural implement factory, and is a great grain depot. LANSING, the capital of Michigan. Population inO 1890, 12,630. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 29 . LANSINGB URG, a village in Rensselaer county, N. Y. Population, 10,523. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 291. LANTANA, a genus of plants of the natural order Verbenaceaz The species, of which some 40 or 50 are known, are chiefly natives of tropical or sub- tropical America. They are mostly low shrubs, with opposite toothed leaves, and heads of smallish variously colored flowers. A number of the species are cultivated as greenhouse plants, notably L. Camara, L. mizrta and L. nivea. L. pseudo-thea is highly esteemed in Brazil as a substitute for tea. Four species are found in the United States, chiefly in the southwest. LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO, a city of Bolivia, and the capital of the department of La Paz. It is a great commercial city, has an extensive foreign trade, contains fourteen churches, besides a beau- tiful cathedral, is well built and has a healthful climate. It is situated on the river Chuqueapo, has schools of medicine, law, theology and science, and has often been the seat of the government. LAPEER, a city, the county-seat of Lapeer county, Mich., 64 miles northwest of Detroit. It has large mills and is a shipping point for shingles and pine lumber. Population, 2,795. LAPHAM, INCREASE ALLEN, an American geolo- gist, born at Palmyra, N. Y., in 1811, died at Ocono- mowoc, \Vis., in 1875. He was first a stone-cutter, then he worked on several canals as a civil engi- neer. In 1836 he settled at Milwaukee, Wis., where he was made register of claims. He prepared an herbarium of some 8,000 specimens of plants found in Wisconsin, also a catalogue of shells. He studied especially the grasses of Wisconsin; then the ge- ology of that State, and lastly the fluctuations in the level of Lake Michigan. In 1873 he became State geologist. Besides numerous contributions 973 to scientific periodicals he published Wisconsin: Its Geog/up/ig, Topography, History, Geology and Min- eralogy; Geological Map of Wisconsin, and Antiquities of Wisconsin. The latter was published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1855. LA PLATA, the capital of the Argentine pro- vince of Buenos Ayres, founded in 1882, after Buenos Ayres city, from which it is about 30 miles southeast, had been made the federal capital. The new city was rapidly built, with wide streets that are now mostly paved; the central portion is lighted with electric light, the rest with kerosene lamps. The only buildings of note are the hand- some capitol and other offices of the Government, an observatory. several chapels and a fine railway station. The city has a college, and, several miles away,a hospital and an asylum for the insane. Among the manufactories already established is one of cotton and woolen tissues. A canal con- nects a harbor, which has been constructed at La Plata with a large outer harbor at Ensenada, on the La Plata river. Population (1888) of munici- pality (including Ensenada and a country district of nearly 60 square miles). 50,803. LA PORTE, a city of Indiana, county-seat of La. Porte county. Population, 7,122. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 308. LA PORTE CITY, a post-village of Black Hawk county, Iowa, on IVolf Creek. one mile from Cedar River and 16 miles southeast of Waterloo. Flour, wagons, carriages and other articles are manu- factured here. LAPSED (Lapsi), the designation applied in the early Christian church to those who, overcome by heathen persecution, did not continue faithful to the Christian religion. The lapsed were at first punished by excommunication and their reception into the church again was strenuously resisted, but in the 3d century a milder course was generally adopted with regard to them. The treatment of the lapsed was one of the practical questions most earnestly discussed in the early church. LARAMIE, a river which rises in northern Col- orado, flows generally northeast through south- eastern IVyoming and enters the North Fork of the Platte at Fort Laramie, after a course of about 200 miles. It is much used for floating lumber from the mountains. LARAMIE CITY, the county-seat of Albany county, IVy., situated in the midst of Laramie Plaines, 7,122 feet above sea-level, and 57 miles by rail from Cheyenne. The first female jury ever empaneled served here. LARAMIE MOUNTAINS, a range of Colorado and lVyoming, but mostly in IVyoming. These mountains extend southward in a curve, bounding Laramie Plains on the northeast and east. Lara- mie Peak, in Albony county, lVy., is their highest oint. P LARAMIE PLAINS, a treeless plateau of IVy- oming, about 7,500 feet above sea-level, and some 3,000 square miles in extent, inclosed on all sides by high mountains. The soil is alluvial, and pro- duces good pasture, and beds of iron and coal of good quality have been found. The Union Pacific Railroad crosses the southern part of this plain, which is partly irrigated by the Laramie River. LARCH, a coniferous tree. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 309-312; in the United States, Vol. XXIII. p. 809; Culture of, Vol. II, p. 315. LARD,hog-fat. See Britannica, Vols. XIV. p. 312, XVII, p. 744; Adulteration of, Vol. I, p. 171. LARGESSE, money which in early times it was the practice to grant to heralds, on certain state occasions, for proclaiming the style and title of the sovereign and his nobles. 3 W4 LARGO, an Italian word used in music, to denote very slow time, and especially in compositions where the sentiment is quite solemn. Larghetto is the diminutive of Largo, the time being slightly quicker. LARINJE, a sub-family of 'Larz'dze, having the beak well developed, with hooked upper mandible projecting downward in front of the lower, and the tail usually square and of moderate length; the gulls. The leading genera are Larus, Pagophila, Rissa, Rhoclostethia and Xema. See GULL, Britan- nica, Vol. XI, p. 274. LARK, a bird. 314. LARNED, a city, the county-seat of Pawnee county, Kan., situated on Arkansas River and on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad. LAROUSSE, PIERRE, a French publisher, born at Toucy, in Yorme, in 1817, died in 1875. After he had been a teacher for some years, he commenced, in 1851, the publication of school-books, many of which he prepared himself. The principal work whose publication he undertook was the Dtcttonaire Universel eta XIXe Steele, for which he commenced to engage contributors in 1863. The exhaustive labor connected with the undertaking hastened his death, which occurred when the dictionary was only half finished. It was completed in 16 volumes by his widow, and proved a great success. LARRE Y, BARON DOMINIQUE JEAN, a Erench sur- geon, born in 1766, died at Lyons in 1842. After studying at Toulouse and Paris he became a sur- geon of the French army in 1792, and eventually surgeon-in-chief, serving in Egypt, Germany, Spain and Russia. Larrey was wounded and captured at \Vaterloo. Napoleon bequeathed to him 100,000 francs. He invented the ambulance oolante, and made numerous improvements in clinical and oper- ative surgery. RREY, BARON FELIX HIP1>oLY'r:e, a French surgeon, son of the preceding, born at Paris in 1808. He was professor of pathology at Val-de- Grace, surgeon to Napoleon III, and chief surgeon of the army in Italy in 1859. He has published valuable re orts and memoirs. LA SAL E, a city of La Salle county, Ill., situ- ated on the north bank of the Illinois River. It is the western terminus of the Illinois Canal, which extends to Chicago, and is on the Illinois Central & Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railroads. The country around this place is very fertile. La Salle is engaged in the manufacture of glass, in the min- ing of bituminous coal, and in the smelting and rolling of zinc. The town has a park and is lighted with gas and electricity. Population in 1890, 9,904. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 318. LASKER, EDUARD (1829-1884), a German states- man, born at Jarocin, Posen, in 1829, of Jewish parentage. After studying law at Berlin and in England, he became in 1856 an assessor in the city court of Berlin. In the Prussian chamber of dep- uties, to which he was elected in 1865, he assisted in founding the national liberal party, and assisted Bismarck in measures tending to the unification of Germany, but in the Reichstag, of which he became a member in 1870, he opposed Bismarck’s measures in regard to government control of the railroads, and showed himself a determined advocate of free trade when the chancellor adopted the protective policy. The struggle for leadership between Las- ker and Bismarck became bitter and personal. In 1888 Lasker made a visit to his brother in Texas. and while returning, he died suddenly in New York City,Jan. 5, 1884. The United States House of Rep- resentatives passed resolutions of regard and trans- mitted them to Germany by the United States See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. l LARGO~LATROBE l government, but Prince Bismarck returned them as containing improper reflections on the internal affairs of the German Empire. LAST TESTAMENT, or VVILL, the last instru- ment in point of date, and it revokes prior wills so far as they are inconsistent. LAS VEGAS, a post-village and county-seat of San Miguel county, N. M., on the Pecos River, 70 miles east of Santa Fe. The Las Vegas Hot Springs are northwest of this village. LATEEN—SAIL, a large triangular sail common in the Mediterranean. LATHAM, ROBERT GORDON, an English philolo- gist and ethnologist, born at Billingsborough, in Lincolnshire, in 1812, died in 1888. After studying medicine he became assistant physician in the Mid- dlesex hospital. Then he traveled in Norway and studied the Scandinavian idioms. In 1840 he was made professor of Englisl1 literature in University College, London. He published Norway and the Norwegians; Treatise on the English Language; Nat- ural History of the Varieties of Manlcincl, including Man and His M2'gratt'ons; Ethnology of Europe, and Nationalttz'es of Europe (1863). Latham also edited Johnson’s English D'iet2'onar'g (1870). LATIN CHURCH, the Roman Catholic or WVest- ern Church as distinguished from the Greek Cath- olic of the West were called Latins because from early times down to the Reformation they every- where used Latin as their oificial language. LATIN CROSS, a cross with the lower limb con- siderably longer than the other three limbs. LATIN EMPIRE, the name iven to that por- tion of the Byzantine empire w iich was seized in 1204 by the Crusaders who made Constantinople their capital. It was overthrown by the Greeks in 1261. LATITUDINARIANS: in church history, a name applied by contemporaries to a school of theolo- gians within the English church iii the latter half the 17th century. They strove to unite the dissent- ers with the Church by insisting only on those doc- trines which were held by both. The school was represented by a succession of well-known Cam- bridge divines, who attempted to construct a phil- osophy of religion at once free and conservative, in which the rights of faith and the claims of specula- tive intellect each have free scope. LATI-IROBE, a post-borough of VVestmoreland county, Pa., forty-one miles east of Pittsburgh, on the Loyalhanna Creek, at the junction of the Penn- sylvania and the Ligonier Valley railroads. It con- tains a convent and St. Vincent’s College, has large coke and coal companies, and manufactories of paper, flour and machinery. LATROBE, BENJAMIN HENRY, an American arch- itect, born in Yorkshire, England, i11 1764, died at New Orleans, La., in 1820. After being educated in a Moravian Seminary in Saxony and at the Univer- sity of Leipzig he served in the Prussian army as a cornet of I-Iussars and was twice wounded in severe actions. Having resigned his commission he re- turned to England, became an architect, and in 1789 was made surveyor of the public oflices in Lon- don. In 1796 he came to the United States. La- trobe was engineer of the James River and Appo- matox Canal, built the penitentiary in Richmond, the Bank of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, the Schuylkill water works ( 1800), which supply Phila- delphia with water, the Roman Catholic cathedral in Baltimore, etc. He completed the capitol at Washington in 1811, and after it was burned by the British in 1814 he was called to rebuild it. In 1812 he became interested with Fulton in steamboating on the \Vestern waters, and built the “Buffalo” at Pittsburgh, the fourth steamer that descended the LATROBE--—LAVELEYE 975 Ohio River. At the time of his death Latrobe was engaged in erecting works to supply New Orleans with water. LATROBE, BENJAMIN HENRY, an American en- gineer, son of the preceding, born at Philadelphia in 1807, died at Baltimore in 1878. After studying law, and becoming a barrister, he soon abandoned the profession and became an engineer of the Bal- timore & Ohio Railroad, assisting in locating its VVashington branch and other divisions. In 1842 Latrobe became the chief-engineer of this road, and as such he completed it from Harper’s Ferry, across the Alleghenies to lVheeling. He also built other roads, was consulting engineer of the Hoosac tunnel, and one of the advisory board to whom John A. Roebling submitted his plans of the Brooklyn bridge. LATTEN (Fr. Zaton, “brass”), a term specially ap- plied to sheet-brass but also used of sheet-tin, tinned iron-plate, and any metal in tin sheets, as gold latten. LATTICE LEAF, also called Lace Leaf, (Ouvir- andra_fenestraZis), an aquatic plant of the natural order Juncaginewf The plant is a native of Mada- ascar, growing on the margin of running streams. The leaves, in radiating clusters, float immediately under the surface of the shallow water. Their peculiar lattice-like structure is due to the absence of the cellular tissue which fills the space between the nerves and veins of ordinary leaves. The flower stems rise to the surface of the water and there divide into two spikes of flowers. The yam-like root is edible. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 170. LATUDE, HENRI MAsERs DE, a French prisoner of State, born at Montagnac, in Languedoc, March 23, 1725, died J an. 1, 1805. A young artillery oflicer, he sought to make himself conspicuous by reveal- ing to Madame de Pompadour a plot to poison her. The plot was discovered to be of his own contriving, and he was sent to the Bastile in 1749. In spite of ingenious efiorts to escape, he remained in prison till 1777, when he was released on condition of liv- ing in his native village. But having come to Paris again, he was imprisoned till 1784. \Vhen the Rev- olution broke out the case was brought before the public and used as a means of exciting hatred against the old régime. In 1793 a court awarded him 60,000 livres in damages to be paid by the heirs of Madame de Pompadour. LAUNITZ, RORERT EBERHARD, an American sculptor, born at Riga, Russia, in 1806, died at New York in 1870. After studying under Thor- waldsen at Rome, Italy, he settled in New York in 1828, and became the first instructor of Thomas Crawford. He was made a member of the National Academy in 1833. Launitz executed the Battle monument at Frankfort, Ky.; the Pulaski monu- ment at Savannah, Ga.; the monument to Gen. G. A. Thomas, at Troy, N. Y., and other similar works, many of which are in Greenwood cemetery, Brook- lyn. Launitz has been called the father of monu- mental art in America. LAURACE./E, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of trees or shrubs, divided by modern authors into four tribes. the Perseaeezr, Listeaceze, Cassytheae, and Hernandiew. The order contains about nine hundred species, mostly tropi- cal. An aromatic and fragrant character pervades the order, and amongst its products are cassia, cinnamon, camphor, and many valuable drugs and timber-woods. The sassafras. bay, and a few other shrubs and trees of the United States are lauraceous. LAUREL, AMERICAN, a genus of plants, see KAL- MIA in these Revisions and Additions. LAURENTIAN MOUNTAINS, the principal range of British America, extending from Labra- dor to the Arctic Ocean, a distance of about thirty-five hundred miles. It forms the water- shed between Hudson Bay, the St. Lawrence, and the great lakes, and between the same bay and the Mackenzie River. The general elevation of the Laurentian range is from 1,500 to 1,600 feet; some peaks about the Saguenay attain a height of 4,000 feet. The fundamental series of rocks, called the Laurentian system by Sir William Logan, is of extremely remote geologic era. LAURIUH, a range of hills forming the south- east portion of Attica, Greece, famous in ancient times for rich mines of silver, lead and zinc. The mines at one time were supposed to be ex- hausted and were deserted. Since 1863 however, the scoriee and refuse ore have been worked with profit, and the mines themselves have been re- opened. They are connected with the port of Ergasteria by a railway seven miles long. LAVAL—MONTMORENCY, FR.~iN<;oIs XAVIER DE, first Canadian Roman Catholic bishop, born at Laval, France, in 1623, died at Quebec in 1708. He studied at the College of La Fleche, and received the tonsure at the age of nine. Being heir to the title and estates of his family, he resigned all his rights in favor of a younger brother. After finish- ing his theological studies at Paris he was ordained in 1646. In 1657 the king nominated him for the see of Quebec, but his consecration was delayed till 1658. His title was vicar apostolic of Quebec and bishop of Petraea in partibus. He reached New France in 1659. organized parishes there and re- lieved the Jesuits of their charges as pastors of parishes. In 1662 he returned to France to obtain missionaries and means for his diocese. Coming back to Canada in the next year he set about build- ing a large church at Quebec, and founding a “grand seminaire” for the education of priests, and a“petit seminaire” as a preparatory college. In 1670 the vicariate of Quebec was erected into a titular bishopric. and Laval returned to France in 1672 to obtain the bulls of consecration. Having come back as bishop of Quebec in 1675, he laid the foundation of the Seminary of the Holy Family, which was to take the place of the two seminaries he had founded before. and gave all his property for its support. In 1688 he resigned the adminis- tration of his diocese and retired to the seminary he had erected. Laval was a man of pure, upright and devoted character. His name is commemor- ated in Laval University at Quebec. The Roman Catholic Church in Canada has petitioned the pope for his canonization. LAVER, a name given to several kinds of sea- weed used as food, especially Porplzyre zvulgaris and P. Zaciniata (sometimes called Sloke) of the sub- group Florzdeae, or red sea-weeds. They consist of a very thin purple frond, which is not gelatinous. Laver is regarded as useful in scrofulous affections and glandular tumors, a property which it prob- ably owes to iodine. LAVELEYE, EMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE, a Belgian economist. born at Bruges in 1822. After studyin law at Ghent he devoted himself to economica studies, and has been since 1858 a regular contribu- tor to the Revue des Dear Mondes. In 1864 he was made professor of political economy in the Univer- sity of Liege (Liittich). Laveleye has published Mcmo'z're sur la Zcmgue et la Littérature Prorencales; Histoire des Rois francs; L’Ensez'gvwmem‘ oblhyatoi/'e,' La Question d’Or; Les Formes da Gomrrnemeizt dans Zes Sociétés Modernes; De la Propriété ez‘ ses Formes Prinzit1'oes,- Le Pr0testa'm‘1'sm et Ie Caz‘hoZz'c2'sm; L’A fri- que contraie, and L’IfaZie actuelle (1881). In politics he is a moderate liberal, and in political economy a moderate protectionist. 976 LAW Y the term “law” we understand here the body of rules and regulations laid down by the au- thorities of a State for governing its citizens, admin- istering justice, preserving social order and advanc- ing the general good. A law must be enforced by the physical power of the State, else it becomes useless, or even a mockery. It is therefore evident that no “civil law” can exist without a “civil gov- ernment” capable of enforcing it. “Civil society” is the consorting of men together, not under volun- tary rules, but under an organized government capable of exercising the power to enforce the code of compulsory laws laid down by the ruling power of the State. lVithout such laws and a strong gov- ernment behind them civil society could not exist. A “voluntary society” would incontinently drop to pieces, because the excitement of passion, the in- stincts of selfishness and greed and the blindness of judgment where our own interests are at stake. would result in anarchy and the success of the stronger against the weaker. Men and women are no angels under the present dispensation. They have not the laws in their hearts when their inter- ests are at variance with the general good. The laws of a State may be prescribed by an au- tocrat, or by a legislative body, or by the mass of the citizens in general assembly, or they may have arisen from custom and usage, or from the decrees of the courts of justice; in all cases they are only de facto laws when the physical power of the State is put forth for their vindication and enforcement. VVhen, during turbulent, revolutionary excitement, the power of the State is paralyzed and unable to enforce the laws, then we have a state of lawless- ness, of anarchy; brute force rules. Civil society is then broken to pieces. Then we realize that the laws, together with their proper enforcement, are the bonds which hold civil society together; that social happiness, industrial progress and personal advancement depend on properly executed civil and criminal laws. Without laws there would be no security. If crime should go unpunished, the criminal class would have full sway, the weak would be at the mercy of the strong, life and prop- erty would have no value. Law is the basis of all civilization, of refinement, of decency, of education, of science and intelligence, of the arts, the ameni- ties and embellishments of society. Without laws we should have barbarism, even savageism, and all the pleasant things on which our happiness hinges would become impossible. 'When we move among our fellow-men we are hardly aware of the omnipotent influence of the law. We see order, quiet, peace; the uninterrupted pursuit of peoples, trades and occupations ; services are rendered willingly and even cheerfully; in business transactions trust is reposed by one man in another; all work out the constant evolution of human happiness. What causes this orderly on- ward movement? It is the law; the ever-present consciousness of its requirements, of its equity, of its justness and of its power. The law is in, over, under and behind every human action. It governs and controls every movement, although we hardly perceive it. \Ve feel its protection when we deliver goods to a man in exchange for a slip of paper ac- knowledging the receipt of the goods; when we render services to another, sometimes very hard and even dangerous services, and go to our homes in the evening without even having seen the party for whom we have exerted our strength during the day. We feel its protection when we entrust our earnings to a savings-bank, or when we draw a bill of credit and start with it on an European tour. We feel the law’s ever-present watchfulness when we lie down to sleep in rooms whose locks and keys may be picked with the greatest ease by any bur- glar and robber. It is the all-powerful law that makes us feel secure in the possession of our lands and tenements after we have received and recorded a deed for the same. In ordinary conduct con- formity to the law’s rules and requirements is pur- sued as a second nature. Only one business trans- action out of a million requires the arbitration of a court. Law is therefore not an abstract and dead idea, to be unearthed by students. attorneys and judges; it is a living force, ever active in restraining, regu- lating and moulding society, and in stamping its form and spirit upon every business transaction. In studying the law of a country we study the form, the spirit, the tendencies, the pursuits and charac- teristics of society in that country, and vice oersa, these various aspects of its society give us consid- erable knowledge of a country’s laws. It is there- fore of great importance that no hasty and incon- siderate legislation should take place, and that every bill should be discussed and weighed in all its bearings before it is made a law of the land. For this the constitutions of the United States and of the several States make ample provision. We have in our federal government the House of Rep- resentatives, which represents the people as indi- viduals, and the Senate. which represents the sev- eral States as communities. Every bill is discussed in both houses. When both concur in a measure there is still the President, who can veto, and thereby annul it, unless it is re-enacted by a two- thirds vote in both houses. In the several States the governor has the veto power. This bi-cameral system of law-making, combined with the presiden- tial or gubernatorial concurrence required for each law, is calculated to produce only wise and bene- ficial laws, if any human agency can produce them. In law-making there are three fundamental prin-I ciples to be followed: (1) every law must be founded on reason, justice and good morals; (2) every wrong must be redressed by giving to the in- jured party a proper remedy against the wrong- doer, and (3) when a question of right and wrong has once been solemnly decided by the highest judges of the State, the rules of that decision must be followed in similar cases subsequently occurring. The “common law” has been developed in England under these fundamental principles, and was after- Wards introduced into our own country, where it has lately grown to quite noble proportions. But the common law is not adequate to all exigencies of our advanced state of society. We need laws for the establishment of territorial and municipal jurisdiction; for the establishment of tribunals for the administration of the laws, and of institutions for promoting the general good and maintaining public order; laws which define crimes, misde- meanors and other offenses, and mete out the proper punishment for them; laws for the proceed- ings in courts, in the transaction of business, in the administration of estates, and laws for the thou- sand other things that cannot be foreseen nor fore- told. To decide how far the written laws shall extend is, of course, a matter of legislative discretion. LAWES—-LAWN Y Some legislators want to make written laws for every legal phase that may turn up, and abrogate the common law altogether; others again want to limit the written law to those matters which re- quire positive regulation, and leave all other sub- jects to the plastic rules of the common law. In this case large room for the exercise of reason and judgment must be left to the tribunals. Their de- cisions will add to the written code; and, in the course of time, the accumulation of adjudicated de- cisions, growing out of the actual exigencies of so- ciety, will furnish better rules for the guidance of courts and the people than any a priori compilation of rules could possibly furnish. These “precedents” constitute the “jurisprudence of the state ;” they are the larger part of the common law of the country. They are based upon reason and justice as applied to actual occurences in recent years. For this reason they are the most valuable guides in similar cases. Although they were not enacted by any legislative body, the decisions of the highest State and United States courts are “laws” of the land to all intents and purposes. And it is well that they are laws, because they are the image of the country’s progress; the application of the legal idea to new industrial and social methods of doing things. A fruitful source of law is custom and usage. A custom is based on the temper, genius and habits of a people. It will be relied on in business trans- actions, and can afterwards not be conveniently deviated from. It thus becomes the "practical law” of the land, and the courts will decide cases in conformity with it. The jurisprudence arising from this source is also part of the common law. Still another source of law is the adoption by new States of the entire code of laws of some older State. Thus, in Louisiana, a civil code was adopted in 1808, based on the Spanish and French laws which had previously prevailed in the colony; and in 1825 it was revised and made to conform more closely with the civil code of France, called the Code Napoleon. But when this code fails to furnish a rule applicable to a case in hand, resort is always had to the civil law as taught by the French schools of jurisprudence, which is really a great fountain of common law. From the nature and origin of laws it appears that they are the natural outgrowths of a nation’s development, like its language and industry. They express the nation’s “sense of justice,” as the lan- guage expresses its thought. In the Middle Ages land was distributed and held upon the tenure of military service, and was made to descend to the eldest son as the person most capable of perform- ing the service required. This was at that time just, as well as expedient. Since laws are founded upon the immutable principles of justice and right, they cannot be arbitrary rules laid down according to a legislator’s whims. The study of law or juris- prudence is therefore a real science, and is essen- tially the same in all civilized countries. Law is generally divided into written and umvrit- ten law. The former is formulated in precise and fixed terms, is committed to writing or print and promulgated as the absolute law of the realm. It includes all the statutes enacted by the legislative bodies, as our Congress and State legislatures, and the ordinances of the county and municipal coun- cils acting within the scope of their several juris- dictions. Ummrz'tten law is the common law, includ- ing the decisions of the highest courts, and that part of the law which has grown up from custom and usage. According to the subjects which the law covers there are several different branches of the law. Public law treats on matters of public ' 2—25 977 concern; such as the form of government and the political divisions of the State, the assignment of powers to the subdivisions of the government, the establishment of public institutions, of administra- tive boards and of courts of justice, the provisions for the punishment of crimes and misdemeanors, and for the execution of the laws in general. Pri- vate laws relate to the vindication of private rights; as those concerning men’s persons, reputations, liberties, estates and the redress of private wrongs inflicted by one individual upon another. In the department of public law there are several distinct branches of law, independent of one an- other. These are International Law, Constitutional Law, Administrative Law and Criminal Law. On Inrnnnxrroxxn LAW, see Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 190, and in these Revisions and Additions the arti- cle INTERNATIONAL Law, PRIVATE. On CONSTITU- TIONAL LAW, see Britannica, Vol. VI, p. 309. On CRIMINAL LAW, see Britannica, Vol. VI, pp. 586-590, and Vol. IX, p. 12-l (FEUERBACH). ADMINISTRATIVE LAW’ is that branch which provides for the establishment of,those public institutions and works that are created or carried on for the benefit and protection of society, such as armies, navies, fortresses, light-houses, harbors, piers, bridges, high-ways, railroads, canals, mails, prisons, hospitals, poor-houses, asylums, universities and other schools, and benevolent corporations. All of them have a beneficent action, and advance civilization. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 35-1- 370. LAVVES, SIR Jonx BENNETT, an English agri- cultural experimenter, born at Bothamsted, near St. Albans, Harts, in 1814. After studying chem- istry in London, and inheriting his father’s es- tate, he began in 1884 to experiment upon the best methods of raising farm crops and the use- ful effects of fertilizers. In this work he had the assistance of the eminent chemist Dr. J. H. Gilbert, who became associated with Mr. Lawes in 1843. The results of these experiments have been published in a series of reports and papers, which are everywhere acknowledged as being of the highest value. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have also made experiments on the best feed for live stock, on drainage, and sewerage, in animal and vegetable physiology, and in various other departments of rural economy. Mr. Lawes was made a baronet in 1888. He has endowed his agricultural station with £100,000. LAIVN (from the Old English word launde, land), a grass-plot situated near a mansion or dw elling. It is mostly situated in front of the house; but large lawns are sometimes at the sides or in the rear. In the country, large lawns look best if they are sloping and undulating. In cities, lawns are generally small and level. In making a lawn, we have first to see to the grading of the plot, and to cover it with good soil, not too rich in manure. The soil must be well raked and pulverized, and then good grass seed sewn on it, and the plot often sprinkled afterwards. If the ground is heavy and damp, we must drain it with porus tiles. To obtain a fine, velvety lawn, it is necessary to roll the plot, and when the grass grows up, we must clip it frequently. The clipping is done by means of a lawn mower. But in small city plots it is oftener done by means of sickles or grass-hooks. They do very well in such cases. The quickest way of getting a small front lawn is by cutting good turf about two inches thick and transplanting it to the plot. If it is well irrigated and not walked over, the turf will soon unite with the soil. It is cheaper than preparing the soil and buying the seed sold for “lawn grass,” which is a 978 mixture of various kinds of grass-seeds, the odorous vernal-grass being often an ingredient. LA‘/VN-SPRINKLER, a contrivance for sprink- ling a lawn or garden gently and evenly. The most common form consists of an upright pipe sup- ported on a stand, and having an attachment for a hose at the lower end and a swivel-collar at its top. From the swivel-collar project several short branches with small perforations, near the ends, all of which turn in the same cyclical direction with respect to the center. I/Vhen the water is turned on, its escape from these holes causes the swivel-collar to revolve in a horizontal plane, and the escaping water is made to spread in drops over acircular portion of the grass-plot. The swivel- collar is caused to rotate by the pressure of the rapid streams of water against the air. LAWRENCE, JOHN, an American statesman, born in Cornwall, England, in 1750, died at New York in 1810. After removing to America in 1767 he was admitted to the bar of New York in 1772, became aide-de-camp to Gen. Washington in 1777, and presided in the same year as judge-advocate general at the trial of Major John André. In 1784 Lawrence was elected to Congress; in 1794 he was made United States judge for the New York dis- trict; and two years later he was elected to the United States Senate, over which he presided in 1798. He was an ardent patriot, and the personal friend of IVashington and Hamilton. LAIVRENCE, a city, the county-seat of Douglas county, Kansas, on the south bank of the Kansas River. It lies on the Union Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the Southern Kansas railroads, and is also the terminus of two branch railway lines. The city is the center of trade for a fertile and populous section of the State, having a favorable situation between Topeka and Kansas City, M0. The Kansas River affords here a good water-power, utilized by means of a dam. The manufactures are therefore in a thriving con- dition, the most important of them being flour, woodenware, castings, furniture, and carriages. This city is the seat of the Kansas State University, a large and prosperous school which occupies a commanding site on Mount Oread. Population in 1890, 9,975. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 370. LAWVRENCE, a city in Essex county, Mass., sit- uated on both banks of the Merrimac River, but principally on the north side. Itis twenty-six miles north of Boston. At this point the Merrimac River falls about 80 feet. Its water power is made available by a splendid granite dam nearly 1,000 feet long, and by canals, one on each side of the river. Its great natural advantages have given Lawrence its industrial importance. The town is connected with Boston by the Boston & Maine, and Boston & Lowell railroads, and with Man- chester, N. H., by the Manchester & Law- rence Railroad. Branch railroads extend to Lowell and Salem. There are numerous cotton and woolen mills here, some of the largest in the world, besides establishments for the manufacture of machinery, boilers and steam-engines, boots and shoes, paper, and clothing. The high-school building is a costly and imposing edifice. The town is lighted by gas and electricity, and supplied with water from the Merrimac. Population, 44,654. See Britannica,Vol. XIV, p. 370. LAWRENCE, ABBOTT, an American merchant, born at Groton, Mass., in 1792, died at Boston in 1855. At the age of fifteen he was bound an appren- tice to his brother Amos, and in 1814 he became a partner in the firm of A. & A. Lawrence, which for many years conducted a prosperous business in the sale of foreign cotton and woolen goods on com- LAWN-SPRINKLER-—LAWSON mission. They were also the selling agents of the Lowell manufacturers. Abbot was an advocate of protection to American industries, and an earnest supporter of the Whig party. He served several terms in Congress. From 1849 to 1852 he served as United States minister to Great Britain; and per- formed afterwards an important service in the set- tlement of the fishery question, which threatened to lead to serious complications. He founded the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, giving and bequeathing together $100,000 for this purpose, left $50,000 i'or the erection of model lodg- ing houses, and established many prizes and scholarships in the public schools. LAIVRENCE, Amos, an American merchant, born at Groton, Mass., in 1786, died at Boston in 1852. After clerking in a country store he became a dry-goods merchant in Boston in 1807. Seven years later he entered into partnership with his brother Abbot, who had been his chief clerk for the previous five years. The business operations of the firm were highly successful. In 1830 the brothers Lawrence established a cotton-mill at Lowel1,l\/lass. After a serious illness Amos retired from the busi- ness in 1881, and devoted his life afterwards chiefly to deeds of charity, giving liberally to educational institutions. He established and maintained a child’s infirmary i11 Boston and gave $10,000 for the completion of the Bunker Hill monument. His public benefactions summed up to $689,000. LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED, an English auth or, born in 1827, died in Sept. 1876. He was educated at Rugby and at Baliol College, Oxford, where he graduated with honors in 1848, and four years later was admitted to the bar. He was the author of Guy Livingston, Sword and Gown, Barren Ifonor, and several other popular novels. LAWVRENCE, JAMES, an American naval ofiicer, born at Burlington, N. J., in 1781, died at sea in 1813. In 1802 he was made lieutenant and took part in the war with Tripoli,where he distinguished himself on several occasions. In 1811 he was pro- moted to a captaincy, and made commander of the United States gunboat Hornet. In a fight with the English brig-of-war Peacock off Demerara, Law- rence sank the latter after a fire of fifteen minutes. For this victory he received the thanks of Congress. In 1813, as commander of the frigate Chesapeake, Lawrence had an engagement near Boston with the British frigate Shannon under Capt. P. V. Broke. Lawrence was shot, and the Chesapeake was captured in spite of his dying cry: “Don’t give up the ship!” on being carried below. LAVVRENCE, SIR VVILLIAM, F. R. S., (1783— 1867), an English surgeon. He became in 1815 one of the professors of anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons, and in 1829 a lecturer on surgery to St. Bartholomew’s. He was author of important works on The Treatment of Ilermla (1807) ; An Intro- ductv'on to Comparative Anatomy and Physiology (1819) ; and A Treatise on the Venereal Diseases of the Eye (1831). LAWRENCEBURG, a city, the capital of Dear- born county, Ind., situated on the Ohio River, and on the Ohio & Mississippi, and Indianapolis, Cin- cinnati & Lafayette railroads, at the southern terminus of the Whitewater Canal, twenty-two miles below Cincinnati. It has a number of furni- ture manufactories. Population in 1890, 4,280. LAWSON, SIR W1LFR1D,baronet, born at Brayton Hall,Cumberland, Sept. 4, 1829, and succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his father in 1867. He became at an early age an enthusiastic advocate of the temperance movement, and returned in 1859 as member for Carlisle, lost his seat for that borough in consequence of the introduction into the LAWYER--LEAF-INSECT House of Commons of his “bill for the legislative suppression of the liquor traffic” in 1864. He was, however, again returned in 1868 for the same city, which he continuously represented till the general election of 1885. In the following year he was re- turned for the Cochermouth division of Cumber- land. Sir ‘Wilfrid Lawson is the leader of the United Kingdom Temperance Alliance, and its spokesman in the House of Commons, where, as in the provinces, he is very popular. He has thrice successfully proposed his local option resolution. LAIVYER. See ATTORNEY in these Revisions and Additions. LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY, G. C. B., an Eng- lish traveler and diplomatist, born in Paris, March 5, 1817, passed his boyhood in Italy, and commenced his active career as correspondent of a London paper at Constantinople. VV'ith the assistance of Sir S. Canning, in 1845, he began to make a series of dis- coveries of Assyrian antiquities, of which he gave an account in his well-known works Nlneoelz and its Remains, and Monuments of Nineveh. Mr. Layard subsequently abandoned oriental research for diplomacy. In 1852 he sat as member for Ayles- bury, and in 1860 for Southwark; in 186l—66 he was under secretary of state for foreign affairs, and there after chief commissioner of works. He was appointed ambassador at Madrid, in 1869, and in 1877 was sent as plenipotentiary to that city. In 1887 he published his Early Adventures in Persia, Babylonia, and Susia/ea. LAY DAYS, a term used in the law of shipping to denote a stipulated number of days allowed to a freighter or charterer of a vessel for shipping or un- shipping cargo. In the absence of custom to the contrary, Sunday is included in the computation of lay days at the port of discharge. LAZZARONI (Ital. laezaro, “leper ;” probably from their being outcasts or separate from other citizens), until lately a special class of the inhabi- tants of Naples. They had no fixed dwelling places or secure means of subsistance, but occa- sionally obtained employment as messengers, etc. They performed an important part in all the revo- lutions and movements in Naples, and annually elected a chief who was formally recognized by the government. LEA, HENRY CHARLES, an American author. born at Philadelphia in 1825. At the age of 17 he entered the publishing house of his father, of which he afterwards became the principal. He has pub- lished several papers on chemistry and conchology, notably Descriptz'on of New Species of Shells. During the civil war he organized a municipal system of bounties for recruits to encourage volunteering, and wrote much for periodicals. Since 1857 he has devoted special attention to mediaeval history, and wrote Superstz'tion and Force; Essays on the lVager of Battle; The lVager of Law; The Ordeal and Tortare; Historical Sketches of Sacerdotal Celibacy; Studies in Church History; The Rise of the Temporal Power; Benefit of Clergy; E.rcom'mum'cat'ion; The Early Church and Slavery, and A Elistory of the In- quisition of the Middle Ages (1888). LEA, Isaac, an American naturalist, born at Wilmington, Del., in 1792, died at Philadelphia in 1886, of Quaker stock. His mother fostered his natural fondness for botany, and his friend Lard- ner Vanuxem encouraged his interest in miner- alogy and geology. In 1815 he became a member of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and from 1853 to 1858 he was its president. Having married Matthew Carey’s daughter he became in 1821 a partner in Carey’s publishing house, and con- tinued in the book publishing business until 1857. But he devoted his leisure hours to science. In 1827 979 Lea commenced the publication of a series of memoirs on fresh-water and land shells. His first paper was on the genus Unto. His specimens of this genus alone number 10.000. He read before the Philadelphia societies at least one hundred and fifty memoirs on natural history. Among his pub- lished writings we mention Contributions to Geology; Fossil Footrnarks; Observations on the Gem/s Unio (1827-74). This last work forms thirteen quarto volumes magnificently illustrated. In 1884 he en- tertained the American Association of Science and their guests of the British Association at his resi- dence at Long Branch. Lea bequeathed his valuable collection of fresh-water shells, land and marine shells, minerals, fossils, and geological specimens to the National Museum in VVashington. Lea discovered the footprints of Clepsysaaras Penn- slyvanicus, a large saurian, in the red sand stone of Pottsville, Pa., 700 feet below the conglomerate of the coal formation, and found subsequently many bones and teeth of this fossil animal. This dis- covery was of great interest, for the existence of an air-breathing animal as low as the coal measures had not at that time been definitely accepted. LEAD, a metal, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 374-379; Vol. XVI, pp. 58, 382, 465; as a chemical element, Vol. V, p. 531 ; production of in the United States, Vol. XXIII, p. 817; in Missouri, Vol. XIV, p. 525; in England, Vol. VIII, p. 228; in Spain, Vol. I, p. 593; Vol. XIV, p. 653; Vol. XXII, p. 301 ; spectrum of, Vol. XXII, p. 376; as a poison, Vol. VI. p. 140; Vol. XIX, p. 278. The world’s production of lead in 1890, is estimat- ed at 460,000 tons, and that of the United States was according to the last census, 153,709 tons. The English product has lately decreased, while that of Germany, Spain, and the United States has been steadily increasing. On the subject of white car- bonate lead, see \VHITE LEAD, in these Revisions and Additions. LEADVILLE, a mining town, the county-seat of Lake county, Colo., the second city in size and in1- portance in the State. The city is situated near the Arkansas River, on California Gulch, just west of the Mesquite range, about seventy miles south- west of Denver City, in a straight line, but 150 miles by the Union Pacific Railroad, and 277 by the Denver & Rio Grande road. The town site is 10,200 feet above sea-level, and the mountains east, north, and west reach a height of 14,000 feet. The surrounding scenery is grand and imposing. Lead- ville is the leading silver-mining center of Colorado. It is surrounded by the richest mines furnishing carbonate-of-lead ores ; but other silver-bearing ores are also abundant. Leadville has several smelting and ore-reduction works, also several stamp-mills, where gold-bearing quartz is comminuted and the precious metal is amalgamated. Placer claims were in California Gluch since 1860. The city of Lead- ville was incorporated i11 1878. Its population in 1880 was 14,820, but in 1890 it was only 11,159. The decrease is accounted for by the removal of some of the large smelting works to Denver, Pueblo, and Colorado Springs. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 379. LEAF—INSECT, or \VALKING—LEAF (Phyllium). a remarkable genus of orthopterous insects, of the family Phasmidae, natives of the East Indian region. The abdomen is flattened out, and covered in the wingless females by a pair of wing-covers which together look like a green leaf; the legs are also flattened, green and leaf-like. The male has func- tional wings, but is also mimetic. As the insects live among leaves and are sluggish, their detailed resemblance to the surroundings cannot be usefully rotective. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 152; Vol. VI, p. 343. 980 LEAF—ROLLER, the larva of any tortricid moth which makes a case for itself by rolling up the leaves of plants. The number of genera and species is great, and as a rule the insects are very destructive of useful vegetation. Common leaf- rollers of the United States are the strawberry leaf- roller, Plzoxoptifls Fragariae, and the cotton or rose leaf-roller,Lozoz'wm'a Gossypicma or Cacaecia Rosa- cecma. The latter works on the leaves of cotton, rose, clover, birch, apple, and many other trees and ants. LEAPING—FISH (Salarias Tridactylus), a curious little fish of the Blenny family, abounding on the coast of Ceylon. It is very nimble, and by the aid of the pectoral and ventral fins and the gill-covers it moves across the damp sand, ascends the roots of mangroves, and runs up wet rocks in quest of flies. Itlis three or four inches long and of a dark brown co or. LEATHER (See Britannica, Vol. XIV. pp. 380-91). In America hemlock bark is mostly used for tan- ning sole and upper leathers. For making Hor- rocco leather the leaves of the Sumach (Rims) are employed ; also tanning extracts, prepared from oak and hemlock barks mixed, for the so-called “ union tannage.” Knapp’s process of tanning with ferric salts, and Dr. Heinzerling’s method of quick tan- ning by means of chromates, with an addition of aluminium salts, chloride of sodium, etc., have re- ceived but little attention from practical tanners here. although making some progress in Germany. In Sweden an electric tanning process, invented by J . D. Abom has been successfully tried. Ox-hides suitable for sole-leather were hung into tanning liquor between two copper plates, which served as the electrodes. An alternating current from a Siemens’ dynamo, having an electromotive force of fifty volts and a strength of one hundred amperes, was passed into these plates. The hides were com- pletely tanned in from fifty to ninety hours, accord- ing to the strength of the tan-liquor employed. An electric tanning process of another inventor, who moves the hides mechanically during the operation of tanning, is said to make some progress in France. But we have no reliable statistics in either of these cases. Among tanners it is an accepted maxim that no time abridging process can produce good sole-leather, because for the thorough tanning of thick hides a slowly operating influence, and there- fore a long time,is necessary. The preparation of the skins for the reception of the tanning differs very little in the various meth- ods of tanning. After cleaning the hides from ad- hering dirt, blood, etc., they are “ soaked” in vats containing clear, cold water, for a time differing from three to ten days. After soaking, the hides are “softened” in a mill similar to the fulling-mills 'in woolen factories. This mill is called the“hide- mill.” Calf and goat skins, however, are softened in a revolving drum, termed a “pin-mill,” because its interior periphery is furnished with numerous oak pins upon which the skins fall by force of gravity. This process takes from ten to forty-five minutes. Small skins, such as those of kids and lambs, in- tended for glove leather, are softened by working 1]:§hem over a clean wooden beam with a dull fleshing nife. Swelling and depilating are two simultaneous processes. By the “swelling” process the cellular tissue, in which the hair is rooted, is so far loosened as to allow the hair to be removed by subsequent mechanical manipulation. At the same time the epidermis becomes sufficiently loosened to be read- ily taken off. The principal processes used for “de- pilating” are the cold-sweating process, the liming process, and the chemical treatment. LEAF-ROLLER--LEATHER The “cold-sweating” process of depilating is chiefly used in New York, New Hampshire, and Pennsylvania. The hides are allowed to hang in a vault having a temperature of 500-570 F. for about ten days or more until they ferment and partly putrefy at their surfaces. The products of decomposition are afterwards removed by the quick change of air in the vault in which the hides are suspended. Depilating by “liming” is done by steeping the skins in milk of lime. The strength of the lime bath varies greatly. The skins remain in the bath, with frequent handlings, until the hair is loosened. In the “chemical treatment” sulphide of sodium is mostly employed. The skins are placed in a 1 per cent. solution of the sulphide for about five days, with frequent handling. This process is quicker than the liming process. Various other ways of treating the softened hides chemically have been tried with different degrees of success. For “unhairing” the skins are placed on the beam and the hair and epidermis are then scraped off with a knife or a machine. The McDonald unhair- ing machine, for instance, is in practical operation in many large tanneries at Salem, Peabody, Wo- burn, and other Massachusetts towns. After the scarf-skin and the hair are removed the hide is “fleshed,” that is, the fatty matter and flesh are re- moved from the flesh side with a knife, called the “fleshing knife.” Afterwards the hides are im- mersed in a slightly acid solution which neutralizes any lime that has remained in the pores. Now the hides are placed one by one into the “lay-away” pits or vats, where the actual tanning takes place. Upon each one athin layer of ground bark is sprinkled, in order that the tan-liquor may circulate uniformly. About eighty-five hides are laid away in one “pack,” and supplied four or five times with fresh tan-liquor of successively increas- ing strength, about five months being required to tan the best qualities of sole-leather. For the fur- ther treatment, after tanned hides have been re- moved from the tan-pits or vats, see Britannica. Vol. XIV, p. 385. Tawing consists in dressing the skins with anti- septic material, so as to preserve them from decay. By this operation no chemical change is effected in the gelatine of the skins; hence tawed leather can be used in the manufacture of glue. In tawing the first process is careful washing; next comes dress- ing them with lime; then removing the hair or wool ; and lastly, steeping them in solutions of alum, salt, or other substances or mixtures, which convert the skins into leather. Another kind of dressing skins for leather is by treating them with oil. By hard rubbing with cod- fish oil, after the skin has been properly cleaned with lime, the oil works itself into the pores of the skin, displaces all the water therein contained, and becomes united with the skin’s material, ren- dering its texture peculiarly soft and spongy. “VVash-leather” or "chamois-leather” is so prepared and for this purpose the flesh-halves of split sheep- skins are chiefly used. Besides tanning and towing, many kinds of leather require the “currier’s,” or leather dresser’s art to bring them to the state of perfection required for the various trades. In “currying” almost every variety of leather requires some particular varia- tion of the process employed, although the object in all cases is to impart suppleness and a fine finish to the article. For Morocco leather, which is partly imported from France and the African coast of the Mediter- ranean, but now most largely manufactured in this country, the sheep-skins and split calf-skins are LEATHER-BOARD-LEAVENWORTII sewed together at the edges so as to form a bag, the grain side being outward. An opening is left at the hind shanks of the skin. These bags are then filled with sumac liquor, which is gently forced through the pores of the skin. This tanning opera- tion usually lasts only about three hours. After its completion the sewing thread is cut and drawn out and the refuse sumac material is removed from the skins, which are next washed in a revolving drum and hung up in an airy loft to dry. After re- moving them from the drying-loft the skins are made wet with soap-water and shaved on their flesh-side. Then they are again dried in the loft. Lastly they are separated into classes, one class of which is “stained” on the flesh side, and the other is “pebbled.” The Morocco leather made in this coun- try is usually classified thus: Imitation of French kid, brushed kid, glazed kid, pebbles, straight- grained goat, and oiled goat. For the “imitation of French kid” the skins are stained on the grain side with a black, sometimes made by boiling together four ounces of pulverized nut-galls, and two ounces of blue vitrol in one gal- lon of logwood liquor, and afterwards adding four quarts of vinegar saturated with iron. Several other kinds of black are employed. After being blacked by several successive applications of black- ing liquor the skins are dried, then oiled with sperm-oil and glazed two or three times according to the brightness of the finish desired. For the finishing of “brashed kid” the skins are blacked on the grain side with a preparation made by suspending five pounds of iron in twenty-five gallons of strong vinegar for four weeks, and then adding for each quart of this solution half a pint of bullock’s blood, either warm or coagulated. After being blacked with this preparation the skins are made wet with gum-water and then brushed with a soft brush. Next they are scraped on the flesh side with a steel slicker, and oiled on the grain side with the best of sperm-oil. For finishing “pebble-grained goat” and “straight- grained goat” the skins are seasoned and blacked with a preparation of bullock’s blood, logwood, boiled milk, water and a small quantity of vinegar black. After hanging in the drying-loft over night they are glazed, and then grained twice and oiled with sperm-oil. For “oiled goat” the skins are also blacked, and then stuffed on the flesh side with a dubbing composed of oil and tallow. After drying them the oiled skins are grained in various ways, then treated to a coat of dubbing on the grain side which is afterwards flattened down with a dull slicker, and lastly they are treated with a coat of fine sperm-oil. - For “dyeing leather” with aniline colors the skins are seldom mordanted, but simply steeped in the coloring solution, which is mostly aqueous. Alco- holic solutions are only used in exceptional cases. Morocco leather is remarkable for its softness, glossiness, and pliability. It is largely used for the uppers of ladies’ and children’s shoes, for fine book- bindings, carriage-linings, ocket-books, traveling- bags, toilet-cases, and port olios. The Germans call that kind of Morrocco which is dyed with bright colors by the distinctive name of “Saflian” leather; Morocco is only the black-finished kind mainly used for shoe work. Saflians are mostly red or yel- low. The leading places for the manufacture of these light and soft leathers in the United States are Philadelphia, Pa., Newark, N. J ., Wilmington. Del., and Lynn, Mass. The manufacture of leather is very widely dis- _ tributed in the United States, where, in 1880, there were 3,105 tanneries and 2,319 establishments for currying leather. The total capital invested was 981 sixty-seven millions of dollars; the total number of hands employed was 34,860. The materials used were valued at 145 millions of dollars, and the total products had a value of 185 millions of dollars. The wages earned by the workmen amounted to $14,- 050,000. The following twenty States produced tanned and curried leather to the amounts stated after their respective names: Massachusetts, thirty-seven mil- lions ; Pennsylvania, thirty-five millions; New York, thirty millions ; New Jersey, fourteen and five tenths millions; Maine, nine and seven tenths millions; Wisconsin, eight and eight tenths millions; Ohio. eight and two tenths millions; Illinois, seven and eight tenths millions; California, five and seven tenths millions; New Hampshire, four and five tenths millions; Michigan, three millions; Ken- tucky, three millions; Indiana, two and seven tenths millions; Tennessee, West Virginia and Maryland, two millions each; Vermont, one and six tenths millions; Virginia, one and two tenths millions; Rhode Island, eighty-five hundredths inillions; Missouri, seventy-five hundredths mil- Ions. For ARTIFICIAL LEATHER, which is largely sold under the name of LEATHERCID, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 391. LEATHER-BOARD, an imitation of sole leather much used in the manufacture of boots and shoes. It is made of leather scraps, old manila rope, hemp rope, rags, paper, etc., ground to a pulp and mixed with certain chemicals which render it more im- pervious to water than leather is. It is then run off, dried and pressed in the same manner as paper, and used as stiifenings for boots and shoes, also for toys, chair-bottoms, etc. It was first manufactured in this country. LEATHERWOOD, or Moosnwoon (Dirca palus- tris), a deciduous shrub three to six feet high, with the habit of a miniature tree, a native of North America. It belongs to the natural order Thyme- laceee. The bark and wood are tough, and in Canada the bark is used for ropes, baskets, etc. The leaves are lanceolate-oblong; the flowers are yellow and appear before the leaves. LEATHES, STANLEY, an English clergyman, born at Ellesborough, Buckinghamshire, in 1830. After being educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, he held several curacies in London, and in 1863 was made professor of Hebrew in King’s College, London. He became successively Boyle lecturer at London, Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge, Bamp- ton lecturer at Oxford and Warburtonian lecturer at Lincoln’s Inn. He was also one of the revisers of the Old Testament, and has published The Wit- ness of the Old Testament to Christ; Witness of St. Paul to Christ; Witness of St. John to Christ; Struct- ure of the Old Testament; The Gospel Its Own Witness; Religion of the Christ, Its Development; and The Christian Creed, Its Theory and Practice (1878). LEAVENWORTH, a city, the county-seat of Leav- enworth county, Kans., beautifully situated on the west bank of the Missouri River, about 30 miles northwest of Kansas City. It is the oldest town in the State. The extensive military establishment of Fort Leavenworth adjoins the city on the north. Eight railroads converge here, and a splendid iron railway bridge crosses the river. Leavenworth has a fine park, an ample water-supply, a good sys- tem of sewerage, street railways and a telephone exchange. Good bituminous coal is mined here, and fine building-stones are quarried. Among the thriving manufactories are flour, lumber, glucose, bricks, wagons, furniture and machinery. The town was incorporated in 1856. Population in 1890, 20,250. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 391. 982 LEAVITT, J osmm, an American journalist, born at Heath, Mass., in 1794, died in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1873. After practicing law at Putney, Vt., for some years, he studied theology at New Haven, and was ordained Pastor at Stratford, Conn., in 1825. In 1831 he founded the “New York Evangelist” to ad- vocate the revival system in the Presbyterian Church. As he was also prominent in the anti- slavery agitation, he had to flee for a time from New York. In 1837 Leavitt became editor of “The Emancipator,” which he removed to Boston in 1841. From 1844 to 1847 he was chairman of the National Committee of the Liberty Party. In 1848 he be- came the managing editor of the New York “Inde- pendent” and contributed to its pages for many ears. LEBANON, a city of St. Clair county, Ill., a sum- mer resort for the people of St. Louis, from which city it is 23 miles east. It is noted for its educa- tional advantages, is the seat of McKendree College (Methodist), organized in 1828, has churches, mills, a machine-shop, and various other manufactories. LEBANON, a city, the county-seat of Boone county, Ind., 26 miles northwest of Indianapolis. It has various factories and mills. Population, 3,676. LEBANON, a post-village, the county-seat of Marion county, Ky., on a railroad. It is a shipping point for various adjoining counties, and manu- factures carriages and furniture. A Baptist female college is here, two Roman Catholic academies and a high-school. Population, 2,805. LEBANON, a post-village, the county-seat of Laclede county, Mo., on the Atlantic & Pacific Railroad. It is a business center for the surround- ing region, is 185 miles southwest of St. Louis, and contains an excellent seminary. LEBANON, a village and township of Grafton county, N. H., on the Mascoma River, four miles from White River Junction, Vt. It manufactures furniture, iron castings. elastic sponges and agri- cultfiral implements. West Lebanon, on the Con- necticut River, is the seat of the Tilden Ladies’ Seminary. The village is furnished with water- power by the Mascoma River, and the town has railroad-shops and various industries. Population in 1880——village, 1,954; township, 3,354. LEBANON, a post-village, the county-seat of Warren county, Ohio, 30 miles northeast of Cin- cinnati. It has a national bank, a normal-school, an orphans’ home, a county infirmary and planing- mills. Population, 3,174. LEBANON, a post-village, the county-seat of Wilson county, Tenn. It has manufactories of woolen goods and flour and contains a business and telegraph college, two female seminaries, and is the seat of Cumberland University. LEBANON SPRINGS, a post-village and sum- mer resort of Columbia county, N. Y. It contains a mineral spring whose waters possess curative qualities in certain diseases. The water is suffici- ently abundent to furnish valuable motive-power. Thermometers and pharmaceutical preparations are made in the vicinity. There are several Shaker communities near thevillage, and a hotel at which Lafayette was a guest. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, . 436. P LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HABTPOLE, a British historian, born near Dublin, in 1838. After gradu- ating at Trinity College,Dublin, in 1859, he devoted himself to a literary career, but traveled exten- sively on the continent before he settled down in London. His chief literar work is History of the Rise and Influence of the pirit of Rationalism in Europe (1865). After this came a History of Euro- LEAVITT--LE CONTE pean Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne; and a History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1878-90). His works combine deep learning with elegance of style. LECOCQ, ALEXANDER CHARLES, a French mu- sician, born at Paris, June 3, 1832, and trained at the Conservatoire. He is regarded as the best successor of Auber in comic opera. His best- known works are La Fille ole Madame Angot, Girofle'- Girofla and Le Petit Duo. LECOMPTON, a post-village of Douglas county, Kan., on the south branch of Kansas River. It is the seat of Lane University (United Brethren). Formerly the village was the territorial capital of Kansas. LE CONTE DE LISLE, CHARLEs ll/IARIE, a French poet, born on the Island of Réunion, October 23, 1820. He was carefully educated, and after some years of travel settled to a literary life in Paris. In 1886 he succeeded to Victor Hugo’s chair at the Academy. His Poemes Antiques and Poésies Nouvel- les he collected as Poésies Completes in 1858. Other volumes are Polémes Barbares (1862) and Polémes Tragiques (1884). LE CONTE, JOSEPH, an American geologist, born in Liberty county, Ga., in 1823. After graduating at Franklin College, Athens, Ga., and obtaining his degree of M. D. at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, be practiced as a physician at Macon, Ga., for several years. In 1850 he entered the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard, and studied natural history under Prof. Louis Agassiz, accompanying the latter on an exploring expe- dition to Florida in 1851. In 1852 he was made pro- fesser of natural sciences in Oglethorpe College, and a year later in Franklin College. In 1857 he accepted the professorship of chemistry and geology in South Carolina College, and in 1869 he became professor of natural history and geology in the University of California, which chair he held up to our latest account. Beside many important scien- tific papers, Prof. Le Conte has published essays on education and the fine arts, and the Mutual Re- lations of Religion and Science; Elements of Geology; Light, the Principles of Monocular and Binocular Vision; and Evolution, Its Nature, Evidences, and Its Relation to Religious Thought (1887). LE CONTE, J OHN, an American physicist, born in Liberty county, Ga., in 1818, died April 29, 1891. He graduated at Franklin College, Athens, Ga., in 1838, and in 1841 at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. After practicing for some years as a physician at Savannah, he was made professor of natural philosophy in Franklin College in 1846, and in 1856 became professor of the same branch in South Carolina College, at Columbia. In 1869 Le Conte was appointed professor of physics and industrial mechanics in the newly-founded University of California, and in 1875 he became president ‘of that university. His scientific work extends over nearly 50 years. He published im- portant papers on physical science in many period- icals both here and in England, and delivered lectures on the “Physics of Meteorology” at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D. C. (1857), and on the “Stellar Universe” at the Pea- body Institution in Baltimore, Md. (1867). Since 1867 Prof. Le Conte has been an active member of the National Academy of Science. LE CONTE, J orm EATTON (1784-1860), an Ameri- can naturalist, born near Shrewsbury, N. J .. in 1784. In 1818 he entered the corps of topographical en- gineers of the United States army, and remained in that service till 1831, taking part in various sur- veys. Having attained the rank of major, he re- tired from the service in the last-mentioned year LE CONTE—LEE in order to devote himself to the study of botany and zoology. He wrote and published several papers on insects, as the “North American Butter- flies,” also some papers on mammals, reptiles, ba- trachians and crustacea. He died at Philadelphia, in 1860, leaving a considerable collection of insects and an extensive series of water-color illustrations of American insects and plants, that he had made with his own hands. LE CONTE, JOHN LAWRENCE (1825-1883), an American naturalist, the son of the former, born at New York in 1825. As a student at Mount St. Mary’s College, Emmetsburg, Md., and at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, he devoted considerable attention to the study of natural history, which he subsequently extended. He visited the Lake Superior region three times, the Rocky Mountains, California, New Mexico, Honduras, Panama, Europe, Egypt, Algiers, etc., collecting many specimens of insects, especially of the coleoptera, upon which he published several memoirs. In 1862 he entered the United States army as a surgeon of volunteers. Afterwards he was made medical inspector of the regular army, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, which he retained until the end of the war. Then he became chief clerk of the United States mint at Philadelphia, and remained in this position until his death in 1883. The Smithsonian Institution published his Classification of the Coleoptera of North America and his List of the Coleoptera of North America (1862-73). LECTERN (Lat. lectorium or Zectricium), a read- ing desk from which the Scripture lessons which form a portion of the various church services are chanted or read. The most ancient lecterns are of wood, but they were frequently made of brass, often in the form of an eagle (the symbol of St. John the Evangelist), the outspread wings of which form the frame supporting the volume. LECYTHIDACEE, a natural order of exogen- ous plants, or sub-order of Myrtaceae. The fruit is a large woody capsule, with a number of cells, which in some species opens with a lid. All the known species, about 40, are natives of the hottest part of South America. Brazil nuts are the seeds of trees of this order. The cannon-ball tree (Lecy- this Ollaria) belongs to it. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 665. LEDBURY, an old market-town of Hereford- shire, England, 13 miles from Hereford. It has an interesting church, St. Catherine’s Hospital (1232; rebuilt 1822), and a clock-tower (1890) to the mem- ory of Mrs. Browning. Population of parish (1881), 4,276. LEDOCHOWSKI, MIEcIsLAs HALKA, a polish prelate, born at Gork in 1822. After making him domestic prelate, the pope sent him on several dip- lomatic missions. In 1861 he was made archbishop of Thebes in partibus, and in 1866 archbishop of ~Gnesen and Posen, becoming thereby primate of Poland. When, in 1873, the “Falk Laws” restricted the influence of the Catholic clergy of Prussia over the schools and over the laity, Ledochowski pro- tested against them, and was imprisoned till 1876. ‘The pope made him cardinal in 1875. But when he was released from prison, Ledochowski was not allowed to enter his diocese. He resigned his see in 1885, while he was living at Rome. LEDUM, a genus of plants of the natural order Erieaceee, sub-order Rhodoracea, consisting of small evergreen shrubs with large flowers, of which the -corolla is cut into five deep petal-like segments. The species are natives of Europe and North America, and are commonly known as Labrador tea. Sir John Franklin and his party, in the Arctic expedition of 1819-22, are said to have used the 983 Ledum palustre for tea. The leaves possess narcotic properties, and are regarded as useful in agues, dysentery and diarrhoea. LEE, a post-village of Lee township, Berkshire county, Mass., on the Housatonic River and Rail- road, 11 miles south of Pittsfield. It has a public library, excellent schools, a number of paper-mills, several iron-foundries and machine shops, and ex- tensive woolen-factories. The township has quar- ries of fine white marble, which is exported to distant cities. Population of township in 1890, 3,7 8. LEE, or LEEWARD, a nautical term for the quat- ter to which the wind is directed, as distinguished from windward, or the part whence the wind comes. LEE, ANN (1736-1784), the founder of the sect of Shakers, born at Manchester, England, Feb.‘ 29, 1736, died at I/Vatervliet, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1784. She was early married to Abraham Stanley, a black- smith. In 1758 she joined the Manchester Society of Friends and in 1774 emigrated to New York with eight of her disciples to establish in this country the Church of Christ’s second appearing. At Watervliet, near Albany, N. Y., she founded a settlement, gathering in many disciples during a religious revival in 1780. In 1781 she and her elders set out on a missionary tour through New England and founded Shaker societies at Harvard, Mass., and other places. See Britannica, Vol. XXI, p. 736. LEE, ARTHUR, an American statesman, born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Va., in 1740, died in Middlesex county, Va., in 1792. After studying medicine he commenced to practice as a physician at Williamsburg, Va., but after a few years he went to London to study law, where he was admitted to the bar in 17 70. In 1774 Lee presented to the Brit- ish ministry the addresses of the American Con- gress to the people and King of England. In 1777 he was sent to Spain, and afterwards to Prussia, to enlist sympathy for the American cause. After serving in Congress in 1782, he was in 1784 made one of the commissioners to negotiate treaties with the Indians of the Northwest, and was from 1785 to 1789 a member of the Board of Treasury. LEE, CHARLEs, an American general, born at Dernhall, Cheshire, England, in 1731, died at Phila- delphia, Pa., in 1782. When 20 years of age he be- came a lieutenant in his father’s regiment, and was ordered to America to take part in Braddock’s ex- pedition to Fort Duquesne. He was present at Braddock’s defeat at Monongehela in 1755, and fought in 1756 at Ticonderoga, where he was wounded. In 1760 he returned to England, served successively in the Portuguese, Prussian, Polish and Russian armies, and came to America in 1773, when he espoused the cause of the Revolutionary party. In 1775 Congress appointed him second major-general of the Continental army, after he had purchased an estate in Berkeley county, Va., Artemas VVard being the first major-general, and in July Lee joined the army at Cambridge, Mass., and was placed in command of the left wing, with his headquarters at Winter Hill, now Summerville. In November he visited Newport, R. I., where his military genius displayed itself in the arrest of a few Tory citizens. Thence he proceeded to New York, and commenced the erection of some fortifi- cations, when he was put in command over the Southern department. When the British fleet attacked Fort Moultrie at Charleston on June 28, 1776, Col. Moultrie won a brilliant victory, the credit of which was by most people given to Lee, the latter being called the “hero of Charleston.” In the autumn Lee joined Washington, and his 984 division covered the retreat of the American army from Manhattan Island. When Washington passed into New Jersey, Lee was left in Westchester county, N. Y., with 7,000 men. Washington had ordered him to join the main army by crossing the Hudson. But Lee did not stir for two weeks. On December 13 he was himself surprised and cap- tured at Baskingridge, N. J., while separated from his own forces. In May, 1778, Lee was exchanged, and rejoined the American army at Valley Forge. He opposed the attack of the British troops on their withdrawal from Philadelphia to New York, yet commanded the van at the battle of Monmouth, June 28. His troops were, through his own negli- gence, thrown into confusion by an unexpected attack by the British rear-guard, and he ordered a retreat against the express command of Washing- ton. For his insubordination and other unbecom- ing conduct he was by court-martial suspended from command for one year, and retired to his estate in Virginia. At the end of the year his com- mission was revoked, in consequence of an insult- ing note he had written to the President of Con- ress. g LEE, FRANCIS Lrenrroor, an American states- man, born at Stratford, lVestmoreland county, Va., in 1734, died at Richmond,Va., in 1797. In 1765 he was elected to the house of burgesses, and in 1775 was sent by it to Congress. Here he signed the Declaration of Independence, and assisted in fram- ing the Articles of Confederation as a member of the committee for that purpose. LEE, FREDERICK RICHARD, an English landscape- painter, born at Barnstable, Devonshire, in June, 1798, died in Cape Colony, June 4, 1879. He chose the army as a profession, but was subsequently obliged by ill-health to quit it. He then turned his attention to painting, was an exhibitor at the Royal Academy from 1824 till 1870, and acquired a high reputation for landscapes, especially of Eng- lish and Scotch scenery. He was elected an A. R. A. in 1834, and R. A. in 1838, retiring in 1871. LEE, HENRY, an American soldier, born at Strat- ford, Westmoreland county, Va., in 1756, died at Cumberland Island, Ga., in 1818. In 1776 he be- came captain of cavalry, and in 1778 he was placed in command of an independent corps, with the rank of major, and was then popularly known as “Light Horse Harry.” In 1779 he received a gold medal from Congress for capturing Paulus Hook. He assisted Greene in the capture of Augusta, Ga., and took part in the battle of Eutaw Springs. After being a member of Congress he was in 1792 chosen governor of Virginia; and in 1794 he com- manded the force sent by President Washington for the suppression of the Whiskey Insurrection in western Pennsylvania. When Washington died in 1799, Lee, then again a member of Congress, pro- nounced his eulogy, and drafted the resolutions for the occasion, in which he designated Washington as “first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” After Jefferson’s election to the presidency, Lee retired from public life. His profuse expenditures involved him in debt, for which he is said to have been imprisoned. Henry Lee was the father of the Confederate general, Robert E. Lee, for whom see Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 399. LEE, LUTHER, an American clergyman, born at Schoharie, N. Y., in 1800. He joined the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1821 and became an itinerant preacher in northern New York. In 1836 he began to preach and lecture against slavery, and was several times attacked by mobs. In 1841 he founded and edited the “New England Christian Advocate,” an anti-slavery journal, at Lowell, LEE—LEETONIA Mass., and subsequently he edited “The Sword of Truth” and “The True Wesleyan.” When in 1843 the “Wesleyan Methodist Connection” was organ- ized, he became pastor of that church at Syracuse, N. Y., and afterwards at Fulton, N. Y. In 1856 Lee became president and professor of theology in the Michigan Union College at Seoni, but resigned the next year to ofiiciate in churches in Ohio. From 1864 till 1867 he was professor at Adrian College, Mich. Lee has published Universalism Refuted; Im- mortality of the Soul; Church Polity; Slavery Ex- amined in the Light of the Bible (1855), and Elements of Theology. EE, RCBERT, a Scotch clergyman, born at Tweedmouth, England, in 1804, died at Torquay in 1868. After graduating at the University of St. Andrews he was ordained in the Church of Scot- land in 1832. He became successively minister of Arbroath, Campsie and Old Grey Friars’ Church in Edinburgh. In 1846 Lee was made professor of Biblical criticism in the University of Edinburgh. In 1857 he published Prayers for Public Worship, and used these prayers in his congregation. For this he was tried in the church courts and ac- quitted. Afterwards he published The Reform of the Church of Scotland in Worship, Government and Doctrine, and introduced an organ in his church in 1865. For this innovation he was again tried in both the ecclesiastical and civil courts. His most important work was a Reference Bible (1864), having about 60,000 references. LEE, SAMUEL, an English orientalist, born at Longnor, in Shropshire, May 14, 1783, died at Bar- ley, Hertfordshire. Dec. 16, 1852. He received his first instruction at a charity school, and was at the age of twelve apprenticed to a carpenter. While engaged at his trade he acquired the chief classical, Oriental, and modern languages, subse- quently studied at Queen’s College, Cambridge, and took orders in the church. In 1819 he be- came university professor of Arabic, and in 1831 regius professor of Hebrew. He published 9. Grammar of the Hebrew Language; Book of Job, Translated from the Original Hebrew, and Hebrew, Chaldee and English Laricon. He also wrote Ser- mons on the Study of the Holy Scriptures; Events and Times of the Visions of Daniel and St. John, and an Inquiry Into Prophecy. He took charge for the British and Foreign Bible Society, of edi- tions of the Syriac Old Testament, the Syriac New Testament, the Malay, Persian and Hindu- stani Bibles, and the Psalms in Coptic and Arabic. LEECHBURG, a post-borough of Armstrong county, Pa., on the Pennsylvania Central Railroad and Pennsylvania Canal, 35 miles northeast of Pittsburgh. It has an academy, a wagon and car- riage manufactory, tin-factory and rolling-mill. LEECH LAKE, a lake about twenty miles long and sixteen miles wide in the northern part of Min- nesota, about seven miles south of Lake Cass. Its surplus water is discharged by a short outlet into the Mississippi River. Elevation, 1,330 feet. LEESBURG, a post-village, a railroad center and the county-seat of Sumter county, Fla., lying between Harris and Grifiin lakes. It is a center of the orange region and from here large quantities of oranges and early vegetables are shipped. LEESBURG, a post-village, the county-seat of Soudoun county, Va., thirty-six miles northwest of Washington, D. C. It contains a male and female seminary, and planing and saw-mills. The battle of Balls’ Bluff was fought two miles from the town. LEETONIA, a post-village and a railroad junc- tion of Columbiana county, O., sixty-five miles northwest of Pittsburgh. It has rolling and plan- LEFEBORE-—LEIDY ing-mills, coal-mines, coke-ovens, blast-furnaces, boiler-works, a nail and bolt mill, a foundry and lumber yards. LEFEBVRE,FRANeoIs Josnrn, Duke of Danzig and Marshal of France, born at Ruffach, in Alsace, Oct, 25, 1755, died in Paris, Sept. 14, 1820. He en- tered the army at the age of eighteen, and was ser- geant in the French Guards when the Revolution broke out. He was engaged for some time on the Moselle and Rhine, fought at Fleurus, Altenkirchen, and Stockach, and rose in rank with wonderful ra- pidity. In 1799 he took part with Bonaparte in the overthrow of the Directory, and in 1804 was made a Marshal of the Empire. He also conducted the siege of Danzig, and after its capture was created Duke of Danzig. He distinguished himself in the early part of the Peninsular war, and suppressed the insurrection in the Tyrol. During the Russian campaign he commanded the Imperial Guard, and in 1814 he left the wing of the army which resisted the advance of the allies in France. Submitting to the Bourbon’s after Napoleon’s abdication, he was made a peer, a dignity restored to him in 1819 though he had sided with his old master during the Hundred Days. LEFORT, FRAN<;oIs JACOB, favorite of Peter the Great, born at Geneva in 1656, of Scottish descent, died March 12, 1699. At the age of fourteen he went to Marseilles and enlisted in the Swiss guard in the French service; in 1674 he left France and entered the service of the Netherlands, and in the following year went to Russia, where he first held a position as secretary to the Danish ambas- sador, and afterwards became a captain in the Rus- sion army. Having taken a leading part in the in- trigues which made Peter the sole ruler after the death of his brother Ivan, Lefort was advanced to be first favorite of the Czar, and next to him was the most important personage in Russia. A man of great ability, he assisted Peter in his projects of reform, remodelled the army and laid the founda- tions of the navy, and in 1694 was made admiral and generalissimo. \Vhen Peter undertook his visit to foreign countries in 1697 Lefort was made chief ofithe embassy of the train in which the czar traveled incognito. LEGAL HOLIDAY, see HoLIDAYs, LEGAL, in the United States, in these Revisions and Additions. LEGAL-TEN DER, currency with which debts can be paid lawfully. All gold coins are legal-ten- der at their nominal value, if they have the stand- ard weight and fineness. Silver coins smaller than $1 are a legal-tender in sums up to $10; but not in sums exceeding $10. The trade dollar of 420 grains is not a legal-tender, but the silver dollar of 412% grains is a legal-tender for all debts and dues, ex- cept otherwise expressly stipulated. The 5-cent, 3-cent, 2-cent, and 1-cent pieces are a legal-tender only in sums up to 25 cents in any one payment. All United States notes are a legal tender in pay- ment of any debt, except for duties on imports and interest on the public debt. LEGARE, HUGH SWINTON (1789-1843), an Amer- ican statesman, born at Charleston. S. C., in 1739, of Huguenot descent. He was made attorney-general of South Carolina in 1830. At the same time he be- came chief-editor of the “Southern Review”. In 1837 he entered Congress, but his financial views dissatis- fied his constituents and he failed of reélection. In 1841 President Tyler nominated him for attorney- general of the United States, and when Daniel Webster withdrew from the cabinet in May 1843 Legaré was appointed to fill the vacancy. He died suddenly in Boston on June '2, 1843, while attending, with President Tyler, the ceremonies at the un- veiling of the Bunker Hill monument. Chief-J us- 985 tice Story said of Legaré “His argumentation was marked by the closest logic; at the same time he had a presence in speaking I have never seen ex- celled.” LEGATO (Ital. “tied”): in music, means that the passage is to be performed in a smooth manner, the notes being played as if bound or tied together; opposed to staccato. LEGATUM REI ALIENJE: in the Roman Law, the bequest of a thing which does not belong to the testator. LEGER-LIN ES: in music, the name of the short lines above or below the staff which are used to ex- press those notes which extend beyond the five lines of the staff. LEGGE, JAMES, a Scotch sinologue, born at Huntly Aberdeenshire, in 1815. After studying theology at Highbury College, London, he was in 1839 sent by the London Missionary Society to take charge of the Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca and in 1843 removed to Hong Kong, where he per- formed the functions of a missionary for thirty years. In 1875 Dr. Legge was made professor of the Chinese language at Oxford. He wrote a book on The Notions of the Chinese Concerning G-ocl and Spirits, in order to determine the controversy about the proper term for the Supreme Being in Chinese. His most important literary undertaking is his edition of the Chinese Classics, giving the original text, English translation, explanatory notes, and copious prolegomena. LEGOUVE, GABRIEL JEAN BAPTIsTE ERNEST VVILFRED, a French dramatist and author, born at Paris in 1807. After publishing some novels he turned his attention to writing dramas,as Louise de Lignorolles, and Adrienne Lecowvreur, which latter was made famous by Rachel in 1849. He also wrote some comedies, as Les Doigts de fe'e,'Be'atria", dram- atized from his novel of the same name; Miss L2/zanne; Les Deux reines de France, etc. He also delivered popular lectures which were gathered under the title Les Peres et les Enfants XL/Ye siecle( 1867-69). LEGROS, ALI>HoNsE, a French-English painter, born at Dijon in 1837. He studied painting at Lyons and Paris, and exhibited a portrait of his father at the Paris Salon when he was only nine- teen. Champfieury seeing this portrait encour- aged the young artist. In 1859 Legros produced The .-ingelus; in 1861 Errvoto: and other works fol- lowed. Removing to England in 1863 his rustic simplicity found more favor than in Paris. He he- came Slade professor in University College, Lon- don, and also taught painting in the South Ken- sington Museum. Among his later works are: The Pilgrimage; The Spanish Cloister; The Baptism; The Coppersnzith, and several portraits. His works have become widely known through engravings and lithographs. LEHIGH RIVER, one hundred and twenty miles long, rises in \Vayne county, Pa., and flows through a hilly and picturesque region, where much anthracite coal is found. After fiowing in a southwesterly and then a southeasterly course it turns northward and reaches the Delaware River at Easton. It is navigable for seventy miles from that point, and touches in its course VVhitehaven, Mauch Chunk, and Allentown, passing through a gorge or gap in the Kittatinny Mountain. LEHIGHTON, a post-borough of Carbon county, Ea, situated on the west bank of the Lehigh Iver. LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, see CoLLEeEs in these Revisions and Additions. LEIDY, Josnrn, an American naturalist. born at Philadelphia, Pa., Sep. 9, 1823, died there April 30, 986 1891. He graduated in the medical department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1844. In 1845 he became prosector to the chair of anatomy of the same school, and in 1846 demonstrator of anatomy in the Franklin Medical College. In 1853 Dr. Leidy was made professor of anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, and in 1871 he was called to the pro- fessorship of natural history in Swarthmore College, which position he held till 1884. On the establish- ment of the department of biology in the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania in 1884, Dr. Leidy became its director. He held this office to the time of his death. He was a member of numerous scientific societies, and published some 800 papers on biological sub- jects. His principal works are Memoir on the Ex- tinct Species of the American 056; A Flora and Fauna Within Living Animals; Ancient Fauna of Ne- braska; On the Extinct Sloth Tribe of North Amer- ica; Cretaceous Reptiles of the United States; The Extinct Mammalian Fauna of Dakota and Nebraska, and Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of Western Terri- tories. Leidy is also the author of An Elementary Teret-book on Human Anatomy (1861). The value of Dr. Leidy’s scientific work was sub- stantially recognized by the council of the Boston Society of Natural History, which awarded him the Walker prize. On account of the extraordinary merit of his researches, the prize, which usually consists of the sum of $500, was on the occasion in- creased to $1,000. LEIDY, PHILIP, an American physician, born at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1838, died there April 29, 1891. He studied medicine at the University of Pennsyl- vania under the preceptorship of his brother, Dr. Joseph Leidy. After graduating in 1859, he became resident physician at the Philadelphia (Blockley) hospital. At the outbreak of the civil war he en- tered the army as a surgeon, and remained in it till 1865. For four years after the war he was United States examining surgeon at Philadelphia. In 1874 Governor Hartranft appointed him port physician of Philadelphia, and subsequently he was also made physician-in-chief of the insane department of the Philadelphia hospital, which position he held till his extensive private practice compelled him to resign in 1887. Dr. Leidy was a member of the Medico-Chirurgical Society, and also of the county and State medical societies, as well as of the American Medical Association. He read numerous papers before the societies mentioned, and contri- buted in other ways to the medical literature of the day. LEIGHTON, SIR FREDERICK, a painter, born at Scarborough, England, in 1830. He studied at Rome, Berlin,Brussels, Paris, and Frankfort. In 1855 he finished the picture Cimabue’s Madonna Carried in Triumph, which created a sensation in London, and was purchased by the queen. In 1869 he was elected a member of the Royal Academy, of which body he became president in 1878, when he was also knighted. Most of his works are excellent. IVe mention among his best pictures Orpheus and Eurydice; Venus Disrobing; Jonathan’s Token to David; After Vespers; The Arts of Peace, and The Music Lesson. At Paris he exhibited in 1878 also a work of sculpture, An Athlete Strangling a Python. LEININ GEN, a mediatized princely house of Germany, dating to 1096. In 1779 the head of one of - the branches into which it had become divided, the count of Leiningen-Dachsburg-Hardenburg, was raised to the rank of a prince of the empire, but the peace of Luneville deprived him of his ancient possessions on the left bank of the Rhine. Though no longer an independent prince the head of the house retains his rank and wealth. The mother of \ LEIDY--LEMMING ' Queen Victoria had for her first husband the Prince of Leiningen. LEISLER, JACOB, an American soldier, born at Frankfort, Germany. He came to this country in 1660 as a soldier in the service of the Dutch ‘Vest India Company. He engaged in trading with the Indians and became wealthy. While on a voyage to Europe in 1678 he was captured by Moorish pi- rates and compelled to pay a heavy ransom. He afterwards resided in the first brick house built in New York. In 1683 Governor Dongan appointed him one of the judges of the court of admiralty in New York, and in 1689 Leisler was made captain of one of the five militia companies of the city. He was popular with the men. When VVilliam and Mary succeeded to the throne of England, Leisler united the people for the “defense of the protes- tant religion,” and was made the head of the pro- visional government of New York. He strength- ened the fort with the battery of six guns beyond its walls, which gave its name to the park. After the massacre at Schenectady, by the French and Indians in February, 1690, Leisler sent men-of-war against Quebec and displayed laudable energy. Meanwhile Major Ingoldesby arrived with the news that Col. Henry Sloughter had been appointed governor of New York. When Sloughter arrived, in March, 1691, and demanded possession of the fort, Leisler refused to surrender it until he had convinced himself of Sloughter’s identity. As soon as the latter had sworn in his council Leisler re- signed his command, writing the governor a letter to that efiect. Sloughter replied by arresting Leis- ler and nine of his friends. The latter were re- leased after their trial; but Leisler was imprisoned, charged with treason and murder, and shortly after- wards tried and condemned to death, together with Milbourne, his son-in-law. On May 16, 1691, both of them were hanged. The judges were the personal and political enemies of the prisoners, and it is said that Sloughter signed the death warrant while he was under the influence of wine. In 1695 the attainder pronounced on Leisler was reversed by the English parliament, and three years later the New York assembly voted an indemnity to Leisler’s heirs. LEITOMISCHL, an old town of Bohemia, on the Lautschna, eighty-five miles east-southeast of Prague. It has a fine castle, a Piarist college, and manufactories of linens, woolens, jute,etc. Popu- lation, 5,258. LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY, an American author, born at Philadelphia in 1824. After gradu- ating at Princeton Colle e in 1846, he spent two years in travel and stu y in Europe, and lived among the gypsies in various countries, becoming familiar with their language, beliefs. and customs. He is best known by his Hans Breitmann’s Ballads (1870), in the dialect of the “Pennsylvania Dutch.” Among his other writings are Poetry and Mystery of Dreams; Meister Karl’s Sketch-Book; Sunshine in Thought; Legends of Birds; Egyptian Sketch- Book; English Gypsies and Their Language; English Gypsy Poetry, and Algonquin Legends. LEMARS, a post-village, the county-seat and a. railroad junction of Plymouth county, Iowa, twenty- five miles northeast of Sioux city. Population, in 1880, 1,895. LEMMING, a small arctic field mouse. See Brit- annica, Vol. XIV, pp. 435-6, for a detailed account of the Norway lemmings. This rodent is not mi- gratory in North America as is the Norway lemming in Norway. The Hudson Bay lemming (Myodes tor- quatus) inhabits the mossy and swampy regions of the arctic circle, as far south as Labrador in the Atlantic region, and further south in the Pacific LEMCINNE-LENAU region. It is about five inches long, with a tail one- half inch long; has a reddish-brown color in sum- mer, but is white in winter; is without external ears, but looks otherwise like the Norway kind. It burrows in the ground in summer, usually beneath stones; but in winter it inhabits a nest of moss which it seldom leaves. There are several species of this animal, which resemble one another in char- acter and habits. They live on grass-roots and stalks, lichens, moss, etc., are inoffensive, easily tamed, and very fond of being caressed. LEMCINNE, JOHN EMILE, a French journalist, born in London, Oct. 17, 1815. He pursued his earlier studies in England, and completed his edu- cation in France. He joined the staff of the “J our- nal des Débats” as English correspondent in 1840, was subsequently appointed editor of that news- paper, and has conducted it skillfully and success- fully through all the vicissitudes of political strife. In 1876 he was elected a member of the academy. His Etudes, Critiques et Biographigues (1852), and Nouvelles Etudes (1862), contain specimens of his best style. LEMONGRASS (Andropogon Schcenanthus), a per- ennial grass, a native of India and Arabia, 3 to 4 feet high, possessing a strong lemon-like fragrance. An essential oil is obtained from it which is used in perfumery, and an infusion of its leaves is used as tea. The name is also given to other fragrant species of the genus. LEMON, MARK, an English journalist and humor- ist, born in London, Nov. 30, 1809, died at Crawley, Sussex, May 23, 1870. He was educated at Cheam, near Epsom, and about 1825 wrote a farce, the first of a long series of melo-dramas, operettas, etc. He also produced several novels, children’s stories, and essays and appeared as a lecturer and public reader. In 1841 he helped to establish “Punch,” of which for the first two years he was joint-editor with Henry Mayhew, and thereafter sole editor till his death. LEMON, SALTS or, a name applied by druggists to binoxalate of potash mixed with a little of the quadroxalate; called also salts of sorrel. It is used to remove ink stains. LEMONT, or Arnnxs, a post-village of Cook county, Ill., twenty-six miles from Chicago, on the Chicago & Alton Railroad. It has quarries of fine Silurian limestone called Athens marble. LE MOYNE, a distinguished French pioneer family, who rendered valuable services in Cana- dian exploration and colonization. 1. CHARLES LE INIOYNE (1626-1683), born at Dieppe, France, the founder of the family, emi- grated to Canada in 1641, lived four years among the Hurons, and afterwards at Villemarie, Can- ada, where he cultivated some land. Being at- tacked by the Iroquois, in May, 1651, Le Moyne collected his available forces and drove the Iro- quois back with great slaughter. In 1668 Louis XIV. made him Sieur de Longueuil, and after- wards also de Chateauguay. For a long time he was captain of Montreal and took part in several expeditions against the Iroquois. Of his eleven sons BIENVILLE and IBERVILLE were the most noted. Of his other sons we mention the follow- mg: 2. CHARLES, BARON DE LONGUEUIL (1656-1729), the eldest, was born at Villemarie. He was sur- named the “Maccabeus of Montreal” on account of his valor. In his youth he served in the French army in Flanders, and afterwards in Can- ada, where he was made major of Montreal in 1683. In 1690 he became governor of Montreal, and in 1711 he saved the French colony from great danger by negotiating with the Onondaga Indians. He became commandant-general of the 987 colony in 1711, governor of Three Rivers in 1720, and was governor of Montreal again from 1724 to 1726. 3. JACQUES, SIEUE DE STE. HELENE (1659—1690), served with his brother Pierre (afterwards Iber- ville) in 1686 in De Troye’s expedition against the English on Hudson Bay which resulted in the capt- ure of three forts and a war-vessel. In 1690 he shared the command of the force sent to capture Schenectady, when the French plundered and burned this town. In October of the same year he defended Quebec, which was besieged by Admiral Phips, and repulsed the English, but was mortally wounded at the moment of victory. 4. PAUL, SIEUE DE MAEICOUET, born at Ville- marie in 1663, died there in 1704. He took part in expeditions to Hudson Bay, and had a large share in Iberville’s successes there and also at Quebec. Afterwards he was engaged in Frontenac’s expedi- tion against the Iroquois, and negotiated peace with them in 1701, but was killed by them in 1704, after they had adopted him into their tribe, and had begged him to be a mediator between them and the French governor. 5. JOSEPH, SIEUR DE SERIGNY, born at V illemarie in 1668, died at Rochefort, France. in 1734. He went to France and commanded a flotilla which was to co- operate with the land forces under his brother Iber- ville in taking possession of Hudson Bay. He af- terwards conveyed some of the first colonists to Louisiana, surveyed its coast, erected several ports there, drove the Spaniards from Dauphin Island (in Mobile Bay), and assisted in capturing Pensa- cola. He became captain of a ship of the line in 1720, and in 1723 was made rear-admiral and gov- ernor of Rochefort, France. 6. ANTOINE, SIEUR DE OHATEAUGUAY, born at Montreal in 1683, died at Rochefort, France, in 1747. He entered the French army, and arrived at Louis- iana in 1704 with aband of colonists. In 1717 he was made commandant of the troops in Louisiana, and in the next year King’s lieutenant of the col- ony and Knight of St. Louis. After assisting in the capture of Pensacola from the Spaniards, in May 1719, he commanded the post, but had to surrender it to them again in August, and was himself made and kept a prisoner of war till July, 1720. He then held command at Mobile until 1726, when he was removed from office and ordered to France. From 1727 to 1745 he was governor successively of Martinique, Cayenne, and Cape Breton, then called Isle Royale. LEMPRIERE, J oHN, an English scholar, born about 1760, died Feb. 1, 1824. He was educated at VVestminster and at Pembroke College, Oxford, took orders in the Church of England, and was in turn head-master of Abingdon and Exeter grammar-schools, and rector of Meath in Devon- shire and of Newton-Petrock. His famous Classical Dictionary (1792) remained for many years the standard work of reference in England on ancient mythology, biography, and geography. Another work of Lempriere’s was Universal Biography (1808). , LENA, a post-village of Stephenson county, Ill., on the Illinois Central Railroad, 132 miles north- west of Chicago. It has manufactures of carriages, sash and blinds, and boots and shoes. LENAU, NICKLAUS, the pen-name of Nikolaus Niembsch von Strehlenau, a German poet, born at Czatad in Hungary, Aug. 13, 1802, died Aug. 22, 1850. He studied philosophy, jurisprudence, and medicine at Vienna, visited the United States in 1832, and after his return to Europe lived alternate- ly in Vienna and in Stuttgart. In 1844 he became insane, and passed the remainder of his life in con- 988 finement. Lenau’s poetic power is shown to best advantage in his short lyric effusions, especially those associated with the land of his birth. Of his longer pieces the best are Faust, Sauonarola, and Die Albigenser. LENCZIZA, an ancient Polish town, eighty miles west-southwest of Warsaw. Population, 5,546. L’ENFANT, PIERRE CHARLES, architect and en- gineer, born in France in 1755, died in Prince George’s county, Md., in 1825. He came to this country with Lafayette in 1777, and entered the Continental army in autumn of that year as an engineer, was in 1778 made captain, and at the siege of Savannah was wounded and left on the field. He afterwards served under the immediate command of Washington, became a major in May, 1783, was employed as engineer at Fort l\Iifllin (on the Delaware) in 1794, and appointed professor of engineering at the United States Military Academy in July 1812, but declined. L’Enfant drew the plan of the city of Washington, D. C., and was the arch- itect of some of its public buildings. LENORMANT, CHARLES, a French archaeolo- gist, born at Paris in 1802, died at Athens, Greece, in 1859. After studying law he became interested in classical antiquities, and was in 1825 made an inspector of the fine arts. He explored the Egyp- tian and Greek antiquities in 1828-9, and was in 1830 made chief of the section of fine arts in the min- istry of the interior. In 1835 he became professor at the Sarbonne, and in 1848 he was made professor of Egyptology in the College de France. He wrote several treatises on ancient art, numismatics, Egyptology and Oriental history. LENOBMANT, FRANgoIs, a French archaeologist, son of the preceding, born at Paris in 1837, died in 1883. He also studied Oriental archaeology, but in addition he wrote a great deal on the Eastern ques- tion of the present day. For ten years he was a librarian of the French Institute. In 1874 he was made professor of archaeology in the National Li- brary. His Assyrian researches, especially on the cuneiform inscriptions are considered of the hi 11- est value. He published Manual of the Ancient is- tory of the East; Les Chefs d’aeuure de l’art Antique; Histoire du Peuple juif; H'istoire des Peuples Orien- taux; and Les Sciences occultes en Asie. LEO. XIII., Porn, born at Carpineto, Italy, in 1810, being the son of Count Ludovico Pecci. His baptismal name was Vincenzo Gioacchino. Being educated at the Jesuit College at Vitcebo, and afterwards at Rome, he devoted himself assidu- ously to the study of philosophy and was made an L. L. D. Pope Gregory XVI. made him a domestic prelate in 1837, and in the same year he was or- dained priest. He served as apostolic delegate at Benevento, Perugia and Spoleto, and was in 1843 made archbishop of Damietta in partibus. In 1853 he was created a cardinal by Pope Pius IX. and in September 1877 he was created Cardinal Camer- lingo, that is, chamberlain of the pope. As such he was the head of the church in temporal matters after the death of Pius IX. in February 1878. On the third ballot in the cardinals’ conclave he was elected pope and assumed the name of Leo. His scholarly attainments and firm character fitted him well for the high office. His first encyclical, issued in December 1878, summons the intellectual forces of Roman Catholicism against the anarchial tendencies of modern socialism. At every oppor- tunity he tried to conciliate the governments of Europe without abating the assertion of the rights of the church and the papacy. He regards himself as the despoiled sovereign of Rome and as a pris- oner in the Vatican. The income voted him by the Italian parliament he refused to accept. It is stated LENCZJZA——LEPSIUS that he has an income of two and one half millions of dollars a year. This fact sufficiently explains his refusal. Pope Leo has protested against heresy and “godless” schools, and in 1889 issued an allocution against the unveiling of the statute of Giordano Bruno at Rome. He has generally exhibited mod- eration and forsight in his foreign policy, has opened the archives of the Vatican for historical research and has made himself personally known as a poet in the Latin tongue. LEOMINSTER, a post-village and a railroad junction of Worcester county, Mass., on the Nashua River. It has manufactories of furniture, horn- goods, forks, linen, woolen, paper, children’s car- riages, and pianos. LEON, a post-village, the county-seat of Decatur county, Iowa, situated twenty-one miles south of Osceola. LEONFORTE, a walled Sicilian town, forty- nine miles by rail west by north of Catania. Pop- ulation, 15,645. LEONINE VERSES, irregular forms of Latin verse which arose in the middle ages under the influence of the minstrels. The name specially applies to verses rhymed as well as accentual, and more especially to groups of alternate hex- ameter and pentameter verses, rhymed at the middle and end. They owe their name to Leoni- nus, a canon of the church of St. Victor, in Paris, about the middle of the 12th century, or as others say, to Pope Leo. II., who was a lover and im- prover of music. LEPIDODENDRON, a genus of fossil plants which occurs in Carboniferous and Upper Devonian strata. Several species are recognized, most of which are from 40 to 50 feet long and more than 4 feet in diameter. They were tree-like lycopods, their living representatives being the low-growing club-mosses of our mountains. The stem was either covered with linear one-nerved leaves, or where these had fallen was marked with ovate or lozenge- shaped leaf-scars, arranged in a spiral manner. The fruits were elongated cylindrical bodies, composed of a conical axis, around which a great quantity of scales were compactly imbricated. The fos- sils described under the name Knorria are now linown to be the decorticated stems of Lepidoden- ron. LEPISMA, a genus of wingless insects, of the order Thysanura. All the species of Lepisma and of the family Lepismatidae inhabit moist places, and feed on decaying vegetable substances. They have a flattened spindle-shaped body, terminating in three long bristles, and they run swiftly. See Brit- annica, Vol. XIII, pp. 153, 154. LEPORIDE, a variety of the domesticated rab- bit, also known as the Belgian hare. See RABBIT, Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 193. LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD, a German Egypto- logist, born at Naumburg in 1810, died in 1884. Af- ter studying at the University of Leipzig, Gtittin- gen, and Berlin, he gained his doctor diploma in 1833 with an essay on the Eugubine Tables. In 1834, at Paris, he gained the Volney prize by his essay on Paleeogmphie als Mittel der Sprachforschung. After devoting himself considerably to Egyptian studies at Rome, he made historical researches from 1842 to 1845 in Lower and Upper Egypt and brought a valuable archaeological collection home to Berlin, where he was professor for some years. In 1866 he explored the delta of the Nile. In 1874 he was made chief of the Prussian State Library at Berlin. He wrote in German and English a Uni- uersal Standard Alphabet; Chronologie der Egypter; and Die Denkméiler aus ./Egypten und .Ethiopien (18-19-1859), and many other works. LEPTOSPERMUNb— LEPTOSPERMUM, a genus of trees and shrubs, natives of Australia and New Zealand, of the nat- ural order Myrtacew, sub-order Leptospermeae. They are evergreen, with leaves somewhat resembling those of myrtles. Some of them bear the name of Tea-tree, because the leaves have been used as a substitute for tea. L. Scoparium is sometimes called the New Zealand Tea-plant. LERCARA DI FREDDI, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 30 miles from the town of Palermo. Most of the inhabitants are employed in the sulphur mines of the vicinity. Population, 9,154. LERICI, a maritime town of Italy, province of Gehoa, on the Bay of Spezia, five miles from La Spezia. It is defended by a castle. and has a Capuchin monastery, the buildings of an old August- inian monastery, several palaces, a hospital and a harbor, which is frequented by coasting-vessels. The fishery employs a great number of the inhab- itants. Population, 5,940. , LERNJEIDJE, a family of Copepod crustaceans, of which the females are parasitic on fishes and grotesquely degenerate, the adults showing hardly a trace of crustacean structure. LE ROY, a post-village and railroad junction of Genesee county, N. Y., ten miles east of Batavia, and 52 miles east of Buflfalo. It has the Le Roy Academic Institute, the Ingham University for ladies, an art conservatory and a public library. LESION, a term in civil law to denote injury or prejudice sustained by a minor or by a person of weak capacity, sufiicient to be a ground of action to reduce or set aside the deed which caused the lesion. LESLEY, JOHN PETER, an American geologist, born at Philadelphia in 1819. He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1838, and during the three following years served as assistant on the ge- ological survey of Pennsylvania. From 1841 till 1845 he studied theology at Princeton, N. J., and at the University of Halle, Germany. Then he be- came missionary to the Germans in Pennsylvania till 1847, and preached for three years in the Con- gregational church at lVilton, Mass. But here his theological views underwent a change, in conse- quence of which he left the pulpit and settled in Philadelphia, where he has since been engaged as aprofessional expert in geology. In 1872 he was appointed professor of geology and mining, and also dean of the scientific faculty in the University of Pennsylvania. His geological work has included numerous special examinations of coal oil, and iron fields in the United States and Canada. In 1874 he was made chief geologist of Pennsylvania, with charge of a complete re-survey of the State. Be- sides publishing some 70 volumes of geological re- ports, he published a Manual of Coal and its Topog- raphy; The Iron 1l1'anufactuoers’ Guide, and Men’s Orz'gn'n and Destiny as Seen from the Platform of the Sciences (1868; revised 1887). LESLIE, a post-village of Ingham county, Mich., on the Jackson, Lansing & Saginaw Railroad, 24. miles from Lansing. It has stave-works, steam- mill-lls, iron-foundry and eight magnetic artesian we s. LESSEPS, FERDINAND MARIE, Vrscounr DE, a French engineer, born at Versailles in 1805. At the age of 24 he entered the French diplomatic service as attaché at Lisbon. and subsequently held -consular appointments at Barcelona, Tunis, and Alexandria. In 18-ll, while detained in quarantine at Port Said, his great project of cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Suez dawned upon him. During his eight years’ subsequent residence in Egypt he dreamed over this scheme; but it was LETHAL WEAPON 9% not until Said Pasha acceded to power in 1854 that the project received practical support; Said Pasha issued a firman sanctioning the enterprise, granted aletter of concession in 1856, and took a large number of shares. After many difficulties De Les- seps formed a company in Paris in 1858. The first sod of the canal was turned in the spring of 1859, and on Nov. 17, 1869, the completed canal was formally opened amid festivities at Port Said. De Lesseps was created a K. C. S. I. by Queen Vic- toria, and received the honorary freedom of the city of London. Since 1873 he has concmtrated his energy on the Panama Canal. In 1874 ..his project was vigorously agitated by the French press. In 1876 De Lesseps formed a company for making preliminary surveys, and in 1879 he obtained from the Colombian gov- ernment the exclusive privilege of constructing a canal between the two oceans through the Colom- bian territory. lVhen he first opened subscription lists, all the capital was subscribed which he then thought necessary. The Inter-Oceanic Canal Com- pany was definitely constituted J an. 31, 1881, and the work commenced in October of the same year. Much money has since been wasted in this enter- prise, and De Lesseps had to ask for new loans re- peatedly. The Credit Foncier was ready to rnish all the funds required for finishing the canal, pro- vided that the French government should guaran- tee the loans, but when the United States govern- ment demanded that the French government should not guarantee the enterprise oflicially, no further funds could be raised, and the enterprise collapsed for want of the 1,700 millions of francs found yet to be necessary. LESSING, KARL FRIEDRICH, a German painter, the grand-nephew of the famous poet, G. E. Les- sing, born at Wartenburg, Silesia, in 1808, died in 1880. After studying under F. W. Schadow at Ber- lin he painted The Battle of Icom'uvn; A Hussite Ser- mon, followed by Huss Before the Council of Con- stance, and The llfartyrdom of Huss. The Germans criticized him for selecting Bohemian instead of German subjects. Lessing also worked con- scientiously as a painter of landscapes, and pro- duced among many other pieces, The Oaks of a Thousand Years, and the famous Cloister in the Snow. LESTRIDINZE, a sub-family of Laridae, distin- guished by a well-developed beak, the upper man- dible being saddled with a sort of cere underneath, which the nostrils open. In this group are em- braced the jéigers, or gull-hunters, so called because they chiefly obtain their food by attacking gulls and terns and compelling them to disgorge or defecate; the food thus dropped they appropriate to themselves, The species are few, chiefly inhab- iting the sea-coasts of the northern hemisphere. LE SUEUB, a post-village of Le Sueur county, Minn., situated on the Minnesota River, and on the St. Paul & Sioux City Railroad, 63 miles from St. Paul. It has a graded school and manufactories of flour, woolen goods and wagons. LESUEUR, Eusrracrrn, a French painter, born in Paris in 1617, died there in 1655. He received his first artistic instruction from his father, and after- wards studied under Simon Vouet, but never visited Italy. The Louvre possesses 36 religious pictures by him, and 13 mythological, the former including his great series of 20 paintings illustrat- ing the life of St. Bruno, and his St. Paul at Ephe- sus. His genius possessed an originality which still charms in his pictures. LETHAL WEAPON: in criminal law, a weapon by which death was caused, as a sword, knife or pistol. 4 990 LETTERS. For Letters of Credit, see CREDIT; for Letters of Administration, see LETTERS TESTA- MENTARY; for Letters Patent, see PATENTS, in these Revisions and Additions. LETTERS ROGATORY, an instrument sent by the judge or court of one State or country to the tribunal of another State or country requesting that the deposition of a witness living within the jurisdiction of the latter be taken for the further- ance of justice, usually adding to the request an ofler to perform a similar service for the foreign tribunal whenever required. LETTERS TESTAMENTARY, the instrument granted by a court of probate empowering an exec- utor to administer an estate. When a person dies intestate a similar instrument is granted to the person who is appointed administrator, but it is then called Letters of Administration. LETTER—WOOD. See BREAD-NUT, in these Re- visions and Additions. LEUCKART, KARL RUDOLF, a German zoiilogist, born at Helmstiidt, Oct. 7, 1823, studied at Got- tingen, in 1850 became professor of zoology at Giessen, and in 1869 at Leipzig. He has especially distinguished himself by his study of the Entozoa. His great work is The Parasites of Man (English translation by Hoyle, 1886). LEUCOMA, the term applied to a white opacity of the cornea. It is the result of acute inflamma- tion, giving rise to the formation of cicatricial tis- sue on the ulcerated surface, or between the layers of the cornea. It is sometimes re-absorbed on the cessation of the inflammation, and the cornea re- covers its transparency; but in many cases it is persistent and incurable. LE UTZE, EMMANUEL, an American painter, born at Gmiind, Wiirtemberg, in 1816, died at Washing- ton, D. C., in 1868. His parents brought him to Philadelphia in his infancy. He first attempted drawing while attending his father’s sick-bed, and soon became skillful. In 1840 he painted an Indian Gazing at the Setting San with such success that he received many orders for similar work, and became able to go, in 1841, to Diisseldorf, where he studied under K. F. Lessing. There, and later in America, he produced historical paintings connected with American history; notably, Columbus Before the Council of Salamanca, Columbus in Chains, and Columbus Before the Queen; Washington Crossing the Delaware; Washington at Monmouth; Storming of Teocalli; Settlement of Maryland by Lord Baltimore. One of his latest pictures is Western Emigration, which was painted for the stair-case of the capitol at 'Washington. LEUZE, a town in Belgium, in the province of Hainault, on the right bank of the Dender. Dyeing, bleaching, and brewing are actively carried on; also salt-refining and the expressing of oil. Woolen and cotton hosiery and lace are manufactured. Population, 6,000. LEVEE: in the United States, an embankment to prevent inundation, especially on the Mississippi River. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 521. LEVERET, the young of the hare during the first year of its age. LEVI, LEoNE, born at Ancona, Italy, of Jewish parents, July 6, 1821, died May 7, 1888. He settled in Liverpool in 1844, and was one of the founders of the Liverpool Chamber of Commerce. In 1852 he became professor of the principles and practice of commerce in King’s College, London. Among his works are Commercial Law of the World; History of British Commerce; War and Its Consequences, and In- ternational Law. LEVICO, a town of the Tyrol, Austrian Empire, nine miles from Trent, near the Lake of Levico. LETT‘ERS—-LEWIS Mulberry trees are here cultivated, and much silk is manufactured. Population, 4,842. LEVIRATE the institution of marriage between a man and the widow of his brother or nearest kins- man. See Britannica, Vol. XXI, p. 111. This cus- tom, common among the ancient Hebrews, was perpetuated by the Mosaic law. It is now practi- cally obsolete among the Jews. A similar custom prevails in parts of India. LEVITES. The Levites. or sons of Levi, were among the ancient Jews the assistants and servants of the priests, who themselves were the sons of Aaron through Zadok and Eleazar. When the author of the epistle to the Hebrews speaks of a Levitical priesthood (Heb. vii :11) he means the sons of Aaron served by the Levites. According to Ezekiel all those Levites that had served as priests of the high places were degraded from the priestly oflice (Ezek. xliv :10-14). See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 487-89. LEWALD, FANNY, German novelist, born of Jew- ish parents at Kiinigsberg, March 24, 1811, died at Dresden, Aug. 5, 1889. She began to write when about thirty, and from 1840 lived in Berlin ; in 1855 she married Adolph Stahr (1805-76), the literary critic. At different times she visited many parts of Europe with her father and her husband. Her books on Italy (1847) and Great Britain (1852) were- the most valuable outcome of these journeys. Her best book is perhaps Von Geschlecht zu Geschleeht (1863-65). LEWES, a post-village of Sussex county, Del., on Delaware Bay, directly in front of the Deleware breakwater. It has a good harbor formed by the breakwater. Fishing, farming, and wrecking are the chief pursuits. Population, including Reho- both (in 1880), 3,103. LEWIS, EDMONIA, an American sculptor, born near Albany, N. Y., in 1845, of mixed African and In- dian blood,and educated at Oberlin, Ohio. She early began to model in clay. Her first work was a bust of Col. R. G. Shaw, who commanded the first United States colored regiment in the National service. In 1865 she went to Rome,where she studied her art, and where she has since remained. Her works show considerable talent. Among them are: The Freed- Woman; Death of Cleopatra, a vividly realistic work ; The Old Arrow-maker and his Daughter; Ilagar; Rebecca at the Well, and The Marriage of IIiawatha.. LEWIS, Dro, an American physician, born at Au- burn, N. Y., in 1823, died at Yonkers, N. Y., in 1886. After studying at the Harvard Medical School he practiced homoeopathy at Buffalo where he also published ahealth magazine, deprecating the use of drugs and advocating physical exercise as a part of public education. From 1852 till 1863 he lectured on hygiene and physiology, and at the latter date he founded the Boston Physical Training School, at which, in seven years, five hundred pupils gradu- ated. In 1864 he opened at Lexington, Mass, a school for young ladies based on hygienic principles. But the buildings were burnt in 1868. After that he engaged in medical practice in Bos- ton, lectured on hygiene and temperance, and or- ganized the women’s temperance crusade in Ohio. Lewis published New Gymnastics; Weak Lungs; Our Girls; Chats with Young Women, and the Dio Lewis Treasury, the latter being put to press immediately before his death. His influence had much to do- with the establishment of the present system of physical culture in most institutions of learning in the United States. - LEVVIS, l\’.[ORGAN, an American general and states- mam born at New York, Oct. 16, 1754, died there, April 7, 1844. VVhile engaged in studying law he joined the Continental army, in 1774. In 1786 he 'LEWIS—LIANA was aide to Gen. Gates with rank of colonel, fought at Saratoga in 1777, and in 1778 at the battles of Stone Arabia and Crown Point. After the war he was made attorney-general of New York, in 1791, and a judge of the Supreme Court in 1792. In 1804 he was elected overnor of New York, but in 1807 he returned to t e practice of law. In 1812 Presi- dent Madison made him quartermaster-general of the United States army, and in the next year Lewis was promoted to the rank of major-general. He served at Niagara, and afterwards took charge of the defence of New York. At the close of the war he advanced the funds that were necessary for the discharge of the American prisoners in Canada. He afterwards devoted himself to agriculture, serv- ing also as president of the New York Historical Society, and grand-master of the order of Free Masons. LEWIS, TAYLER, an American author, born at Northumberland, N. Y., in 1802, died at Schenec- tady, in 1877. He practiced law at Fort Miller, N. Y., till 1833, when he opened a classical school at Waterford, N. Y. In 1838 he became professor of Greek in the University of New York, and from 1849 till his death he was professor of Greek, in- structor in Oriental languages, and lecturer on Bib- lical and Oriental literature at Union College, Sche- nectady. Among his works are: Plato Against the Atheists; The Six Days of Creation, which maintains the harmony of the Bible and geology ; The Bible and Science; The Divine Human in the Scriptures; States Rights; A Photograph of the Ruins of Ancient Greece; The Light by which we See Light; The People of Afri- ca, Their Character, Condition, and Future Prospects. LEVVISIA, a genus of plants of the natural order Portulacaceae, named in honor of the American trav- eler, Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809). L. redivioa is found in the regions of his explorations, on the west side of the Rocky Mountains. It has a showy rose- colored flower. LEWISBURG, a town. the county-seat of Union county, Pa., on the west branch of the Susquehanna River. It is a grain-shipping point, is the seat of Bucknell University and contains a boat-yard, iron works, woolen factory, and amanufactory for farm- ing tools. Population, 3,205. LEWISBUBG,a post-village, the county-seat of Greenbrier county, W. Va., in a “blue-grass” region, nine miles from ‘Vhite Sulphur Springs. LEWVISTON, a post-village, the former capital of Idaho and now the county-seat of Nez Percés coun- ty, situated at the confluence of the Clearwater and Snake rivers, at the head of steamboat naviga- tion. LEVVISTON, a city of Androscoggin county, Me., on the east bank of the Androscoggin River, thirty- five miles north of Portland. It is the second city of the State in population, and an important rail- road center. The river has here a fall of 50 feet, and by means of a stone dam affords an excellent water-power. The Androscoggin is crossed here by two iron railroad bridges and two wagon bridges. Lewiston is the seat of Bates’ College, a Free-will Baptist institution. The most important manufac- tures are those of cotton and woolen goods, machin- ery, boots and shoes, jute bags, grain sacks, and brushes. The mills which manufacture these goods are worked by water-power, the water being con- veyed to the mills by a canal. Lewiston was incorpo- rated in 1795 and chartered as a city in 1861. Pop- ulation, 21,668. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 494. LE'WISTOWN, a post-village, the county-seat of Fulton county, Ill., sixty miles northwest of" Springfield. It has woolen, carriage, wagon, plow, spoke, and hub factories. Population (in 1880), Q 991 LEWISTOWN, a town, the county-seat of Mifflin. county, Pa., at the mouth of Kishacoquillas Creek, on the J uniata River and on two railroads. It has flour-mills, furnaces, ax-factories, steel-works, and is noted as a shipping-point for iron, coal, and grain. The surrounding mountain scenery attracts many summer visitors. Population, 3,288. LEXINGTON, a post-village of McLean county, Ill.,on the Chicago & Alton Railroad, one hundred‘ and eleven miles south of Chicago. It is largely engaged in stock-raising and farming. The village has several lodges of Patrons of Husbandry. LEXINGTON, a city, the county-seat of Fayette county, Ky., the largest city of the blue grass re- gion. It is seventy-seven miles south of Cincinnati. The Kentucky Central, Chesapeake & Ohio, the- Cincinnati Southern, and the Louisville & Nash- ville railroads center here. Lexington is the seat of the Kentucky University and of the State Insane Asylum. The city has large flouring-mills, distil- leries, copper works, a hemp manufactory, etc., and is the center of an extensive trade in native tobacco. The Henry Clay monument is one of the ornaments of the town. Population, 22,355. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 494. LEXINGTON, a small village of Middlesex county, Mass., eleven miles northwest of Boston, con- taining a monument erected to commemorate the patriotism of those who fell in the first battle of the Revolution. See BATTLE or LEXINGTON, Britan- nica, Vol. XXIII, p. 740. LEXINGTON, a city, a railroad center, and the county-seat of La Fayette county, Mo., on the south bank of the Missouri, situated on a bluff 300 feet above the river. It has great commercial prosper- ity, hasawide strata of excellent coal underlying the town, is the center of a hemp-growing region, and is noted for having been thrice besieged during the civil war-September,1861; October, 1861, and October, 1864. Population, 4,538. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 494. LEXINGTON, the county-seat of Rockbridge county, Va., situated in the fertile valley bounded on the southeast by the Blue Ridge, and known as. the “Valley of Virginia.” It is the western termi- nus of the James River and Kanawha Canal; has immense water-power, and contains flour-mills and a foundry. It is near the Natural Bridge and the Peaks of Otter; is the seat of Washington and Lee University and of the Virginia Military Institute, and is the burial-place of Robert E. Lee and “Stone- wall” Jackson. See Britannica, Vol XIV, p. 494. LEX NON SCRIPTA, the unwritten law, an ex- pression often applied to the common law or imme- morial custom. LEX TALIONIS, the law of retaliation, common» among all ancient and barbarous nations, by which “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” was considered the appropriate punishment. LEYS, HENRY J EAN AUG-USTE, a Belgian painter, born Feb. 18, 1815, at Antwerp, in which city most of his life was spent. and where he died Aug. 26, 1869. At the age of fifteen he entered the studio of Brakeleer, and subsequently traveled and studied in France and Holland. He was created baron by Leopold I. in 1862. Leys was one of the best mod- ern artists in the style of the old Flemish masters. Among his most valuable and most characteristic pictures are: Rembrandt’s Studio; A Flemish Wed- ding; A Village Féte; New Year’s Day in Flanders; and Luther Singing in the Streets of Eisenach. LIANA, a term first used in the French colonies and afterwards adopted by English, German. and other travelers, to designate the woody, climbing, and twining plants which abound in tropical for- ests, often rendering great areas of land quite im- \ 9% penetrable. Botanically considered, lianas belong to a number of different natural orders. Some of them become tree-like in the thickness of their stems, and frequently kill by constriction the trees which originally supported them. N o tropical flowers excel in splendor those of some lianas. Among them also are found some valuable medicinal plants. LIBEL, an injurious attack upon a man’s reputa- tion or character by written or printed words or signs. Slander refers to the same injury by spoken words. The United States received the law of libel from England without material change, except the limiting of the liability for published communi- cations in some of the States. Some of our State constitutions declare that every citizen shall have unrestricted liberty to speak, write, and publish his sentiments on all subjects, and that in prosecutions for libel the truth of his assertions may be given in evidence, and shall beadefense if published with good motives and for justifiable ends. If in any State this privilege is not declared by the constitution it is held to be a part of its common law; so that the right to defend against a charge of libel, by showing that the publication was truthful and was made for justifiable ends, may be said to be guaranteed in all of the United States. But there are cases in which the good motive alone may be a defense, though the published state- ments may be untrue. Such cases are known as “privileged” ones. If, for instance, an attorney under the instruction of his client incorporates in legal proceedings defamatory statements in regard to an opposing party for the purposes of judicial investigation, such statements are privileged. They may afterwards be proven untrue as well as injuri- ous. Yet the attorney cannot be made liable for them, if the allegations were pertinent to the case in hand. Another common case occurs when pro- ceedings taking place in courts are published, pro- vided that the proceedings are not ea; parte, but such that both parties have the opportunity to present the facts, and provided also that the publication is impartial and fair. If, however, the proceedings are ea: parte, the publisher must, at his peril, ascer- tain what the facts are, before he repeats injurious -ex parte charges, even though they be made in court. Another privileged case is that of legislators. Outside the legislative halls and committee rooms fa legislator cannot be called to account for what he has said in debate. This right is expressly guaran- teed by most of the State constitutions. It certainly applies also to papers drawn up or used in the pur- suance of legislative duties. The question how far the publication of speeches made in Congress or in the State legislatures is privileged has never been decided in court. But in our opinion the decision cannot be doubtful at all. In all our legislative bodies provision has been made by law for the complete publication by a State printer of their regular proceedings. and this publication in the case of Congress embraces a complete presentation of all that is said in its open sessions. Now it would be unfair, to say the least, to hold the public printer pecuniarily responsible in case a speech published by him correctly con- tains false statements that effect some person in- juriously. It is, of course, different if the published proceedings are one-sided, partial, or garbled. A very common case in which the privilege is qualified by motive is that of criticising the char- acter and conduct of candidates for public offices or of present incumbents of such ofiices. The writer Who would call the latter to account, or defeat the aspirations of the former, may publish all he knows that has a bearing on the subject; he may even publish also what he believes, provided he has suf- LIBEL—LIBERTY ficient reasons for believing and is not negligent in ascertaining the true facts. Under such circum- stances his mistakes of fact will not render him liable as long as he can justify his motives. This does not excuse general abuse and vilification. What he publishes must have an obvious tendency, if true, to accomplish the end at which he professes to aim. If, for instance, a candidate for a public treasurership has a grown son who is known to a newspaper editor as a thorough-going gambler, swindler, and spendthrift, it will be proper for such writer to inform his readers, if they are voters, of this fact. The public may judge of the father by the character of his son. The father’s suit for dam- ages in such a case will not be apt to prove success- ful, if the editor has been careful not to attack the candidate’s character with direct and positive assertions that are not verifiable. If a publication that might otherwise be privi- leged can be shown to be blasphemous, indecent, or otherwise unfit for the reading public, the pub- lishing of it may be a public offense in spite of the general privilege, and for this reason it would not be permissible. Such questions have come up in connection with the criticism of nude works of art, as statuary and pictures of mythological scenes. On the other hand, art criticism has also been made the means for attacking artists and authors by the press. J. Fenimore Cooper brought suits against Thurlow Weed, J. VVatson VVebb, Horace Greeley. W. L. Stone, and several other editors of New York papers, for adverse criticisms of his published works. His complaint was that they were not fair criticisms of his works, but were aimed rather at the author than at his writings. He recovered damages in most cases, especially against Thurlow Weed, against whom he brought numerous distinct suits, until Weed published in 1842a sweeping re- traction of all that he had ever printed derogatory to Cooper’s character. The court held that, al- though fair criticism of works offered to the public by the author is fully privileged, yet this privilege must not be made a cover for attacks upon the author’s character or reputation. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 505-7. LIBERIA, REPUBLIC or. For general article on LIBERIA, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 508, 509. The latest accredited reports estimate the area at about 14,300 square miles; and the population (colored) at 1,068,000, including about 18,000 civilized Ameri- co-Liberian colored citizens. Capital, Monrovia, with a population of 3,400. The other chief towns are Edma, population, 5,000; Harper, population, 3,000; and Buchanan, population, 1,200. The revenue in 1884 was $175,000, and expendi- tures, $165,000. The revenue is derived chiefly from customs duties. The public debt, created in 1871 by a loan in England, with accrued interest (7 per cent.) is about $1,000,000. The constitution of Liberia is modeled after that of the United States. The president and house of representatives are elected for two years, and the senate for four years. There are new eight senators and thirteen representatives. The president of the Republic must be thirty-five or more years of age, and must have property to the value of $600. His cabinet consists of five ministers, viz., secretaries of state, treasurer, and interior, and attorney- general, and post-master general. At present (1891) Hilary R. W. Johnson (first elected in 1883, assuming ofiice 1883, and since successively re- elected) is the president. LIBERTY, a post-village, the capital of Union county, Ind., situated on the Cincinnati. Hamilton & Indianapolis Railroad, fifty miles northwest of Cincinnati, Ohio. It has large flouring-mills, a - LIBERTY-—LIBRARIES -manufactory of agricultural-implements, planing- mills, etc. The principal business in the vicinity is farming and stock-raising. LIBERTY, a post-town, the county-seat of Clay county, Mo., sixteen miles northeast of Kansas City. It is the seat of William Jewell College (Baptist). Population (1880), 1,476. LIBERTY, a post-village, the county-seat of Bed- ford county, Va., on the Atlantic, Mississippi & Ohio Railroad, twenty-five miles west of Linch- burg. It has tobacco factories and warehouses, and is situated near the celebrated peaks of Alter, which are said to rival the White mountains in sublimity. 993 LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY ( Liberté, Egalité, Fraternite’), the motto of the French Repub- lic, dating from the time of the first revolution. Equality merely means equality before the law and the absence of class privileges. LIBOCEDRUS, a genus of coniferous trees, closely related to Thug'a, the arbor-vitae. The eight known species are natives of California, Chili, New Zealand, China and Japan. L. Decarrens,the Cali- fornia species, is known as “white cedar.” It is a. beautiful tree, attaining aheighth of 120 to 200 feet with a trunk 6 or 7 feet in diameter, and has a. light, soft, durable wood. LIBRARIES. LIBRARIES, UNITED STATES. According to the lists of libraries published in the latest report of the United States Commissioner of Education there are now 3,300 libraries containing 1,000 or more volumes in the United States. Some of these libraries have been started and are maintained by subscription; others by private endowments, as the Astor Library in New York, and the libraries of many of our colleges. Still others are the property of the State or municipal governments, there being new a State library in every State of the Union, in order to facilitate an annual exchange of statutes for the use of the executive, legislative and judi- ciary departments of each State government. The library of the State of New York is the largest and most complete of the State libraries. The libraries of the United States government are in the accom- panying list under “District of Columbia, Wash- ington.” The scientific branches represented in these li- braries are in accord with the pursuits of their in- tended readers._ Free public libraries comprise subjects of the most varied and divergent charac- ter, because they are calculated to supply the needs of the public at large. Law libraries and State , libraries are more or less restricted to books relat- ing to law matters, politics, public institutions, etc. Medical and theological libraries, school libraries, etc., contain mostly books treating on the particu- lar branches taught-in the schools with which they are connected. In the following list we give the - place, name and number of volumes of all the libraries in the United States which contain 10,000 volumes and upwards. This list is taken from the “Library Journal” of January, 1887 and 1889, and harmonizes with the last published report of the United States Commissioner of Education: q-4 e 3 .. . ‘ Q) Q Q Place. Name of Library. '2‘, -Q S :5 53 o :3 o in Z> Alabama: Montgomery. . .. State and Supreme Court.. . . .. 1828 17,626 Spring Hill...... College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1829 12,000 Arkansas: . Little Rock...... State..... ..................... .. 1846 20,000 California: Berkele . . . . . . .. University of California . . . . . .. 1869 26,773 Oaklan . . . . . . .. Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1868 10,738 Sacramento..... Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1879 11,778 a e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1850 61,612 San Francisco .. Bancroft Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859 45.000 "S '3 g 8 Place. Name of Library. "5 . /E 5 5 5'6 54 Zi> San Francisco. California Academy of Sci- ences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1853 10,000» Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1879 65,000 French Ligue Nationale... . . . .. 1875 13,006 Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1865 25.500 Mechanics’ Institute . . . . . . . . . .. 1855 40,000 Mercantile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853 55,000 Odd Fellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854 40,131 St. Ignatius College . . . . . . . . . . .. 1855 12,000 Sutro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887 110,000 Theological Seminary . . . . . . . . .. 1871 16, Santa Clara... .- Santa Clara College . . . . . . . . . . .. 1851 12,000 Colorado: 1 Mercantile . .. Mercantile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1886 10,506 Connecticut: Brid eport...... Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1882 16,550 Hart ord . . . . . . .. Connecticut Historical Soci- ety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1825 21,000 Hart-ford Library Association.. 1838 ,500 Theological Seminary ........ .. 1834 42,000 State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1854 15,000 Trinity College... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1824 26,000 Watkinson Library of Refer- ence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1858 40,000 Middletown .. .. Berkeley Divinity School .... .. 1855 12,387 Wesleyan University . . . . . . . . . .. 1833 33,690 New Haven... . . . Yale College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1700 125 .000 Linonian & Brothers . . . . . . . . . .. 1769 28,000 Young Men’s Institute . . . . . . . .. 1826 12,000 Norwich . . . . . . .. Otis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1c_ 1536-10: Waterbury . . . . .. Silas Bronson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18/0 36,500 Delaware: Dover . . . . . . . . . . .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1832 15,000 Wilmington . . .. Wilmington Institute . . . . . . . . .. 1787 15,532 District of Columbia: Washin ton.. . .. Bureau of Education . . . . . . . . . .. 1868 17,500 g Department of Agriculture. . .. 1863 18,000 Department of Justice . . . . . . . . .. 1853 20,000 Department of State . . . . . . . . . . .. 1:89 2‘?-.025 Georgetown College . . . . . . . . . . .. 1191 35,000 Gonzaga College . . . . . .._ . . . . . _ . . . . .,L. .. 10,000 House of Representatives... . .. 1189 125,000 Howard University . . . . . . . . . . .. 1869 11,500 Library of Congress . . . . . . . . . . .. 1802 565,154 Navy Department . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1878 17,000 Patent Oflice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18339 ' 50,000 ‘Signal Ofiice U. S. Army. . . .. 1§bl 10,5§Q Surgeon General’s Ofiice . . . . . .. 1b6§ 75,76» Treasury Department . . . . . . . . .. 1803 1§»000 U. S. Geological Survey... . . . .. 1882 1/,‘-7-55 U. S. Naval Observatory . . . . . .. 1845 }2,009 U. S. Senate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1852 00,000 War Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1&2 17,509 Florida: Tallahassee..... State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1845 12,500 2-26 994 LIBRARIES \ - '5 . .i "5 . '53 is 54>’ -'8 3; 3 Place. Name of Library. '5 -Q 5 Place. Name of Library. E -Q E 5 5-3 :1 33 o S’ o o 5 0 F4 ZI> it Zi> Georgia: Maryland: Athens . . . . . . . . .. University of Georgia . . . . . . . . .. 1800 16,000 Annapolis . . . . . .. Naval Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1845 26,898 Atlanta . . . . . . . . .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1825 45,000 State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1826 75,000 Young Men's Library Associa- Baltimore ..... .. Archiepiscopal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ,000 tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1867 11,343 Baltimore Bar Library Com- . Macon . . . . . . . . . .. Mercer University..- . . . . . . . . . . .. 1840 10,000 pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1840 10,000 Public Library and Historical Enoch Pratt Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1887 40,888 Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1874 10,300 Johns Hoplkins University.. . .. 1876 .500 Newnan . . . . . . .. College Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1853 15,000 Loyola, ()0 lege _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ H 1853 12,000 Savannah . . . . . .. Georgia Historical Society.... 1839 15,250 Maryland Historical Society.. 1844 20,000 _ ' Maryland Institute . . . . . . . . . . .. 1847 20,515 Illinois: Mercantile Library Associa- _ tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1839 40,000 fihicaso ------- -- Baptist Union Theoloslcal Odd Fellows’ .................. .. 1840 21,952 Seminary ------------ ------ -- 18§9 20,000 Peabody Institute ............ .. 1857 88,000 Chicago Historical Society... 1856 12,024 St. Mary’s Theological Semi- Law Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1857 19,000 nary _ ‘ . _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , , _ _ _ . __ 1791 26,000 P11b1i6.- -_ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - . -- 18 119,570 Ilchester . . . .. Mount St. Clement College. . .. 1868 10,600 St. I 118-t111S C011ege- - -. - ~ - - - - - -- 1870 14,000 Woodstock... . .. Woodstock College ........... .. 1869 67,000 Evanston... . . . . . Nort western University . . . . .. 1856 26,000 Galesburg . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1874 12,571 Massachusetts ,- Joliet . . . . . . . . . .. J oliet Business College . . . . . . .. 1866 11,000 Monmouth ---- -- Warren County --------------- -. 1870 11,190 Amherst ...... .. Amherst College .............. .. 1821 45,186 Morgan Park... . Baptist Theological Seminary. 1867 25,000 Andover _ . . . . _ , . Theological Seminary . . . . . . . . .. 1807 42,938 M011n11M0rriS--- 08-ssell Library of Mt Morris Beverly ........ .. Public ......................... .. 1855 10,021 _ College - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 1380 12,000 Boston. . . . . . . . .. American Academy of Arts Peona . . . . . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1880 25,350 and sciences _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ , _ _ , _ _, 1780 18,000 Rockford . . . . . . . Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1872 13,100 Athenaaum _ _ , , _ _ _ _ _ , , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , , 1807 150,261 .S ringfield .... .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1818 40,000 Boston College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1864 12,000 rbana . . . . . . . . .. University of Illinois . . . . . . . . .. 1868 15,539 Congrecatjonal _ _ _ I _;;jj _ . , _ , _ __ 1853 25,450 General Theological............ 1860 15,000 Indiana: Library Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17-92 26,000 ‘ ‘ Massachusetts Historical So- Crawf0rdsvlhle.. Wabash College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1833 22,053 ciety . . . . . . . . . ..- . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1791 31,000 Evansville . . . . .. Willard Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1885 10,000 Medical Library Association. 1875 ,000 Grcencastle..... De Pauw University . . . . . . . . . .. 1837 15,450 New England HiSt0ric-Genea,. Indianapolis.... Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 39,590 10 ical Society _ _ _ , _ _ , _ _ . _ _ _ _ __ 1845 20,778 State -------------------------- -- 18% : 23,000 Pub ic ......................... .. 1852 434,837 State Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867 14,500 Social Law _ _ . . _ . , _ _ , _ _ _ , _ , , _ . _ _ _ 1804 19,500 Notre Dame University of Lemonnier . . . . .. 1843 28.000 Society of Natural History. . .. 1831 30,000 Richmond . . . . .. Morrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1864 13,500 ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 60,000 .St. Meinrad. . . .. St. Meinrad’s Abbey . . . . . . . . . . .. 1854 11,500 Brockton, . , _ _ , _. Public _ . . _ . _ _ , _ , , _ _ _ , _ , . , , , _ _ _ _ ,_ 1867 10,341 - Brookline . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1857 30,842 I0’w0--‘ Cambridge . .. Harvard College . . . . . 1638 232,800 _ Harvard Divin ty School . . . . .. 1825 17,400 Cedar Rapids. . . Iowa Masonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . .. 184-4 10,000 Harvard Law school , _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _. 1817 21,600 Davenport. .... .. Academy of Natural Sciences. 1867 10,000 Museum of Comparative Zo- Davenport Library Associa- tilogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1858 17,600 tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1866 10,500 Porcellian Club , . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ ,. 1803 10,000 Des Moines...... State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._ .. 1838 ,554 Public _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ , , _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ . _ , _ _ _ _ ,_ 1856 18,000 Dubuque Young Men's Library AS80011» Clinton. ....... .. Bigelow Free Public .......... .. 1873 13,000 131011 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 1366 13,000 College Hill. . .. Tufit’s College . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854 20,104 -Grinnell......... Iowa College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1848 10,000 Cgncord , , _ _ . _ _. Free Public _ _ , _ _ _ _ . , _ _ . _ , , _ . _ _ ,_ 1851 19,643 Iowa City . . . . . .. Iowa Historical Society.. . . . . .. 1857 11,000 Danvers . . . . . . .. Peabody Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1857 12,000 State University -------------- -- 1860 18.873 Fall River .... .. Public ........................ .. 1860 30,000 Fitchburg . . . . . .. Public. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1859 17,000 Kansas-' Framin ham. .. Town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855 12,000 _ Haverhlll . . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1874' 39,253 Topeka -------- ~ Kansas Hlstorical S0ciétv-- 1875 24,121 Holyoke ....... .. Public ......................... .. 1870 11,000 S158-be - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - -- 1857 23,988 Ipswich . . . . . . . .. Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1858 10,009 Lancaster . . . . . .. Town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1862 16,281 Kemucki/-' Lawrence . . . . . .. Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 27 ,322 Leominster .. . .. Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1856 10,300 Danville . . . . . . .. Danville Theological Semi- Lexin ton . . . . .. Cary , . . . . . . . . . . _ . . _ . . , . . , . . . . , _ ,_ 1868 10,000 nary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1853 10,000 Lowel . . . . . . . . .. City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1844 30,000 Frankfort . . . . .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1821 33,900 Middlesex Mechanics’ Associ- Lexington . . . . .. Kentucky University . . . . . . . . .. 1799 13,169 ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1325 20,000 Lexington -------------------- .. 1800 .000 Lynn .......... .. Free Public..................-... 1862 34,400 Louisville . . . . . .. Louisville Library Association 1871 10,000 Malden ........ .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1879 10,724 Polytechnic Society of Ken- Medford ...... .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 1856 10,260 tucky.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1876 40,533 Milton . . . . . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 1871 10-000 , , Natick . . . . . . . . .. Morse Institute .............. .. 1874 13,647 Lomswna-' New Bedford.... Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853 50.000 - Newburyport... Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854 23,282 Baton Rouge.. .. State University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1861 13,805 Newton... . .. . . .. Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1870 23,309 New Orleans.. .. Howard Memorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888 10,000 Theological Institution. . . . . 1326 18,0‘00 Louisiana State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1855 21,000 Northampton .. Free Public . . . . . . . .... 1860 90,000 New Orleans Law Association. 1855 10,000 North Easton. .. Ames Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877 11,059 Public School and Lyceum. . .. 1844 17,000 Peabody ....... .. Peabody Institute .... . . . . . . 1853 >505 T1118-I16 UniVerBitY-- - ~ - - - - - - - -- 1884 13,400 Pittsfield. . . . . . .. Berkshire Athenseum ........ .. 1871 16-000 , Quincy . . . . . . . . .. Thomas Crane Public . . . . . . . . .. 1871 14,000 310106: Randolph . . . . . .. Turner Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1876 10,000 Salem . . . . . . . . . .. Athenaeum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810 19,000 Augusta . . . . . . . . State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 41,000 Essex Institute _ _ . _ _ _ , _ , _ _ _ , , , _ _ 1848 37,000 Bangor . . . . . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1828 23,255 Somerville Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1873 12,637 Theological Seminary -------- -- 1820 17,000 Southbridge..... Public ................ ....... .. 1870 1010: Brunswick . .. Bowdoin College . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1802 34,450 south Hadley“, Mount Holyoke Female Semi- Portland . . . . . . .. Maine Historical Society . . . . .. 22 10,000 nary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1833 11,0“! Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1867 31,000 Springfield . . . . .. City Library Association.. 1857 55,000 Waterville . . . . .. Colby University . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1820 19,370 Taunton . . . . . . .. Public. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1866 24, 4.. )--v\_ LIBRARIES 995 ‘H Q-4 - o . - o '3 2;; 3 '3 3 3 Place. Name of Library. '2 -2 5 Place. Name of Library. 2 -E S ,"_‘$ -1 :5 I-¢ 5 o o -"J 0 § z> :- z> Waltham ...... .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1865 1 000 Albany . . . . . . . . .. State Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1818 37,300 Watertown .... .. Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1868 15,791 Young Men’s Association . . . . .. 1833 17,000 We land . . . . . . .. Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1848 10,000 Auburn . . . . . . . .. Auburn Theological Semi- We lesle . . . . . .. Wellesle College . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1875 30,321 nary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1821 16,417 Westfiel . . . . . .. Westfiel Athenaeum . . . . . . . . . .. 1864 14,000 Brooklyn........ Brooklyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1857 90.000 Williamstown .. Williams College . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1793 22,000 Eastern District School . . . . . . .. 1866 17,000 Woburn . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1856 23,789 Long Island Historical Society 1863 41,000 Worcester . . . . .. American Antifiuarian Society 1812 80,000 Buffalo ........ .. Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36 53,000 College of the oly Cross .... .. 1843 14,000 Can1s1us College... . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1876 14,500 Free Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1859 63,941 Grosyenor Public . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1859 31,000 Worcester Society of An- Clinton ........ ..Ham1lton College . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1812 21,000 tiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1875 10,000 Fordham. . . . . . .. St. J ohn’s College . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1846 ,000 Geneseo . . . . . . . .. Wadsworth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1843 1 000 Michigan; Geneva . . . . . . . . .. Hobart College. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1824 15,285 Hamilton , . . . . .. Madison University . . . . . . . . . . .. 1820 18,000 Ann Arbor . . . . .. University of Michigan . . . . . . .. 1841 47,000 Ithaca . . . . . . . . . .. Cornell University . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1868 54,840 University Law Department. 1858 10,000 Cornell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1866 13,851 Bay City . . . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1870 10,000 Newburg . . . . . . .. Free ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1852 15,229 Detroit . . . . . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1865 59,653 New York . . . . . .. American Geographical So- Grand Rapids. Public School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 17,000 ciety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1852 18,000 Holland . . . . . . .. Hope College. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1865 30,000 Amencan Institute . . . . . . . . . . .. 1833 13,000 .Ka1amazoo .... .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1843 11,419 American Seamen’s Friend So- Lansing . . . . . . . .. tate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1828 , ciety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . .. 1833 38,592 Olivet . . . . . . . . . .. Olivet College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1844 12,829 American Society of Civil En- West Bay City.. Sage Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1844 12,000 g1neers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1852 16,375 Apprentices’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1820 69,537 Minnesota: Astor Libra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . .. 1849 , City Bar Association . . . . . . . . . .. 1870 27,237 Minneapolis... .. Athenaeum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1859 14,000 College of the City of New University of Minnesota . . . . .. 1869 20,000 Yor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1850 22,424 St. Paul ........ .. Minnesota Historical Society.. 1849 12,338 College of St. Francis Xavier.. 1847 22,000 Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1882 11,500 Columbia College . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1757 68,378 State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1849 14,142 Cooper Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1859 20,000 Free Circulating and Otten- Mississippi: dorfer Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1880 21,624 General Theological Seminary Jackson . . . . . . . .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1838 40,000 of the P. E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1820 19,000 Grand Lodge F. and A . Masons 1870 10,300 Missouri: Harlem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1826 12,000 Harmonic Social Club ........ .. - 1860 11,800 Columbia . . . . . .. University of Missouri . . . . . . . .. 1840 12,776 Law Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1826 34,000 Jefferson City.. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1833 18,000 Lenox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1870 25,000 State Law (Free) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1821 30,000 Maimonides L. B’nai B’rith.... 1852 26,840 Kansas City .. .. Kansas City Public . . . . . . . . . . .. 1876 14,000 Mercantile Library Associa- St. Louis . . . . . . .. Academy of Science... . . . . .. 1856 10,000 tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1820 210,431 Law Library Association . . . . .. 1838 14,320 N. Y. Academy of Medicine 1847 30,000 Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1865 , N. Y. Historical Society. . . . . .. 1804 75,000 St. Louis Mercantile . . . . . . . . . . .. 1846 65,657 New York Hospital . . . . . . . . . . .. 1796 16,000 St. Louis University. . . . . . . . . . .. 1828 ,000 New York Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1754 80,000 Springfield .... .. Dury College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1873 19,000 Union Theological Seminary.. 1838 .000 Xavier Union of the City of Nebraska: New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1871 13,746 Young Men’s Christian Asso- Lincoln ....... .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1856 24,398 ciat10n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1852 33,111 Omaha ......... .. Public. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 14,237 Poughkeepsie... City. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1340 14,240 Vassar College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1365 15,000 Nevada: Rochester . . . . .. Court of Appeals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1849 12-000 Public School Central ........ .. 1863 14,249 Carson City.. . .. State . . . . . . . . . . .............. .. 1864 18,000 Reynolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1884 1000 Rochester Theological Semi- New. nar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1351 20,590 Hampsh/ere: Universit of Rochester . . . . . .. 1859 21,790 Schenectady... Union Co lege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1790 24,033 Concord .. . . . . .. New Hampshire Historical So- Sing Sing . . . . . . .. Mount Pleasant Military Acad- ciety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1822 ,300 emy _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ __ 1830 12,000 Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1855 11,000 Syracuse . . . . . . .. Central . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1555 15,389 State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1818 20,000 Court of Appeals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1849 10,420 Hanover . . . . . . .. Dartmouth College . . . . . . . . . . .. 1770 65,000 University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1371 15,000 Manchester..... City. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1854 ,660 Troy . . . . . . . . . . . .. Young Men’s Association . . . . .. 1834 27,210 Portsmouth..... Portsmouth Athenaeum ...... .. 1817 15,133 Utica . . . . . . . . . . .. City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1838 10,479 West Point... . . . U. ... Military Academy . . . . . . .. 1812 30,327 New Jersey: Burlington .... .. Litbrary Company of Burling- 1758 10 000 N‘ Ca"'°z'ma" on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , - ' . Madison _ . . _ _ _ _ _ Dre“, Theo] oiical Seminary. . . 1867 18,000 Rale1gh . . . . . . . . . . State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831 45,000 Morristown Library and yceum . . . . . . . . . .. 1878 11,000 Newark ........ .. Library Association. . . . . . 1847 27,523 Ohio: New Brunswick Gardner A. Sage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 38,000 Rutger’s Co1lege., . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1770 11,200 Chilicothe .... .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1853 10,000 Theological Semmary of the Cincinnati . . . . .. Cincinnati Law . . . . . . . . . . . ._ 1847 10,000 Reformed Church 11 Amer- Lane Theological Seminary.... 1835 13,690 ica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1784 .000 Pub ‘c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1867 142,153 Princeton . . . . . .. College of New Jersey . . . . . . . . .. 1746 65,000 St. Xavier College . . . . . . . . _ _ _ __ 1840 15,300 Theological Seminar of the Young Men's Mercantile . . . . . .. 1835 50,000 ' Presbyterian Churc . . . . . . .. 1821 48,000 Cleveland ..... .. Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1848 20,000 Trenton . . . . . . . .. State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1796 31, Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1368 45,905 Columbus ..... .. Ohio State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1817 53,500 New York: Ohio State Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - -- 18,000 Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 18,500 Albany .... sum. ................. ..... .. 1818 128,871 Dayton ........ .. Public ......................... .. 1847 21,232 996 LIBRARIES--LICENSE ‘ "5 c I‘ I ‘8 . "3 3 3 '8 5,-, 8 Place. Name of Library. '2 -E 5 Place. Name of Library. '3 -E g :3 H -'3 H 5 ~ :1 § z§ £ 2:? Delaware . . . . . .. Sturges Library, Ohio Wesley- Nashville... . . . .. Vanderbilt University . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,000 an University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1854 13,786 Sewanee . . . . . . . .. University of the South.. . . . . .. 1868 16,000 Gambia. . . . . . . .. Kenyon College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1865 20_,000 Marietta . . . . . . .. Marietta College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1835 20,130 Vermont.- Oberlin . . . . . . . .. Oberlin College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1834 13,819 Springfield . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 12,037 Burlington... Fletcher (free) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1874 18.600 Toledo . . . . . . . . .. Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1873 3.000 University of Vermont . . . . . . . .. 1800 35,000 Wooster . . . . . . .. University of Wooster . . . . . . . .. 1870 10,300 Lunenburgh .. .. Cutting’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854 14,000 Mont elier . . . . .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1825 18,600 Oregon: St.Jo nsbury .. Athenaeum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1870 12,000 _ Vergennes . . . . .. Vergennes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1876 22,220 Portland . . . . . . .. Library Association . . . . . . . . . . .. 1864 13,436 . Salem. . . . . . . . . .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1850 12,000 Virginia: Pennsylvania: Ashland . . . . . . . .. Randolph Macon College . . . . .. 1834 10,000 Hampden Sid- _ _ , Allegheny . . . . . .. Public School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872 10,800 ne . . . . . . . . . . .. Union Theological Seminary.. 1825 12,400 Western Theolo ical Seminary 1827 25,000 Lexington Washington and Lee Univer- Beatty . . . . . . . . . ._ St. Vincent’s Co lege . . . . . . . . . .. 1846 24,000 _ sit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1796 18,000 Carlisle . . . . . . . .. Dickinson College . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1783 29,767 R1chmond....... State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1822 45,000 Easton . . . . . . . . .. Lafayette College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832 19,946 Virginia Historical Society... . 1831 13,883 Germantown.... Friends’ Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1869 13,000 Salem. ._ . . . . . . . .. Roanoke College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1853 16,000 Gettysburg... Theological Seminary (Luth- Theological z {Theological Seminary of the _ eran) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. U ‘ Seminary P. E. Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1823 12,000 1§§‘€t1§‘l°O‘fii::::: i£°.§1‘i“§I;'I:::;::::::::::::::::::::: 1755 103164 nlvefilféfiial Unmrsity Of Virginia ------- -- 1825 47,006 Haverford . . . . .. Haverford College . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1833 15,530 Jersey Shore. . . . Eclectic Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835 10,000 Wisconsin: Lancaster . . . . . .. Theological Seminary (Re- formed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1825 10,000 Appleton . . . .. Appleton Library of Lawrence Lewisburg . . . . .. University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1853 12,000 University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1853 10,740 Meadville . . . . . .. Allegheny College . . . . . . . . . . . . _. 1820 12,000 Beloit. . . . . . . . . .. Beloit College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1848 12,840 Theological School . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1845 18,000 Madison . . . . . . .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1839 18,954 Overbrook.... . .. St. Charles Seminar . . . . . . . . .. 1833 16,500 State Historical Society . . . . . . .. 1849 116,750 Philadelphia... Academy of Natural Sciences_. 1812 40,000 _ University of Wisconsin . . . . . .. 1849 14,436 American Philosophical So- M1lwaukee.. Milwaukee Public . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1878 34,687 ciety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1743 50,000 Nashotah... . . . .. N ashotah Theological Semi- American Sunday School ‘ nary . . ._ . . . . . .._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1842 10,500 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1824 10, St. Francis . . . . .. St. Francis Seminary . . . . . . . . .. 1850 11,000 Apprentices Library Company 1820 18,000 Athenaeum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814 25,000 College of Physicians . . . . . . . . .. 1789 37,048 . . _ Franklin Institute ............ .. 1824 24, For general article on LIBRARIES, see Britannica, German Society of Pennsyl- V01 XIV pp_ 509_551_ vania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1817 22,000 Li:GEN’SE .t . t b d t d . th. t. Historical Society of Pennsyl- _ has 1 1S 0 9 un ers 00 1n 1S_ 3-1' 1' _vania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1824 28,162 ole, is a permit, granted by the proper authority, to Llblgigy Company Of Ph11ade1' 1731 150 000 keep a saloon, hotel, or tavern; to sell wine, beer, L,,{’,, A's,'s'O'(5{,§,{,1‘(',§;,'jjjjjj'_jI1:111: 1502 191112 ale, liquor, cigars, or_ other merchandise; to peddle Mercantile Library Company.. 1821 152,000 goods; to keep certain animals; to conduct shows, %‘)4(‘11éuF%é1{J3l3vg%rY Compimym - ~ 1212 %g%% or other entertainments. Licenses are gran ted by PennsylvaniaufiospitalliiIIIII: 1763 151000 the States or municipalities, and haveto be paid Presbyterian Historical So- for. One purpose in granting them is to secure cleliy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' ' - - - - ‘ - -- 1852 ’ good morals and public health; another,more sub- Public School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1831 18,757 d. - t . bl. L. sgring Garden Institute _ _ _ , _ H 1850 13,000 or mate purpose is o raise a pu ic revenue. 1- T eological Seminary (Evan- censes are also granted by the United States. UIg1ie%,1ecr"é1i,)1'u(§‘%1‘i}”,§,1I§1];s~‘-,1-"r;,T’J-I1- i-5 ~ 'i,;5‘5" 17,838 Since the national authority is paramount to that Wilson's irculating _ , _ , _ _ , _jj j - $75 321300 of any State, a State license which violates a Pittsburgh . . . . .. Allegheny County Law . . . . . . .. 1867 15,000 United States law iS null and VOi(l. LIGBDSG fees g;§,g%%3_3(]>1‘Vn£%§rg1_Stltxggaéiél ' - - - " 15,000 imposed by federal authority as a tax for revenue tion, I 5 ________ . _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ __ 1851 19,000 only cannot interfere with anything allowed or pro- 8. Bethlehem... Lehigh University ............ .. 1878 61,000 hibited under State laws. The federal license tax , which liquor-dealers are required to pay does not Rhode Island‘ I allow the sale of liquors in any State where, as in Newport ...... .. Peop1es’.. . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1870 25,6 Maine, Kansas, and Iowa, such sale is forbidden by Ridaevflggd Llbrary and Ame‘ 1730 31 700 the State law. The United States liquor license is, Providence...... Athenaeuni.-.11.. I '.'.::'.::'.'. I. I. '.'.'.'_'. 1836 441582 therefore, not 3 Permit to 5_e11 1iq1101_3 but OPIY 3 Brown University . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1768 62,800 governmental tax upon the liquor-sellmg busmess, Pub11c-.- ' ------- - ~ - - - - - - - - ~ 1878 33,047 if such is carried on by virtue of the State or muni- R. 1. Historical Society . . . . . . .. 1822 ,000 . 1 1. State Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1868 , clpa 1cenSe- _ _ _ . At present, licenses for selling wine, beer or 5- carom“-' liquors are granted in all the States of the Union Charleston...... Charleston Library Society. . .. 1748 19,000 excel” Mmne, Kansas’ I0_W9~, Ve1'm_Ont and New Columbia . . . . . .. Presbyterian Theo ogical Sem- Hampshire. The respective laws differ but little Sg1I11,‘;’“]lll'Y(;,éb'r~()-1-i-11-£;“-C-()-1-1-e--6; ------ -- gag 23,888 from one another. Most of them are based upon State ________________ '_ j'_j'_'_j', 1866 I the laws of Massachusetts and New_Yor_k, these two States having had the most to do with hcense legis- Tennessee~' lation. The Tennessee law forbids any person to Lebanon . . . . . . .. Cumberland University........ 1842 10,000 $91191‘ _“t1PP1e aI_1y lntoxlca-t11.1g t_)eVe_ra'g9 Wlthm Nashvi1le.. . . . . .. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1854 30,000 four 1111195 of an lncorporated instltutlon Qf learn. ing.” The law of Florida is noteworthy for a sec- LICT.ORS~—-LIFE-BOAT tion requiring every application for a license to sell liquors, wine, or beer “ to be signed by a majority of the registered voters in such election district which said signing shall be in the presence of at least two credible witnesses.” “Local” option is the right of a county, town, or village to prohibit the liquor traffic within its borders. Local option laws obtain in the States of Maryland, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Texas, and Arkansas. “ Prohibition ” by constitutional provisions obtains in Maine, Iowa, and Kansas; and prohibition by statutory laws obtains in New Hampshire and Ver- mont. In many parts of the United States “high-license” legislation has been agitated during the last twenty years. But “ high-license laws ” were only passed in Nebraska in 1881 and in Illinois in 1888. They differ from the general license system only in the higher fees to be paid. The general features of all license laws for selling liquor are: 1. Licenses shall be issued only to proper persons. 2. Each license shall contain restrictive condi- tions. 3. The hours of opening and closing the saloons shall be regulated. 4. All licensed places shall be kept under vigilant control. 5. All violations of the law shall be punished. 6. In granting a license the requirements of the neighborhood shall be properly considered. In church law a “License” is a permit to preach, to conduct religious services, or to administer ordi- nances. The authority granting such license may be the church, council, conference, consistory, or bishop. The scope of the power committed varies with the tenets and practices of the several branches of the Christian church. LICTORS, among the ancient Romans, officers whose duty it was to attend upon the magistrates, bearing the fasces, in order to clear the way and enforce due respect, and also to administer punish- ment to offenders, and to perform other public functions. They were originally required to be free-born, but under the empire freedmen were ad- mitted to the office. LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE, an English clergy- man, born at Easingham, Durham, in 1811. After being educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he be- came a tutor in the college. afterwards head-master 997 of Westminster school, and domestic chaplain to Prince Albert. In 1855 he was made dean of Christ Church, and in 1870 vice-chancellor of the Univer- sity of Oxford. In connection with Robert Scott he wrote a valuable Greek Lexicon (1843), and after- wards a History of Rome (1855), both of which passed through many editions. LIDDON, HENRY PARRY (1829-1890), an English clergyman, educated at Christ Church, Oxford. He became vice-principal of the theological school at Cuddesden in 1854. In 1864 he was appointed pre- bendary in Salisbury cathedral, and in 1870 he was made canon residentiary of St. Paul’s cathedral and professor of Scripture Exegesis at Oxford. He was an earnest defender and expounder of High- Church doctrine. Liddon published Lenten Ser- 'nGions; The Di/vinity of our Lord; and Some Words for oa. LIE, JoNAs LAURITZ EDEMIL, a Norwegian novel- ist, born at Eker, near Drammen, in 1883. He spent his youth at Tromso, atown and island in Finnmark, the life and scenery of which he well depicted in his works. Among his writings are Den Fremsynte; Billeder fraiVordZa-nd; Adam Sch-ra- der; L2'i'ssZa'cen; and En Jfalstrtinz (1884). Some of these works have been translated into English. LIEBRECI-IT, FELIX, linguist and folklorist, born at Namslau, in Silesia, March 18, 1812, died at St. Hubart, in Belgium, August 1, 1890. He studied at Breslau, Munich, and Berlin; and be- came in 18-19 professor of the German language at the Athénée Royal in Liege, from which he retired in 1867. Liebrecht early became known through his series of admirable articles in various learned journals on the origin and diffusion of popular stories, and by translations enriched with valuable annotations. Among these are BasiZe’s Pentame- ron, oder das rlltirchen aller _h[c't-rchen; the Barlaam und Josaphat of Joannes Damascenus; Dunlop’s Geschichte der Prosad'ichz‘ungen,' and an edition of the non-historical portions of Gervase of Tilbury’s Otia I m periali. LIEUTENANT—COLONEL, an army ofiicer be- low a colonel and above a major. In the British army he is nomially the officer of a regiment but virtually commands, the post of colonel being merely an honorable sinecure. LIFE—BELT. See Britannica,Vol. XIV, p.571. LIFE—BOAT. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 570-72. 1! \ _ . \ I1 . _ '3' _- \ l ’I"'I :2 '‘ 1 I | I 1" '3 I F ' I I - '1 . '21“ 7 .‘ v _ ‘H u 47 §,éE§Eé Jw///'-,’_/", ;_'-7 J 1.; __/I I .~'/// 7-1:?) _ -11 /1 III - //',"' Z‘!-'1-Z‘! 9% LIFE-SAVING SERVICE (UNITED STATES). HIS service was organized in conformity to an act of Congress approved June 18, 1872. It is an organization for the succor and rescue of seafarers subjected to shipwreck, upon the sea and lake coast of the United States. It is distinguished not only byits uniqueness and magnitude—there is no similar governmental institution anywhere else in the world—bnt also by the extraordinary success which has attended its efforts to save life and prop- erty upon occasions of maritime disaster. This service is under the control of the United States Treasury Department. It includes all points of danger on nearly ten thousand miles of coast. The entire coast is divided into twelve districts. A general superintendent presides over the organiza- tion, who, with his assistant, has his headquarters in the Treasury at lVashington. There is an in- spector of life-saving stations at New York, and there are two superintendents of construction for the Atlantic and lake coasts and two for the Pacific who supervise the building a11d repairs of the sta- tions and purchase their equipment_s. An officer of the revenue marine acts as assistant or local in- spector in each district. He sees that the stations are kept in proper order and the crews well-prac- ticed in the use of the life-saving appliances. Be- ‘ sides the local inspector there is in each district a superintendent who manages its affairs under the direction of thegeneral superintendent. At each life-saving station there is a keeper who must be an expert surfman. He is by law an inspector of cus- toms and has power over all stranded property. Under him is a crew of seven experienced surfmen. For the pay of $50 a month these men have to risk $5‘ ' ‘\- \\.\\ \ ‘ ~‘= ' _: ..c '- \>\‘-’=-'- | I their lives in effecting rescues on occasions of ship- wreck, and have to patrol a certain beat every night and during foggy days. On these patrols they look out for stranded vessels and vessels in danger or distress. For the proper watching of the coast the station men are divided into four watches ‘ of two men in each. The first watch leaves the sta- tion at sunset. One of the two men composing the watch goes to the left, the other to the right. Each one marches on until he meets the patrolman of the adjacent station in his direction. After ex- changing metal checks (suitably inscribed) each patrolman returns to his station, and presents his check to the keeper as proof of the performance of his duty. Then a second watch sets out and rzoes over the same ground, then a third, and so on until the night is passed. This constant patroling of desolate coasts on dark nights and foggy days is often a very severe task; but it is faithfully per- formed. The stations (Fig. 1) are two-story wooden houses containing six or seven rooms. They are well sup- plied with all life-saving appliances, and are also fitted up for the residence of the crews. On dan- gerous coasts where wrecks are frequent they are only about five miles apart. Most of them are now connected by telephone. On many of them there is ateam of horses kept, in order to lighten the labors of the men in moving heavy apparatus. to the places where rescues have to be made. The equipment for a complete life-saving station is as follows: 1. A six-oared surfboat with its car- riage (see LIFE-BOAT in Britannica). 2. A Lyle gun . It is made of bronze. The shot line is tied to the extremity of the cylindrical shot, which is fired across an endangered vessel or wreck. 3. (Fi .2). This is an invention of Capt. D. A. Lyle, U. A i 13’ F 1_.\\\_-_\ ..\ I - -.- _ - . \---_\‘\\.\.‘b ~~4 t\ '\.\\‘.\\~n\\\-kw \\\\\.~.\ -_\_\ \\ \ “\- . ' \ ‘ . _Fig. 3. Lines of various sizes, from the shot-line of linen thread, }»8’ inch thick, to the great hawser on which is to be slung the breeches, buoy or life-car (Figs. 3, 4, and 5). 4. A faking-box (Fig. 6), or contrivance for so ar- ranging the, shot-line. as to facilitate its flight to a wreck without friction or entanglement. 5. A life- car (Fig. 5). This is a covered boat made of corru- gated iron, in order to make it retain its shape without the aid of ribs or stays. 6. Breeches-buoys (Figs. 3 and 4). A breeches- buoy is a circular ring of cork, from which depends a stout pair of canvas breeches, all arranged to be huneby an iron ring to a hawser. Ifa man is sus- pended in a breeches-buoy he can swiftly be drawn along the rope to the shore. l['l.~t§"!. _h',\_n“i_\§‘ \-;y,’i§‘?r', '1'-am;-u 1-111» 9» ‘-‘,'\ \\\\\\\\_,_=,:.‘.,\ ‘2" ‘h \\.‘.‘. \‘_ 77. Merrimal life-saving mgn suits of India Rubber These suits are double above the waist so, LIFE-SAVING SERVICE %9 as to be capable of inflation by rubber tubes ap- pended to them. They cover the entire body ex- cept the face. Surfmen wear these suits when they rescue persons struggling in the breakers. 8. Cork- life belts. They are worn by the crews while on serv- ice at wrecks. (See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 571.) 9. Anchors, small boats, tools of various kinds, beds, bedding, a box of Coston lights for signaling wrecks, a medicine chest containing various ined- icinal preparations, and numerous incidental arti- cles. To draw all these things to the scene of a ship- wreck an apparatus-wagon (Figs. 8 and 9) is used, which is in two sections detachable from each other. It carries the Lyle gun upon its rear sec- FIG. 8.—FULL VIEW or McLELLAN’s LII-.'I‘E‘SAVING APPARATUS W AGON. A. Lyle gun. B. Line readv to be fired. F. Rammer and s ouge. Hawser. K. San -anchor. L. Tripod. M. Flag-pole. N. tion, where the gun is permanently mounted. The hawser and hauling-lines on their reels. faking- boxes, signal poles, and other appliances occupy the other parts of the wagon. The boat is usually transported upon a separate carriage (Fig. 10). The stations, their apparatuses and stores are. by the regulations of the service. kept with the regard to order and precision of a man of war. : CCC. Shot-line boxes. G. Pm-frame and false bottom u on which shot-liue is faked. H. Breeches buoy. x. 00. Drag-ropes. DD. Whip-line. E. Whip-line, block and tally-board. I. Tackle. J. Besides the appliances provided by the govern- ment, most of the stations are furnished by gen- erous private citizens with books for the use of the surfmen when not on duty. The stations are likewise provided w_ith various articles of cloth- ing for men and women; with restoratives, addi- tional bedding and various delicacies for the sick. These articles are sent by a society of ladies 1000 known as the “Woman’s National Relief Associa- tion,” and are intended for the use of the persons rescued from shipwreck. The mode of service at wrecks is as follows: VVhen a vessel is driven ashore by day she is seen by the station lookout, who is on top of the house. If it is by night, the patrolman walking along the coast descries her struggling in the breakers, and he at once ignites his Coston lights. These lights LIFE-SAVING SERVICE emit a brilliant red flare of about two minutes’ duration. This notifies the persons on board that they have been seen and that assistance is near. The patrolman then hurries to the station, where he reports to the keeper. The latter then hastens with his crew and a wagon load of apparatus to the assistance of the distressed vessel. Sometimes the large life-boat is launched, at other times the lighter surf-boat (Fig. 10) is hauled overland to a. Fig. 6.-—SHo'r-LINE FLYING T0 WRECK FROM FAKING-BOX. point opposite the wreck, and there launched. The keeper being the commander and the steers- man of the boat, he has to decide what course of action must be pursued. ‘When he reaches the vessel women, children, helpless persons and pas- sengers are first taken into his boat—no scramb- live in it, the method of rescue by means of the wreck-ordnance is resorted to. A line attached to the shot of the wreck-gun (Fig. 2) is fired over and across the wrecked vessel. Pulling on this line the people on the wreck haul on board a rope, r. with- out ends, and finally get a tail-block, 0, (Fig. 4), which has a whip-line rove through it. They fasten the tail of the block to a mast, m, of the wrecked vessel, or to any other firm portion of the hull situ- ated well up‘. Next the hawser, h, is pulled on board in a similar way and fastened to the mast above the other rope. The shore end of the hawser is drawn over an upright crotch or shear-legs, ling, pushing or pressin is allowed on such occa- sions~—and the wrecke crew and officers are shipped last. Baggage or goods are not allowed to be taken into the rescuing boat until every living person has been landed. Should the sea be so turbulent that no boat can guyed or braced to a sand anchor, at, in its rear, as seen in Figure 11. When all is ready, the wrecked people are brought ashore, either one by one in the breeches-buoy, or six at a trip in the life-car (Fig. 5). The latter is seldom used on our coasts; the breeches-buoy and surf-boats are generally em- ployed. For illuminating the beach during the wrecking operations, the surfmen suspend a so- called “sausage light” (shown in the upper right- hand corner of Figure 11) from a tripod on shore. Immediately upon being landed the rescued people are conveyed to the station, and there they are cared for until they are able to help themselves. LIFE-SAVING SERVICE 7 1001 That the crew may become skilled in the hand- ling of the life-lines and breeches-buoys, a constant system of practice is maintained at the stations. For this purpose a pole is set up in the shallow water near the shore, say 75 yards from the place Fig. 7~SURFI\iAX IN l\lERRIl\IAl\' LIF]-3—SAVIl\‘G DRESS. of practice. This pole represents the mast of a wrecked vessel. The crew are first called upon in the boat-house by number, and are examined orally. They have to recite the details of the exer- cise as set down in the service manual. At the words of command they then fall into place at the drag-rope, and draw the apparatus to the drilling- ground. A man has been placed upon the pole. At the word “action” the crew proceed to rig the apparatus and bring their comrade down from the pole in the breeches-buoy. The time required is noted and recorded. If in one month after the active season has commenced the work cannot be done in five minutes, the men are cautioned. Fur- ther admonition is rarely necessary. In fact, an active rivalry exists between many of the stations to perform this mimic rescue in the shortest time. It has been eifected in two and a half minutes. This was in the day-time. At night-drills it has been done in three minutes. In addition to the wrecking drill the crew are ex- ercised every week in boat practice, including launching and landing through the surf, with at least half an hour’s rowing; they are also practiced in signaling with miniature flags, accompanied by oral examinations in the main features of the in- ternational code of signals, and they are regularly drilled in the manipulation of persons apparently drowned, one of the surfmen serving as the subject to be resuscitated. ‘When this ceaseless round of practice work is superimposed upon the regular patrol and other duties, it will be understood that the time and muscles of the surfmen are fully oc- cupied. On the monthly visits of the inspectors the latter mark in their drill-hooks the proficiency of each member of the station force and report it to the general superintendent, who keeps the record of the rating of every man in the life-saving ser- vice. Upon the sea and lake coasts of the United States there are now about 226 government life-saving stations. Of these 165 are on the Atlantic shores, S on the Gulf of Mexico, 8 on the Pacific and 45 on the great lakes. One river station is at Louisville, Ky., on the falls of the Ohio River. The following list gives the names and locations of the stations, classified by districts, as returned in the ofiicial report of the General Superintendent of the Life- Saving Service, published in 1891: Fig. 11-—Nmnr Wnncnmo OPERATIONS ILLUMINATED BY “SAUsAoE—L1oHT.” 1002 LIFE-SAVINQ SERVICE‘ FOURTH’ DISTRICT-—COAS'1‘ OF NEW JERSEY. \ Station. Locality. Mantoloking . . . . . . . . .. 2% miles south of head of Barnegat _ _ ay. . Chadw1ck’s . . . . . . . . . . . 5 miles south of head of Barnegat Bay. Tom’s River . . . . . . . . .. Island Beach . . . . . . . .. Cedar Creek . . . . . . . . .. Forked River . . . . . . . .. Barnegat . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Loveladies Island. . .. Harvey’s Cedars . . . . . . On the beach abreast mouth T0m’s River. 1% miles south of Seaside Park. 5% miles north of Barnegat inlet. 2 miles north of Barnegat Inlet. South side of Barnegat Inlet. 212 miles south of Barnegat Inlet. 5/2 miles south of Barnegat Inlet. Ship Bottom . . . . . . . . .. Midway of Long Beach. ‘- - Lon Beach . . . . . . . . .. 1% miles north of Beach Haven. Bon ’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2% miles south of Beach Haven. L1_ttle Egg . . . . . . . . . . . .. ear the light north of Inlet. L1t_tle Beach . . . . . . . . .. South side of Little Egg Inlet. Br1gant1ne...._ . . . . . . .. 5% miles north of the Absecon light. South Brigantine. . . .. 3/8 miles north of the Absecon light. Atlantic City . . . . . . . .. At Absecon light. Absecon . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2% miles south of Absecon light. Great Egg . . . . . . . . . . .. 6% miles south of Absecon light. Ocean City . . . . . . . . . .. South side of Egg Harbor Inlet. Peck’s Beach . . . . . . . .. 3% miles north of Corson’s Inlet. Corson’s Inlet . . . . . . . . Sea Isle City . . . . . . . .. Townsend’s Inlet. . . .. Tatham’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hereford Inlet . . . . . . . Holl Beach . . . . . . . . .. Turt e Gut . . . . . . . . . . . . Cold Spring . . . . . . . . . . . Cape May . . . . . . . . . . . .. Bay Shore . . . . . . . . . . . . . I ear the Inlet, north side. 3% miles north of Townsend’s Inlet. .L ear the Inlet, north side. 314 miles north of Hereford Inlet. l\ear Hereford light. 6 miles northeast of Cape May City. 4 miles northeast of Cape May City. 1 mile east of Cape May City. Near the light. 2% miles west of Cape May City. FIFTH DISTRICT—COASTS OF DELAWARE, MARYLAND AND Lewes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cape Henlopen . . . . . . . Rehoboth Beach. . . .. Indian River Inlet. .. Ocean City . . . . . . . . . .. North Beach . . . . . . . . . . Green Run Inlet... .. Pope’s Island . . . . . . . . . Assateague Beach. . .. Wallop’s Beach . . . . . . . Matomkin Inlet . . . . .. W achapreague . . . . . . . Paramore’s Beach. . . . Hog Island . . . . . . . . . . . . C0bb’s Island. . . . .. Smith’s Island. .. . . . VIRGINIA.* 2 miles west of Cape Henlopie-n light. 7/8 n1u_1l]eltsoutherly of Cape enlopen 1 g . Opposite north end of Rehoboth Bay. North of Inlet. . ‘ Just north of village. 10 miles south of Ocean City. 13%1_ D1'11lt1_8S northeast of Assateague 1 10 miles northeast of Assateague light. 118 miles south of Assateague light." 1/2 miles south of Chincoteague Inlet. On Matomkin Beach. near the Inlet. South end of Cedar Island. Midway of Beach. South end of Hog Island. South end of Cobb’s Island. At Cape Charles light. * Cape Henlopen to Cape Charles. SIXTH DIs'rRIcT—CoAs'.rs OF VIRGINIA AND NORTH CARO- Cape Henry . . . . . . . . . . Seatack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dam Neck Mills . . . . . . Little Island . . . . . . . . . . False Cape . . . . . . . . . . .. Wash Woods........ Currituck Inlet . . . . .. Whale’s Head . . . . . . .. Poyner’s Hill . . . . . . . .. Cafiey’s Inlet . . . . . . . .. Paul Gamiel’s Hill. . . Kitty Hawk . . . . . . . . . . . Kill Devil Hills . . . . .. Na ’s Head . . . . . . . . . .. Bo ie’s Island . . . . . . .. Oregon Inlet . . . . . . . .. Pea Island.‘ . . . . . . . . . .. New Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chicamicomico . . . . . . . Gull Shoal . . . . . . . . . . . . Little Kinnakeet. . . .. LINA.* % mile southeast of Cape Henry light. 54 miles south of Cape Henry li _-ht. 10 miles south of Cape Henry lig t. On beach abreast of North Bay. On beach abreast of Back Bay. . . On beach abreast of Knott’s Island. 5% north of Currituck Beach % south of Currituck Beach 6%11i1éillte‘s south of Currituck Beach 103/4Hmhi1l;es south of Currituck Beach g . 5 miles north of Kitty Hawk. On the beach abreast of north end of Kitty Hawk Bay. - 4% miles south of Kitty Hawk. 9 miles north of Oregon Inlet. '7/8 mile northeast of Bodie’s Island li ht. % mile south of Oregon Inlet. 2 miles north of New Inlet. % mile south of New Inlet. 5 miles south of New Inlet. 11% miles south of New Inlet. 11% _miles north of Cape Hatteras FIRST DISTRICT—-COASTS or MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. Station. Locality. Quoddy Head . . . . . . .. Cross Island . . . . . . . . .. Crumple Is-land . . . . .. Cranberry Isles . . . . .. White Head . . . . . . . . . .. Hunniwe]l’s Beach .. Cape Elizabeth . . . . . .. Fletcher’s Neck . . . . .. Jerry’s Point . . . . . . . .. Rye Beach . . . . . . . . . . . . Carrying Point Cove. Ofi Machias Port. Off Jonesport. Little Cranberry Island, off Mount Des- ert. On southwest end White Head Island. On west side mouth Kennebec River. Near the Lights. Biddeford Pool, Fletcher’s Neck. Southeast point Great Island, Ports- mouth Harbor. ' North end Rye Beach. SECOND DIsrRIor—OoAsr or l\IAssAoHUsE'r'rs. Plum Island . . . . . . . . .. Davis’s Neck . . . . . . . . .. North Scituate . . . . . .. Fourth Cliff . . . . . . . . .. Gurnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manomet Point . . . . . . . Race Point . . . . . . . . . . . . Peaked Hill Bars. . . . . High Head . . . . . . . . . . . . Highland . . . . . . . . . . . .. Pamet River . . . . . . . . . . Cahoon’s Hollow. . . .. Nauset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Orleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chatham . . . . . . . . . . . .. Monomoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coskata......... .. Surfside . . . . . . , . . . . . . Muskeget . . . . . . . . . . . . THIRD DISTRIC’I‘—COASTS OF RHODE ISLAND AND Brenton’s Point . . . . . . Narragansett Pier. . . . Point Judith Watoh Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . New Shoreham . . . . . . . Block Island . . . . . . . . . . Montauk Point . . . . . .. Ditch Plain . . . . . . . . . .. Hither Plain . . . . . . . .. Napeague . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Amagansett . . . . . . . . . .. Georgica . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mecox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Southampton . . . . . . . . . Shinnecock . . . . . . . . . .. Tiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Petunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moriches . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Forge River . . . . . . . . . .. Smith’s Point . . . . . . . . . Bellport . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Blue Point . . . . . . . . . . .. Lone Hill . . . . . . . . . . . .. Point of Woods . . . . . . . Fire Island Oak Island . . . . . . . . . . . . Gilgo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jones’s Beach . . . . . . . . . Zach’s Inlet . . . . . . . . . . Short Beach _ . . . . . . . . . Point Lookout-.. . . . . . Long Beach . . . . . . . . . .. Far Rockaway . . . . . . .. Rockaway . . . . . . . . . . . . Rockawa Point . . . . . Coney Is and . . . . . . . .. Eaton’s Neck . . . . . . . . . Near mouth of Merrimac River. Near Annisquam light. 2% miles south of Minot’s Ledge Light. South end of Fourth Cliff Scituate. 4% miles northeast of Plymouth. 6% miles southeast of Plymouth. ~79 mile northeast of Race Point light. 2 2 miles northeast of Provincetown. 3/2 miles northwest of Highland light. 7? mile northwest of Highland light. 3 2 miles south of Highland light. 2{ miles east of Wellfleet. 12 miles south of Nauset light. Abreast of Ponchet Island. On beach abreast of Chatham. 2%,miles north of Monomoy light 2% miles south of Nantucket Point) light. _ 2% miles south of the town of Nan- tucket. About midway of Muskeget Island. LONG ISLAND. \ On Price’s Neck. Northern part of the town. Near light. Near light. Block Island, east side, near landin . Block Island, west side, near Dicken s Point. ‘ At the light. 3% miles southwest of Montauk light. % m1le southwest of Fort Pond. Abreast of Napeague Harbor. Abreast of the village. 1 mile south of village of East Hampton. 2 miles south of the village of Bridge- hampton. % mile south of the village. 2miles southeast of Shinnecock light. 2 miles southwest of Shinnecock light. 1/12 mile south of the village. 1{ miles southwest of Petunk village. 25 miles southwest of Speonk village. 3% miles south of Moriches. Abreast of the fpoint. 4miles south 0 the village. 4% miles south of Patcho ue. 8 miles east of Fire Islan light. 4 miles east of Fire Island light. % mile west of Fire Island. East end of Oak Island. West end of Oak Island. East end of Jones’s Beach. West end of Jones’s Beach. % mile east of Jones’s Inlet. 2 miles west of New Inlet. Near Lucy’s Inlet. East end of Rockaway Beach. Near the village of Rockaway. West end of Rockaway Beach. Manhattan Beach. East side entrance to Huntington Bay, Long Island Sound. FOURTH DISTRICT-—COAST OF NEW J ERSEY. Sandy Hook . . . . . . . . . . East of Main light. Spermaceti . . . . . . . . . . . 2% miles south of Sandy Hook light. Seabright . . . . . . . . . . . . . About a mile south of Navesink light. Monmouth Beach. . . . About amile south of Seabnght. Long Branch . . . . . . . .. Green’s Pond. Deal . . . . . . . . . . ..~ . . . . . .. Asbury Park. Shark River . . . . . . . . .. Near the mouth of Shark _River. Spring Lake . . . . . . . . .. 2%miles south of Shark River. Squan Beach . . . . . . . .. 1 mile southeast of Squan village Bayhead .. . . . . . . . . . . .. At the head of Barnegat Bay. (Great - Big Kinnakeet. . . .. . . . Cape Hatteras . . . . . . . . l1 ht. 5% m%les north of Cape Hatteras light. 1 mile south of Hatteras light. * From Cape Henry to Cape Fear. LIFE-SAVING SERVICE SIXTH DISTRICT--CoAsT or VIRGINIA AND NoRTH CARO- LINA. Station. Locality. Creed’s Hill . . . . . . . . .. 4 miles west of Cape Hatteras light. Durant’s . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 miles east of Hatteras Inlet. Ocracoke . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112 miles west of Hatteras Inlet. Cape Lookout . . . . . . . .. 1/2 miles south of Cape Lookout light. Cape Fear . . . . . . . . . . . .. On Smithfs Island, Cape Fear. Oak Island . . . . . . . . . .. West side mouth Cape Fear River. SEvENTH DIsTRIcT—CoAsrs or SOUTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA AND EAsrERN FLORIDA. Morris Island . . . . . . . .. Smith’s Creek+ . . . . . .. Mosquito Lagoon-l-.. . . Chester Shoal+ . . . . . .. Cape Malabar-t . . . . . .. Bethel Creek-i- . . . . . . .. Indian River Inlet-I-.. Gi1bert’s Bar-i- . . . . . . .. Jupiter Inlet. .. . . . . . Orange Grove-t . . . . . .. Fort Lauderdale-t . . .. Biscayne Bay-i- . . . . . . .. -l- House of refuge. Near Charleston light. 20 miles south of Matanzas Inlet. On beach outside the la oon. 11 miles north of Cape ‘anaveral. 30 miles south of Cape Canaveral. 11 miles north of Indian River Inlet. South side of Inlet. Sainte Lucie Rocks, north side Sainte Lucie Inlet. South side of Inlet. Southern end Lake Worth, 32 miles south of Jupiter Inlet. 7 miles north of New River Inlet. 10 miles north of Boca Ratones, Nar- rows Cut. No crew employed. EIGHTH DISTRICT—-GULF CoAsr or UNITED STATES. Santa Rosa . . . . . . . . . . . . Sabine Pass . . . . . . . . . . . Galveston . . . . . . . . . . . . . San Luis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Velasco . . . . . . . . . . .. Saluria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aransas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brazos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Santa Rosa Island, 3 miles east of Fort Pickens. East side of Pass. East end Galveston Island. West end Galveston Island. East side, mouth of Brazos River. Northeast end Matagorda Island. Northeast end Mustang Island. North end Brazos Island, entrance to Brazos Santiago. NINTH DIsTRIcT—LAKEs ERIE AND ONTARIO. Big Sandy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Salmon Creeki . . . . . .. Oswego . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Charlotte . . . . . . . . . . . Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Erie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fairwort . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . .. Point Marblehead. . . . Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Destroyed by fire. Lake Ontario. East side mouth of Salmon Creek, Lake Ontario. East side entrance of Oswego Harbor, Lake Ontario. East side entrance of Charlotte Har- bor, Lake Ontario. South side entrance of Buffalo Harbor, Lake Erie. North side entrance of Erie Harbor, Lake Erie. West side entrance of Fairport Harbor, Lake Erie. West side entrance of Cleveland Har- b_or, Lake Erie. Point Marblehead,near Quarry Docks, Lake Erie. Falls of the Ohio River, Louisville, Ky. TENTH DIsTRIoT—LAKEs HURON AND SUPERIOR. Sand Beach . . . . . . . . . .. Pointe aux Barques. . Grindstone City . . . . .. Ottawa Point . . . . . . . .. Sturgeon Point . . . . . .. Thunder Bay Island.. Middle Island . . . . . . .. Hammond’s Bay . . . . .. Vermillion Point.. . .. Crisp’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two Heart River .. . .. Muskallonge Lake.. .. Ship Canal . . . . . . . . . . .. Inside Sand Beach Harbor, Lake Hu- ron. Near light, Lake Huron. 1 mile northwest of city, Lake Huron. Near hght, Lake Huron. Near light, Lake Huron. Near light, Lake Huron. North end of Middle Island, Lake Huron. Ham_mond’s Bay, Lake Huron. 10 miles west of White Fish Point, Lake Surperior. 16 miles west of White Fish Point, Lake Superior. Near mouth of Two Heart River. Lake Superior. Near m_0uth of Sucker River, Lake Superior. Old Portage Lake Ship Canal, near north en . North side mouth of Big Sandy Creek. 1003 ELEVENTH DISTRICT—LAKE MICHIGAN. Station. Locality. Beaver Island . . . . . . .. Near light. North M anitou Isla’d. Near Pickard’s wharf. Point Betsey. . . . .. Near light. Frankfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . South side entrance of harbor. Manistee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . North side entrance of harbor. Grand Pointeau Sable 1 mile south of light. Ludington . . . . . . . . . . .. North side entrance of harbor. Pent Water . . . . . . . . . . . White River . . . . . . . . . . Muskegon . . . . . . . . . . . . . North side entrance of harbor. North side entrance of White Lake. North side entrance of harbor, Port Sherman. North side entrance of harbor. In the harbor, south side. North side entrance of harbor. In the harbor, north side. East side entrance of harbor. Grand Haven . . . . . . . . . Holland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . South Haven . . . . . . . . . Saint Jose h . . . . . . . .. Michigan ‘ity . . . . . . . . Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In the harbor. Evanston . . . . . . . . . . . . . On Northwestern University grounds. Kenosha . . . . . . . . . . . . .. In the harbor, on Washington Island. Racine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In the harbor. Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . . . Near entrance of harbor, south side. Sheboygan . . . . . . . . . . . . In the harbor, east side. North side entrance of harbor. Eastern entrance of canal, north side. Two Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . Sturgeon Bay Canal. . TVVELFTH DISTRICT——-PACIFIC COAST. Neah Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . On Indian reservation. Shoalwater Bay . . . . .. Near light-house boat-landing. Cape Disappointment Baker’s Bay, 1% miles northeast of ght. Cape Arago . . . . . . . . . .. Entrance of Coos Bay, near light. Humboldt Bay . . . . . . . Near light. Bolinas Bay-;- . . . . . . . . . 1% mile north-northeast Bolinas Point. Golden Gate Park. . .. On beach in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. %mile south Poi’t Lobos. -1- Destroyed by fire. The distribution of stations is regulated by the nature of the coast and the amount of commerce passing by or approaching it. From the eastern extremity of the coast of Maine to Cape God, there are but sixteen stations for 415 miles. The coast, for a great part rocky and precipitous, gives numerous harbors of refuge. Along Cape God a dangerous region appears, where there are ten stations, about eight miles distant from each other. The bight formed by the shores of Long Island and New Jersey,with New York harbor at the apex, is re- nowned for its dangerous nature. Along 250 miles of the shores of this much frequented water-way there are 79 stations, giving an average distance of about three miles from station to station. Further south there is less commerce, and fewer stations are pro- vided. For 175 miles from Cape Hatteras south to Cape Fear, there are but six stations, the distance between stations averaging nearly 30 miles. The coast of Florida is of such formation that vessels are generally wrecked close to shore and the crew can save themselves. Refuge stations for the sup- ply of food and water are provided along the unin~ habited portions of this coast. Their average dis-- tance apart is 26 miles. At each mile along the ‘ coast a guide post is erected, giving the distance and direction to the nearest refuge station. Each has grovisions enough for twenty-five persons for ten ays. The great lakes have a coast of 2,500 miles ex_ tent. Most of the harbors of refu e are artificial, defined by piers and maintains by dredging. These are the scenes of most of the wrecks, as ves- sels in storms make for the nearest of them,and are liable to strand upon the shoals at their mouths. Forty-five stations protect this great extent of coast, being generally placed at or near harbors. All these stations are fully supplied with life-boats, wreck-guns, beach’-apparatus, and restoratives. The stations on the Atlantic coast from the eastern extremity of the State of Maine to Cape Fear, N. C., 1004 are manned by crews of experienced surfmen from September 1, until May 1. Upon the lake coasts the stations are manned from the opening until the close of navigation; and on the Pacific coast they are manned all the year round. Exceptions are made at the station on Beaver Island, Lake Michigan, and LIFE-SAVING sE‘R~v‘IcE.' ,at the stations on-Neah Bay and Cape Arago, in Washington. These three stations depend on the volunteer efforts from the neighboring people in case of shipwreck. Neither are the houses of refuge manned by crews. Such houses are located exclusively upon the Florida coast. A keeper who _ '. . ' "v. _ I _ k _ 1.‘-'_'(3, I : '?..=-1---.""" _ _"=:.~:¢n-_ .,.‘43 -.-- -__- ‘\ 1-'. ' '-\ '. 1 I \\I \.i ._ \ ‘- I /,“|r I FlG.12.——SHOWING THE FIRST STEP TAKEN, BY VVHICH THE CHEST is EMP- TIED or AIR, AND THE EJECTION or ANY FLUIDS SwALI.owEI) IS ASSISTED. is supplied with boats, provisions, and restoratives, resides in each of them throughout the year. ‘He is required to make extended excursions along the coast after every storm and find out if any ship- wreck has occured. For resuscitating persons apparently drowned, 1 1' S: -..---/....J -=.,:._ as ~~ ’. - - -t -— '4: 1-. I '0 ‘ .' 'rl\ \ ‘M if ...I"~’1-"I'M I ‘ 0. .. ,.,. em - I. l-. ___—- “-- ’f’='‘_—=P';—:_ _ J Car ' -1 -a., ai’-’",--£1, . 5; t__-—__—__‘‘ the following rules and directions are adhered to: After loosening his clothes turn the patient on his face, as seen in Figure 12; place a bundle of tightly-rolled clothing beneath his stomach, and press heavily over it for half a minute, or so long as fluids flow freely from his mouth. This will ex- _-J 7;-——"__ FIG.13.—SHOWING THE POSITION AND AcTIoN or THE OPERATOR, IN AL- TERNATELY Pnonucme ARTiFIcIAL EXPIRATION AND INSPIRA- TION or AIR. pel water and air from his stomach and chest. If the jaws are clinched, separate them, and keep the mouth open by placing between the teeth a cork or small bit of wood. To produce breathing clear the patient’s mouth and throat of mucus by introducing into his throat the corner of a handkerchief wrapped closely around your forefinger. Turn the patient on his back, as seen in Figure 13, and place the roll of clothing so beneath him that the pit of his stomach is raised above the level of any other part of his body. If . there is another person present, let him with a piece of dry clot hold the tip of the patient’s tongue out of one corner of the mouth, and with the other hand grasp both wrists and keep the arms forcibly stretched back above the head. Kneel be- LIEE.-'sAv'INe SERVICE side or astride the patients hips, and with the balls of your thumbs resting on either side of the pit of the stomach, let your fingers fall into grooves be- tween the short ribs, so as to afford the best grasp of the waist. Now, using your knees as pivot, throw all your weight forward on your hands, and at the same time squeeze the waist between them, as if you wished to force everything in the chest upward and out of it. Deepen the pressure while you can slowly count three. Then suddenly let go with a final push, which springs you backto your first kneeling position. Remain erect on your knees while you count three. Then repeat the same motions as before at a rate gradually increasing from five to fifteen times in a minute, and continue thus this bellows movement with the same regu- larity that is observable in the natural motions of breathing which you are trying to imitate. If natural breathing be not restored after three to five minutes, roll the body over on its face for the purpose of freeing the air passages from any remain- ing water. Then turn the patient upon his back again, and continue the bellows movement as just described from one to four hours, or until he 1005 should be rubbed in an upward direction, with firm grasping pressure and energy, using the bare hands, and sometimes also dry flannels. Warm flannels must also be applied to the stomach and arm pits, and hot bottles or bricks to the soles of the feet. After the breathing is restored, put the patient to bed and keep him comfortably warm. Give him whisky or brandy with hot water in doses to suit his weight of body, at first every fifteen minutes for about an hour, and afterwards at longer intervals. It must here be remarked, that the clinching of the jaws and the semi-contraction of the fingers are evi- dences of remaining vitality in persons apparently ' dead from drowning. They are signs of the first stage of suffocation by drowning, the jaws and hands becoming relaxed when actual death ensues. The muscular rigidity (rigor m0rtis) occurs later, always after this temporary relaxation. Therefore, the mere clinching of the jaws and semi-contrac- tion of the hands must never be considered as reasons for discontinuing the effects to save life,but should serve as a stimulant to vigorous and pro- longed efforts in producing respirations by means breathes. At the same time the pat1ent’s limbs of the above described bellows movement. N urqber tNumber Number 1Rattijo of livbes gfnlllllnfis - - o 0 persons or 0s 0 num er “ ' -_ Flscal X ear‘ casualities. on board. lives lost. on board. 1 er Oiiggsuall 1875-76 1,553 18,134 *878 As 1 130 20.65 AS 1 to 1.77 1876-77 1,517 22,307 *826 AS 1 ‘[0 27.00 As 1 130 8.87 1877-78 1,483 21,531 * AS 1 to 33.43 As 1 ‘CO 2.30 1878-79 1,515 23,353 *730 AS 1 to 31.99 AS 1 80 2.12 1879-80 1,624 26,491 *469 AS 1 to 5648 As 1 130 3.46 1880-81 1,528 24,286 *623 AS 1 ‘GO 38.98 As 1 ‘CO 2.45 1881-82 1,514 25,712 *502 As 1 to 51.22 As 1 130 3.02 1882-83 1,416 25,197 *539 AS 1 130 46.75 As 1 to 2.63 1883 81 1,647 26,561 *807 AS 1 130 32.91 AS 1 130 2.04.- 1884-85 1,407 29,584 *335 As 1 to 88.31 A6 1 to -1.20 1885-86 1,650 25,680 *576 AS 1 '60 44.58 AS 1 10 2.86 1886-87 1,494 23,992 >"‘529 AS 1 to 45.35 As 1 to 2.82 1887-88 1,461 22,717 >-"538 As 1 150 42.22 AS 1 to 2.72 1888-89 1,468 25,097 *638 AS 1 to 39.34 As 1 ‘[0 2.30 I ’-‘This number is exclusive of lives lost where vessels suffered no material damage. Numfber £Number Numfber 1‘Ratio of livgas 1;\g;'%Otgfn111;;le_S - ,- o 0 persons 0 ost to num er _ . - Flscal 1 ear‘ ca-sualities. on board. lives lost. on board. bel or-(éi*ua11' 1875-76 1,139 13,487 *501 As 1 to 26.92 As 1 to 2.27 1876-77 1,023 15,977 *278 As 1 to 57. 7 As 1 to 3.68 1877-78 1.083 16,785 *-103 As 1 to 41.65 As 1 to 2.69 1878-79 1,014 16,245 *222 As 1 to 73.18 As 1 to 4.70 1879-80 1,265 21,691 *170 As 1 to 127.59 As 1 to 7.14 ‘ 1880-81 1,171 19,713 *272 As 1 to 72.47 As 1 to 4.31 1881-82 1,203 20,495 **241 As 1 to 85.04 As 1 to 4.99 1882-83 1,090 20,623 ’~"328 As 1 to 62.88 As 1 to 3.32 1883-81 1,246 20,361 as"327 As 1 to 62.28 As 1 to 3.81 1881-85 1,066 24,302 *107_ As 1 to 227.12 As 1 to 9.96 1885-86 1,269 21,076 *266 As 1 to 79.33 As 1 to 4.77 1886-87 1,196 20,538 *302 As 1 to 68.00 As 1 to 3.96 1887-88 1,175 18,635 *235 As 1 to 79.30 As 1 to 5.00 1888-89 1,158 19,792 *253 As 1 to 78.23 As 1 to 4.58 *This number is exclusive of lives lost where vessels suffered no material damage. The efiiciency and usefulness of the United States life-saving service can be best appreciated by com- paring the above tables. The figures in the last columns of these tables speakloudly in praise of our service. These tables are taken from the last ofiicial report of the general superintendent of the service. The last table is the same as the first except thatit is‘ confined to our own domain, the disasters occurring at sea and in foreign waters be- ing excluded. To show the usefulness of this service still more clearly, we append here a GENERAL SUMMARY Of disasters_which have occured within the scope of life- saving operations from November 1, 1871 (date of introduc- 5 1006 ‘ 1 tion of present system), to close of fiscal year ending June , 889. Total number of disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 Total value of vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55,473,165 Total value of cargoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,246,579 Total value of property involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81,719,744 Total value of property saved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$60,352,077 Total value of property lost . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$21,367,667 Total number of ersons involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42,860 Total number of ives lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 Total number of persons succored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,903 Total number of ays’ succor afforded . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,837 It is a notable feature of the United States life- saving service that it has always been free from any connection with politics. This feature has been secured by direct provision of law. It is undoubt- edly one of the main factors of the remarkable success of the service. The keepers and crews of the stations are chosen solely for their fitness and capability, and are retained in the service so long as they remain eflicient, no matter what their political status may be. The life-saving crews are forbidden to solicit any rewards for services, but on account of the meager- ness of their wages and the great risks of their call- ing, they are not forbidden to accept rewards if the owners or masters of wrecked vessels, or other per- sons,see fit to voluntarily bestow rewards upon them. ,- LIGATURE, an Italian term in music, meaning binding, frequently marked by a slur placed over LIGATUP.*-L_IGHT-IIOUSE BOARD certain notes for the purpose of showing that they are blended together. ,_ LIGHT AND AIR, RIGHTS TO. The owner of land has a right to the light and air which pass over it, and the right to obstruct it by erecting walls and buildings. He may also require the right to forbid the erection of buildings which shall obstruct them. In the United States rights of view, that is, rights to open windows and to forbid buildings which ob- struct them, may be acquired; in some States un- interrupted enjoyment for twenty or fifteen years establishes the right. See ANCIENT Lrerrrs in these Revisions and Additions. LIGHTER, a capacious but shallow barge used iI}11_lightening or unloading, and also in loading s Ips. LIGHTFOOT, J osnrn BARBER, an English clergy- man, born ot Liverpool, in 1828. After being edu- cated at Trinity College, Cambridge, he became tutor at the same school in 1857, and in 1875 pro- fessor of divinity there. In 1879 he was made bishop of Durham. He is a distinguished New Testament exegete, and was active in the revision of the Eng- lish text. He has also annotated St. Clement’s Epis- tles to the Corinthians (1869). LIGHTHOUSE, a beacon for the guidance of sea- men ; a pharos. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 615-629. ‘LIGHT-HOUSE BOARD An act of Congress approved Aug. 31, 1852, creat- ed the “Light-House Board” of the United States as it now exists. This act requires the President to appoint two officers of the navy of high rank, two officers of the corps of engineers of the army, two civilians of high scientific attainments whose ser- vices may be at the disposal of the President, to- gether with an officer of the navy and an oflicer of engineers of the army as secretaries,who shall con- stitute the United States light-house board, the Secretary of the Treasury to be ex oflicio president of the board. The light-house board is attached to the office of the Secretary of the Treasury and at- tends, under his superintendence, to the adminis- tration of all matters relating to the construction, care, and maintenance of the United States light- houses, lightships, bouys, and all other aids to navi- gation. This board meets by law on the first Mon- days in March, June, September, and December. In addition to these regular meetings there are called meetings about once every two weeks. This board divides its duties among standing committees on engineering, on floating aids to navigation, on light- ing, on tests and experiments, and on locations. The last named committee has charge of matters relative to the location of light-houses, buoys, and other aids to navigation. The chairman of the board nominates the standing committees at the quarterly meetings. He and the two secretaries are ex ojficio members of all these committees; they are also the executive officers of the board. The secretaries perform all the routine business of the board under its regulations or the orders of the chairman when he is present. That secretary who is a naval oflicer called the “naval secretary,” keeps the journal of the board’s proceedings and has charge of the office, also of the floating aids to navi- gation, of supplies and of materials used for illumi- nation. He also nominates the keepers of light- houses and light-‘ships, and the employés of the inspectors, and sees to their salaries, as well as to the performance of their duties. The secretary who IS an army engineer called the “engineer secretary,” has charge of all the fixed aids to navigation. He prepares the plans and estimates of the same, pre- pares all projects for the consideration of the com- mittee on engineering, attends to the purchaseand repair of illuminating apparatus, prepares the an- nual estimates for special works, for repairs, for fog signals, for the real estate of the light-house es- tablishments, for the manufacturing establish- ments of the board on Staten Island—except the part relating to supplies-——and he nominates the employés of light-house engineers, and sees to their salaries, as well as to the performance of their duties. The light-house board was by law required to ar- range the Atlantic, Gulf, Pacific, and Lake coasts into light-house districts not to exceed twelve in number. To each district was assigned an omcer of the army or navy as inspector; and the Presi- dent was required to detail from the engineer corps of the army such ofiicers as might be required to superintend the construction and renovation of light-houses therein. Pursuant to this law the board divided the coasts into the following districts. FIRST DIs'rRIo'r.—-From the northeast boundary of Maine, to include Hampton Harbor, N. H. Head- quarters at Portland, Me. SEooNn DISTRICT.--FI‘OHl Hampton Harbor, N. H., to include Gooseberry Point, Mass. Headquarters at Boston, Mass. THIRD DIs'rRIo'r.—From Gooseberry Point, Mass., to include Squan Inlet, N. J ., and also Lake Cham- plain and the Hudson River. Headquarters at Tomkinsville, Staten Island, N. Y. FOURTH DIs'rRIo'r.——From Squan Inlet, N. J ., to in- clude Metomkin Inlet, Va., and also Delaware Bay and tributaries. Headquarters at Philadelphia, Pa. FIFTH DIs'rRIo'r.—-From Metomkin Inlet, Va., to include New River Inlet, N. C., and also Chesapeake Bay and tributaries, and Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. Headquarters at Baltimore, Md. SIXTH DISTRICT.-—FI'OI'H New Riverlnlet, N. C., to include Cape Canaveral light-house, Fla. Head- quarters at Charleston, S. C. LIGHTING SEVENTH DIsTRICT.——From Cape Canaveral light- house to the Perdido River, Fla. Headquarters at Key West, Fla. EIGHTH DIsTRICT.—From the Perdido River, Fla., to the Rio Grande, Tex. Headquarters at New Orleans, La. (There is no NINTH DISTRICT.) TENTH DIsTRICT.——From the mouth of Saint Regis River to include Grassy Island light-house, Detroit River. Headquarters at Buffalo, N. Y. ELEVENTH DISTRICT.-—IIlC].l1d6S all aids to naviga- tion in the great lakes above Grassy Island light- house. Headquarters at Detroit, Mich. TWELFTH DIsTRICT.—Co-extensive with the coast of California. Headquarters at San Francisco, Cal. THIRTEENTH DIsTRICT.—Includes all aids to navi- gation in Oregon and Washington. Headquarters at Portland, Oregon. By act of Congress approved June 23, 1874, the light-house board was required to divide the Miss- issippi,Ohio, and Missouri rivers into two additional light-house districts, and to lease the necessary ground for lights and beacons to point out change- able channels. Accordingly the following two dis- tricts were created. FOURTEENTH DISTRICT.--IIl(31L1dBS all aids to navi- gation on the Ohio River. Headquarters at Cin- cinnati, O. FIFTEENTH DIsTRICT.—-Includes all aids to navi- gation on the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Headquarters at St. Louis, Mo. At the close of the fiscal year 1890, there were un- der the control of the light-house board the follow- ing aids to navigation. Light-houses and lighted beacons, including post-lights in third, fourth, fifth, sixth, eight, and thirteenth districts, 1,021; light- ships in position,26; light-ships for relief, 6; lighted buoys in position, 9; fog-signals operated by steam or hot air, 80; fog-signals operated by clock-work, 158; post-lights on the western rivers,'1,328; day or unlighted beacons, 388; whistling buoys in position, 62; bell-buoys in position, 70; other buoy’s in posi- tion, including pile-buoys and stakes in fifth dis- trict, and twenty-six buoys in Alaskan waters, 4,152. Light-houses are graded in different orders, ac- cording to the sizes of the lenses, the first order being the most powerful. The light-house board experimented with various illuminants, such as sperm, lard, colza, and mineral oils, and has finally decided that the mineral oil is the best and cheapest. Its adoption required the replacement of all the existing lamps by lamps suited to burning mineral oil. This has been gradually accomplished, and now mineral oil is in general use. This con- sumption of mineral oil is about twice as great as that of lard oil, but its cost is about one- quarter of the latter. This produces a saving of $30,000 a year and secures a more powerful light at the same time. The following table shows the can- dle-powers of the lamps used in the different orders of lights: First order 5 wicks 450 candle power. Second “ 3 “ 163 “ Third “ 2 “ '78 “ Fourth “ 1 wick 32 “ Fifth " 1 “ 18 “ Sixth “ 1 flat wick 125 “ Compressed gas, in addition to mineral oil, is used in gas-lighted buoys, and in the beacons in Currituck Sound, N. C., and at the end of the St. Louis River pier-head, Lake Superior. The latter are small lights and diflicult to reach in bad weather. Their apparatus is so arranged that they willkkeep lighted without attention for several wee s. 1007 The above mentioned 1,328 post-lights are located on the banks of the Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, Savannah, Cape Fear, and Hudson rivers, and at the mouth of the Red River. La. These river lights consist of a high post set in the ground properly braced, and supporting a box at the top, in which is placed an ordinary kerosene lantern. These simple structures are so located as to point out the various channels. They are valuable guides to river navigators, and can easily be shifted from place to place to correspond to the changes occur- ing in the river channels. ’ In the construction, care, and maintenance of the various aids to navigation there were employed during the last year: Steam tenders, 25; steam launches, 3; sailing tenders, 2; light-keepers, 1,031; other employés, including crews of light- ships and tenders, 8-'19 ; laborers in charge of river lights, 1,273. LIGHTING, ELECTRIC, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 631-3, and ELECTRICITY, in these Revisions and Additions. The “Incandescent Light” depends on the fact that a current of electricity, when sent through an imperfect conductor, as a carbonized vegetable fiber, develops heat enough to raise the conductor to incandescence and yield a brilliant glow. In the Edison lamps carbonized bamboo fiber is used. It is inclosed in an exhausted glass bulb. If air should be present, the fiber would be burned up immediately upon reaching white heat. The vacu- um must be made as perfect as possible, because the whiteness of the glow depends on the perfect freedom of the bulb from air, if the current has the proper strength. The “Arc-Light” depends on the fact that a cur- rent passing through a broken conductor will leap over the intervening space with a bright spark, which, if the current is powerful. will become a continuous arc of light. For the interrupted con- ductor two rods of hard carbon are used. They are gradually burnt away. lVhen Sir Humphrey Davy made the first arc-light, in 1813, he used the galvanic battery of the Royal Institution for pro- ducing the current, a battery composed of 2,000 zinc-copper couples. For the two carbon rods he used'two pointed pieces of wood charcoal. The light produced was so intense as to rival the sun- light in brilliancy. But the charcoal points burnt away rather fast, because the heat in the arc was very intense. When the two carbon points were in a horizontal plane, the up-draft of air lifted the center of the flame so as to give it an arched form. This is the origin of the name “arc-light.” There is no arched shape in the present arc-lights, when the two carbon pencils are in a vertical plane. When we speak of a flame here, we must explain that the space between the two carbon points is not occupied by incandescent gases, as in an ordi- nary flame, but by incandescent solid carbon particles, carried from one pole to the other. Since the positive carbon wastes away twice as fast as the negative one, it is generally assumed that the carbon particles are carried from the posi- tive to the negative carbon. The positive carbon is placed uppermost because it becomes hollowed (“cratered”) out, and the cavity (“crater”) thereby produced acts as a reflector in concentrating the rays of light and throwing them downward where the light is wanted. In lighting arc-lamps the two carbons are at first brought into contact with each other. As there is always a film of air between them at the point of contact, the ends of the carbons become red-hot when the electric current passes. This heat ren- ders the carbons more conductive than while they 1008 were in the cold state. The “regulator” is an in- genious contrivance placed above the arc-lamp. As soon as the current passes its increasing strength separates the two carbons automatically through the action of the regulator. This separa- tion makes it possible for an arc to form between the two carbon points. The latter are usually only about 1/1 inch apart, but sometimes they are even less than 1/4 inch from each other. If the current is very powerful and of high tension, the arc may be longer. But if the current is weak, the arc must be shorter, or else it will be extinguished. If the two carbon points are close together while a strong current passes, the arc hisses like an angered goose. They must be separated a little farther in order to give the best light. The regulator is a very important part of the arc-lamp. As there are many in the market, and still more on the lists of the patented inventions, we cannot here enter into any detailed description of regulators. lVe only state in general that when the current flowing through a regulator increases, an electromagnet or a solenoid is thereby made more powerful and pulls the two carbons farther apart, and when the cur- rent decreases the carbons are allowed to come nearer together by the action of a spring which works contrary to the electromagnet or solenoid in the regulator. The carbon rods used in the arc- lamps are now made in special factories by special processes. Formerly gas carbon was ground finely, washed and mixed with a glutinous substance; then the mass was moulded into rods, and the latter were dried. At present lampblack is pro- duced by the incomplete combustion of some hy- dro-carbon, as crude petroleum. This lampblack is mixed with a glutinous substance, and the mass is moulded into rods. The latter are then exposed to high heats in special furnaces, and the rods are afterwards covered with a film of copper. At one stage of the development of arc-lighting Jablochkoff’s “electric candle” was much used, especially in France. In this device two sticks of carbon are placed side by side and separated by a thin layer of kaolin, or other incombustible non- conductor. This insulating material is, however, omitted at the upper end of the candle where the current passes between the two carbons. After the current has made the carbons white-hot for some time, the kaolin yields gradually to the in- tense heat of the descending arc and wastes away with the carbons. To avoid the irregularity of con- sumption of the two poles (one carbon rod conveys at any given moment the positive current, and the other the negative current), the direction of the currents is changed regularly and rapidly by em- ploying an “alternating” current for producing the arc. This makes each carbon rod alternately posi- tive and negative for equal lengths of time, and produces a like rate of consumption in both of them. No regulator is needed in this device. By a later improvement of the J ablochkoff candle the insulating material between the two rods is dis- pensed with; it was found that the oppositely-flow- ing currents in the two carbons repel each other, and that the arc is only formed at the top end of the candle if the two rods are slightly apart from each other. Formerly most of the arc-lamps burnt only a little longer than half the night. This was reme- died by an invention of Mr. Charles Brush, of Cleveland, Ohio. In his lamps two pairs of carbon rods are employed. Matters are so arranged that when the light of the first pair is about to expire, the current is switched into the second pair of car- bons. By this means the lamp is made to give light throughout the longest winter nights. LIGHTNJNG For the development of the incandescent light a great many, and very costly, experiments have been made. Among the prominent experimenters we mention M. Lodyguine, of St. Petersburg, who gained a prize from the St. Petersburg Academy in 1875. His lamp consisted of a stick of carbon in- closed in a glass receiver, from which the air had been exhausted, and then been replaced by nitro- gen. It made a good light, but the carbon did not last long. The two experimenters who first achieved success with incandescent lamps are J . W. Swan, of England, and T. A. Edison, of America. Swan patented his lamp January 2, 1880. Edison experimented for some time with platinum wires. But platinum wastes rapidly at white heat, even in a vacuum. Edison, therefore, experimented with car- bon filaments rendered hard by heating and cool- ing them alternately in vacuo. Finally,he adopted a loop made of a filament of very thin bamboo strips. His lamp was patented on September 16, 1880. The Swan carbon filament was made of cot- ton fiber prepared by a special process and inserted in an arched form in ahighly-exhausted glass bulb. In both the Swan and Edison lamps the electric cur- rent, being sent through the resisting carbon fila- ment, produces the intense and continuous glow of the incandescent lamp as now used. Mr. Sawyer, of the former Sawyer-Man Company, of New York, and various other electricians have also made ex- periments in incandescent lighting. lVith all of them the problem was to produce a carbon filament capable of furnishing a continuous light for, say, 1,000 hours, or more, without any danger of break- ing down through lack of homogeneity or in conse- quence of the gradual wasting away. Most of the Edison and Swan lamps are now guaranteed to last 1,000 hours, if the proper current strength is not exceeded; but many of them have lasted two, three, or four thousand hours. By a recent de- cision of the United States circuit court of New York the priority of invention of the incandescent light was awarded to Edison. Careful experiments made lately at the Cornell University, New York, with respect to the efliciency of the arc and incandescent lamps of the best present make have shown that while the arc-lamps convert on an average about 10 per cent. of the electrical energy of the current into light, yet the incandes- cent lamps do not convert more than about five per cent. of it into light. The principal companies that furnish arc-lights in America are the Thomson-Houston, Brush, United States, Excelsior, Western Electric, VVest- inghouse and Sperry Companies. Of the incandes- cent lighting companies, the Edison Company is foremost; then come the Thomson-Houston, Vllestinghouse, United States, Jenny and Na- tional Electric companies. Arc-lights are especially used in streets, depots, yards and large halls, while the incandescent light is introduced into offices, dwellings, stores and steamers. For light-houses, search-lights and photography, the arc-light is superior to any other. In theatres both kinds are frequently employed. LIGHTNING, INJURY FROM. Persons struck by lightning, if not instantly killed, are more or less deprived of consciousness for a time, often, no doubt, by fright, in which case the effect is transient, but sometimes in consequence of a. shock given to the brain from which as a rule, however, they recover. The treatment should, of course, be directed to the special symptoms, which are liable to great variations, but in all cases the body should be kept moderately warm, to prevent the loss of animal heat to which it is liable when the functions of the brain are suspended or im- LIGNITE--LINCOLi\l paired, and the lungs inflated so as to imitate the natural respiration as nearly as possible. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 781. LIGNITE (called also “wood coal” and “brown coal”), a mineral coal retaining the texture of the Wood from which it was formed. See Britannica, Vol. VI, p. 46. LIGONIER, a post-village of Noble county, Ind., situated on the Elkhart River, and on the air—line division of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad, midway between Toledo and Chicago. It has man ufactories of carriages and furniture. LILIACEJE, a natural order of endogenous plants, containing about 1,200 known species. They are most numerous in the warmer parts of the tem- perate zones. They are mostly herbaceous plants, and the shrubby and arborescent species are mostly _ tropical. The stem is simple or branching towards the top; the leaves are simple and generally nar- row; the flowers are generally 13.1 ge, with six-cleft or six-toothed perianth ; the stamens are six, oppo- site to the perianth; the pistil has a three-celled, many-seeded ovary, and a single style. The fruit is succulent or capsular. This order contains many of our finest garden, green-house and hot-house flowers, as lilies, tulips, lilies of the valley, etc. Many species are useful for food, as garlic, onion, etc.; others in medicine; and some are valuable for the fiber which their leaves yield, as New Zealand ax. LILLIPUT, the name of a fabulous kingdom which is described by Swift in GulUver’s Trarels, and whose inhabitants are not greater in size than an ordinary man’s finger. LILY, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 643. LILY, GIGANTIC (Doryanthes excelsa), of Australia, a plant of the natural order Aonaryllideze, with a leafy, flowering stem, sometimes 20 feet high, bear- ing at the top a cluster of large crimson blossoms. This plant is of great beauty, and the fiber of its leaves is excellent for ropes and for textile fab- rics. The name giant lily is also given to a large lily found in the Himalayas. LILY OF THE VALLEY (Con*valla.rz'a), a genus of plants of the natural order Lilicceee, having terminal racemes of flowers; a white, bell-shaped, or tubular six-cleft or six-toothed perianth; a three-celled _germen, with two ovules in each cell, and a succulent fruit. The species commonly known as the Lily of the Valley (C. majalis), the Maiblume or Mayflower of the Germans, grows in bushy places and woods in Europe, the North of Asia and North America, and has a leafless scape, with a raceme of small flowers turned to one side. It is a universal favorite, on account of its pleas- ing appearance, the fragrance of its flowers and the early season at which they appear. It is therefore very often cultivated in gardens, and forced to earlier flowering in hot-houses. Varie- ties are in cultivation with red, variegated and double flowers. The berries, the root and the flowers have a nauseous, bitter and somewhat acrid taste, and purgative and diuretic effects. The smell of the flowers when in large quantity, and in a close apartment, is narcotic. Dried and powdered, they become a sternutatory. The es-- teemed Earu. d’0r of the French is a water distilled from the flowers. LILLY, WILLIAM SAMUEL. an English writer, born at Fifehead, D-orsetshire, in 1840, and edu- cated at St. Peter’s College, Cambridge, graduat- ing senior scholar and classical prizeman. He entered the Indian civil service by open competi- tion; was under-secretary to government in 1869; and was called to the English bar in 1870. He has published Ancient Religiovz and Modern Th-ought 1009‘ (1884); Chapters an European History (1886); and A Century of Revolution (1889). LIMA, a post-village of Livingston county, N. Y., on Honeoye Creek, four miles south of Honeoye Falls. It is the seat of Genesee Wesleyan Semi- nary. LIMITATIONS or CONTRACTS, AocoUNTs, NoTEs- AND CONTRACTS, AND J UDGMENTS UNDER THE STAT- UTES OF THE DIFFERENT STATES; - 0 en Notes and Judg- states and TermtOr1eS' Accdhnts. Contracts. ments. Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 6 20 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 20 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 4 5 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 4 5 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 6 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 17 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6 20 District of Columbia . . . . . . . . . .. 3 3 12 Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 5 20 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 6 ....._..- Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5 6 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 10 26 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 10 26 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 10 26 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 . . . . . . . - Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 5 15 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 I 5 10 Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 26- Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 3 12 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 20- Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6 10- Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 101 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 6 7 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 10 20' Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 8 16- Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 5 5 Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 6 5 New Hampshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 20 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 20 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 6 15 New York. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6 20 North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . .... . .. 3 3 10 North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6 20 Ohio .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 15 15 Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 5 . . . . . . . _ Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 16 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6 5 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . .. 6 6 26 South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 20 South Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 20 Tennessee . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 10 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 4 10 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 4 5 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 6 20 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . .. 5 5 8 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6 6 West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 16 10 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 b 20 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 -1 . . . . . . . - LIMMA, or LEIMMA (remnant), in music, an in- terval which, on account of its exceeding small- ness, does not appear in modern practice, but which in the mathematical calculation of the proportions of difierent intervals is of the greatest importance. LINCOLN, the capital of Nebraska. Population in 1890, 55,491. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 658. LINCOLN, BENJAMIN, an American general, born at Hingham, Mass., in 1733, died there in 1810. At the outbreak of the Revolution he was very active in organizing the Massachusetts troops. In 1776 he was appointed major-general of the State- militia. He commanded the expedition that in 1776 cleared Boston harbor of British vessels. Hav- ing reinforced Washington after the defeat on Long Island, and in 1777 brought a new levy of militia to Morristown, he was recommended by lVashington for an appointment as major-general in the Conti- nental army. Lincoln served as such with Schuy- ler against Burgoyne during the next summer, and afterwards was wounded at Bemis Heights, while reconnoitering. In August, 1778, Lincoln was placed in commandof the army in the South. He pro- tected the city of Charleston from Gen. Prevost. 2-27 1010 In 1780 he was besieged at Charleston by Sir Henry Clinton. After a brave defense against a superior force he had to capitulate, and soon returned to Hingham on parole. But after being exchanged in 1781 he joined Washington again on the Hudson, was with him at the siege of Yorktown, and was -deputed by Washington to receive the sword of Lord Cornwallis on his surrender of the British forces. From 1781 to 1784 Lincoln was Secretary of War. After quelling Shay’s rebellion in Massachu- setts in 1787 he was elected lieutenant-governor, and in 1789 Washington appointed him collector of the port of Boston, which oflice he held till 1808, when he retired from public life. LINCOLN, LEvI, an American statesman, born at Hingham, Mass., in 17-19, died at Worcester Mass., in 1820. He studied law at Harvard College, and became judge of probate in 1776. He was a member of the State constitutional convention in 1780, of the State Legislature in 1796. and of the State Senate in 1797, and was elected to Congress in 1799. From 1801 to 1805 he was attorney-general of the United States. In 1807-’8 he was lieutenant gover- nor of Massachusetts, and became acting governor in 1809. Lincoln was an original member of the ‘ American Academy of Sciences, and was long at the head of ttfe Massachusetts bar. LINCOLN, LEVI, an American statesman, born at Worcester in 1782, died there in 1868. After graduating at Harvard, he was admitted to the bar at \Vorcester in 1805. Between 1812 and 1822 he was elected several times to the Legislature, was -Speaker of the House in 1822, lieutenant-governor in 1823, and judge of the Supreme Court in 1824. In 1825 Lincoln was elected governor of Massachu- setts, for which office he had been nominated by both political parties. In 1835 he was elected to Congress and in 1841 he was made collector of the port of Boston. Upon the reorganization of his native town he was made its first mayor. Lincoln was a member of many historical and scientific societies. LINCRUSTA VVALTON, embossed oil-cloth, a material similar to linoleum (see Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 676), and invented by the same man, Mr. Frederick VValton. This new materialis described as a “compressed mass of cellulose, paper, cork, etc., thoroughlyimpregnated with oxidized linseed oil and resin.” It has ground cork and oxidized lin- seed oil for its basis, the same as linoleum; but is distinguished from the latter by deeper, sharper and more lasting impressions, that means by higher and more lasting relief patterns used as tapestry, with decorations in imitations of ivory, gold, silver, bronze, etc., it is claimed that it can be furnished much cheaper than any other ma- terial used for embossed wall decoration. It pro- duces the same general effect as carved work, and can be colored to any desired shade, so as to imitate costly woods, and to give any desired effect to the pattern. Lincrusta Walton is known in the trade as “gervita”, and has very beautiful and attractive patterns in relieve. It is applied to walls with glue and paste, similar to wall paper. The val- uable properties claimed for it are: It may be roughly scrubbed without injury; it can even be struck with a hammer, as the elastic material will swell out again; it has no glaze to annoy the eye; yet it does not absorb moisture; it is so flexible that it can be carried around corners without injury; it can be removed from a wall and used again in other places. Lincrusta Wal- ton has even been applied to exterior walls with very satisfactory effect. It was found to resist the weather well. But it is mainly used for in- He held this office till 1834. - LINCOLN-—LING terior decoration; and for this purpose it has no equal among the cheap materials. LIND, JENNY, see GoLDscHMIDT, in these He- visions and Additions. ' LINDAU, PAUL, a German author, born at Mag- deburg June 3, 1839. He studied philosophy and literature at Halle, Leipzig, Berlin and Paris. He has labored in several departments of literature, but is perhaps best known as a writer of plays and novels. The most successful of the plays has been Maria and Magdalena. The novels include Herr and Frau Bewer (1882); Toggenburg (1883); Mayo (1884) ; and Im Fieber (1889). He has edited various journals, including “Die Gegenwart” and “Nord und Siid,” both of which he founded. LINDEN, or LIME. The American Linden(T/ilia Americana) is a well-known timber tree, often planted along alleys for shade. It furnishes “bast”, or bast-bark, equal to its European namesake. This bast is here sold for tying bundles of kin- dling wood and various other tying purposes, es- pecially in nurseries. Dried linden flowers are often used for making tea which is taken as a sedative. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 648. LINDSLEY, J OHN BERRIEN, born at Princeton, N. J ., in 1822. became in 1850 professor of chem- istry in the University of Nashville, and held that chair until 1873, meanwhile founding the medical department of that university, and be- coming its dean. He was chancellor of the uni- versity from 1855 till 1870, and secretary of the State board of education from 1875 till 1887. LINDSLEY, NATHANIEL LAWRENCE (1816-1868), a philologist and educator. He was for many years professor of language in Cumberland University, founded Greenwood Seminary, and was associated with Dr. J. E. Worcester in the preparation of his well known dictionary. LINDSLEY, PHILIP, an American educator, born at Morristown, N. J., in 1786, died at Nash- ville, Tenn., in 1855. After graduating at Prince- ton College he became tutor in Latin and Greek there. In 1813 he was made professor of lan- guages and secretary of the board of trustees. In 1824 he became president of the University of Nashville, where he remained till 1850, when he accepted the professorship of archeology and church polity in the Presbyterian theolo ical seminary at New Albany, Ind. Rev. L. J . al- sey collected his many baccalaureate addresses and occasional sermons, and published them as Dr. Lz'ndsZey’s Complete Works and a Biography in 1868. LINE, an expression used in the British army to distinguish ordinary cavalry and infantry from the guards, artillery, and engineers. It obviously took its origin from the fact that the troops in question constitute the usual “line of battle.” LINEN, see MANUFAoTUREs, TEXTILE, in these Revisions and Additions. LING, PETER HENRIK, aSwedish poet, inventor of the “movement cure,” born at Ljunga, Smaland, in 1776, died at Stockholm in 1839. After studying theology he wandered through Germany and France, leading an adventurous life. In 1805 he be- came fencing-master in the University of Lund, and in 1813 at the military school at Carlsberg. His main endeavor was to adapt his gymnastics to the needs of the various parts of the body instead of to the arms only. In 1813 an institution was estab- lished at Stockholm which was to em body his ideas and Ling was called to be its director. His success led to his being made a member of the Swedish Academy and receiving various honors from the ing. His main poetical works are the Gylfe (1812), and Asarne (1816-1826). His Elementary LLNGA-—LIST Principles of Gymnastics, and other works on the “movement cure” were published after his death. LINGA (a Sanskrit word which literally means a sign or symbol): in the sectarian worship of the Hindus, the Phallus, as emblem of the male or generative power of nature. Originally of an ideal or mystical nature, it has degenerated into prac- tices of the grossest description; thus taking the same course as the similar worship of the Chal- deans, Greeks, and other nations of the East and est. LINIMENT, in pharmacy, a liquid preparation for external application. Liniments may be re- garded, in so far as their physical properties are concerned, as ointments having the consistence of oil. Chemically, most of them are soaps—that is to say, compounds of oils and alkalies—-while others are medicated with powerful drugs, de- signed to act after absorption. LINNEA, a genus of plants of the tribe Lonicerea. It contains but a single species L. borealis, the twin-flower, found in the more northern regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. It is a small trailing evergreen herb, characterized by lanceo- late calyx-lobes, and bell-shaped flowers occurring 1n airs. LINSTOCK, a forked iron-shod wooden staff used in gunnery for holding the lighted match in readi- ness to be applied to the touch-hole of the cannon. LINT, the name given to linen cloth when shred- ded so as to form a soft material suitable for dress- ing wounds. Lint is now superceded by a cotton cloth specially woven for the purpose, with one side soft and fluffy. LINTON, MRs. LYNN, an English essayist and novelist, born at Keswick in 1822. In 1858 she was married to Mr. W. J . Linton, the well-known en- graver and author. Mrs. Linton is an indefatiga- ble worker. Besides her numerous novels she has done a great deal of magazine work, and at one time was a constant contributor to the “Saturday Review,” in which her papers on “The Girl of the Period” attracted much attention. Among the best known of Mrs. Linton’s works are Grasp Your Nettle; Sowing the W'zncl; Patricia Kemball; The Rebel of the Family; Chwlstopher Kirlcland; Paston Carew; Jflillionaire and Miser, and Through the Long Night. LINTON, SIR JAMES D., an English water-color and oil painter, born in London, Dec. 26, 18-10. Af- ter instruction from Mr. Leigh he became an illus- trator of not a few books and magazines, in addi- tion to exhibiting pictures at the Dudley Gallery and Royal Academy. His water-color picture Maundy Thursday attracted much attention, and for it he received the gold medal of the Philadel- phia International Exhibition. As a painter in oils Sir James has also attained success, particularly in historical subjects. In 188% he was chosen pres- ident of the Royal Institute of Painters, and in the following year was knighted. LINTON, IVILLIAM". JAMES, an English-American author and engraver, born at London in 1812. He illustrated Jackson’s History of W ood—Engram'ng; The Lake Country; and Deceased British Artists. In 1867 he removed to the United States, settling first at New York and afterwards at New Haven. Amer- ican magazines have profited by his admirable illus- trations. He has greatly improved the art of wood- engraving in this country. Linton has published Claribel and Other Poems; A Life of Thomas Pa.z'ne; The English Republic; History of Wood-Engra/t"z'ng in America; Golden Apples of Hesperus; and Rare Poems of the Siarteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (I883). LINUM, a genus of plants of the natural order Linacew, of which L. usitatissionum, the flax of com- merce. is the most important species. The genus 1011 includes a number of flax-plants not cultivated for fiber, many of which are ornamental. L. perenne, or perennial flax, is a blue-flowered species found in the northern United States, in Europe and in Asia; L. grandlflorwn is a beautiful annual of Algiers, bearing abundant scarlet flowers. See FLAX, Brit- annica, Vol. IX, pp. 293—98. LIODON, a genus of extinct marine reptiles, with palatine bones vertical, separated throughout their length; the teeth smooth and compressed; the chevons articulating with the caudal verte- bree. The original species was described from the Norfolk chalk. Large forms abounded in America during the Cretaceous period. LIPOGRAM, a species of writing characterized by the exclusion of a certain letter, either vowel or consonant. The earliest known author of lipo- grammatic verse was the Greek poet Lasus (born 538 B. 0.). LIPPE, a principality of northwestern Germany. For general article see Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 683. Latest oflicially reported area, 475 square miles, with a population in 1885 of 123.212. Capital, Detwold with a population of 8,913. The budget is arranged for two years. In 1890 the revenue was estimated at 1,038,399 marks and the expenditures at about the same amount. Reigning Prince (Aug. 1, 1891) \Valdemar, born April 18, 1814, the second son of Prince Leo- pold and of Princess Emilie of Schwarzburg-Son- dershausen; succeeded to the throne at the death of his brother, Dec. 10, 1875; married Nov. 9, 1858, to Princess Sophie, born August 7, 1834, daughter of the late Margrave lVilhelm of Baden. The heir- apparent is the Prince’s brother, Prince Alexander, born January 16, 1831, formerly captain in the Hanoverian army. The house of Lippe is a younger branch of the ancient family of Lippe, formed in the latter part of the 16th century. The Prince has a civil list amounting to about £10,000, which is stated to be insuflicient for the expenses of the court. LIPPSTADT, a town of Prussia, on the river Lippe, thirty miles from Dortmund. It has manu- factories of spirits, beer, cigars. brushes, ropes, iron, etc. ‘Founded in 1168, it was captured by the Spaniards in 1620, and by the French in 17 57. Pop- ulation, 11,504. LIPSIUS. RICHARD ADELBERT, a German theolo- gian, born at Gera, Feb. 1-1, 1830; studied theology at Leipzig. and. after serving there as pr2'mt-doeent and professor extraordinary, was called to fill a chair at Vienna in 1861, at Kiel in 1865, and at Jena in 1871. Lipsius has made important contributions to theological science in the field of dogmatics and the history of dogma, the philosophy of religion, and New Testament exegesis and criticisms. LIRIA, a town of Spain, situated on a fertile plain, fourteen miles northwest of Valencia. Pop- ulation, 9,4-15. LISBON, the county-seat of Ransom county, N. Dak., situated on the Cheyenne River and on a branch railroad. L’ISLET, a post-village of L’Islet county, Quebec, Canada, situated on the south shore of the St. Law- rence and on the Grand Trunk Railway, 62 miles below Quebec. It contains an academy, an exten- sive ship-yard. and has a large trade in lumber. LIST, FRIEDRICH, a German political economist, born at Reutlingen. Wiirtemberg, in 1789, died at Kufstein, Tyrol. in 1846. In 1817 he was professor of political economy in the University of Tiibingen. Afterwards he became a member of the diet of Wi'1r- temberg, and exposed the corrupt practices of the government, for which he was sentenced to ten months’ imprisonment. He escaped to Switzerland. 1012 When he returned, in 1824, he was imprisoned in the castle of Asperg. Allowed to emigrate to America, List settled in Pennsylvania, where he made large purchases of land. He soon became wealthy through the discovery of Anthracite on his land and the construction of railroads through it. For several years he was United States consul at Hamburg and Leipzig. He exerted himself for the promotion of the German commercial union, in which he took a great interest. In 1846 some loss of property so affected his mind that, in a fit of mel- ancholy, he shot himself. His Nationale System der Politischen Oelconomie (1841) was translated into English and published by Stephen Colwell (1856). LISTER, SIR J OSEPH, an English surgeon, born in 1827 ; graduated at London University in arts in 1847, and medicine in 1852; became a Fellow of the Royal College of surgeons, England, in 1852, and of the Royal College of surgeons, Edinburgh, in 1855. He was successively assistant-surgeon and lecturer on surgery, Edinburgh; regius professor of surgery, Glasgow; professor of clinical surgery, Edinburgh; professor of clinical surgery, King’s College Hos- pital, London, and was made surgeon extraordi- nary to the Queen. In 1880 he received the royal medal of the Royal Society, and in 1881 the prize of the Academy of Paris for his discoveries in anti- septic treatment in surgery known as “Listerism.” He was made a baronet in 1883. See SURGERY, Britannica, Vol. XXII, pp. 678,679. LISZT, FRANZ, pianist, composer, and author, born at Raiding, in Hungary, in 1811, died at Bai- reuth, Bavaria, in 1886. At the age of nine years he displayed so much musical talent that several Hungarian noblemen offered the means for his education at Vienna, where he studied under the best masters, and in 1822 played before enthusias- tic audiences. He continued his studies in Paris and played there with success, and in other conti- nental cities, but was less appreciated in England. In 1827 his father died and for a time, until 1831, he morbidly withdrew from the world; but the violin playing of Paganini roused him to emulation and he became for the time the foremost figure in the musical world. In 1847 he was appointed Kapell- meister at Weimar, and honors were showered upon him. In 1861 he resigned this appointment, and in 1865, took minor orders in the Church of Rome, to which he was devoted, and was known as Abbé Liszt. After 1871 he resided principally at Pesth. In 1875 he was made director of the Hun- garian Academy of Music. Among Liszt’s compo- sitions are: Fantasias; Poemes S3/mphoniques; the grand symphonies Faust and the Diuina Commedia; the two oratorios, Die Heilige Elizabeth and Christus; several Grand Masses and numerous Variations. He also published a Life of Chopin and many arti- cles on modern music. Opinions vary as to the permanent value of much of his work, musical and literary, but his personal influence was irresistible, and the assistance he rendered to other musicians was invaluable. LITCHFIELD, a manufacturing village and county-seat of Litchfield county, Conn., on the Naugatuck Railroad, thirty miles west of Hartford. It has fine water-power, contains a soldiers’ mon- ument, and from 1784 to 1838 was the seat of Judge Tapping Reeve’s celebrated law school, Judge James Gould conducting it after the death of its founder. The township contains the villages of Bantam Falls, East Litchfield, Litchfield, Milton and Northfield. LITCHFIELD, a city and railroad center of Montgomery county, Ill., forty-two miles south of Springfield, on Shoal Creek Basin. It produces coal, has a good grain trade, contains an Ursuline LISTER-—LITHOGRAPHY convent, flour-mills, grain elevators, and car man- ufacturing and repairing shops. Population, 5,798. LITCHFIELD, a post-village, the county-seat of Meeker county, Minn., seventy-eight miles west of St. Paul. It has good water-power, a flour-mill and a furniture factory, and is situated in a fertile, undulating country diversified with small lakes. LITCHI, of Lee-chee (Nephelium Litchi), one of the most delicate fruits of China, Cochin-China, and the Malay Archipelago. The tree which pro- duces it belongs to the natural order Sapindaceae, and has pinnate leaves. The fruit is of the size of of a small walnut and grows in racemes. It is a red or green berry, with a thin, tough, scaly rind, and a colorless pulp, in the center of which is one large dark-brown seed. The pulp is slightly sweet. The Chinese preserve the fruit by drying. LITERARY PROPERTY. See PROPERTY, in these Revisions and Additions. LITHODOMUS, a genus of stone-boring mollusks of the family Mytilidae, known as date-shells from their shape or appearance. Also called Lithotomus and Lithophagus. LITHOGRAPHY. The art of lithography is in the main the same to-day as it was twenty years ago. The stones from Solenhofen, in Bavaria, are still preferred to all others. There have been, how- ever, some improvements made in the presses and in the method of placing the drawing upon the stone. In most shaded drawings there are consid- erable spaces where the desired effects of shading are simile and uniform. These are produced by lines, grains, and stipples. The work of filling in these spaces takes considerable time. In order to save this time the required markings are molded in points or short narrow ridges on one face of a rub- ber sheet, similar to the working side of a rubber stamp. This molded face is then inked and laid fiat upon the stone, while pressure is brought upon the back of the corresponding portion of the rub- ber sheet. In this way the markings on the inked side are transferred to the stone with much great- er rapidity than can be done by handwork. Besides the shadings thus produced are more perfect and regular than shadings drawn on the stone by hand. Another process by which drawing upon the stone is facilitated, is the employing of the “ air-brush.” A tube is connected with a bellows worked by the foot. This tube has a fine nozzle through which a continuous current of air is blown out. A smaller tube conveys ink to the aperture of the air-tube. This ink is blown out by the current of compressed air in the form of a fine spray, exactly in the same way as liquids are sprayed out of an atomizer. The drawing is done by the air-brush. As this ap- proaches the stone the line of ink becomes narrow and dark. As it is lifted farther away from the stone, the ink-spray widens, and grows thinner and paler, so that any variety of effect, from the light- est field to the darkest shading, can be readily pro- duced, and with a rapidity far beyond that of the old method of drawing u on the stone. The flow of ink can also be increase or diminished by simple pressure of the fingers, thus rendering it possible to produce very easily uniform fields of specially strong shades or bright li ht. The improvements ma e in the presses are also of great importance. The best known presses in the market are those of Hoe, of Potter, and of Camp- bell. We cannot describe them here. It is sufli- cient to say that with the present presses 1,200, and, in some cases, even 1,500 impressions per hour can be made. This was not possible twenty years ago. The care and skill brought to bear on lithograph- ic work have also been increased during the last fifteen years, so that very striking effects can now LITHOLAPAXY—LIVINGSTON be produced. Crayon work, for instance, can be transferred and prints made that are hardly dis- tinguishable from the original drawing. Small work in colors, as for advertising cards, valentines, etc., has grown into a very important branch of modern lithography. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 697-701. LITHOLAPAXY, crushing and removing the stone in the bladder. See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 190. LITHOLOGY (lithos, a stone), the name some- times used for that division of geology which con- siders the constitution and structure of rocks, apart from their relation in time or position to one another. LITHOPHAGIDZE (Gr., “stone-eaters”), a term no longer in use, but sometimes formerly applied to the mollusks which bore holes for their own res- idence in rocks, as Saxicaua, Petricola, etc. LITHOPHANE, a style of ornamental porcelain impressed with fi ures which become distinct, with the lights and sha ows correctly shown when viewed by transmitted light. The effect is secured by im- pressing the sheets of porcelain, when in a soft state, with raised stamps of the figures intended to be produced. It is adapted for lamp-shades, fire- side screens, decorative windows, and other trans- parencies. LITHOTOMY, cutting for stone in the bladder. See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 189. LITHOTRIY, crushing the stone in the bladder. See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 190. LITIZ, a post-borough of Lancaster county, Pa., on the Reading & Columbia Railroad, twenty-seven miles southwest of Reading. It has several board- ing schools and seminaries; is a place of summer re- sort, and has manufactories of beer, cigars, flour, and machinery. LITTELL, ELIAKIM, an American publisher, born at Burlington, N. J ., in 1797, died at Boston in 1870. Having learned the printer’s trade he established at Philadelphia in 1819 a literary paper entitled the “National Recorder,” whose name he changed in 1821 to the “Saturday Magazine.” In 1822 he changed it to a monthly, called the “Museum of Foreign Literature and Science.” It presented to the American readers selections from the best periodical literature of Europe. After conducting this successfully for twenty-one years he began to publish “Littell’s Living Age” in Boston, a weekly literary periodical which is still (1891) continued. He was the author of the “Compromise Tariff” car- ried through Congress in 1833 by Henry Clay. LITTLE CHRISTIANS, a Russian sect of seced- ers from the national church, originating in the bishopric of Tsaritsin in 1868. They profess to have received a divine revelation, practice immer- sion, but reject all forms and symbols, even to bread and wine in the eucharist. LITTLEDALE, RICHARD FREDERICK, an author and clergyman, born at Dublin. Ireland, in 1833. After being ordained in the Church of England in 1856 he held a curacy in London for five years, but being obli ed by ill health to give up parish work he devote himself to literary work on ritualism and allied subjects. He published a Commentary on the Song of Songs; Philosophy of Revirals; Early Christian Ritual; and Misapplied Texts of Scripture (1870). He also continued and completed J . M. Neale’s Commentary on the Psalms (1868-1874). LITTLE FALLS, a post-village, the county-seat of Morrison county,Minn.,located on the east bank of the Mississippi. LITTLE FALLS, a picturesque post-village in Herkimer county, New York, on both sides of the Mohawk River, which here passes through a rocky 1013 gorge and falls forty-four feet in two-thirds of a mile, furnishing fine water power. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 703. LITTLE ROCK, the capital city of Arkansas, and county-seat of Pulaski county, situated on the south bank of the Arkansas River, near the center of the State. It is located on a high bluff, com- manding an extensive view down the valley of the river. It has important railroad connections, in addition to its shipping facilities by river. The St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railroad passes through Little Rock; and the Memphis and Little Rock, the Little Rock and Fort Smith, and the Little Rock, Mississippi River and Texas Railroads ter- minate here. The city contains the State capitol, State Library, asylums for the blind and the deaf mutes, St. J ohn’s Military College, a United States arsenal, a ladies’ seminary, the Sherman high- school for white, and the Union high-school for colored pupils; a convent, the Roman Catholic cathedral of St. Andrew, etc. The principal arti- cles of manufacture are flour, castings,wagons, and carriages. Population in 1890, 22,496. See Britan- nica, Vol. XIV, p. 703. LITTLETON, a post-village, and township of Grafton county, N. H., on the Mink or Ammonoosuc River, twenty-eight miles from Mt. Washington. It is much visited by tourists to the White Moun- tains. The town has manufactories of woolen goods, axes, scythes,g.nd stereopticon views. LITTRE, MAXIMILIAN PAUL EMILE, a French phil- ologist, born at Paris in 1801, died in 1881. After studying medicine he devoted himself to literature, translated the works of Hippocrates into French, and published a defense of Comte’s philosophy in his De la Philosophie Positive; and Application de la Philosophie Positive au Gouoernement des Société. In 1854 he became editor of the “Journal des Savants.” His greatest work is a Dictionaire de la Langue Fran- caise,which he completed in 1873, after thirty years, arduous labor. It is noted for accuracy in defini- tion and etymology. In 1871 Littré was appointed professor of history and geography in the Polytech- nic School, then at Bordeaux, and in the same year he was chosen a member of the Academy. He had before been elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and in 1875 he was chosen senator for life. LIVADIA, a town of Greece, near the cave of Trophonius, the ancient oracle, sixty miles north- west of Athens. Population 5,000. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, . 808. LIVERP OL, a post-village of Onondaga coun- ty, N. Y., on the east shore of Onondaga Lake, and on Oswego canal. It has salt-works, and manu- factures cigars and willow baskets. LIVINGSTON, the county-seat of Park county, Mon., situated at a railroad junction on a branch railroad to the National Park. LIVINGSTON, HENRY BROCKHOLST, an American lawyer, born at New York in 1757, died at Washing- ton, D. C., in 1823. While studying at Princeton, at the outbreak of the Revolutionary war, he left the college to serve as aide to Gen. Philip Schuyler. In 1777 he was major and served as aide to Benedict Arnold, when the latter captured Burgoyne’s army. Later on he served again with Gen. Schuyler. In 1779 he accompanied his brother-in-law, John Jay, on his embassy to Spain as private secretary. While returning in 1782 he was captured by a British ves- sel, and thrown into prison on reaching New York. When Sir Guy Carlton arrived at NewQYork he was liberated. He then continued the study of law, and was admitted to the bar in 1783. He settled in New York after the evacuation of the city, and became one of the most eminent attorneys there. In 1802 he was made judge of the Supreme Court 1014 of New York, and in 1806 he became judge of the United States Supreme Court. \ LIVINGSTON, J OHN HENRY, an American cler- gyman, born at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., in 1746, died at New Brunswick, N. J., in 1825. After studying law he went to Holland to study theology at Utrecht and received his doctorate there in 1767. Then he became pastor of the North Dutch church in New York City, at the corner of Fulton and Wil- liam streets. During the occupation of New York by the British he preached for some years at Al- bany, Kingston, and Poughkeepsie in succession. He returned to his pastorate in 1783 after the Eng- lish army had evacuated New York. In 1807 he became professor of theology and president of Queen’s College (now Rutgers), New Brunswick, N. J ., which position he held until his death. Mr. Livingston was styled “the father of the Dutch Re- formed Church in America.” LIVINGSTON, PHILIP, an American statesman, ‘ born at Albany, N. Y., in 1716, died at York, Pa., in 1778. After graduating at Yale College he became a merchant in New York, and was for nine years an alderman of that city. From 1758 to 1769 he was a member of the provincial assembly, in which he steadily opposed all arbitrary measures of the mother country. In 1774 he was delegated to the Continental Congress, then assembled at Philadel- phia, and continued to be a member of that body until his death. As such he signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Mr. Livingston was lib- eral to colleges—-a professorship of divinity at Yale bears his name as one of its founders——and during the Revolutionary war he sold part of his property in order to sustain the public credit. He was one of the contributors to the building of the first Methodist church in America. LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM, an American states- man, born at Albany, N. Y., in 1723, died at Eliza- bethtown, N. J ., in 1790. He graduated at Yale at the head of his class, and then studied law with James Alexander and William Smith. Being ad- mitted to the bar in 1748 he soon became one of the leaders of the profession and was known as the “Presbyterian lawyer.” In 1760 he purchased land near Elizabethtown, N. J ., and there erected a country seat then known as “Liberty Hall,” to which he removed with his family in 1772. He was a del- egate to the first Continental Congress from New Jersey, and in 1776 was made governor of the State. He held this office until his death. The British made several expeditions for the purpose of kid- napping him, but Livingston was always fortunate in escaping. They dubbed him the “Itinerant Dey of New Jersey” and the “Don Quixote of the Jer- seys.” He had written largely for the newspapers and many political and miscellaneous tracts. LIVRE, the name of an ancient French coin, de- rived from the Roman Zvlbra. In 1795 the livre was superseded by the franc. Livre was also the an- cient French unit of weight, and was equal to about one pound avoirdupois; the kilogram has taken its place. LLERENA, a town of Spain, eighty-three miles north of Seville. Near here the British and French cavalry fought April 11, 1812. Population about 6,000. LLOYD’S BONDS : in English law, obligations by railway companies under their seal, purporting to be for work done, or for materials supplied for the purposes of an undertaking, and covenanting to pay the debt and interest thereon. They were de- vised by an English counsel named Lloyd, to enable railway companies to exceed the powers of borrow- ing money granted to them by Parliament. LOAN AND BUILDING ASSOCIATIONS, in- corporated companies established for the purpose LIVINGSTON--LOBBY of raising, by periodical subscriptions, a fund to assist members to erect and purchase dwelling- houses, or acquire other real estate, which shall be mortgaged to the society until the amount or value ' of the shares drawn on shall be fully repaid with interest and all other appropriate payments. The associations are organized on the basis of a capital stock divided into shares of an equal fixed amount, and membership is obtained by subscription to one or more of the shares. The usual periodical install- ment paid for shares of stock is one dollar per share each month. Small fines for non-payment of dues are exacted. When a sufiicient sum of money has accumulated from the collection of dues, it is loaned to the stockholder offering the highest premium. There are many different systems under which building societies are conducted. In some the premium is deducted from the loan; in others, the premium is not deducted but is paid with in- terest in monthly installments. The interest on the money loaned, the interest on premiums, and the fines for non-payment of dues, are the sources of profit. Provision is made in all associations for withdrawing members and borrowers desirous of paying off loans before they are due. A terminat- ing society issues but one series of stock, and when the value of the shares has reached par the funds are divided and the society is dissolved. A “series society” issued stock at regular intervals, bringin in new borrowers and thus keeping up the deman for money. But whatever the system may be, the principle underlying all is the same. The sources of profit to the non-borrowing member are appar- ent; in estimating the advantages of the borrower there is more to be considered. It must be remem- bered that he has paid no more “dues” on his stock than the non-borrower, but has had the use of his money for a term of years. The question of profit is whether he has paid an excessive rate for the use of the money. In deciding this it must be un- derstood that however high a premium he may have paid, if he did not exceed the average of pre- miums, he did not pay a high rate of interest, be- cause when the average premium is high the socie- ty runs out sooner and less money is paid on each share for dues. If without capital he has been en- abled to secure a home and pay for it in install- ments, the chances are that he has obtained a fair return for his investment, and if the property while he was paying for it largely increased in value, his profits may be larger than those of the non-borrower. LOASACEZE, a natural order of calucifloral exo- gens, natives chiefly of the temperate and warmer parts of America. There are about seventy known species, herbaceous plants. LOBAU, a town of East Saxony, twelve miles southeast of Bautzen. It has mineral springs and manufactories of linens, cottons, and woolens. Pop- ulation, 6,977. LOBBY, a space surrounding and serving as the entrance to an apartment; a vestibule or ante- room. In the United States it generally means that part of a hall of legislation which is not ap- propriated to the ofrlcial use of the assembly, and to which members and their accredited friends have access. The “privilege of the lobby” is sought by persons desirous of influencing legislation, and it has been sufficiently influential to be called “the third house.” In the early days of the lobby ex-members of the Senate or the House were the most available inter- mediaries between those who wanted certain legis- lation done and those who had the power to do it. For under the rules they had the right of entrance to the floors of the Senate chamber or the House of LOBSTER—LO'CAL GOVERNMENT BOARD Representatives, and could talk with members in their seats or in the cloak-rooms. They could urge their pet measures, whether they were subsidy schemes or land-grants for railroad companies, etc., in divers ways upon the members to whom they had access as former colleagues. The professional lobbyist is of later development. He “sees” the members in their committee rooms, preferably in private. For this purpose he gets his pet measure introduced by a member who is al- ready won for it. The latter secures its prompt reference to a friendly committee. The next move is to refer it to a sub-committee of one or three members of the general committee for the osten- sible purpose of having it “thoroughly investi- gated.” If the scheme involves a large amount of money, land or vested interests a sub-committee of three is preferable, because its report will carry more weight with the weak members of the general committee. If the lobbyist controls the chairman of the latter committee, he can name the members of the sub-committee. Lobbyists must be keen and accurate judges of human nature. They must find out how each man can be secured. Many members of Congress can be won through their friends, and are, indeed, daily sold and delivered by their most intimate personal friends, whom they would never suspect of turpitude. A good dinner, banquet or a case of choice wine will capture others whom money could not purchase. It is humiliating to confess, how- ever, that a large majority of the corrupt law- makers are bought with spot cash, many of them being shy of bank-checks, through the presentation of which their action might be traced. Some mem- bers have preferred to accept sums of money under the name of “loans,” or in the shape of money ad- vanced on “notes without dates,” or with some vitiating clause. The history of the lobby is a secret one. It re- veals itself only in exceptional cases of exposure. The exposures of the “Credit Mobilier” and of the “Pacific Mail Steamship Company Subsidy” show the working of the lobby in our National Capital most vividly. The Credit Mobilier was a combina- tion of men who undertook to build the first trans- continental railway to the Pacific Ocean. Their lobbyists worked upon the individual members of Congress until our national legislature voted money enough to build the entire railroad between Omaha and San Francisco. Charles Francis Adams, Jr., of Boston, has written its history fully and mercilessly. When the exposure and investi- gation came, several prominent Congressmen were relegated to obscurity and the grave. The country was shocked at the exposure of this gigantic swindle. Ofiicial corruption was made very odious. Yet, at that very time, the bill to pay the Pacific Mail Steamship Company a subsidy of $500,000 an- nually was quietly being engineered through both houses of Congress. Subsequent investigation showed that it cost the Pacific Steamship Company $600,000 to get the annual subsidy of half a million dollars granted by Congress. There is a type of lobbyists whose business is to prevent the introduction, consideration or enact- ment of measures prejudicial to the powerful cor- porations who employ and pay them. These are hired attorneys stationed at Washington or the State capitals. Many bills are introduced into our National and State legislatures which have no other purpose than to compel the companies that would be injured by their enactment to extinguish them by purchase. To effect this the last-men- tioned kind of lobbyists are employed. They scan every bill relating to the interest of their employ- 1015 ers, and work for the suppression of the injurious ones. LOBSTER, a genus of Crustaceans, of the order Decapoda, sub-order Macroura, differing from Cray- fish, to which, in gen- eral form and charac- ters, they are very simi- lar, in having the ros- trum in front of the carapace not depressed, but straight, and armed . ‘ with many teeth on each side, and the last ring of the thorax not movable, but soldered to the preceding one. The common lobster, found in great plenty on rocky coasts of America and most parts of Europe, is too well known torequire description. The American lobster (H om arus Ameri- canus) is larger than the European species. When fully grown, it is from 1 to 2 feet long and weighs from 2 to 15 pounds. It is a voracious animal, and feeds on any kind of animal food. It lives on rocky, gravelly and sandy bottoms, from low water to 20 or 30 fathoms deep, and has a migratory habit, moving rapidly in considerable numbers, the larg- est and strongest in front, the weakest in the rear. Upon reaching good feeding grounds they scatter and devour the clams, mussels and other food-ani- mals found there. On the American coast lobster-fishing is an im- portant industry. In Long Island Sound it begins about April 1 and continues till late in autumn, though the principal catch is in May and June. On the coasts of Maine and Massachusetts, whence our winter supply of lobsters comes, this fishery con- tinues nearly all the year round. In Norway the lobsters were formerly caught with wooden tongs, but the American “lobster-pot” is now everywhere employed. This consists of a basket with a funnel- shaped end, the funnel leading downward to a hole by which the lobster can enter, but from which it cannot escape on account of its claws. It is baited with little fishes, then sunk with stones, and its place is marked by a float. Although the catch on the American coast cannot be accurately given, yet it is stated that about a million lobsters are annu- ally sold in Boston alone. The limit of salable size is fixed by the law of Massachusetts at 10% inches. In Portland, Me., and at other places of our North Atlantic coast, a large trade in canned lobsters has grown up. The catch for these canneries has re- cently become so great that it is apprehended that the supply will soon be seriously diminished, unless some restriction be adopted. A few years ago lobsters from 10 to 20 pounds apiece were not un- common. Now the average weight is from 3 to 6 pounds. On the coasts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick lobsters existed so abundantly that they have been largely used as manure ; of late they are canned, and i11 some years as many as four million one-pound cans were exported from British America. Over-fishing is diminishing the catch there as well as on our own coast. LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD of England and ‘Vales. This board, first constituted Aug. 19, 1871, under an act passed earlier in the same year, was established to take over all the powers and duties vested in or imposed on the poor law board (which board from that time ceased to exist) under the acts relating to the relief of the poor, the powers vested in or imposed on the home secretary in regard to the registration of births, deaths and marriages, public health, local government, sani- LOBSTER. 1016 tary matters, baths and washhouses, public improve- ments, towns improvement, artisans’ and labor- ers’ dwellings, returns as to local taxation, and the powers and duties of the privy council with regard to the prevention of disease and vaccination. Since that time its powers have been increased and its sphere and operations extended by many statutes. The board consists of a president and of certain ex-oflicio members, all of whom are members of the government for the time being. The president is assisted by a parliamentary secretary, a permanent secretary and a numerous staff of officers and in- spectors, etc. The duties of the department in- clude a general supervision and control of the administration of the poor law, the inspection especially of metropolitan vagrant wards, work- house schools, and the regulation of infirmaries; and it may authorize the emigration of orphan and deserted children. It medical department includes a medical inspector and staff for general sanitary purposes, under it being the national vaccine es- tablishment and the animal vaccine lymph station. It may order the appointment by sanitary author- ities of medical oflicers of health and inspectors of nuisances, may constitute a port sanitary authority in certain cases, carry out local inquiries as to special epidemics, and may make orders as to dairies and cowsheds. It inspects alkali works and canal boats. It has certain statutory powers as to bridges and highways. It examines the accounts of boards of guardians and other local bodies, and may make disallowances and surcharges. It may sanction, after due inquiry by members of its staff, the borrowing of loans for cemeteries, sanitary im- provements, improvement schemes, workhouse buildings, water supply, bath and washhouses, and for other purposes; and it satisfies itself that any sums advanced by the public works loans com- missioners are applied to the work for which they were intended. It grants provisional orders for the constitution or alterations of union and the division of parishes, for the acquisition of land, and for other local objects. It reports to parliament upon local bills, and it publishes periodical returns as to the prevelance and cost of pauperism, sani- tary matters, vaccination, local taxation and the valuation of property, and the financial position of the local authorities of England and Wales. It exercises numerous and important functions under the local government act. For example, it de- termines the number and apportionment of county councillors in certain cases; it may make provi- sional orders transferring certain powers under local acts to a county council, and the powers pos- sessed by certain government departments and other authorities under general acts to county councils generally; it may, on the application of two or more local authorities, grant a provisional order creating a body capable of dealing compre- hensively with the whole of a river under the rivers pollution prevention act; it may grant an order for altering the boundary of any county or borough, or constitutin any borough having a population of not less t an 50,000 into a county borough or for uniting two county boroughs—all of which provisional orders are subject to confirm- ation by parliament. Notice of a petition for the grant of a charter of incorporation to a new borough must be sent to it, and any representations it may make are to be considered by the privy council; it may in certain cases arbitrate regarding the amount to be paid by the county council to an urban authority for the maintenance of main roads; it certifies as to the share heretofore received by each county out of the grants in aid of local rates, this being the basis on which the probate duty LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT l grant is to be distributed; it certifies the amount due from county councils in substitution for local grants for poor-law purposes; county councils can- not borrow for certain purposes without its consent; it prescribes regulations as to the creation, issue,. etc., of county stock, and it appoints the district auditors who are to audit the county accounts. Under the infectious diseases notification act of 1889 a local authority may not permanently apply it to infectious diseases other than those specific- ally mentioned in the act without the consent of the board. A water examiner under the board re- ports on the condition of the water supplied by the eight metropolitan water companies. The powers of supervision and control exercised by the depart- ment extend over the metropolitan asylums board. By the census act of 1890 the local government board was to be the central superintending author- ity in England, and is to prescribe the necessary forms and instructions which are to be prepared and issued by the register-general in reference to the census of 1891. LOCAL PREACHERS, in the Methodist churches, are laymen, engaged in secular pursuits, and some- times candidates for admission to the regular min- istry, who are formally licensed to preach, and many of them ordained, in order that they may as- sist the regular itinerant preachers. LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT for England and Wales. This act, involving great changes in the laws, and government administration throughout England and Wales, was introduced in the British parliament by Mr. Ritchie, president of British local government board, on March 18, 1888, in an elaborate argument. The bill proposed to estab- lish a council for each county, three-fourths of the members of which would be elected, while the other fourth would be selected. to which councils were to be transferred the administrative power and financial business of the county justices, whose judicial functions would, however, be left un- touched. The raising and management of the po- lice in counties was to be placed in the hands of a joint committee of the county council and quarter sessions, but the appointment, control and dis- missal of chief constables was reserved to the latter. It was proposed to create district councils in the county, to take the place of local boards and rural and urban sanitary authorities. There was, how- ever, to be no alteration as to the areas of poor- law unions or the election of guardians. There were special provisions as to the metropolis, but these were not put forward as a complete settle- ment of the great problem of the government of the metropolis; and the Government had, Mr. Ritchie stated, their own proposals to make at some future time, on the line, not of creating separate munici- palities throughout London, but of amalgamatin throughout the diflerent areas the existing loca authorities, and of constituting the county council in connection with large and important district councils, possessing large and important adminis- trative functions. In regard to the question of licensing, the authority to inquire into complaints against licensed houses was to remain with the justices, but that duty would be simply ministerial, and under direct instructions from the county council; each county was to be divided into licens- ing divisions, with a licensing committee for each, which would be empowered to refuse renewals and to require the closing of licensed houses on Sun- days, Good Fridays and Christmas days. In cases where renewals were refused compensation was to be given, based on the difference in value between the house with and without a license, this compen- sation to be in the first instance payable out of the - LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT county fund, but to be paid ultimately, unless in special cases the council should otherwise direct, by the licensing division in which the premises were situate. On the other hand, the councils were to be empowered to increase the license duties by 20 per cent., which it was estimated would produce £300,000 a year. The second reading of the bill was agreed to April 20, 1888, after an earnest debate, in which it was charged with powerful emphasis that the great blot of the’ bill was the entire exclusion of the poor-law system—the government replying that the inclusion of so difficult and complicated a subject would have so overloaded the measure as to endanger its passage. An instruction, moved by Mr. F. Stevenson on the committee stage, for the insertion of provisions for the reform of parish vestries, was negatived by 229 to 183. In commit- tee an amendment of Mr. Stansfeld, proposing that all councillors should be elective, and that there should be no aldermen, was opposed by the gov- ernment, and negatived by 250 to 214. The words “county aldermen” were substituted for the ex- pression “selected councillor.” Mr. Ritchie as- sented to a considerable extension of the list of boroughs dealt with as separate counties. On June 12th the right honorable gentleman an- nounced that, having regard to the opposition with which the licensing clauses were threatened, and to the fact that there remained only about two months before the ordinary date for bringing the session to a close, the government had decided not to ask the house to proceed with them. The pro- posals in reference to district councils were also withdrawn. An amendment of Mr. Heneage, vest- ing the control of the police in the county councils, was rejected by 264 to 218. Sir W. Barttelot pro- posed that the entire control of the police should remain, as heretofore, in the hands of the county -magistrates, but this being opposed by the govern- ment, was rejected by 366 to 77. Mr. John Morley then moved to omit the words which left the ap- pointment, control and dismissal of chief constables in the hands of quarter sessions, and his motion was carried against the government by 246 to 216. A promise that facilities should be afforded for the discussion of Mr. Stevenson’s Sunday closing bill satisfied certain Liberal Unionists who had ob- ‘lected to the withdrawal of the Sunday closing clause, and the committee decided to omit the clause by a majority of 275 to 213. Subsequently the clause em owering the councils to impose an extra license uty of 20 per cent. was struck out by a majority of 199 to 137. An amendment by Mr. J . Rowlands, to the effect that there should be no selected councillors in the county of London, was rejected by 192 to 148. An amendment of Mr. J . Stuart, giving the London county council the same powers, duties and liabilities with respect to the police as are vested in the watch committee of a borough under the municipal corporations act 1882, was opposed by the government, and rejected by 220 to 150. An amendment of Mr. Pickersgill, depriving the courts of aldermen and common council of their judicial patronage, was supported from all quarters of the house, and acquiesced in by the government. A proposed new clause by Mr. Channing, providing that any rates made under the act by the county council might be di- vided between the owner and occupier, was ob- jected to by the government (who pointed out that if it were adopted the reconstruction of the bill would become necessary, but promised to consider how they could in future best deal with the ques- tion), and rejected by 259 to 174. When the bill reached the house of lords the second reading was passed without a division, after 1017 some hostile criticisms by the Earl of Carnaroon; and after several changes had been made, among them being the insertion of a provision permitting the recorder of London to be appointed the court of aldermen, subject to the condition that he should not exercise judicial powers, unless ap- pointed by the crown to exercise them. When the bill was returned to the house of com- mons the changes made by the house of lords were accepted, and the bill received the royal assent Aug. 13, 1888. The new act provides as follows: A council shall be established in every administrative county as defined by this act, and be intrusted with the man- agement of the administratiy e and financial business of the county, and shall consist of the chairman, aldermen and councillors. Three-fourths of the members of the council (the councillors) are to be elected by the burgesses and elec- tors throughout the county, the other fourth (the county ‘aldermen) are to be selected by the councillors. The county council is to be constituted and elected, and is to conduct its proceedings in like manner, and be in the like osition in all respects, as the council of a borough divide into wards. Clerks in holy orders and other mimsters of religion are not disqualified for being elected and being aldermen or coun- cillors; and a person is qualified who, though not qualified in manner provided by the municipal corporation act 1882, as applied by this act, is a peer owning property in the county, or is registered as a parliamentary voter in respect of the ownership of property situate in the county. The count councillors are to be elected for a term of three years, an are then to retire together. The county is to be divided into electoral divisions, each returning one councillor. The elec- tors of the county councillors are to be, in a borough, the bur- gesses enrolled in pursuance of the municipal corporations acts, and elsewhere the persons registered as county electqrs under the county electors act 1888 (see Sec. 12). The chair- man of the council (who is not to be called mayor) is to be appointed by the council from amongst their number, and is by virtue of his oflice to be a justice of the peace for the county. There is to be transferred to the county council all business done by the quarter sessions in res ect of the fol- lowing matters: The making, assessing an levying of a county, police, hundred and all rates, and the application and expenditure thereof, and the making of orders for the payment of sums papable out of any such rate or out of the county stock or county fund, and the preparation and re- vision of the basis or standing for the county rate- the bor- rowing of money: the passing of the accounts of and the dis- charge of the county treasurer; shire halls, county halls, assize courts, judges’ lodgings, lock-up houses, court houses, justices’ rooms, olice stations and county bui1dings,works and property, su ject, as to the use of buildings by the quar- ter sessions and the justices, to the provisions of this act re- specting the joint committee of quarter sessions and the county council; the licensing under any general act of houses and other places for music or for dancing, and the granting of licenses under the race-courses licensmg act, 1879; the provision, enlargement, maintenance. management and visi- tation of and other dealings with asylums for auper luna- tics; the establishment and maintenance of an the contri- bution to reformatory and industrial schools; bridges and roads repairable with bridges, and any powers vested by the highways and locomotives (amendment) act, 1878, ‘in the county authority; the tables of fees to be taken by and the costs to be allowed to any inspector, analyst or person hold- ing any oflice in the county, other than the clerk of the eace and the clerks of the justices; the appointment. remova and determination of salaries of the county treasurer, the county surveyor, the public analysts, any officer under the explo- sives act, 1875, and any officers whose remuneration is paid out of the county rate, other than the clerk of the peace and the clerks of the justices ; the salary of any coroner whose salary is payable out of the county rate, the fees, allowances and disbursements allowed to be paid by any such coroner, and the division of the county 1nto coroners’ districts, and the assignment of such districts; the d1vision of the county into pol ing districts for the purposes of parhamentary elec- tions, the appointment of places of election, the places of holding courts for the revision of the lists of voters, and the costs of and other matters to be done for the registration of parliamentary voters; the execution as local authority of the acts relating to contagious diseases of animals, to destruc- tive in sects. to fish conservancy, to wild birds, to weights and measures, and to gas meters, and of the local stamp act, 1869; any matters arismg under the riot (damages) act, 1866; the registration of r_ules of scientific societies; the reg- istration of charitable grits under 52 Geo. III, ch.102; the certifying and recordmg or places of religious worship under 52 Geo. III, ch. 155: the confirmation and record of the rules of loan societies under 3 and 4 Vict , ch. 110; and any other business transferred by this act. On any vacancy occurring in the office of coroner for a county, the county council is in future to appoint a fit per- son, but a person holding this ofiice may not be an alderman or councillor for the county for which he is coroner. 1018 The county councils are to have power to purchase or take over existing bridges not being at present county bridges, and to erect new bridges; and there is to be transferred to them the business of the justices of the county out of sessions in respect of the licensing of houses or places for the public per- formance of stage plays, and of the execution as local au- thority of the explosives acts, 1875. There is reserved to quarter sessions business in relation to appeals against the basis or standard for the county rate, or against that or any other rate, and all business not transferred by the act. The powers of quarter sessions with respect to the county police are to be exercised through a standingjoint committee of the uarter sessions and county council, but nothing is to affect t e powers, duties and liabilities of the justices as conserva- tors of the peace, or the obligation of the police to obey their lawful orders given in that behalf. The local government board is empowered to make from time to time a provisional order (which is subject to con- firmation by parliament) for transferring to county councils certain gowers of the privy council, the secretary of state, the boar of rrade, the local government board, the edu- cation department or any other government department conferred by or in pursuance of any statute and appearin to relate to matters arising within the county, and to be 0 an administrative character. The entire maintenance of main roads is vested in the councils, though an urban authority may claim to retain the powers and duties of maintaining and repairing a main road within its district, and the council is to make an annual pay- ment towards the cost of the same; the council and any dis- trict council may contract for the undertaking by the atter of the maintenance, repair, and other dealing with any main road, and the county council is empowered to contribute to the cost of maintenance, repair and improvement of any highway or public pathway in the county, although the same is not a main road. The county council is to have power, in addition to any other authority, to enforce the provisions of the rivers pol- lution prevention act 1876, in relation to so much of any stream as is situate within any part of their county; to op- pose bills in parliament, to make by-laws, and to appoint a medical officer of health. The proceeds of the duties on local taxation licenses are, after t e financial year ending on the 31st day of March,-1889, to be paid by the commissioners of inland revenue into the Bank of England to the local taxation account, and the amount ascertained to be the proceeds of the duties collected in each administrative county is to be paid to the council of each county. The license duties referred to are those for the sale of intoxicating li uors by retail, to deal in game, for beer dealers, spirit dea ers, sweets dealers,wine dealers, re- freshment house keepers, dogs, killing game, guns, appraisers, auctioneers, tobacco dealers, carriages, trade carts, locomo- tives, horses and mules, horse dealers, armorial bearings, male servants, hawkers, house agents, pawnbrokers, and plate dealers. The county councils are also to receive four-fifths of one- half of the probate duties. The probate duty grant is to be dis- tributed in proportion to the s are received by each county during the financial year 1887-88 out of the grants heretofore made in aid of loca rates, which will cease to be granted after the passing of this act (see Finance, National). All sums received by a county council in respect of license duties or the probate duty grant are to be applied in paying the costs incurred in respect thereof, or otherwise chargeable there- on; in payment of the sums required to be paid in sub- stitution for local grants, and of the grants required to be made in respect of costs of union oflicers; and in repaying to the general county account of the county fund the costs on account of general county purposes for which the whole of the area of the county is liable to be assessed to county con- tributions ; provision is also made for the application of the surplus, if any. The sums to be paid by the county councils in substitution for local grants are, towards the remuneration of teachers in poor law schools, to public vaccinators, school fees for pau- per children sent to a public elementary school outside the workhouse; to every local authority by whom a medical ofli- cer of health or ins ector of nuisances is paid one-half of the salary of such 0 oer; towards the remuneration of regis- trars of births and deaths; four shillings per week towards the maintenance of each pauper lunatic; for compensation payable to certain county oificers; and one-half of the costs or the pay and clothing of the police—in the case of the Metropolitan police the various county councils concerned having to pay to the receiver of police in‘ each year a sum hearing such proportion to the sum actually raised in the same year by rates from the parishes in that.county for the said purpose as the Secretary of State certifies to be the ro- portion which would have been contributed out of the x- chequer under the arrangement in force during the financial ear next before the passing of the act. Each of the follow- ing boroughs is for the purposes of the act to be an adminis- trative county of itself: 2'. e., Barrow, Bath, Birkenhead, Bir- mingham, Blackburn, Bolton, Bootle-cum-Linacre, Bradford, Brighton, Bristol, Burnley, Bury, Canterbury, Cardiff, Ches- ter, Coventry, Croydon, Derby, Devonport, Dudley, Exeter, Qateshead, Gloucester, Great Yarmouth, Halifax, Hanley, Hastings, Huddersfield, Ipswich,Kingston-upon-Hull, Leeds, Leicester, Lincoln, Liverpool, Manchester, Middlesborough, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northampton, Norwich, Nottingham, LONDON GREAT TOWER ‘ Oldham, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Preston, Reading, Roch- dale, Saint Helen’s, Salford, Shefiield, Southam ton, South Shields, Stockport, Sunderland,Swansea,Walsall, est Brom- wich, West Ham, Wigan. Wolverhampton, Worcester, York. The mayor,_aldermen, and burgesses of each countyI bor- ough are, subject to certain modifications, to have al the powers of a county council under the act, in so far as they are not already in possession of or subject to the same, but they will still be governed in many respects by the municipal corporations act ; and the provisions of the local govern- ment act with respect to the constitution, election, proceed- ings, or position of the county council or the chairman there- of, the_ county treasurer and other county officers, the stand- ing joint committee of the justices and the council, coroners, gas meters the transfer to, the council of powers relating to county and other rates, and the preparation or revision of the basis or standard for the county rate, are not to apply to county boroughs. Nor is part IV of the act, relatin to finance, to a ply, save so far as is ex ressly provided. ro- vision is ma e for an adjustment 0 the financial relations between counties and county boroughs by agreement or by the commissioners appointe under the act. Aquarter-ses- s1ons borough not being a county borough, but containing a population _of 10,000 or upwards, is to retain its powers as 10- cal authority under any act (save as in this act expressly mentioned), and under the municipal corporations act,but, subject to these provisions and to other savings, the borough 1S to form part 0 the county for the purposes of the act. In the case of quarter-sessions boroughs of a population of less than 10,000, or in the case of a borough of apopulation of under 10,000, provision is made for transferring to the county council several of the powers and duties those boroughs at presentfenjoy. [Here follow the clauses of the new act relating to the “Metropolis ” or County of London, q. 1)., in these Revisions and Additions.] Part IV of the act enables a count council, with the con- sent of the local government boar ,to borrow, for purchas- ing any land, or building any building authorized by any act, for any permanent work which they are authorized to execute or do, for making advances in aid of the emigration or coloni- zation of the inhabitants of the county, with a guarantee for a repayment of such advances from any local authority in the county, or the government of any colony; and for any purpose for which quarter sessions or the county council are authorized to borrow; but where the total debt of the county council exceeds, or if the proposed loan is borrowed will ex- ceed, the amount of one-tenth of the annual ratable value of the property in the county, the amount shall not be borrowed except in pursuance of a provisional order made by the local government board, to be confirmed by parliament. Loans under this section are to be repaid within a period not exceeding thirty years; an annual budget is to be submitted to each county council. The supplemental provisions of the act include certain regulations for bicycles, etc. The first election of county councillors was appointed for January, 1889, and the county councillors electe at the first election are to retire on the ordinary day of election in November in the third ear after the assing of the act' and of the first county al ermen, one-ha f, to be determined by ballot, are to retire in November in the third year after the passing of the act, and the remainin half are to retire in November in the sixth year. The mem ers of the county council first elected are not to enter on their ordinary duties until the first da of April, but are to meet on the second Thursday after the e ec- tion, and other subsequent days, and act as a provisional council to bring the act into operation, to select the county aldermen, and to choose a chairman. LONDON GREAT TOWER, the name applied to a proposed new structure in the London metrop- olis. In the autumn of 1889 a project was set on foot for the erection of a great exhibition tower in London, to outrival the Eiffel Tower at Paris. In October designs and estimates were invited for a. structure not less than 1,200 feet in height, to be in by the end of February. 1890. The specifications which were ultimately prepared for the tower al- lowed very wide scope as to the selection of ma- terial; but if steel was to be used, it was stipulated that the structure should be able to withstand a. wind pressure of 56 pounds to the square foot. In the spring of ’90 the whole of the designs were pub- licly exhibited in Drapers’ Hall, Throgmorton street, E. C. There were sixty-eight for compe- tition, besides eighteen sent in as suggestions. The structures in design ranged from 1,000 to 2,000 feet in height. Wembley Park is stated to be the site for the tower; it is situated about two miles .be- yond Willesden. Under date June 17 the jurors LONDON published their award. This designis octagonal, 300 feet across at the base, tapering to 40 feet- at a height of about 1,100 feet; total height 1,200 feet. ' Utility has much to do with the idea, an extensive hotel with baths and a hall of 20,000 feet area being on the first stage, 200 feet high; the next stage has a hall of 10,000 superficial feet, and is 500 feet high; the third stage another of 3,300 feet at a height of 850 feet; and the fourth, or highest stage open to the public, a covered area of 5,000 feet in two floors, and a sun room of 2,000 feet. The design is Oriental, and the cost above foundations is estimated to be $1,761,135. LONDON, Mnrnoroms OF. For general article on LONDON, including map, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 818—851. The following figures, reported in “Whitaker’s Almanac” (London, 1891, edited by Joseph Whitaker, F. S. A.), gave the area and pop- ulation within various boundaries as follows: London Within Various gggglég Population - 1881. Boundanes. AC1-es_ Within the register-general’s tables of mortali ty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75,334 3,816,483 Within the imits of metropolis local management act (1887) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75,462 4,215,192 London school board district . . . . . . . . . .. 75,462 3,834,354 City of London within the municipal and parliamentary limits . . . . . . . . . . . 668 50,652 Central criminal court district . . . . . . . .. 268,391 4,457,102 Metropolitan parliamentary boroughs (exclusive of the City of London).. 45,173 3,403,973 Metropolitan Parliamentary Boroughs (including the City of London).. . .. 45,841 3,454,625 Metropolitan police district (not in- cluding the City of London) (popu- lation 5,590,576) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 446,024 4,716,009 Metropolitan and city police districts. . 441,559 4,766,661 The metropolitan police district extends over a radius of 15 miles from Charing Cross, exclusive of the City of London -—-688.31 square miles—with a rateable value of £34,742,779. The n_umber of new houses built since 1849 is 513,278, with 3,132 in course of erection; the new mileage being 1,853%; total length patrolled, 8,325. The Statesman’s Year Book for 1891 (London, edited by J . Scott Keltie, librarian of the royal Geographical Society) reports the population of the registration district (covered by register- general’s tables of mortality) for July 1, 1890, at 4,421,661. ' The oflicial estimate (for 1889) of the population . of “London Proper”* stated the aggregate as 4,351,738. The night population of the old City of London, on April 4,1881, the date of the general census, was only 50,652; at the general census of 1871, it was 74,891. It is now said to be still de- creasing . The day population, in 1881,was 261,061. At this writing the population for 1891, though taken, has not been officially announced. The salary of the lord mayor of London is $50,000; his municipal administration is to the old city. Other ofiicers of the old city receive salaries as follows: Recorder, $17,500; town clerk, $15,000; common sergeant, $11,250; judge, $16,000; assist- ant judge of mayor’s court, $6,000; chamberlain, $12,500; police commissioner, $10,000; comptroller, $7,500; remembrancer, $10,000; solicitor, $10,000; coroner, $4,665; architect, $7,500; head master of London school, $5,000; mayor’s registrar, $5,000; chamberlain principal clerk, $6,000; city court registrar, $5,000; collector of coal market, $4,000; medical oflicer, $6,000; medical officer of port of I$L5o(I)1&)on, $4,500; principal of Guild Hall School, The income of the city of London for the year 1889 was $2,360,315; the expenditure was about * Sta.tesman’s year book. 1019 $200,000 less. Nearly one-half of the receipts were derived from rents. The following table furnishes the ofiicial figures (balance sheet) showing the sources of income for 1889, and the various items of expenditure for the same year: INCOME. Balance in hand 31st Dec., 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..£ 55,360 Rents and quit-rents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159,101 Renewing fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,199 Interest on government securities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,864 Interest on city bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,548 Income tax retained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,352 Markets, viz.: Metropolitan cattle market, Islin ton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,235 London central markets, Smithfie d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97,17 Leadenhall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,430 Farringdon and Smithfield (Hay) Market . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,079 Billingsgate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,675 Metage of corn, fruit, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,630 Ma or’s court fees (gross) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,072 J u iciary fees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,700 Grant in aid of pauper lunatics, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Reimbursement on criminal prosecutions . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,390 “ on ofiice of coroner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,200 “ wages to workmen, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,849 Officer’s surplus fees and profits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,321 Tranfers, expenses in Parliament, remembrancer’s Suspense account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4.167 Sale of premises and securities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Loans raised . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Casual, sundry and incidental receipts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67 Cash from reserve fun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (Sundry small sums omitted on both sides are included in the totals.) Total income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. £472,061 EXPENDITURES. Expenses of civil government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...£ 60,766 Donations, pensions, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79,840 Educationa expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,182 1- Administration of justice (criminal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Ofiice of coroner (gross) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. City Library, Museum, Fine Art Gallery and New School of Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,694 7,00 844 Collection and management, rates, &c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.921 Charges on markets, viz. : Billingsgate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,492 Metropo itan cattle market, Islington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36,824 London central markets, Smithfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,411 Other Markets, &c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,650 Charges: Metage and broker’s rents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,848 Expense of magistracy and police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35,608 En argement of Pauper Lunatic Asylum . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,452 Sanitary expenses, port of London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,969 Enlargement of Leadenhall Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,665 Remembrancer’s ofiice suspense account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,700 Parliamentary expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,177 Contribution to Pauper Lunatic Asylum . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,405 Reception of H. I. M. The Shah of Persia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,048 Works at London central markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13,024 Erection of new offices for mayor’s court . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,331 Erection of buildings opposite Billingsgate . . . . . . . . . .. 7,502 Holburn valley improvement, discharge of debt . . . . .. 32,497 Expenses of West Ham Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,172 Miscellaneous expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,501 Balance in hand on 31st Dec., 1889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50,771 Total expenditures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. £472,061 The metropolis, as defined by the new local gov- ernment act of 1888, is defined to be hereafter an ad'nz2?n/istrati-ve county of itself by the name of the administrative county of London. The area in question forms part of the counties of Middlesex, Surrey, and Kent, which part is now to be severed from those counties, and is to have a lord-lieuten- ant, a sheriff, a commission of the peace, and a court of quarter sessions of its own; though for the purpose of the jurisdiction of the justices under such commission and of such county, as well as for other non-administrative purposes, the City of London may continue a separate county, with its own sheriffs, who are, however, no longer to be jointly sheriff of Middlesex. The number of county councilors for the administrative county of Lon- don is to be 118, or double the number of members (59) returned by the Parliamentary boroughs in the metropolis; each borough or each division thereof being an electoral division for the purposes 1020 of the act; the number of county aldermen in the county of London is not to exceed one-sixth of the whole number of the county councilors; the pow- ers, duties and liabilities of the metropolitan board of works are to be transferred to the London county council, and the board is to cease to exist. The metropolitan police remain under the control of the home secretary, the city is placed in the position of a quarter-sessions borough, and retains control of its own police; the common council, and in any other part of the metropolis the district board, may claim to retain the power of maintain- ing and repairing the main road. The sheriffs of the City of London are not to have any authority except in the city, and a sheriff is to be appointed by the crown for that part of Middlesex which is outside the county of London. The London county council may petition her majesty, to appoint a barrister of not less than ten years’ standing to be paid chairman or deputy chairman, or one of the paid deputy chairmen, as the case may be, of the .quarter sessions for the county of London. The rights claimed by the court of common council to appoint to the oflices of common sergeant and judge of the city of London court are to cease, and in any future vacancy in each of the said offices, the Queen is to appoint a duly qualified barrister to be such common serjeant or judge; and from and after the next vacancy no recorder is to exercise any judi- cial functions unless he is appointed by her majesty to exercise such functions. The London county council is to pay to each poor law union within its limits such sums as the local government board may certify to be due from time to timein substi- tution for local grants towards the remuneration of poor law medical officers, and towards the costs of drugs and medical appliances, and is also to grant to such unions 4d. per head per day for every indoor pauper. The London county council may from time to time appoint any fit person 'to be deputy chairman, and to hold office during the term of office of the chairman, and may pay to such deputy chairman such remuneration as they may from time to time think fit. “ THE CITY or Lonnon. ”——That small part of the great metropolis known under this name, and pre- sided over by the lord mayor, is now divided into 27 wards, including Bridge Without. There is an alderman for this ward, but no freemen and no common councilors. Each of the other wards, with the exception of the two Cripplegate wards (which return an alderman jointly), elects one al- derman and a number of common councilors vary- ing from four to 16, but amounting in all to a total of 232. An alderman is elected when a vacancy occurs, and holds oflice for life; the councilmen are elected on St. Thomas’s Day, and hold office for one year, but are of course eligible for re-election. The electors are in each case freemen, who may have obtained their freedom by birth, apprenticeship, purchase, or gift; but who must be rated house- holders before they can vote at a ward-mote, as a meeting of the ward is termed. A liveryman is a freeman who, by payment of a fee, has entered the livery of one or other of the city companies or guilds, and was first so called because he was en- titled to wear the livery of his company. He has the ri ht to vote at the elections of lord mayor, sheri s, chamberlain, and other corporation officers, and also for M. P’s for the city. The lord mayor is elected on Sept. 29 by the liverymen of the sev- eral companies assembled together at the Guild- hall, and, as it is termed, in Common Hall. and to be eligible he must have served as sheriff of London. The livery may select any alderman thus qualified, but they almost invariably accept the names of the LOCH LONG--L.()CK. two senior aldermen who have not passed the civic chair. These two names are submitted to the. gen- eral body of the aldermen, who choose usually the first, but sometimes, for a special reason, prefer the second. The lord mayor elect is presented to the lord chancelor to receive the assent of the crown to the election; he is sworn before the retiring lord mayor and aldermen on Nov. 8, and on Nov. 9 he goes in procession to the royal courts of justice to be presented to the lord chief justice and again sworn. The mayoralty thus commenced lasts a year, but the same alderman has in some instances been re-elected_for a second, and in ancient times for even a third period of service. LOCH LONG, a well-known lake in the west of Scotland, extending northward from the Firth of Clyde for about twenty-four miles between the counties of Argyle and Dumbarton. It has an average breadth of about a mile; and its banks, consisting for the most part of steep acclivities, abound in striking and picturesque scenery. LOCK. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 744-751. It is a fact well established that American locks are superior to European locks of the same price. Locks for ordinary use are here made in large fac- tories. Parts intended for like purposes are made exactly alike for the locks of the same size, and are therefore exchangeable. It has long been a problem before American lock-makers to produce an unpickable lock. Doctor Andrews of Perth Am- boy, N. J ., approched success in 1841, when he in- vented a “permutation” lock, in which a number of rings attached to the key permitted an endless variety of combinations. When the bolt of this lock was turned, it was necessary to have exactly the' same combination of the key, else the lock could not be moved. This lock had tumblers and a detector, the latter preventing the bolt from being released by the tumbler if lifted too high. Al- though greatly admired, this lock was picked by Mr. Newell, of New York. ‘ A look with two sets of tumblers was produced in 1843, and $500 was offered to any one who could pick it. Messrs. Pettitt and Hall, of Boston, picked it by the smoke process. This is a burglar’s device,in which a smoky flame is blown into the key-hole, leaving a film of lampblack on the tumblers. Then a key is introduced. After its removal a strong light is thrown into the key-hole by a reflector. This shows the marks of the key on the tumblers. Thus the proper shape of the key is indicated. Lockmakers tried next to keep the interior of the look from view by making the key hole small, and interposing a curtain. The London World’s Fair of 1851, brought this lock problem into special prominence. The celebrated “Bramah” lock, which had long defied pickers in spite of a standing offer of 200 guineas, was readily picked by lVIr. Hobbs of Boston. In his turn he offered the “Parautop- tic” lock, invented by Mr. Pyes, its distinctive feature being the use of eccentric rings and a cur- tain. The English locksmith tried in vain to pick it, but it was picked in 1855 by an American, Linus Yale, J r., of Philadelphia. In 1843 Linus Yale, Sr., had invented a lock which was deemed absolutely unpickable until it was picked by his son. There was by this time a consider- able excitement on the subject of locks. The younger Yale had declared that any lock using a key of a winged form, which rubs an impression on tum- blers, can be picked. To prevent this possibility he invented in 1851 a lock which he called the “magic” lock, and which has never yet been picked. The key of this lock and its bits, though they are seemingly in one piece, are separable. On insert- ing the key into the lock the bits are taken off by LOCKE—LOGAN \ a pin. When the key is being turned, it puts in motion a set of wheels. These wheels carry off the bits to a remote part of the lock, out of the reach of picking tools, where they act upon the tumblers and arrange them for the drawing of the bolt. Meanwhile the wheels close up the key-hole. After- wards the bits return and rejoin the key-handle. Another unpickable lock of American manufac- ture is the Hall “rotary combination” lock. This lock dispenses with a key. It is opened by turning a knob first one way and then the other a certain number of degrees,'according to a set of num- lders which the operator has to keep in his mind. The only unpickable English lock is one invented in 1852 by Denison, the celebrated London lock- maker. It has a very narrow key-hole, and is ‘locked by turning a handle; but it needs a key to open it. It is not much in use; the one mostly used in England is an improved Chubb’s lock, which had been picked by Mr. Hobbs, of Boston, before he picked the Bramah lock. The puzzle, let- ter, and dial locks are now out of date. These could only be opened by setting a number of rings to a certain combination of letters. Hobb’s showed that they could all be picked. Besides the difi"1- culty of handling them and the danger of forget- ting their respective combinations have made them unpopular. Regarding the “Yale time-lock” now in use, see Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 751. Since 1851 the American locks have sustained their reputation. Mr. Denison himself admits that “American locks are vastly superior to those of English make, and that on the whole the United States are far ahead of England in good and cheap locks.” LOCKE, DAVID Ross, an American humorist, born at Vestal, Broome county, N. Y., in 1833. In his youth he learned the printer’s trade. After being connected with several papers in Ohio, he be- came successively editor of the Plymouth “Adver- tiser,” the Mansfield “Herald,” the Bucyrus “Jour- nal,” and the Findlay “Jef‘fersonian.” While edit- ing the “J effersonian,” he began in 1860 to insert letters under the name of “Petroleum V. Nasby,” purporting to come from an unlettered Kentucky Democrat who wanted untaxed whisky,the perpet- uation of slavery, and desired to be postmaster at the “Cross-Roads.” These letters became very pop- ular. In 1865 Locke became proprietor and editor of the “Toledo Blade,” in which he satirized Presi- dent J ohnson’s method of reconstructing the South- ern States. In 1871 he removed to New York and became managing editor of the“Evening Mail,” but he returned to Ohio after a few years. Mr. Locke has published Divers Views; Opinions, and Prophecies -of Yours Truly (1865) ; Swingin’ Round the Circle; Nasby in Exile, and many political, social, and liter- ary pamphlets. He died in 1888. LOCK HAVEN, a city, the county-seat of Clin- ton county, Pa., pleasantly situated in a mountain valley on the south bank of the west branch of the Susquehanna. It is on the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad, at the junction of the Bald Eagle Valley branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and on the west branch canal. Lock Haven does a large business in making and shipping pine lumber. It contains a State normal school, large foundries and tanneries, saw-mills, planing-mills, and machine shops. Population, 7,350. LOCKPORT, a post-village of Will county, Ill., thirty-three miles southwest of Chicago, on the Chicago, Alton & St. Louis Railroad. LOCKPORT, a city of New York. Population in 1890, 16,003. See Britannica, Vol. XIV. p. 764. LOCKWOOD, DANIEL N., of Buffalo, N. Y., a law- yer, born in Hamburg, N. Y., June 1, 1844. He I021 graduated at Union College, Schenectady, N.Y., in 1865, and entered the profession of law in 1866. In politics he is a Democrat. He was elected district attorney of Erie county, N. Y., in 1874, and served three years; was elected a Representative from the 32nd Congressional district of New York to the 45th Congress. In 1890 he was elected from the same district to the 52nd Congress. LOCKUP, a room or place in which persons un- der arrest are temporarily confined. LOCKYER,Josnrn NCRMAN, an English astron- omer, born at Rugby, in 1836. He was educated partly in Germany and entered the British war of- fice in 1857. In 1860 he became a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, and in 1869 he was elected to the Royal Society. He was chief of the ex- pedition sent to Sicily in 1870, to observe the solar eclipse, and again of that to India in 1871. In 1874 he became editor of “Nature.” Lockyer has pub- lished Elementary Lessons in Astronomy; Contribu- tions to Solar Physics; The Spectroscope; Studies in Spectrum Analysis, and Star-Gazing, Past and Pres- ent (1878). He was awarded the J anssen prize for astronomy by the Academy of Sciences in 1890. LOCUS DELICTI, a phraze used in criminal law to denote the place where a crime was committed. LOCUST, RCCKY MOUNTAIN (Caloptenus Spretus. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 767, and INSECTS, IN- JURIOUS, etc., in these Revisions and Additions). Commonly known as the “western grasshopper,” the most destructive of all the migratory insects in the United States. From 1873 to 1876, enormous swarms of grasshoppers swept over all the settled parts of the Mississippi and Missouri valleys west of the 94th meridian. The damage done in 1874 alone was estimated at 50 millions of dollars. In 1876 many thousands of families in Kansas, Colorado, and Nebraska were so impoverished, by the de- vouring armies of grasshoppers that appeals for help in the shape of food and clothing had to be made to the whole country. Since 1876 there has been no general invasion. Among the remedies proposed we mention the following: Harrowing in fall will break up the eggs; burning the grass late in spring will kill the unfiedged locusts, so will the rolling of the ground and the crushing of the clods. Trapping them in coal-oil pans driven over the land will kill them by contact with kerosene; and the insectivorous birds, which should be protected by law, will destroy thousands of them. LOGAN, a post-village, a railroad center and the county-seat of Hocking county, Ohio, on the Hock- ing canal, fifty-one miles from Columbus. It has flour-mills, woolen and furniture factories, a foundry, and a furnace. Population, 3,119. LOGAN, a post-town, the county-seat of Cache county, Utah, situated on the Utah Northern Rail- road,ninety-seven miles north of Salt Lake City. It is the center of a fine wheat, stock, and dairy region, and has a number of manufactories and ex- cellent water-power. Population in 1890. 4,624. LOGAN, JAMES (1674-1751), an American states- man. He lived in Ireland and then in England till 1699, when he came to this country as \Villiam Penn’s secretary. Soon afterwards he became pro- vincial secretary, commissioner of property, and receiver-general of Philadelphia, and from 1702 to 1747 was a member of the provincial council. In 1815 he was made a justice of the court of common pleas, and in 1723 presiding judge. The same year he became mayor of Philadelphia, and from 1731 to 1739 was chief-justice of the supreme court. His latter years, spent in retirement‘, were devoted to science and literature. LOGAN, J OHN ALEXANDER (1826-1886), an Ameri- can soldier and statesman. At the beginning of 1022 the Mexican war, though but twenty years of age, he at once enlisted and became a lieutenant in an Illinois regiment. He returned home with an ex- cellent military record, and commenced the study of law. In 1849 he became clerk of Jackson county, and at the expiration of his term went to Louis- ville, Ky., where he was admitted to the bar in 1851. In the fall of the same year he was elected to represent Jackson and Franklin counties in the legislature, and from that time was almost uninter- ruptedly in the public service, either civil or mili- tary. He was twice reélected to the legislature, and in 1854 was a Democratic presidential elector. On the outbreak of the civil war he enlisted in the Union army, and rose to the rank of major-general. From 1871 to his death he was a United States Senator from Illinois, and in 1884 was nominated for the Vice-Presidency on the ticket headed by J . G. Blaine. Gen. Logan wrote The Great Conspiracy (1886); and The Volunteer Soldier of America, pub- lished in 1887, after his death. LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM EDMOND (1798-1875 ), a Canadian geologist. In 1818 he entered the mer- cantile office of his uncle, Hart Logan, of London, and later was made a member of the firm. From 1831 to 1838 he was manager of the copper-smelting and coal mining operations in Swansea, South Wales. In 1842 he became head of the geological survey of Canada, and represented that country in the great exhibition at London in 1851, and in 1855 at Paris. He wrote many valuable articles and re- ports, and was the first to demonstrate that the stratum of clay that underlies coal-beds was the soil in which the coal vegetation grew. LOGANIACE./E, a natural order of corollifloral exogens, consisting of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants with opposite entire leaves, usually with stipules, which adhere to the footstalks or form sheaths. A few species of this order occur in Aus- tralia and in the temperate parts of North America; the rest are tropical or sub-tropical. No natural order of plants is more strongly characterized by poisonous properties. It includes the genus Strychnos which furnishes the Curari poison. LOGANSPORT, a city, the county-seat of Cass county, Ind., situated at the confluence of the Eel River and the VVabash. Three lines of railways cross at this point. The city has a normal school, a State asylum for the insane. a public park, water, gas, and electric light works. It carries on the manufacture of flour, lumber, castings, etc., and is the seat of extensive railroad shops. Its trade with the surrounding country is considerable. Popula- tion in 1890, 13,798. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 772. LOGGIA, an Italian word signifying an open ar- cade, inclosing a passage or open apartment. It is a favorite class of building in Italy and other warm countries. The Logia dei Lanzi at Florence, begun by Orcagna, in 1376, is one of the finest examples. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 815. LONDON PRIDE (Saxifraga umbrosa), a British plant, which, being unaffected by smoke, grows well in cities. It is a perennial evergreen, bearing small pink flowers. Also called St. Patrick’s cab- bage and none-so-pretty. LONDON, a post-village, the county -seat of Madison county, Ohio, situated twenty-five miles west of Columbus. It is noted for its monthly stock sales. Population, 3,292. LONDON CONFERENCES. The first diplo- matic meeting so designated was held in 1826 for the regulation of the affairs of Greece; the next one was held in 1830 and the following years to ar- range terms of agreement or of separation between Belgium and Holland. As the terms of agreement proposed were not accepted by the disputants, LOGAN—LONGSTREET Holland made an appeal to arms; but the capture of Antwerp by the French, and the blockade of their coast by the English and French fleets, brought the Dutch to agree to a treaty of defini- tive separation, May 21, 1833. A third conference was held in 1840, on the Turko-Egyptian question, in which France refused to take part. In 1852a. protocol was signed in London, by the representa- tives of all the great powers, declaring the indivisi- bility of the Danish monarchy (inclusive of Slesvig and Holstein). LONG, STEPHEN HARRIMAN (1784-1864), an Amer- ican engineer. In 1814 he entered the United States army as a lieutenant in the Corps of Engi- neers; was assistant professor of mathematics at the United States Military Academy till 1816; was transferred to the topographical engineers; from 1818 to 1823 had charge of explorations between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains; and in 1823-24 of the sources of the Mississippi, receiving the brevet of lieutenant-colonel. From 1827 to 1838 he was engaged in railroad engineer- ing, and then became major of topographical engi- neers. In 1861 he was made chief with the rank of colonel, and in 1863 he was retired from active service. LONGAN (Nephelium Longan), a fruit of the same genus as the Japanese Litchi, but reckoned superior to it. LONGFELLOW, SAMUEL, an American clergy- man, brother of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, born in 1819. In 1846 he graduated at the Harvard divinity school, and in 1848 was called to a church at Fall River. In 1853 he became pastor of a Uni- tarian church in Brooklyn, N. Y., but resigned in 1860, continuing to preach without pastoral charge until 1878 when he became minister of a church in Germantown, Pa. He has published, among other works, A Book of Hymns and Tunes (1859) ; and Life of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1886). LONGIPENNES (Lat. longus, long, and penna, win ), a group of long-winged natatorial birds, in- clu ing the gulls, terns, albatrosses and petrals. LONGIROSTRES, a tribe of birds of the order Grallze, having generally along, slender bill, and inhabiting sea-shores and marshy places, where they seek worms and other food. To this tribe be- long snipes, woodcocks, curlews, godwits, sand- pipers, etc. LONG ISLAND CITY, the county-seat of Queen’s county, N. Y., on the East River, op- posite New York City. It includes the former villages of Hunter’s Point, Astoria, Ravenswood, Dutch Kills, and Blissville, which were united in 1870. From Brooklyn it is separated by Newtown Creek. Hunter’s Point is the southwestern portion. It is the terminus of the Long Island Railroad and of the Flushing and North Side Railroad. It has large oil refineries, sulphuric acid factories, and many other large manufacturing establishments. Blissville, on Newtown Creek, is the seat of large distilleries, and of factories for compressed yeast, fertilizers, etc. Astoria, the northwestern portion of Long Island City, contains carpet and piano factories, and many good residences. The part of the city called Ravenswood contains also many handsome residences. Long Island City has an ex- tensive front along the East River, Newtown Creek, and Long Island Sound, Newtown Creek being here also navigable. Population of the city, 30,396. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, p. 886. LONGMONT, a post-village of Boulder county, Col., situated thirty miles north of Denver, on St. Vrain Creek. LONGSTREET, Aueusrus B. (1790-1870), an American author. In 1815 he was admitted to the. LONGSTREET—LORING Georgia bar; in 1821 he was a member of the legis- lature, and in 1822 became judge of the Ocmulgee judicial district. In 1838 he became a minister in the Methodist Episcopal church, and was stationed at Augusta. From 1839 to 1848 he was president of Emory College, Oxford, Ga. ; then became president of Centenary College, La.; then for six years of the University of Mississippi; from 1857 to 1861 of South Carolina College; and then again of the Uni- versity of Mississippi. He contributed extensively to periodical literature, and was the author of Georgia Scenes, Characters, Incidents, etc., in the First Half Century of the Republic, by a Native Georgian (1840) ; and Master William Mitten (1864). LONGSTREET, J AMES, an American soldier, born in 1821. In 1842 he graduated at the United States Military Academy, and then served on fron- tier duty till the beginning of the Mexican war. He was then engaged in the battles of Palo Alto, Re- saca de la Palma, Monterey, the siege of Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, San Antonio, Churubusco, and Moleno del Ray, and was brevetted captain and major. He then served on frontier and garrison duty till 1858, when he became paymaster. In 1861 he resigned and was commissioned brigadier-general in the Confederate army. He took part in several im- portant battles of the civil war, among them being the first and second battles of Bull Run, the seven days’ battle around Richmond, the battle of Fred- ericksburg, of Gettysburg, of Chickamauga, and the battle of the Wilderness. After the war Gen. Longstreet settled in New Orleans, and was ap- pointed surveyor of customs by Grant, supervisor of internal revenue in Louisiana, postmaster of New Orleans, and United States minister to Turkey by Hayes, and United States marshal of Georgia by Garfield. LONGTON, a municipal borough of Staffordshire, England, situated two and a half miles from Stoke- upon-Trent. The prosperity of the town is due to the manufacture of china and earthenware, though malting, brewing, and brick-making are carried on. Close by are iron works and collieries. Population, 18,620. LONGVIEW, a post-village, a railroad junction and the county-seat of Gregg county, Texas, on Sabine River. There is an abundance of lumber in the vicinity and forty saw-mills are employed in its manufacture. Longview is ashipping point for lumber and cotton. LONNROT, ELIAS, a Finnish philologist, born at Sammati, near Helsingfors, in 1802, died in 1884. After obtaining the degree of M. D. at the Univer- sity of Helsingfors in 1832 and practising as a physi- cian at Kajana, he was in 1853 made professor of the Finnish language and literature at the Uni- versity of Helsingfors, he having for years collected Finnish songs, proverbs, and tales, and studied the Finnish language thoroughly. His master work is the Kalewala (See Britannica, Vol IX, p. 220), a national epic, imitated by Longfellow in his Hia- watha. It is the “ Iliad ” of the Finns, as Dr. L6nn- rot is the Finnish “ Homer.” The Kalewala is con- cerned entirely with the mythology or folk-lore of the Finnish people before their conversion to Christianity. The lyric poems which Dr. Liinnrot collected were published under the name of Kan- teletar, because they were sung to a five-stringed harp, called Kantele. LOOF, the after-part of a ship’s bow or that por- tion where the planks incurvate towards the cut- water; the lufi. LOOMIS, ELIAS (1811-1889), an American physi- cist. From 1833 to 1836 he was a tutor at Yale Col- lege, and from 1837 to 1844 was professor of mathe- matics and natural philosophy in Western Reserve 1023 College, Ohio. He then became professor of nat- ural philosophy in the University of the City of New York, holding the ofiice till 1860, when he accepted a call to the chair of natural philosophy and as- tronomy in Yale. He made numerous important discoveries in astronomy and published Plane and Spherical Trigonometry (1848) ; Progress of Astronomy (1850) ; Analytical Geometry and Calculus ( 1851) ; Ele- ments of Algebra (1851); Elements of Geometry and Conic Sections (1851) ; Tables of Logarithms (1855); Natural Philosophy (1858) ; Practical Astronomy (1855) ; Elements of Arithmetic (1863); Treatise on Meteorology (1868) ; Elements of Astronomy (1869); and The Descendents of Joseph Loomis (1870). LOPEZ, NARCISO (1799-1851), a Spanish Ameri- can soldier. At the beginning of the war for the independence of Venezuela he took the popular side, but soon afterward entered the Spanish army and at the close had gained the rank of colonel. He then went to Spain, and served in the first Carlist war. In 1839 he was made major-general, and was appointed governor of Valencia. In 1843 he retired to private life in Cuba and in 1843 joined the revo- lutionary party. On account of the discovery of a conspiracy against the government in which he was interested, Lopez fled the following year to New York. He afterwards led three filibustering expeditions from the United States to Cuba, but was captured and executed by the garrote. LOQUAT (Photinia J aponica ), an esteemed Chinese and Japanese fruit,now abundant in Australia, of the natural order Rosa cea», sub-order Roseze, and of a gen- us closely allied to M espilus (Medlar). The tree which produces it attains a height of 20 to 30 feet. It is a beautiful evergreen, with large oblong, wrinkled leaves, and white flowers in terminal woolly pani- cles, having a fragrance like that of hawthorn blos- soms; the fruit is downy, oval, yellow, and about the size of a large gooseberry. The seeds have an agreeable flavor. LORAIN, a post-village and railroad junction of Lorain county, Ohio, twenty-six miles west of Cleve- land. It has car-shops, churches, a graded school and planin mills. LORD-LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND, the vice- roy or deputy of the sovereign to whom the govern- ment of Ireland is nominally committed. The of- fice has existed from a remote period, the appoint- ment having been made under difl’erent designa- tions. The lord-lieutenant is appointed under the great seal of the United Kingdom, and bears the sword of state as the symbol of his viceregal oflice. In recent years the position of the lord-lieutenant has become little more than an “ornamental” one; and the abolition of the office is contemplated. LORELEI, a cliff on the right bank of the Rhine, near St. Goar. It rises perpendicularly to a height or 427 feet, and is penetrated by a railway tunnel. Here is a famous echo. The name is best known from Heine’s song, founded upon the tra- dition that a cave in the rock is the abode of the Lorelei, a wicked siren, whose beauty and sweet song attract hither boatmen, who are so enchanted by her that they are drawn into the whirlpool at the foot of the rock and so perish. LORIMER (from Latin lorum, “a thong”) a maker of bits, spurs, and generally all articles of horse- furniture. In London the lorimers, who had pre- viously formed part of another guild, were incor- porated by letters-patent in 1712. LORING, WILLIAM WING (1818-1886), an Ameri- can soldier. At thirteen he enlisted in a company of volunteers to fight the Seminole Indians of Flor- ida, and gained a second lieutenancy. In 1842 he was admitted to the bar, and shortly afterwards was chosen to the Florida legislature. At the begin- 1024 ning of the Mexican war he was made captain in a regiment of mounted rifiemen, and at the close had become a lieutenant-colonel. Some time after- ward he was ordered to Texas, where he remained till 1856, acquiring the rank of colonel. and then was engaged against hostile Indians in New Mex- ico. In 1861 he resigned his commission and en- tered the Confederate army as a brigadier-general. He fought with distinction in several important battles, and attained the rank of major-general. In 1869 he accepted the post of liwa pacha in the army of the Khedive of Egypt, and in 1876 was promoted to ferik, or general of division, and deco- rated by the Khedive with the imperial order of the Osmariah. He returned to the United States in 1879. Gen. Loring published A Confederate Sol- ‘dier in Egypt (1883). LORNE, JOHN GEORGE EDWARD HENRY Done- LAS SUTHERLAND CAMPBELL, MARQUIS or, a gover- nor-general of Canada, born in London in 1845. In 1866 he became captain of the London Scottish vol- nnteers, and two years later was promoted lieuten- ant-colonel of the Argyle and Bute volunteer ar- tillery brigade, about the same time being chosen a member of parliament. In 1871 he married Prin- cess Louise Caroline Alberta, sixth child of Queen Victoria, and in 1878 was appointed governor-gen- eral of Canada. His term of office expired in 1883. The Marquis of Lorne is the author of A Trip to the Tropics and Home Through America (1867); Guido and Lita—a Tale of the Riviera (1875); and The Psalms Literally Rendered in Verse (1877). LOS ANGELES, a city of California, the chief town and business center of the southern part of the State. It was incorporated as a city in 1850. It is noted for its orange groves and vineyards, and is now a favorite winter resort for Eastern tourists. The climate is delightful. Los Angeles is on the Southern Pacific Railroad and at the junction of four branch railroads. It is the seat of the Branch Normal School of the State, and of the Medical School of the University of Southern California. The city has a large trade in oranges, wines, rais- ins. and other southern fruits. Its leading manu- facture is that of large water pipes for irrigation works. Population in 1890, 50,394. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 7. LOSSING, BENSON JOHN (1813-1891), an Ameri- can author. For a time he was a watchmaker in Poughkeepsie, and then became a proprietor and editor of the Poughkeepsie “ Telegraph." In 1836 he began the publication called the “Poughkeepsie Casket,” and later became a wood engraver in New York City. He afterwards contributed to numer- ous illustrated magazines. Among his works are Outline History of the Fine Arts (1841) ; Lives of the Presidents of the United States (1847); Seventeen Hun- dred and Seventy-six, or the War for Independence (1847); Life of Gen. Zachary Taylor (1847); Life of Gen. Winfield Scott (1847); The New World (1847); Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence (1848) ; Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution (1852) ; History of the United States for Schools (1854); Biog- raphies of Eminent Americans (1855); Mount Vernon and Its Associations (1859) ; Life of Washington (1860) ; Pictorial Description of Ohio (1869); Our Country (1873) ; Story of the United States Navy for Boys (1880); Cyclopaedia of United States History (1881); History of New York City (1884) ; Two Spies: Na- than Hale and John Andre (1886); and The Empire State (1887). LOST PROPERTY: in law the finder of lost property is entitled to keep it until the owner is found; but there are circumstances in which the keeping of it will amount to larceny. The rule which seems to be laid down in recent cases is that LORNE— LOUDON if the finder of the property knows the owner, or has ready means of discovering him, then taking the property with the intention of keeping it amounts to larceny. On the other hand, if there be no reasonable probability of ever discovering the true owner there is no larceny. It has also been de- cided that the keeping of a lost article in hopes of getting a reward for giving it up, though the owner be known, does not amount to larceny. There is no obligation on the finder of lost property to incur expense in finding the owner, though the real owner can demand it from the one in whose possession it is. LOT, one of the largest tributaries of the Ga- ronne in France. It rises in a section of the Ce- vennes, flows in a western direction, at first as the Olt, and joins the Garonne at Aiguillon, after a course of nearly three hundred miles, almost two- thirds of which is navigable. LOTIONS, or WASHES, remedies, usually dilute, applied for various conditions to circumscribed and different portions of the body. The most im- portant groups are antiseptic, sedative and stimu- lating. LOTOPHAGI (Gr. “lotus-eaters”), a name applied to a peaceful and hospitable people inhabiting a district of Cyrenaica, on the north coast of Africa, and much depending for their subsistence on the fruit of the lotus tree. According to Homer they received Ulysses hospitably when in the course of his wanderings he visited them with his compan- ions, on whom, however, the sweetness of the lotus- fruit had such an influence that they forgot Eheir native country and had no desire to return ome. LOTTERIES. By law of Congress it is forbidden to use the United States mail for the purpose of for- warding lottery tickets and circulating advertise- ments of lotteries. In twenty-nine States of our Union the constitutions forbid lotteries, and the statute laws of all the States, including Louisiana, are against these schemes. Yet lotteries exist in our large cities, are carried on clandestinely, are a continuous temptation to the weak, and are very demoralizing in their effect. The New York Socie- ty for the Suppression of Vice has for the past five years done all in its power to bring the so-called ‘policy-shops” to light and to suppress them. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 11. ~ LOTUS, a genus of leguminous plants similar to the clovers. The most common species, Lotus cor- niculatus, is known in Great Britain as birds-foot trefoil, and is a valuable addition to pasture grasses. The lotus of Barbary, described by Homer in Odys. IX, 84, and Herodotus, IV, 177, when they speak of the Lotophagi (lotus-eaters), is a prickly shrub, the jujube tree (Zizyphus lotus) whose fruit tastes sweet, like dates. It still grows in abund- ance and is much used as food. The sailors of Ulysses are said to have lost all desire of returning home after eating this fruit. The White and blue water lilies of the Nile, Nymphwa caerulea and N. lotus have also been given the name lotus. They were worshipped by the ancient Egyptians. The “lotus flower’ of India is Nelumbium speciosum, an- other sacred water lily, growing in Egypt, China and India. Its seeds and roots are eaten. A close- ly similar American species, N. luteum, known as the “water chinquapin,” has been called lotus by American writers. LOUDON, JOHN GLAUDIUS, a Scotch writer and horticulturist, born at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, in 1783, died at London in 1843. He went in 1803 to London, where he became a landscape-gardener. In 1819 he began to publish his encyclopaedias. The first one was Encyclopedia of Gardening (1822) ; then LOUDONVILLE--LOUISIANA came the Encyclo eedia of Agriculture; the Encyclo- paedia of Plants ;“t e Encyclopwdia of Cottage, Garden, and Villa Architecture (1832). His Arboertum et Fruticetum (1838), being an account of all the trees and shrubs of Great Britain was too costly for him to publish. In his later years he lost the use of his hands, but he continued to conduct several maga- zines on landscape-gardening. LOUDONVILLE, a post-village of Ashland coun- ty, Ohio, on the Black Fork of the Mohican River, and on a railroad. It has a school, churches, tan- nery, mills, carriage-shops, and a foundry. LOUISBURG, a small village on the southeast coast of Cape Breton Island, in Nova Scotia. Its excellent harbor induced the French, who origi- nally inhabited the place, to build a very strong fortress here, at an expense of thirty million franks. During the war between France and England, which broke out in 1744, the New England colonists attacked this place, as it menaced their fisheries by sheltering French privateers. The New England- ers, 4,000 strong, beseiged Louisburg, and the garn- son, 1,600 strong, had to surrender, June 28, 1745. By the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, the town was again restored to France. In 1758 a British general, Wolfe, the subsequent hero of Quebec, besieged Louisburg, and compelled the French garrison to surrender as prisoners of war. The town was then made a heap of ruins. In 1763 the British government destroyed every ves- tige of the fortress. Since that time only a few hundred fishermen have lived at Louisburg, and the place remains in the hands of Great Britain. LOUIS D’ OR, a French gold coin which was in- troduced.in 1640, and continued to be coined till 1795. It ranged in value from about $4 to $4.60. The name has been occasionally applied to the French napoleon or 20-franc piece, and to certain German five-thaler pieces. LOUISIANA, acity and railroad center of Pike county, Mo., on the Mississippi River. It has 9. college, gasworks, tobacco factories, and the sur- rounding region produces lumber and fruit. Popu- lation, 5,071. LOUISIANA PURCHASE. Napoleon Bona- parte in 1800 (See LOUISIANA, STATE or, in these Re- visions and Additions) compelled Spain to cede her Louisiana territory back to France, and immedi- ately made preparations to send an army to take possession. But this purpose was resisted by the protest of the United States, which had previously acquired possession of the adjoining territory on the east. France, being then threatened with war at home, yielded to this protest, and consented to sell the vast territory west of the Mississippi to the United States. The purchase was finally ef- fected April 30, 1803, the agents on the part of the United States being Robert R. Livingston and James Monroe. The sum paid was $11,250,000. On the same day, in another convention, it was agreed that the United States should assume to pay certain debts claimed to be due from France to American citizens; but the amount so claimed was not to ex- ceed the sum of $3,750,000. These claims have be- come historic under the designation of “French Spoliation Claims.” LOUISIANA, STATE or. For general article on the STATE OF Loursmna see Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 22. The area of the State as recorded in the census report of 1890, is 45,420 square miles; population 1,118,587. Capital, Baton Rouge, with a population of 10,397. The population of New Orleans, the chief city and until 1880 the capital of the State, in 1890 was 241,995. The areas and populations of the several counties were as follows: 1025 Population. Counties. Area" 1890. 1880. Acadia, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 13,231 ....... . . Ascension ....................... . . 324 19,545 16,895 Assum tlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 335 19,629 17,010 A_voye_l es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 858 25,112 16,747 Bienville ........................ . . 355 14,108 10 ,4-12 Bossier .......................... . . 780 20,330 16,042 Caddo, .......................... . . 825 31,555 26,296 Calcasleu ........................ . . 3.410 20,176 12,484 Caldwell ........................ . . 548 5,814 5,767 Cameron ........................ . . 1,552 2,828 2,416 Catahoula ...................... . . 1,380 12,002 10,277 Claiborne ....................... . . 800 23,312 18,837 Concordia . . . ., ................. .. 680 14,871 14,914 De Soto ......................... .. 865 19.860 15,603 East Baton Rouge .............. . . 450 25,922 19,966 East Carrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 12,362 12,134 East Feliciana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 17,903 15.132 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 "$31 0,495 Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 8,270 6,188 -.,e1.a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 20,997 16,676 Iberville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 21,848 17,544 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 7,453 5,328 Jefierson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 13,221 12,166 Lafayette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 15,966 13,235 Lafourche ....................... . . 1,020 22,095 19,113 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 14,753 11,075 Livingston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 5,769 5,258 Madison ........................ . . 664 14,135 13,906 Morehouse ...................... . . 845 16,786 14,206 Natchitoches ................... . . 1,285 ', 19,707 Orleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 242,039 216,090 Ouachita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,985 14,685 Plaquemines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930 12,541 11,575 Point Coupee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' ' ' 580 19,613 17 ,785 Rapides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,495 27 ,642 23,563 Red River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 386 11,318 8,573 Richiand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 10,230 8,440 Sabine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,010 9,390 7 ,344 Saint Bernard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 680 4,326 4,405 Saint Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 288 7,737 7,161 Saint Helena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 8,062 7,504 Saint James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 15.715 14,714 Saint John the Baptist . . . . . . . . . .. 195 11,359 9,686 Samt Landry ................... .. 1.700 ,250 40,004 Saint Martin .................... .. 620 14,884 12,663 Saint Mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 22,416 19,891 Saint Tammany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 915 10,160 6,887 Tangipahoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 12,655 9,638 Tensas .......................... . . 610 16,647 17,815 Terre Bonne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,800 20,167 17,957 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 17.304 13,526 Vermilion ...................... . . 1,230 14,234 8,728 Vernon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,540 5,903 5,160 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 6,700 5,170 Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 12,466 10,005 West Baton Rouge . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 210 8,863 7,667 West Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 3,748 2.776 West Feliciana ................. .. 365 15,062 12,809 Winn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 7,082 5,846 Population of the State by decades: 1810, 76,556; 1820, 152,953; 1830, 215,790; 1840, 352,411; 1850, 517,- 762; 1860, 708,002; 1870, 726,915; 1880, 939,946; 1890,- 1,118,587. Louisiana was visited in 1682 by La Salle, a. Frenchman, who left the French settlement in Can- ada, and navigated the Mississippi from the mouth of the Illinois River to the Gulf of Mexico. In 1684 he endeavored to guide a colony from Rochelle, France, to Louisiana, but failed. The first success- ful attempt at settlement was made by the French under Iberville in 1700; the site selected was about 38 miles below the present city of New Orleans, and was named “ Poverty Point.” In 1762 the prov- ince was transferred by treaty to Spain. In 1763, under treaty between France and Spain on one side and Great Britain and Portugal on the other 2--28 1026 side, “all that portion of Louisiana lying east of the Mississippi River from its sources to the river Iber-‘ ville, and thence along the middle of the Iberville and the lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the sea” was ceded to Great Britain. The province was governed by Spain until the year 1800. By the treaty of 1783 (at the close of the Revolutionary war) Great Britain had placed her territory in the United States, including her interests in the Missis- sippi Valley, in the possession of the United States. In 1800 Spain ceded her Louisiana territory back to France and in 1803 it was sold to the United States by Napoleon Bonaparte for the sum of $11, 250,000, with a stipulation that the United States should assume the claims of its citizens (French Spoliations claims) against the French govern- ment. In 1804 nearly all the present area of Louis- iana was organized into a territory under the name ‘of Orleans. In 1810,some addition was made to the southeastern part (east of the Mississippi River), and in 1812 the whole was admitted into the Union as a State. The State was named in honor of Louis XIV. of France. The full list of governors is as follows: TERRITORY or ORLEANS. William C. C. Claiborne, 1804-12. STATE. ‘Wm. C. C. Claiborne. . .1812-16 Paul O. Hebert . . . . . . . ..1854-56 Jacques Villere . . . . . . . .1816-20 R. C. Wickliffe . . . . . . . . .1856-60 Thos. B. Robertson . . . .1820-22 Thos. 0. Moore . . . . . .. 1860-62 H. S. Thibodeaux . . . . ..1822-24 George F. Sheply 1862-64 Henry Johnson . . . . . . . ..1824-28 Michael Hahn . . . . . . . 1864-65 Peter Derbigny . . . . . . . . 1828-29 James W. Wells . . . . . . 1865-67 A. Bauvais . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1829-30 Benj. F. Flanders .. 1867-68 Jacques Dupre . . . . . . . . . ..1830 Joshua Baker .. . . 1868 Andre B. Roman ..1830-34 Henry C. Warmouth.. 1868-72 Edward D. White . ...1834-38 Wm. Pitt Kellogg 1872-76 André B. Roman . ...1838—41 Francis T. Nicholls 1b76—80 Alexander Mouton. . . . .1841—45 Louis A. Wiltz . .. 1880-82 Isaac Johnson . . . . . . . . .1845-50 Samuel McEnery . . 1882-88 Joseph Walker . . . . . ..1850-54 Francis T. Nicholls. . ..1888-92* *The term of ofiice is four years; the present term expires in May, 1892. For numerous items of interest relating to the State of Louisiana, see the article UNITED STATES in these Revisions and Additions. LOUISVILLE, the largest city of Kentucky. The falls of the Ohio are at this point and a canal has heen constructed for the use of steamboats which cannot pass over the rapids during low water. On the opposite side of the Ohio River stands the city of J effersonville, Ind., to which a fine railroad bridge, nearly a mile long, extends from the upper part of Louisville. From its lower part, called Portland, another railroad bridge ex- tends to New Albany, Ind., and steam ferry-boats ply to both of these Indiana towns. Louisville has wide, regular streets and substan- tial buildings. In the fine residence streets many houses have lawns and shrubbery in front. Among the prominent public buildings are the city-hall, the custom-house, the county-court, the library, the Roman Catholic cathedral, the State asylum for the blind, several hospitals, orphanages. and convents, and some commodious theatres. Among the schools are a law school, three medical col- leges, and a number of private academies, includ- ing the Kentucky Seminary for youngladies. Louisville is a port of entry and the principal mart of trade for the lower part of the Ohio Valley. Numerous railway lines center at this point. The Louisville, Nashville & Great Southern Railway system is one of the most extensive in the United States, and several other trunk lines and branch roads contribute to the business of the city. Louis- ville’s principle trade is in tobacco, grain, whiskey, LOUISVILLE--LOWELL pork, flour and leather, but furniture, farm-imple- ments, machinery, gas. and water-pipes. and ce- ment, are also largely manufactured and shipped. Much of the coal required for generating steam- power comes from Pittsburgh, Pa., but there are rich coal beds quite handy, and as yet almost unde- veloped. Louisville’s population has greatly in- creased since the close of the civil war in 1865. Pop- ulation, 161,005. See Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 22-24. LOVAGE (Ligusticum), a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferw, allied to Angelica; the fruit is eliptical. Common Lovage is a native of the south of Europe; it is sometimes cultivated in gardens and used as a salad plant. Its roots and seeds are aromatic, acrid and stimulant, and are used to cure flatulency and to induce perspiration. LOVEJOY, ELIJAH PARISH (1802-1837), an Ameri- can abolitionist. In 1827 he established a school in St. Louis, Mo., and in 1829 became editor of a polit- ical paper. In 1833 he was licensed to preach by the Presbyterian church, and then established a religious paper called the “Observer” in which he condemned slavery. Repeated threats of mob vio- lence compelled him to remove his paper to Alton, Ill., and his press was there destroyed three times by mobs. At the fourth attack, he and his friends defended the office. and compelled the mob to with- draw, but when Lovejoy opened the door he was instantly pierced by five bullets. LOVEJOY, OWEN (1811-1864), an American aboli- tionist, brother of the preceding. In 1838 he be- came pastor of the Congregational church at Princeton, Ill., and then held anti-slavery meetings in all parts of the State until 1854 when he was chosen a member of the legislature. In 1856 he was elected to Congress, and remained there until his death. LOVELL, MANSFIELD (1822-1884), an American soldier. In 1842 he was appointed a lieutenant of artillery, and then served through the war with Mexico, attaining the brevet rank of captain. In 1854 he resigned, and in 1858 was appointed super- intendent of street improvements in New York City, the same year becoming deputy street com- missioner. In 1861 he was commissioned a briga- dier-general in the Confederate army, and served through the war. He then retired to a rice-planta- tion near Savannah, Ga., but soon afterwards be- came an assistant engineer in removing the East River obstructions at Hellgate. LOWE, SIR HUDSON, a British general, born at Galway, Ireland, in 1769, died in London, July 10, 1844. Entering the army in 1787, he served in various parts of the Mediterranean, aided in the conquest of the Ionian Islands and became their first governor, and was afterwards for some time attached to the Prussian army under Bliicher. In the spring of 1816 he became governor of St. Helena, with the custody of Napoleon. who had landed there in the previous October. The strict- ness of Lowe’s watch of his charge brought upon him bitter attacks from Napoleon’s friends and ad- mirers. He published a defence of his conduct in Mémorial rélatzf 0. la Captz'm'te de Napolécn a Ste. Héléne (2 vols. Paris, 1830). In 1825 Lowe was appointed commander of the forces in Ceylon. LOWELL, a city, one of the county-seats of Mid- dlesex county, Mass., finely situated on the Merri- mac River, at its confluence with the Concord. It is on the Boston, Lowell & Concord Railroad, at the junction of branches to Salem, Lawrence, and Ayer. It is also on a branch of the Boston & Maine Railroad, and is the terminus of the Fram- ingham & Lowell Railroad. The city lies on uneven and hilly ground, but its streets are well laid out, well paved and sewered. The Merrimac River LOWELL—LOYSON falls here some thirty feet, affording great water- power, which is utilized by means of locks and canals. Steam-power is also very extensively em- ployed. Lowell is widely known as one of the greatest manufacturing cities of this country; the cotton and woolen mills alone number nearly one hun- dred, and use over halfa million spindles. Among other important manufactures are machinery, hardware, chemicals, paper, leather, carriages, and furniture. There are also extensive bleacheries and dyeing establishments. For the welfare of the numerons operatives good homes and boarding- houses have early been put up, good evening schools and free reading-rooms are maintained, lectures on technical and industrial topics are fre- quently given, and every other thing is attended to which may prevent strikes and labor troubles. Lowell was incorporated as a city in 1836. Popu- lation in 1890, 77,696. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 29. LOWELL, a post-village of Kent county, Mich., situated at the confluence of the Grand and Flat rivers. It has manufactories of flour, axes, and furniture. LOWELL, FRANCIS CABOT (1775-1817), an Ameri- can merchant, son of John Lowell, the statesman. He was the first to introduce cotton-manufacture into the United States, and the factories at Walt- ham, Mass.. were established by him. The city of Lowell was named in his honor. LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL, American poet and essayist, born at Cambridge, l\Iass., Feb. 22, 1819. In 1840 he was admitted to the Massachusetts bar, but shortly afterwards devoted himself to litera- ture. In 1854 he became professor of modern lan- guages at Harvard; from 1857 to 1862 was editor of the “ Atlantic Monthly,” and from 1863 to 1872 of the “North American Review.” In 1879 he became United States minister to the court of St. James, where he remained till 1885. Among his works are Class Poem (1838); A Year’s Life (1841); Poems (1844); The Vision of Sir Launfal (1845); Conversa- tions on Some of the Old Poets (1845); Poems (1848); The Biglow Papers (1848); A Fablefor Critics (1848); Poems (1849); Life of Keats (1854); Poems (1854); Poetical Works (1858); Mason and Slidell, a Yankee Idyl (1862); Fireside Travels (1864); The President’s Policy (1864); Ode recited at the Commemoration of the Living and Dead Soldiers of Plarvard University (1865); The Biglow Papers (1867); Under the VVillows and other Poems (1869); Among My Books (1870); The Courtin’ (1874); Three Memorial Poems (1876); Among My Books (1876); and Democracy, and other Addresses (1887). He died Aug. 12, 1891. LOWELL, J ornv (1743—1802), an American states- man. In 1762 he was admitted to the Massachu- setts bar, and in 1778 was a member of the legisla- ture from Boston. In 1782—’3 he was a member of the continental congress, and in 1784 was one of the commission to decide boundary disputes between New York and Massachusetts. In 1789 he was made United States judge for his State, and in 1801 became chief justice of the first circuit, including ¥/.[i£l.lll3, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode s an . LOWELL, JOHN (1769-1840), an American politi- cal writer, son of the preceding. He was admitted to the practice of law at the Massachusetts bar, in 1789,but after practising with marked success till 1803 he devoted himself entirely to literature. Among his writings are Peace Without Dishonor-— lVar Without Hope; an Inquiry into the Subject of the “ Chesapeake” (1807); Candid Comparison of the Washington and Jefierson Administrations (1810); Diplomatic Policy of Mr. Madison Unveiled (1810); 1027 Mr. Madison’s War; A Dispassionate Inquiry Into the Reasons Alleged by Madison for Declaring an Ofiensive and Ruinous War Against Great Britain (1812) ; and Are You a Christian or a Calvinist? (1815). LO WELL, J OHN, (1799-1836), an American philan- thropist, son of Francis Cabot Lowell. From 1817 to 1831 he was engaged in commerce, and then spent the remainder of his life in travel in the United States, Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, Arabia. and Hindustan. He bequeathed $250,000 for the maintenance in Boston of courses of free lectures on religion, science, and art, and the Lowell insti- tute since 1839 has continued its operations with marked success. LOWELL, Ronnnr TRAILL Srnxcn, an American clergyman, grandson of John Lowell the states- man, and elder brother of James Russell Lowell, the poet, born in 1816. In 1839 he began the study of theology, and in 1842 was ordained a priest in the church of England. He then became bishop’s chaplain in the Bermuda Islands, and later was rector at Bay Roberts, Newfoundland. In 1847, on account of failing health, he returned to the United States, and began a mission among the poorer peo- ple of Newark, N. J . From 1859 to 1869 he was rector of Christ church, Duanesburg, N. Y., and then for four years was head master at St. Mark’s school, Southborough, Mass. From 1873 to 1880 he was Professor of the Latin language and literature in Union college. Among his publications are The New Priest in Conception Bay (1858); Fresh Hearts that failed Three Thousand Years Ago, and other Poems (1860); Antony Brade, a Story of School-Boy Life (1874) ; Burgoyne’s March (1877) ; and A Story or Two from aDutch Town (1878). He has also con- tributed extensively to periodical literature. LOVV RY, Ronnnr, an American clergyman, born in 1826. He entered the Baptist ministry in 1856, and then had charges in New York City, and Brook- lyn, N. Y., VVest Chester and Louisburg, Pa., and Plainfield, N.J. From 1880 to 1886 he was president of the Baptist Sunday-School union of New Jersey. Dr. Lowry has edited Chapel Melodies (1868) ; Bright Jewels (1869); Pure Gold and Hymn Service (1871); Royal Diadem and T enzple Anthems (1873) ; Tidal Wave (1874); Brightest and Best (1875); Welcome Tidings and Fountain of Song (1877); Chautauqua Carols (1878); Gospel Hymn and Tune-Book (1879); Good as Gold (1880) ; Our Glad Hosanna (1882); Joy- ful Lays (1884) ; and Glad Refrains (1886). LOWVILLE, a post-village, the county-seat of Lewis county, N. Y., one and ahalf miles west of the Black River, in a rich agricultural region pro- ducing cheese, butter, and also lumber. The village contains a noted academy founded in 1808, and also foundries and mills. LOYSON, CHARLES, formerly known under the monastic name of Pere Hyacinthe,born at Orleans, France, March 10, 1827. He studied at St. Sulpice, and in 1851 was ordained priest, and taught philoso- phy and theology at Avignon and Nantes. Subse- quently entering the order of Carmelites, he became known as a powerful preacher, attracting crowded and enthusiastic audiences of all ranks of society to the llladeline and Notre Dame in Paris. Almost as remarkable as his eloquence was the boldness with which he denounced existing abuses in the church; and in 1869 the general of his order imposed silence on him. I-Iyacinthe replied by a letter in which he called for a thorough reform of the church, and was excommunicated by the pope. He then became a secular priest, resuming his family name, Loyson. In 1869 he visited the United States, and on his return to France married an American lady. He was afterwards for a short time curé of a congregation of Liberal Catholics at 1028 Geneva, Switzerland, and in 1879 he established an independent congregation in Paris under the name Eglise Gallicane. He has published a number of sermons and lectures. LUBBOCK, SIR J onn, baronet, an English states- man and naturalist, born at London in 1834. At the age of fourteen he entered his father’s banking house and in 1856 he became a partner. In 1865 he succeeded to his father’s title and business. In 1880 he was elected a member of parliament by the Uni- versity of London, which he still (1891) represents, and has procured the passage of important public measures. Sir John made investigations of the ancient vestiges of the human race, and researches into the life of the lower animals which have be- come classical. He published: Prehistoric Times ’1865) ; The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man; Origin and Metamorphosis of In- sects; On British Wild Flowers; Ants, Bees and Wasps (1884); The Senses, Instincts and Intelligence of Ani- mals, With Special Reference to Insects. His Pleasures of Life has attained its twentieth edition. LUBECK, a free city and state of the German Empire. For general article on this state (forming a republic and governed as such in all local affairs) see Britannica, Vols. XV, p. 31 ; XI, p. 450. The latest official reports (Dec. 1, 1885) give the area at 116 square miles, and the population at 67.658. In re- ligion the Protestant population numbered 65,997 (97.5 per cent.) and the Roman Catholics, 805 (1.2 per cent.). The estimated revenue in 1890 amounted to 3,459,816 marks, and the expenditures to about the same amount. Of the revenue, about one-sixth is from public domains, chiefly forests; one-fourth from interest and the rest from taxation. One-fourth of the expenditures is for interest on and reduction of the public debt, which in 1889 was 13,847,667 marks. The imports by sea were valued at 81,828,000 marks; the exports at 109,861,000 marks. LUBKE, WILHELM, a German art historian, born at Dortmund in 1826. After studying at Bonn and Berlin, he soon attracted attention by his articles on the history of art published in the “Deutsche Kunstblatt.” In 1855 he was made professor of the history of architecture in the Berlin school of architecture. Liibke made several journeys in Italy, France, and Belgium for the purpose of studying church architecture. In 1861 he became professor of archaeology and the history of art in the Polytechnic School at Ziirich, and in 1866 he was called to a similar position at Stutgart. His chief publications are: Vorschule zur Geschichte der Kirchenbaulcunst des Mittelalters; Geschichte der Ar- chitectur; Grundriss der Kunstgeschichte, and Ge- schichte der Plastilc. LUCAN, GEORGE CHARLES BINGHAM, THIRD EARL or, aBritish general, born April 16, 1800, died Nov. 10, 1888. He was educated at Westminster, and on leaving school entered the army. He accompanied the Russian troops under General Diebitsch as a volunteer against the Turks in 1828; succeeded to the title and lar e estates in Ireland in 1839 ; and as commander o a division of cavalry in the Cri- mea fought at the Alma, Balaklava, and Inkermann. Appointed lieutenant-general in 1858, and G. C. B. in 1869, he became field-marshal in 1887. LUCARHE, a Dormer window, especially in a a church spire. See ARoIIITEcTURE, Britannica, Vol. II, p. 467. LUCINA (“the light-bringing”), a name applied to Diana and to Juno, the latter corresponding to the Ilithyia of Greek mythology. LUDEWIG, HERMANN ERNST (1809-56), aGerman Ainerican author. He was born in Dresden, Sax- LUBBOCK--LUMBER ony, and in 1844 emigrated to the United States. Among his published works are Le Liuretoe des Ana (1837) ; Zur Bibliothekoekonomie (1840); Literature of American Local History (1846); Supplement Relating to Local History of New York (1848); De l’Historie des Aborigenes du Mexique (1854) ; and Literature of American Aboriginal Linguistics (1858). LUDINGTON, a city, the county-seat of Mason- county, Mich., on Lake Michigan, at the point where Pere Marquette Lake and River enter the larger lake. It is the western terminus of the Flint and Pere Marquette Railroad, and is con- nected with Milwaukee, Wis., eighty-four miles southwest, by a steamer line. It has a good har- bor, manufactures shin les and carriages, and con- tains a foundry and mac ine-shop. Population, 7 ,499. LUDLOW, a post-village in Windsor county, Vt.,, situated on Black River and on the Rutland divi- sion of the Vermont Central Railroad, twenty-five miles east of Rutland. It has an academy, a. foundry, and manufactories of woolen goods, car- riages, toys, and machinery. LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM, a German physiologist, born at Witzenhausen, Hessen, in 1816. After studying medicine at Marourg ano Erlangen, he was appointed professor of comparative anatomy at Marburg in 1846. From 1849 to 1855 he held the chair of physiology at Ziirich. In 1855 he was called to Vienna, and in 1865 he became professor at Leip- zig. His investigations in anatomical physiology place him in the front rank of that department of science. Ludwig’s principal work is Lehrbuch der Physiologic des Menschen (1852-55) ; but his Arbeiten aus der Physiologischen Anstalt zu Leipzig, and his essays in scientific journals contain valuable con- tributions to physiology. LUGGER, a vessel having two or three masts. and a running bowsprit, upon which lug-sails and two or three jibs are set. The rig is not adapted to large vessels. LUMBER. The lumbering industry of the United States has steadily moved westward. Fifty years ago- Maine was the great lumbering region. The principal competition came from New York and Pennsylva- nia. In 1850 these two equalled Maine, and in 1860* they exceeded her. In the sixties Michigan and Wisconsin became prominent, and in the next dec- ade they eclipsed Maine and New York. At pres- ent Chicago is the greatest lumber market of this country. But at the present rate of depletion of the western woods their available timber of com- mercial value will ere long disappear, and then Chicago will lose its position as the main center of the lumber industry. The army of the axe and the- sawmill will then again have to take up its march westward and attack the forests of the Pacific slope and also march southward to the forests of the Gulf region. The original white pine forests of the East-- em and Middle States have long since disappeared and those of the West are now being rapidly de- stroyed, not only by the axeman, but also by fire. Millions of acres are annually swept away by forest fires, the area burned over in the year 1880 alone being no less than ten millions of acres. The saw- mills and smelters use still lar er quantities of timber, the smelters especially y converting it into charcoal for their furnaces. White pine is the most easily worked lumber, on account of its softness and comparative freedom from knots. Nearly one-half of the white pine used in this country is now supplied by Michigan, Wis- consin, and Minnesota. When the lumber of this region gives out it must be replaced by the red-fir of the Cascade and Coast Ranges. The redwood is the only real substitute for white pine within the- United States. LUNAWARA-LUTHARDT Regarding the supply of hard-wood lumber, the forests of the Mississippi basin are very important. They furnish at present most of the walnut, ash, cherry, and yellow poplar lumber. The southern Appalachian mountains, extending through Vir- ginia, West Virginia, North and South Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee, also supply a large quan- tity of oak, walnut, cherry, and yellow poplar lum- ber. These mountains contain an abundant store of hardwood timber. It is bound to gain importance when the white pine, now the most valuable of our lumber trees, loses its prominence, as it will in course of time, the annual consumption of white pine being, according to Prof. Sargent’s calculation, not less than 10,000 millions of feet, while all the white pine timber ready for the axe in 1882 was cal- culated to be only 85,000 millions of feet. The yellow pine of the south is a hard, resinous wood, not suited to replace the white pine. The use of lumber is on the increase. It is mostly employed in building houses, ships, bridges, and fences; for making furniture, agricultural and other implements, for boxes, trunks, cars, doors and blinds. wagon-beds, and innumerable other things. The most highly valuable of our hard-wood trees is the black walnut. It is especially used in cabi- net work and for the interior finish of houses. Other woods valued for similar purposes are the wild black cherry, the butternut, the mountain hazel, the white and the black ash, the chestnut, and the American holly. The sycamore is mainly used for tobacco-boxes, and the cedar for cigar- boxes. In the census report for 1880 the capital invested in the lumber business of the United States is given as 181 millions of dollars; the number of hands employed as 147,956 ; the number of feet of lumber turned out yearly as 18,000 millions, and the total value of all the products of the lumber industry (in- cluding laths, shingles, staves, and bobbin stock) as 233 millions of dollars. In this production the State of Michigan stands foremost with 50 millions for sawed lumber alone; then comes Pennsylvania with 22 millions; \Visconsin with 18 millions; New York, Indiana and Ohio with 14 millions each; Maine and Minnesota with 8 millions each; Iowa with 6 millions; Missouri, Illinois and Georgia with 5 millions each; California, Kentucky and New Hampshire with 4 millions each; Tennessee, Texas and Virginia with 3% millions each; Vermont,Mass- achusetts and Florida with 3 millions each; North Carolina, Alabama and West Virginia with 2% mil- lions each; South Carolina, Oregon, Mississippi, Maryland, Arkansas, Louisiana and WVashington Territory with 2 millions each; New Jersey with 1% millions, and Connecticut and Colorado with 1 million each. The other States and Territories produced less than one million dollars worth of sawed lumber each. The exportation of forest products, consisting of sawed and hewed timber. boards, shingles, etc., from this country during the year ending Sept. 30, 1885, amounted to the value of 21% millions of dollars. The importations during the same year aggregated 8% millions of dollars worth. These included woods, used for the finest cabinet finish, of species not grown in the United States, such as rose and satin-wood, mahogany, eb- ony, etc. LUNAWARA, a small state of India, of the Rew- acaunta agency, in the province of Gujarat, having an area of 388 square miles, and a population of 75,450. The region is hilly and well wooded. The capital, from which the state derives its name, is 60 miles from Baroda, near the Mahi or Mhye River. Population, 9,059. 1029 LUNDY, a granitic island of Devonshire, in the mouth of the Bristol Channel, 30 miles from St. Gowan’s Head in Wales. It measures three and a half miles by one, has rocky and precipitous shores, with only one landing place on the south side; and attains an altitude of 525 feet. Here, near the southern end of the island, is a lighthouse, built in 1820. The antiquities include prehistoric kists, re- mains of round towers and a chapel, and the ruined castle of the Mariscoes, from whose time on into the 17th century Lundy was a stronghold success- ively for pirates, buccaneers, privateers and smug- lers. Population in 1881, 177. LUNDY, BENJAMIN (1789-1839), an American phi- lanthropist. In 1815 he organized an anti-slavery association at St. Clairsville, Ohio, and in 1822 be- gan the publication of the Mt. Pleasant “Genius of Universal Emancipation,” a monthly. Afterwards he removed his paper to Baltimore, then to Wash- ington, and finally to Philadelphia. Lundy was the first to establish anti-slavery periodicals and to deliver anti-slavery lectures, and probably the first to induce the formation of anti-slavery societies. LUNEL, a town in the south of France, 14 miles northeast of Montpellier, with a trade in Muscatel wine and brandy. Interesting human remains have been found in a cave at Pondres, six miles north of Lunel. Population, 6,460. LUNGWORT, or OAT-LUNGS (Sticta pulmonaria), a lichen with a foliaceous, leathery, spreading thallus, of an olive-green color, pale-brown when dry. It grows on trunks of trees in mountainous regions in European countries, sometimes almost covering them with its shaggy thallus. It is nu- tritious, and when properly prepared afliords a light diet, yet it is bitter enough to be used as a substitute for hops. It yields a good brown dye. The name is also given to a genus of phaneroga- mous plants of the natural order Borraginew. The common lungwort (Pulmonaria ofiicinalis), of Eu- rope, has ovate leaves and purple flowers. It is mucilaginous and slightly emollient, and contains niter in considerable abundance. LUNT, GEORGE (1803-1885), an American author. In 1827 he began the practice of law in Newbury- port, Mass., and soon afterwards became a member of the legislature. Under Gen. Zachary Taylor’s administration he was United States district attor- ney, and just prior to the civil war edited the Bos- ton “Courier.” Much of his time was given up to literary pursuits, and he wrote Poems (1839); The Age of Gold (1843); The Dore and the Eagle (1851); Lyric Poems (1854) ; Julia (1855) ; Eastford, or House- hold Sketches (1855) ; Three Eras of New England (1857) ; Radicalism in Religion, Philosophy and Social Life (1858); The Union, a Poem (1860); Origin of the Late War (1866); Old New England Traits (1873), and Miscellanies, Poems, etc. (1884). LUNT, WILLIAM PARsoNs (1805-1857), an Ameri- can clergyman. From 1828 to 1833 he was pastor of the Second Unitarian Church of New York, and from 1835 to his death was associate pastor of the Unitarian church in Quincy, Mass. He published Discourse at the Interment of John Quincy Adams (1846) ; Union of the Human Race (1850); Sermon on Daniel Webster (1852), and Gleanings (1874). LUSTRUM, the solemn offering made for expia- tion and purification by one of the censors in the name of the Roman people at the conclusion of the census. As the ceremony was performed at the end of every five years, the word lustrum came to mean a period of five years. LUTHARDT, CIIRISTCPII ERNsT, a German theo- logian, born in Bavaria in 1823. After studying theology at Munich he spent some years in teach- ing. In 1854 he became extraordinary professor of 1030 theology at Marburg, and in 1856 he was made pro- fessor of theology and New Testament exegesis in the University of Leipzig. He belongs to the Lutheran school, which accepts the Augsburg con- fession. His principal works are Das Johanneische Evangelium; Die Lehre von den letzten Dingen; Die Lehre oom freien Willen; Compendium der Dogmatik; Die Ethil: Luther’s; Der Johanneische Ursprung des Vierten Evangeliums, and Apologie des Christenthums (1864-80). He exerted great influence by these books and his periodical publications. LUTTRINGHAUSEN, a town of Rhenish Prussia, five miles southeast of Elberfeld. It has manufac- tories of cloth, calico and silk, hardware and brandy. Population in 1885, 10,216. LUVERNE, a village, the county-seat of Rock county, Minn., situated on Rock River, and on a branch of the Sioux City & St. Paul Railroad. LUZULA, a genus of plants of the natural order’ Juneaceae, having a three-seeded capsule and soft plane leaves, which are generally covered with thinly-scattered longish hairs. They grow in woods, pastures and elevated mountainous situations. The field-rush (L. campestris), a plant of a very humble growth, has flowering spikes congregated into a close head. The species which grow under the shade of trees preserve their verdure in winter. LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID, an eminent Jewish scholar, born at Trieste, in Istria, Aug. 22, 1800, died at Padua in 1865. When only 15 years old he published a volume of Hebrew verses. In 1829 he was appointed professor of Biblical literature in the rabbinical college of Padua. Among the He- brews in Italy Luzzatto was celebrated for deep learning and wise judgment. He wrote against the Cabalists, published some volumes of Hebrew verse and several treatises and commentaries on Jewish theology. He was preparin a version of the Old Testament in Italian when e died. His son, PHILOXENE Lnzzxrro (1829-1854), was distin- guished as a linguist. LYALL, EDNA, the pen-name of Miss Ada Ellen Bayly. She was born and educated at Brighton, England, and commenced her literary career at an early age. Her books have attained a widespread popularity. They include Donovan; We Two; In the Golden Days; The Autobiography of a Slander; Der- rick Vaughan;Knight Errant, and A Hardy Norseman. LYCHNIS, a genus of plants of the natural order Caryophyllacew. They are herbaceous plants, gen- erally perennial, and natives of temperate countries. The flowers of L. Vespertina are usually fragrant in the evening. The Scarlet Lychnis (L. Chalcedoniea), a native of Asia Minor, is a brilliant ornament of flower-borders. Some of the species have saponaceous properties. LYDIAN MODE, one of the ancient Greek au- thentic modes in music, which was retained as one of the old church modes. Since the Reformation the melodies of the Lydian mode have entirely dis- appeared, and it is used only occasionally in modu- lation from other modes. LYGODIUM, a widely diffused genus of climbing ferns. Of the 16 known species only one, L. palma- tum, the climbing fern or Hartford fern, is a native of the United States, being found from Massachu- setts to the Gulf States. The leaf-stalk, resem- bling a twining stem, is from 1 to 3 feet long, with short alternate branches. It is much prized for purposes of decoration. A number of fossil species have been described. LYKENS, a post-village of Dauphin county, Pa., 25 miles from Harrisburg. It is a coal-shipping point, and has foundries, saw and planing-mills. LYMAN, THEODORE, an American naturalist, born in 1833. In 1863 he entered the Union army LUTTRINGHAUSEN——LYNN as aide-de-camp to General G.G. Mead, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and was present at many of the most important battles of the war. From 1865 to 1882, he “was fish commissioner of Massachusetts, and since 1860, has been assistant at the museum of comparative zoblogy in Cam- bridge. He has published Illustrated Catalogue of the Ophiuridae andAstrophytidae in the Museum of Com- parative Zoblogy (1865); Supplement (1871) ' Report on Ophiuridae and Astrophytidze Dredged by Louis F. de Pourtales (1869) ; Old and New Ophiuridw and Astroph- 1 tidae (1874); Ophiuridw and Astrophytidee of the Iassler Expedition (1875); Dredgin Operations of the United States Steamer “Blake;” phiurans (1875); Prodrome of the Ophiuridee and Astrophytidw of the “Challenger” Expedition (1778), and Report on the Ophiuridae Dredged by H. M. S. “Challenger” During the Years 1873-6‘ (1881). LYME GRASS (Elymus), a genus of grasses, Whose species are natives of the temperate and colder regions of the northern hemisphere. The Sea Lyme Grass (E. Arenarius) is frequent on sandiylr shores in parts of Europe; it is a coarse, grayis perennial grass, with creaping roots very useful in binding the sand, and on this account it is much sown on the shores of Holland. In Iceland it is used for thatch, and the seed is ground into meal, which is made into porridge or into soft, thin cakes, and is esteemed a great delicacy. Several species of Elymus are known in the United States, as the E. Virginicus, Canadensis, striatus, and mollis. The first two are common near river-banks, the third in rocky woods, and the last on the shores of lakes Huron and Superior, and in Maine. LYME REGIS, a seaport and watering place of Dorsetshire, at the mouth of the Lyme rivulet, five miles southeast of Axminster. The Cobb breakwater, dating from the 14th century, was re- constructed in 1825-26. Miss Mary Anning, the dis- coverer of the Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus in the Lias rocks here, which are largely quarried,was a native of this place. Population in 1881, 2,048. LYNCH, PATRICK NILSON (1817-1882), an Ameri- can Roman Catholic bishop. In 1840 he became as- sistant pastor at the cathedral of Charleston, S. C., and from 1844 to 1855, was pastor of St. Mary’s church, of that city. In 1858 he was consecrated bishop. His articles on the Vatican Council, and The Blood of St. Januarius were published in book form. LYNCH, THOMAS (1749-1779), a signer of the Dec- laration of Independence. On the organization of the first regiment of South Carolina provincials in 1775 he was commissioned acaptain, and in 1776 was elected to a seat in the continental Congress. On account of failing health he embarked in 1779 for the south of France, but the ship in which he sailed was seen for the last time when a few days out at sea. LYN CHBURG, a city of Virginia, in Campbell county, on the James River. Population in 1870, 6,825; in 1890, 19,779. See Britannica,Vol. XV, p. 105. LYNN, a city of Essex county, Mass., located on the north side of Massachusetts Bay, near the foot of the Nahant Peninsula, about ten miles northeast of Boston, with which city it is connected by several railways. Lynn is noted for the manufacture of boots and shoes, mostly women’s and children’s shoes which are sent all over the United States. The Thomson-Houston electric factory is located here. It employs some fifteen hundred men and turns out machinery for many electric lighting and ower plants. Population, 55,727. See Britannica, lVol. XV, p. 109. LYNN, MARY (1797-1849), an American educator. From 1814 to 1837, the most of her time was devoted LYON—LYTTON to teaching in various schools, and in the latter year she ounded Mount Holyoke seminary, at South Hadley, Mass. From that date to her death she served as its principal. She published Tenden- cies of the Principles Embraced and the System Adopted in the Mount Holyoke Seminary (1840), and Mission- ary Ofering (1843). L ON, NATHANIEL (1818—1861), an American sol- dier. He entered the United States army in 1841, and served in the Florida and Mexican wars, re- ceiving the brevet of captain. He then served on frontier duty until the beginning of the civil war, when he was put in command of the arsenal at St. Louis, and broke up a camp of secessionists, whom he routed at Boonesville, June 17, 1861. On August 2, being then brigadier-general of volunteers, he defeated the Confederate forces at Dry Spring, Mo. He was killed while commanding in the battle of Wilson’s Creek. LYONNAIS, a former province of France, bounded on the west by Auvergne and on the south by Languedoc. Its territory coincides nearly with the present department of the Rhone, Loire, Haute- Loire, and Puy-de-Dome. LYONS, a city and railroad center of Clinton county, Ia., situated on the Mississippi River. It has extensive nurseries, several excellent schools, and manufactories of wrapping-paper, flour, oil- -cans, and carriages. Population, 5,791. LYONS, a city, the county-seat of Rice county, Kan., situated twenty-one miles east of Ellin- wood. LYON S, a post-village, the county-seat of Wayne county, N. Y., midway between Syracuse and Rochester, on the New York Central Railroad. It is a peppermint-oil market, and manufactures fan- ning-mills,and farm-implements. A musical acad- emy is located here. LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL (1817-1887), a British diplomatist. From 1857 to 1865, he was minister to the United States, from 1865 to 1867, ambassador to Turkey, and from 1867 to 1887, am- bassador to France. In 1865 he became a mem- ber of the privy council, in 1881 was made a vis- count, and in 1887 an earl. 1031 LYSIMACHIA, a large genus of erect or creep- ingherbaceous perennial plants, belonging to the natural order Primulaceae. The entire leaves are opposite, alternate, or whorled; the flowers have a five or six parted corolla with the stamens affixed to the base, and are generally solitary in the axils or in racemes. The European L. nummularia, or moneywort, is an ornamental trailing vine with bright-yellow flowers, commonly cultivated in gar- dens. L. quadrifolia, the crosswort, is an ornamen- tal American species. LYTHRACEJE, a natural order of exogenous plants, mostly herbs, and rarely shrubs or trees, chiefly natives of the tropics; a few are found in Europe and in North America. Loosestrife (Lyth- rum Salicaria), with an abundance of purple flow- ers, grows abundantly on the margins of ponds and streams in Britain. The Henna of Egypt is pIro- duced by Lawsonia alba, a plant of this order. he leaves of Ammannia Vesicatoria, an East India aqua- tic plant, are very acrid and are sometimes used as blisters. Physocalymma Floribunda, a Brazilian tree of this order, growing about 30 feet high, fur- nishes the valuable rosewood (the American tulip- wood) of commerce. LYTTON, EDWARD RCBERT BULWER-LYTTON, MARQUIS OF, an English poet, the only son of Lord Lytton, the novelist and dramatist, born 1831. After being educated at Harrow and Bonn, he entered (1849) the diplomatic service. In 1863 he was sec- retary of legation at Copenhagen, and the next year he served in the same capacity at Athens. He subsequently became Chargés d’Afi”aires at Lisbon, at Madrid, and at Vienna; and in 1872 he was ap- pointed secretary of the embassy to Paris. While at Paris he inherited his father’s estates and titles. Two years later he was sent as ambassador to Lis- bon, and in 1876 was appointed viceroy of India. In 1887 he became ambassador to Paris. Lord Lytton published in 1855, Clyptemnestra and Other Poems Under the nom de plume of “Owen Meredith,” he also wrote Lucille; Tannhduser; Oroal; Fables in Song; Glenaoeril, and Life and Letters of his father (1883), in which he incorporated his father’s autobio- graphical notes. He died at Paris Nov. 24, 1891. 1032 M MAB—MAO0MB MAB ( Cymric,“a child”), an imaginary being cele- brated by Shakespeare and other English poets. In English folk-lore she shares with Titania the honor of being queen of the fairies. MACADAM, J OHN LoUDoUN, a Scottish construc- tor of roads, born at Aye in 1756, died at Dumfries- shire in 1836. He lived at New York from 1770 to 1783, and was a loyalist during our Revolutionary war. After the war he returned home, and about 1810 became known as the inventor of “metalled” or “macadamized” roads. His system consisted in completely covering the road-bed with small broken stones without using a substratum of larger stones, as in Telferd’s more expensive system. The stones he used were from 1 to 6 ounces in weight. He wrote Practical Essay on the Scientific Re- pair and Preservation of Public Roads, and Re- marks on the Present State of Roadmalcing; also Ob- servations on Roads (1822). See Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 582. MACAPA, a town of Brazil, in the province of Para, on the left bank of the Amazon, three miles north of the equator. It has a good harbor, and considerable trade in timber and ornamental woods. Population about 7,500. MACAVV—TREE, GREAT (Acrocomia sclerocarpa), a palm of the same tribe as the cocoa-nut, a native of the West Indies and the warm parts of America. It is called Macoya in Guiana and Macahuba in Brazil. It is from 20 to 30 feet high, with pinnate leaves from 10 to 15 feet long. The fruit yields an oil of a yellow color, of the consistence of butter, with a sweetish taste and an odor of violets. MACCALUBA, a remarkable mud volcano, 138 feet in height, situated six miles north of Girgenti in Sicily. The sides are studded with numerous small cones, which usually emit hydrogen and occa- sionally mud and stones, often sending them to a great height. MAC CONNELLSVILLE, a post-village, the county-seat of Morgan county, Ohio, situated on the Muskingum River. It contains a woolen factory, a foundry, and a tobacco factory. There are ex- tensive salt-works in the vicinity. MACE, a heavy club about 5 feet long, surmounted by a metal head, frequently spiked, which was used as a weapon by knights and warlike churchmen in the Middle Ages. The ornamental maces borne as an ensign of authority, may be traced to the 12th and 13th centuries, when princes armed their guards with spikeless maces against the sudden at- tacks of the assassins. The need passed‘away, but the maces remained as symbols of rank. In the Con- gress of the United States the sergeant-at-arms has a silver mace. MACH./ERODUS, a genus of fossil carnivorous mammals distinguished by extremely long upper canine teeth. See Mammalia, Britannica, Vol. XV, p.435. MACHIAS, the county-seat of Washington county, Me., on Machias River, at the head of navi- gation. It is a port of entry, and contains a custom-house, foundry, sash and blind factory, and many good schools. Lumbering and ship building are important industries. MACKAY, CHARLEs,a Scotch poet, born in Perth, in 1814, died in 1889. The publication of a small volume of poems in 1834 led to his becoming assis- tant editor of the “Morning Chronicle." From 1844-47 he was editor of the “Glasgow Argus;” he acted on the literary staff of the “Illustrated Lon- don News,” and filled the post of New York corres- pondent of the London “Times,” during the civil war. The “London Review,” a weekly journal which he established in 1860, was not a success. Down to the time of his death, Dec. 24, 1889, he issued many vol- umes of poetry and prose, and was a contributor to “Blackwood’s Magazine,” the “Nineteenth Cen- tury,” and other periodicals. Two of Mackay’s songs, “There’s a Good Time Coming,” and “Cheer, Boys, Cheer,” had an extraordinary vogue. Four hundred thousand of the first having been sold, without putting anything into his pocket. Gos- samer and Snowdrift, his posthumous poem was published in 1890. MACKENZIE RIVER, in North America, has its origin as the Athabasca in the Rocky Mountain Lake in British Columbia, flows over 600 miles to Lake Athabasca, and 240 as the Slave River to Great Slave Lake, conveying the waters of the Great Slave Lake to the Artic Ocean at Mackenzie Bay, after a final course which is reckoned at 1,045 miles, making a total river system of nearly 2,000 miles. It drains an area of little less than 600,000 square miles. The Mackenzie received its name from Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1755-1820), by whom it was discovered and first navigated in 1789. MACKEREL. See Britannica, Vol. XV. PP- 159, 160. MACKEREL, FISHERY. See Britannica, Vol. IX, . 223. P MACKEY, ALBERT G., an American writer on Freemasonry, born at Charleston, S. C., in 1807,. In. 1838 he became demonstrator of anatomy in the medical college of South Carolina. In 1844 he gave himself up to the pursuit of literature. His princi- pal work is an Encyclopaedia of Freemasonary. MACKIN AW, or MACKINAC, an island three miles long by two broad, in the Strait of Mackinaw, which connects Lakes Huron and Michigan ; on the island is the village of Mackinaw, and on an emi- nence 200 feet above it is Fort Mackinaw. MACLE, a term employed in mineralogy to des- ignate what are also called twin crystals, crystals united according to some precise law, yet not hav- ing their faces and axes parallel, so as to render the one a mere continuation of the other. MACLEANSBOROUGH, a village, the county- seat of Hamilton county, Ill., situated in the center of the county, and fifty miles southeast of Centra- lia. It is the trade center of a prosperous agricul- tural district. MAC MINNVILLE, a post-village, the county- seat of Warren county, Tenn. It contains woolen and cotton mills, an iron foundry, and the Mac Minnville Female Academy. MACOMB, a city, the county-seat of McDonough county, Ill., 200 miles southwest of Chicago. It contains a foundry, excellent schools, and is the seat of McDonough Normal College. MACOMB, ALEXANDER (1782-1841), an American soldier. He entered the army in 1799, became cap- tain in 1805, and major in 1808. In 1813 he was made colonel of the 3rd regiment of artillery, and MACOMB- in 1814 brigadier-general. In 1828 he became major-general and general-in-chief of the army. He wrote A Treatise on Martial Law and Court- Martials as Practiced in the United States (1809), and A Treatise on the Practice of Court-Martials (1840). MACOMB, WILLIAM HENRY (1818-1872), a United States naval officer, son of Alexander. In 1834 he entered the navy as midshipman, was made lieuten- ant in 1847, commander in 1862, captain in 1866 and commodore in 1870. He commanded in numerous important naval actions, always exhibiting great courage and good judgment. MACON, a city in Georgia. beautifully located in the middle of the State. Nine railroads meet here and give excellent connections in all directions Macon has extensive manufactories of iron, machin. ery, cotton-goods,cotton-seed oil, etc., and a large wholesale and retail trade. Population in 1890, 22,698. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 166. MACON, a village, the county-seat of Noxubee county, Miss., 198 miles north of Mobile. The M0- bile & Ohio Railroad shops are located here. MACON, or MACON CITY, a railroad center and the county-seat of Macon county, Mo., 170 miles northwest of St. Louis. It has manufactories of farming-implements, wagons, etc. MACON, NATHANIEL (1757-1837), an American statesman. He served as a private throughout the Revolution, although several ofiices were urged on him, and then became a member of the North Car- olina senate. From 1791 to 1815 he was a United States Congressman, and then till 1828 a United States Senator. MAC PHERSON, a city, the county-seat of Mac Pherson county, Kan., thirty-six miles south of Sa- lina. It has flour-mills and the chief industries of the region are sheep-raising and agriculture. MACCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE, an Irish poet and translator, born in Dublin in 1817, died April 7, 1882. He first became known through his contri- butions to the “Nation.” His collected Ballads, Poems and Lyrics, founded upon the patriotic tradi- tions of the Irish, appeared in 1850, and in 1853 he published six of Calderon’s dramas translated in the metres of the original. Further installments of the latter followed in 1861, 1867,1870 and 1873. In 1872 appeared ShelZy’s Early Life, and in 1879 he wrote the ode for the Moore centenary. In recog- nition of literary merit he received a pension in 1871, and in 1881 a medal from the Royal Academy of Spain. MAC CUNN, HAMISH, a Scotch composer, born in Greenock, March 22, 1868. After study under local teachers, in 1883, he won a scholarship at the Royal College of Music. His progress there was so rapid that in the following year he was able to resign it. In 1888 he was appointed a junior professor of har- mony at the Royal Academy. He is regarded as one of the most promising composers of the day. He is a pronounced upholder of nationality in music, and his works are distinctly Scottish in character and subject. MAcDONALD, SIR J 01111 ALEXANDER, an eminent Canadian statesman, was born in Glasgow, Scotland, Jan. 11,1815, died in 1891, and with his parents emi- grated five years later to Canada. He was edu- cated at Kingston, called to the bar in 1836, and appointed a C. in 1846. He represented Kings- ton in the Canada assembly from 1844 till the union of the provinces in 1867, and in the Dominion parli- ament till 1878, when he was defeated; but he afterwards sat for Victoria, British Columbia, and for Carleton and Lennox, and was again returned by his old constituency in 1887. Before the union he had been receiver-general in 1847, commission- er of crown-lands in 1847-48, attorney-general for MAcHALE 1033 Upper Canada in 1854-58, succeeding Sir Allen Macnab as leader of the conservatives and premier in 1856, and again attorney-general in 1858-62 and 1864-67. In 1867, when the new constitution came into force, he was called upon to form the first gov- ernment for the new dominion, and was minister of justice and attorney-general of Canada until he and his cabinet resigned in 1873. He was again re- turned to power in 1878, and was successful in the elections of 1882 and 1887. In 1878 his success was owing to the adoption of a policy of protection for native industries, which discriminates against the productions of all other countries, not even except- ing Great Britain. Sir John was mainly instru- mental in bringing about the confederation of the British North American provinces, in securing the construction of the Inter-colonial and Pacific rail- ways. He was chairman of the London colonial conference, 1866-67, when the act of union was passed by the imperial parliament; and in 1871 was appointed one of the British commissioners for the settlement of the Alabama claims. He was made a privy-councilor in 1872, K.C.B. in 1867, and G.C.B. in 1884. He received the degree of D.C.L. from Ox- ford in 1865, and afterwards doctorates from three Canadian colleges. MACDONOUGH, THOMAS (1783-1825), a United States naval officer. He entered the navy as mid- shipman in 1800, was promoted lieutenant in 1807, and master-commander in 1813. In August, 1814, he gained a victory over the British fleet for which he received a gold medal from Congress, and num- erous civic honors from cities and towns. The Mediterranean squadron was his last command and he died while on board a trading vessel sent by the government to bring him home. MAcFARREN, SIR Gnonen ALEXANDER, an Eng- lish composer, born in London, March 2, 1813, died Oct. 31, 1887. He studied at the Royal Academy of Music, where he became professor of harmony in 1838. In 1875 (he was appointed principal of the academy, and also professor of music at Cambridge University. He was knighted in 1883. Macfar- ren’s earliest dramatic work, The De2>iZ’s Opera, was produced in 1838, and he afterwards brought out a long series of operas, cantatas, oratorios, overtures, and sonatas,besides some hundreds of songs, many of Which were popular. He stands higher, however, as a writer on the theory of music than as a composer. He wrote Rudiments of Harmony; Lectures on Har- mony; Counterpoint; A Musical History, and Ad- dresses and Lectures; besides editing Old English Ditties; Moore’s Irish Melodies; Scottish Dittz'es, and the second edition of Day’s Treatise. MACGREGOR, a city of Clayton county, Ia., on the Mississippi River. It has good schools, and malnufactories of wagons, carriages, and wind- mil s. MAcGREGOR, J OIIN, an English canoeist and philanthropist, born at Gravesend, Jan. 24, 1825, and educated at Dublin, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated as a wrangler. In 1847 he entered the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in 1851. He made a tour of Europe, Egypt, and Palestine (1849-50); and a subsequent visit to the United States and Canada bore fruit in Our Brothers and Cousins (1859). He published an ac- count of a canoe journey in 1865, and under the title of A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe. Other narratives of canoe voyages on the Baltic, Zuyder Zee, and Jordon followed, all of which have been very popular. M.-1cHALE, J OHN, an Irish archbishop and author, born at Tubbernavine county, Mayo, in 1791, died in 1881. After being educated at the Roman Catholic college of Maynooth, he was made 1034 professor of theology there in 1814, and was raised to the episeopate in 1825. In 1834 he became arch- bishop of Tuam. He was very active in politics, in church building, in opposing the state schools, and establishing parish schools instead. He strove zeal- ously to rehabilitate the Irish language as a liter- ary vehicle, and translated into it many of Moore’s popular melodies, six books of the Iliad, and a large part of the Bible. MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER SLIDELL (1803-1848),a United States naval ofiiicer. He entered the navy in 1815 as midshipman, was made lieutenant in 1825, and commander in 1841. He was on active duty in the Mediterranean, the West Indies, the Brazilian waters, and the Pacific, and in 1846 was sent on a private mission to Cuba. In the Mexican war he was at the siege of Vera Cruz and the storming of Tabasco. He was the author of A Year in Spain, bya Young American (1829); Popular Es- says on Naval Subjects (1833) ; The American in England (1835); Spain Revisited (1836) ; Life of John Paul Jones ( 1841) ; Life of Commodore Oliver H. Perry (1841), and I/ij‘e of Commodore Stephen Decatur (1846). MACKENZIE, SIR MoRELL, M D., was born at Leytonshone, Essex, in 1837, and educated at the London Hospital Medical College, Paris and Vi- enna. He founded the Hospital for Diseases of the Throat, Golden Square, London, in 1863, and in the same year obtained the J acksonian prize from the Royal College of Surgeons for his essay on “Dis- eases of the Larynx.” He was soon afterward elected assistant physician to the London Hos- pital, becoming in due course full physician, and being appointed lecturer on diseases of the throat, an appointment which he held at the time of his death. Dr. Mackenzie was in attendance on the late German Emperor Frederick during his last illness. To vindicate his treatment of the case Dr. Mackenzie published Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble. Sir Morell Mackenzie was a corresponding member of the Imperial Royal Society of Physicians of Vienna, and of the Medical Society of Prague and an hon- orary fellow of the American Laryngological As- sociation. He was the author of numerous publi- cations on laryngological subjects, and in particu- lar of a systematic treatise in two volumes on Diseases of the Throat and Nose, which is acknowl- edged to be a standard work. It has been trans- lated into French and German, and is well known in America. He also wrote monographs on diphtheria and hay fever, and he published an article on Specialism in Medicine, in the June number of the “Fortnightly Review” (1865), which excited considerable atten- tion. In 1889 be contributed to the “Contemporary Review” some essays, entitled The Voice in Singing and Speaking. He was the author of the most exhaustive work on throat disease. Although the first volume ap- peared over twenty-two years ago it is yet stand- ard. He was a very conservative man in operative work, but was exceedingly skillful. He had in- vented many new instruments, and improved numerous old ones. Personally he was exceed- ingly amiable to everybody, rich or poor, and made people at once feel at home with him. Being a great linguist he was very fond of addressing people in their own language. He spoke German, French and Italian fluently, and was a thorough classical scholar. He died in London, Feb. 3, 1892, from influenza, from which he had been suffering but a few days. MCALEER, WILLIAM, an American statesman, born in County Tyrone, Ireland, June 6, 1838. He came to Philadelphia with his parents in 1851; was in 1888 The- MACKENZIE-—MoCARTHY educated in the public and private schools; was president of the commercial exchange, and a di- rector of the chamber of commerce of Philadel- phia. In politics he is a Democrat, and served two years as a member of the common council. In 1873 he was elected a member of the Board of Guardians of the Poor of Philadelphia for a term of three years, and was reélected for five consecutive terms; was elected a State senator in 1876. serving four years. In 1890 was elected a Representative from the 3rd Congressional district of Pennsyl- vania to the 52nd Congress. MCALL MISSION, the largest Protestant mission in France. It was started in 1871 by the Rev. R. W. McAll and his wife, and is there known as “Mis- sion Populaire Evangélique de France.” Mr. McAll was a Scotch clergyman in charge of a parish. He and his wife visited Paris after the Commune was suppressed and distributed tracts among the people there. In November of the same year they moved to Paris and lived there. They opened meeting- houses, preached. exhorted, prayed and sang, and taught Sunday-schools and Bible-classes. The mission grew, the stations increased, so that the McAll Mission possesses now over 100 stations (some forty-odd in Paris alone). It is indorsed by the clergymen of all Protestant churches, and sup- ported by Protestant Christians in England, Scot- land, America, Canada, Australia and Switzerland MOCABE, CHARLES C., an American clergyman, popularly known as “Chaplain McCabe,” born at Athens, Ohio, Oct. 11, 1836. He became a travel- ing Methodist minister in 1860; chaplain of in- fantry in 1862; was taken prisoner at the battle of Winchester in 1863, and upon his release made the tour of the Union in the interest of the Christian Commission. Since the war he has traveled in the interest of the Board of Church Extension, and in 1884 he was elected missionary secretary of the Methodist Episcopal church. McCALL, GEORGE ARCHIBALD (1802-1868), an American soldier. From 1831 to 1836 he served as aide to Gen. E. P. Gaines, and then in the Florida and Mexican wars, receiving the brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel. From 1850 to 1853 he was inspector-general of the army. In 1861 he was made brigadier-general, and after two years of active service resigned on account of poor health. He wrote Letters from the Frontier (1868). MCCARTHY, JUSTIN, an Irish journalist, author and statesman, born in Cork, Nov. 22, 1830. He became attached to the staff of the “Northern Times,” Liverpool, in 1853, and in 1860 entered the reporters’ gallery of the house of commons for the “Morning Star,” becoming its foreign editor the fol- lowing autumn and chief editor three years later. He resigned his post in 1868 and devoted the next three years to an unusually complete tour of the United States. Soon after his return he became connected with the “Daily News,” but he has also contributed among other magazines to the “Lon- don,” the “WVestminster” and the “Fortnightly Re- view.” He entered the house of commons in 1879 as member for Longford, and has identified himself throughout with the Home-rule party. In 1890 he was chosen as leader of the Irish Parliamentary party in place of Mr. Parnell. McCarthy’s novels ave, perhaps, extended his name farther than his political triumphs. His other works are Con Amore, a collection of essays, Critical Notice of George Sand; Prohibitorg Legislation in the United States; Modern Leaders, and A History of our Own Times, an exceedingly readable work, clear and useful, though neither erudite nor exhaustive. In 1889 he published his popular History of the Four Georges. ,MoCHEYNE--MCCOOK MCCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY, an eminent Scotch divine, who has been called “the George Whitefield of Scotland,” born at Edinburgh, May 21, 1813, died at Dundee, March 25, 1843. He was educated at the high school and university of his native town, and licensed as assistant preacher in Larbet and Dunipace in 1835. The scene of his life- work was Dundee; he was elected minister of the new church of St. Peter’s there in 1836, and labored in the same parish until his death. In 1839 he vis- ited Palestine as one of a mission of four ministers sent out by the church of Scotland to inquire into the condition of the Jews, and on his return pub- lished, in conjunction with A. A. Bonar, Narrative of a Mission of Enquiry to the Jews. Besides being an eloquent preacher, a man of saintly piety and a most exemplary parish minister, McCheyne wrote hymns and published sermons, both of consider- able merit. MCCLELLAN, GEORGE (1796-1847), an American surgeon. In 1819 he began the practice of medi- cine in Philadelphia, and from 1826 to 1838 was pro- fessor of surgery in J efferson Medical College. From 1839 to 1843 he held a similar office in the medical department of Pennsylvania College. Dr. McClellan left in manuscript The Principles and Practice of Surgery. MCCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINToN (1826-1885), an American soldier. See Britannica,Vol. XXIII, p. 789. MCCLERN AND, J OHN ALEXANDER, an American lawyer, born in 1812. In 1832 he began the practice of law in Shawneetown, Ill., and in 1835 established the Shawneetown “Democrat.” From 1836 to 1842 he was a member of the State legislature, and from 1843 to 1851 served in Congress. In 1859 he was again chosen to Congress, and served till the be- ginning of the civil war, when he resigned and was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army. He was present at many important battles, and gained the rank of major-general. In 1864 he resigned from the army. MCCLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEoPoLD, a British explorer, born in 1819. At the age of 12 he entered the navy, and in 1845 was promoted to a lieuten- ancy. He was a member of an Arctic expedition sent in search of Sir John Franklin in 1848, and of another sent out in 1849. In 1851 he was promoted to the rank of commander, and put in charge of the “Intrepid,” one of the five vessels sent to the polar regions under Sir Edward Belcher. In 1857 ady Franklin gave him the command of the expe- dition sent out by her, which resulted in solving the mystery of Sir John Franklin’s fate. In 1860 he was knighted; in 1871 was made rear-admiral; in 1877 vice-admiral, and in 1884 full admiral. He is the author of The Voyage of the “Fox” in the Arctic Seas (1860). McCLINTOCK, JOHN (1814-1870), an American- educator. In 1835 he began to preach in the New Jersey conference of the Methodist Episcopal church, and in 1836 became professor of mathe- matics in Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. In 1840 he exchanged the mathematical chair for that of Greek and Latin, and from 1848 to 1856 was editor of the “Methodist Quarterly Review.” In 1857 he became pastor of St. Paul’s church, New York City, and from 1860 to 1864 was pastor of the American chapel in Paris. He then returned to the pastorate of St. Paul’s church, but was compelled to resign in 1865 on account of failing health. In 1867 Dr. McClintock was chosen the first president of Drew Theological Seminary at Madison, N. J . He is the author of a Cyclopwdia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature; Sketches of Eminent Metho- dist Ministers, and The Temporal Power of the Pope, besides numerous translations. 1035 McCLOSKEY, J OHN (1810-1885), an American Roman Catholic cardinal. In 1834 he was ordained priest, and in 1837 was appointed pastor of St. J o- seph’s Church. New York City. In 1841 he became the first president of Fordham College, New York, but held the post only a year. In 1844 he was con- secrated bishop, and made coadjutor of the diocese of New York. In 1864 he was made archbishop, and ' in 1875 was created cardinal. MCCOOK, ALEXANDER McDowELL, an American soldier, born in 1831. He entered the army in 1852, and served against the Apaches till 1857. From 1858 to 1861 he was instructor of infantry tactics at West Point, and then became a colonel of the 1st Ohio regiment. Ho commanded in the first battle of Bull Run, in the Tennessee and Mississippi cam- paign, and in the campaigns of Perryville, Stone River,Tullahoma, and Chickamauga, and was en- gaged in the defense of VVashington. In 1880 he was appointed colonel of the 6th infantry, and later became commandant of the school of instruction for infantry and cavalry at Fort Leavenworth, an. MCCOOK, DANIEL (1834-1864), an American sol- dier. He was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1860, and then removed to Leavenworth, Kan. At the be- ginning of the civil war he became a captain in a. local company of volunteers, and served at Wilson’s Creek. He then served as chief of staff of the 1st division of the army of the Ohio in the Shiloh cam- paign, and in 1862 became colonel of the 52nd Ohio infantry. In 1864 he was selected to lead the as- sault that was made on Kenesaw Mountain, and took his brigade directly up to the Confederate works. On reaching the top of the enemy’s works {l9 was fatally wounded and died a few days ater. MCCOOK, EDWIN STANTON (1837-1873), an Ameri- can soldier. VVhen the civil war began he raised a. company for the 31st Illinois regiment, and served at Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, in the Vicksburg, Chattanooga, Atlanta, and other campaigns, and in the march to the sea under Sherman. Gen. McCook was three times severely wounded, and re- ceived the brevet of major-general of volunteers. He was shot and killed in Yankton, Dak., while presiding over a public meeting. MCCOOK, HENRY CHRISTOPHER, an American clergyman, born in 1837 . He served as first lieuten- ant and chaplain in the army, and then held pas- torates at Clinton, Ill., and St. Louis, Mo. In 1869 he was made pastor of the 7th Presbyterian church of Philadelphia. He has written Object and Outline Teaching (1871);The Last Year of Christ’s Ministry (1871) ; The Last Days of Jesus (1872) ; The Tercenten- ary Book (1873); The Mound-Making Ants of the Alle- ghenies (1877); Historic Ecclesiastical Emblems of Pan-Presbyterianism (1880); The Natural History of the Agricultural Ant of Texas (1880) ; Honey and Occi- dent Ants (1882); Tenants of an Old Farm (1884); The VVoman Friends of Jesus (1884); The Gospel in Nature (1887) ; and American Spiders and their Spin- ning Wbrk (1888). MCCOOK, ROBERT LATIMER (1827-1862), an Ameri- can soldier. He acquired a large law practice in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1861 he organized the 9th Ohio regiment, and was made its colonel. He served with distinction in several battles, and was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was shot while lying in an ambulance on the battle- field near Salem, Ala. MCCOOK, Ronnnrcx SHELDoN (1839-1886), a United States naval ofiicer. He entered the navy in 1859, became lieutenant in 1861, lieutenant-com- mander in 1865, and commander in 1873. Durinv the civil war he served with distinction in several 1036 important engagements. On account of failing health he retiredfrom active service in 1885. McCORMICK, CYRUS H., the inventor of the reaping-machine, born at Walnut Grove, Va., Feb. 15,1809, died in 1884. He went to Cincinnati in 1845, and to Chicago in 1847. His reaper, patented in 1834, won him wealth and distinction. He was a liberal promoter of education, and founder of the Theological Seminary of the Northwest. MCCORMICK, RICHARD C., an American author and statesman, born in New York City in 1832, where he was successively a man of business, a 'ournalist, and trustee of public schools. In 1862 e became chief clerk of the department of agricul- ture. He was governor of Arizona 1866-69, and delegate to Congress 1869-75. In 1878 he was com- missioner-general of the United States to the Paris Exposition, and received the decoration of the Legion of Honor. MCCOSH, J AMES, an American educator, born in Scotland in 1811. In 1835 he was ordained minister of the Church of Scotland, and held pastorates in various places till 1862 when he became professor of logic and metaphysics in Queen’s College, Bel- fast, Ireland. Here he remained till 1868 when he removed to the United States, having been elected president of Princeton College. He resigned the presidency of the college in 1888, but retained the chair of philosophy. Dr. McCosh has written Meth- od of Divine Government, Physical and Moral ( 1850) ; Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation (1855); Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Investigated (1860) : The Supernatural in Relation to the Natural (1862); Examination of Mill’s Philosophy, being a Defense of Fundamental Truth ( 1866 ) ; Laws of Discursive Thought, being a Treatise on Formal Logic (1869); Christianity and Positivism (1871) ; The Scottish Phil- ~osophy, Biographical, Expository, Critical from Hutchison to Hamilton ( 1874) ; A Reply to Prof. Tyn- 'dall’s Belfast Address (1875) ; The Development Hypo- thesis (1876); The Emotions (1880) ; and Philosophical Series (1886). MCCULLOCH, BEN (1811-1862), an American soldier. He supported the Texan revolutionists in their struggle for independence, and in 1839 was elected to the'congress of Texas. In 1845 he be- came a member of the first legislature, and was made major-general of the state militia. At the beginning of the Mexican war he raised a company of Texas rangers, and later showed great courage as a spy. In 1852 he was appointed United States marshal, and in 1857 was appointeda commissioner to adjust the difiiculties with the Mormons of Utah. In 1861 he was made a brigadier-general in the Confederate army, and did good service in several engagementsl He was killed by the bullet of a sharp-shooter while reconnoitering. MGCULLOCH, HUGH, a Secretary of the United States Treasury, born in 1808. He studied law in Boston, and then went to Fort Wayne, Ind., where, in 1835, he became cashier of a branch of the State bank. From 1856 to 1863 he was president of the bank of the State of Indiana, and then became comptroller of the currency. In 1865 he was ap- pointed Secretary of the Treasury, and held oflice till 1869. From 1871 to 1878 he was engaged in banking in London, and in 1884 was again ap- ointed to the office of Secretary of the Treasury, holding the post till the end of Arthur’s Adminis- t . ration. McCULLOUGH, J onn EDWARD (1837-1885), an American actor. In 1855 he made his first appear- ance in Philadelphia, in a minor character in “The Belle’s Stratagem,” and then chose the stage as a regular profession. From 1866 to 1868 he traveled with Edwin Forrest, and from 1869 to 1872 man- l MC9~0R~MI~cK--MeeEE- -aged the Bush street theatre in San Francisco. From 1873 to 1884 the tragedian appeared through the United States in the heroic roles of “Brutus,” “Jack Cade,” “The Gladiator,” “Virginius,” and “Damon and Pythias.” He then became prostrated, mentally and physically, and ended his days in a- lunatic asylum. MCDONALD, EDWARD F., an American states- man, born in Ireland, Sept. 21, 1844. He came to the United States with his parents while an infant and received a common school education. In poli- tics he is a Democrat. In 1874 he was elected a member of the New Jersey assembly, and in 1877 and 1879 was a member of the board of Chosen Freeholders of Hudson county, N. J . In 1889 he was elected a State senator, and in 1890 was elected a Representative from the 7th Congressional dis- trict of New Jersey to the 52nd Congress. He served in the Union army during the war of the Rebellion. MCDONALD, GEORGE, a British poet and novel- ist, born at Huntley, Aberdeenshire, in 1824. He studied theology with the intention of becoming a Congregational minister, but he decided afterwards to devote himself entirely to literature. His views are extremely broad and liberal, and his style of writing has a peculiar charm. His best known works are David Elginbrod (-1862);Alec Forbes of Howglen; Annals of a Quiet Neighborhood; Seaboard Parish; Robert Falconer; Wilfried Cumbermede; The Portend, a Story of Second Sight; Thomas Winfield, Curate; The Marquis of Lossie; At the Back 0 the North-wind; The Gifts of the Child Christ; an The Miracles of our Lord. In 1877 he received a pension of £100, in consideration of his literary services. Dr. McDonald is also an eloquent preacher and lec- turer, and pays annual visits to England from Bordighera where he resides. All his works are full of poetry, and of high moral and religious purpose. MCDOWELL, IRVIN (1818-1885), an American soldier. In 1838 he became a 2nd lieutenant in the 1st artillery of the United States army, and served till 1841 on the northern frontier. From 1841 . to 1845 he was instructor of infantry tactics at the United States military academy, and then became aide-de-camp to General John E. Wool; In 1848 he was appointed adjutant-general in the war de- partment in Washington, and in 1856 attained the rank of major. In 1861 he was made brigadier- general, and commanded the department of north-' eastern Virginia, and the defenses of Washington, and also the army of the Potomac at the battle of Bull Run. In 1864 he was given the command of the department of the Pacific; in 1866 of California; in 1868 of the East, and in 1872 of the South. In 1882 he retired from active service, having gained the rank of major-general. MGDUFFIE, GEORGE, (1788-1851), a governor of South Carolina. He was admitted to the bar in 1814, and in 1818 was sent to the South Carolina legislature. In 1821 he was chosen to Congress as a Democrat, and served until 1834. He was then elected governor of his State, which oflice he held till 1836, when he retired to private life. From 1842 to 1846, he was ‘a United States Senator. He published,besides numerous addresses, an “Eulogy on Robert Y. Hayne” (1840). MCGEE, THoMAs D’ARcY (1825-1868),a Canadian statesman. For a time he was editor of the Boston, Mass., “Pilot,” and then went to Ireland where he was on the staff of the Dublin “Freeman’s Journal,” and later of “The Nation.” In 1848 he established in New York “The American Celt,” and then “The Nation.” Subsequently he settled in Canada, and established a paper called “The New Era.” In 1857 M C,c'L.Y NN - he was chosen to the Canadian parliament, and from 1864 to 1867, was president of the executive council. On the evening of April 7, 1868. when re- turning from a night session of parliament, he was assassinated at the door of his hotel. He wrote Historical Sketches of O’Connell and his Friends (1845); Irish Writers of the Seventeenth Century (1846) ; Memoir of the Life and Conquests of MacMur- rough, King of Leinster (1847); Irish Letters (1852); Life of Edward McGinn, Coadjutor Bishop of Derry (1857) ; Canadian Ballads (1858) ; Popular History of Ireland (1862), and Speeches and Addresses on the British American Union (1865). MCGLYN N, EDWARD, an American clergyman, born in 1837. In 1860 he was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood, and in 1866 became pastor of St. Stephen’s church in New York City. In 1886, on account of his ignoring the papal demands to ap- pear at the Vatican on a charge of his support of Henry George’s land theories, he was excommuni- cated. In 1887 Doctor McGlynn became president of the anti-poverty society, and in behalf of his economic opinions, he has lectured in nearly all of the principal cities of the United States. MCGUFFEY, WILLIAM I-ICLMES, an American ed- ucator, born in Washington county, Pa.,in 1800,died at Charlottsville, Va., May 5, 1873. He became pro- fessor in Miami University in 1836; president of Ohio University in 1839,and professor of moral philo- sophy in the University of Virginia in 1845. He is best known for his school books, especially his pop- ular series of readers. MCILVAINE, CHARLES PETTIT (1799-1873), an American Protestant Episcopal bishop. In 1820 he was made deacon, and in 1821 priest. He became pastor of Christ church, Georgetown, D. C., and lat- er was appointed professor of ethics in the United States military academy. In 1827 he was called to St. Ann’s church, Brooklyn, N. Y., and in 1831 was made professor of sacred antiquities in the univer- sity of the City of New York. In 1832 he was elected bishop, and chosen president of Kenyon College. He published Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity (1832); Oxford Divinity Compared With That of the Roman and Anglican Churches, With a Special View of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith (1841); The Holy Catholic Church (1844); No Priest, no Altar, no Sacrifice, but Christ (1846), and Reasons for Refusing to Consecrate a Church Having an Altar (1846), besides numerous sermons and addresses. MCINTOSH, JAMES SIMMONS (1787-1847), an American soldier. In 1812 he entered the United States army as lieutenant, and served throughout the Greek war. In 1817 he became a captain, in 1836 major, and in 1839 lieutenant-colonel. He partici- pated in several important battles of the Mexican war, and was mortally wounded in the assault on Molino del Rey. MCINTOSH, J OHN, an American general, born in McIntosh county, Ga., in 1755, died there in 1826. He served in the Revolutionary war as a lieuten- ant-colonel of the Georgia militia, defending the fort at Sunbury, in Liberty county, when it was besieged by a strong British force. At the battle of Briar Creek, March 3, 1779, he displayed great bravery, surrendering only when further resist- ance was impossible. During the last months of the war of 1812-14, he served under Jackson as major-general of the Georgia militia. MCINTOSH, LACHLAN (1725-1806), an American soldier. At seventeen years of age he entered a counting-house i11 Charleston, S. C., and subse- quently became a land-surveyor at Inverness (now Darien), Ga. In 1776 he was appointed brigadier- general of militia, and two years later accepted a command in the central army under Washington, MCKINNEY 1037 doing good service throughout the war. In 1784 he was a member of Congress. MCINTOSH, MARIA JANE (1803-1878), an Ameri- can authoress. Her first work was Blind Alice, ublished in 1841 under the pen-name of “Aunt itty,” and from that time she devoted her life to literature. Among her most popular works are Conquest and Self-Conquest (1844) ; Praise and Prin- cipal (1845); Two Lives, to Seem and to Be (1846); Charms and Counter Charms (1848) ; Woman in America, Her Work and Reward (1850) ; The Lofty and the Lowly (1852) ; Evenings~at Donaldson Manor (1852); Emily Herbert (1855) ; Violet, or the Cross and Crown (1856); Meta Gray (1858), and Two Pict- ures (1863 . * MCKE N, THCMAS (1734-1817), a signer of the Declaration of Independence. In 1754 he was ad- mitted to the Delaware bar, and the following year became deputy attorney-general of Sussex county. From 1762 to 1779, he was a member of the general assembly, and in 1765 was elected to the stamp-act Congress. The same year he became judge of the court of common pleas, collector of the port of New Castle in 1771, Speaker of the House of Representa- tives 1772, and from 1774 to 1783, was member of the Continental Congress. From 1799 to 1808, he was governor of Pennsylvania. MCKEESPORT, a borough of Allegheny county. Pa., on the Monongehela River, fifteen miles south- east of Pittsburgh. It has flour, saw, and rolling mills, large manufactories of iron-pipes, glass works foundries, machine-shops, and a distillery. Natural gas is used for fuel to some extent. Population in 1880, 8,912; in 1890, 20,711. MCKENDREE, WILLIAM, an American Methodist bishop, born in Virginia, July 6, 1757, died in 1835. Originally a revolutionary officer, he became a preacher in 1788, presiding elder in 1796, and bishop in 1808 He was largely instrumental in planting Methodism west of the Alleghenies and in founding McKendree College at Leban on,Ill.,to which institu- tion he bequeathed 480 acres of land. After 1816 he was senior bishop for 19 years. He was elo- quent in the pulpit, and careful in the administra- tion of discipline, and introduced system into all the operations of the church. MCKINLE Y, WILLIAM, an American statesman, born at Niles, Ohio, Feb. 26, 1844. He enlisted in the United States army in May, 1861, as a private soldier in the 23d Ohio Volunteer Infantry, and was mustered out as captain of the same regiment and brevet-major in September, 1865; was prosecuting attorney of Stark county, Ohio, 1869-71 ; was elect- ed to Congress in 1877; lost his seat by vote of the House in 1884; was reelected and sat continuously as a member of Congress from 1885 to March 4, 1891. He is author of the protective tarifi‘ bill passed by Congress in 1890. See TARIFF and UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. MCKINNEY, a village, the county-seat of Collin county, Texas. It has large flour-mills and is sit- uated in a grain and stock-raising locality. MCKINNEY, LUTHER F.. an American statesman and divine, born in Licking county, Ohio, April 25, 1841. He received a common school education; served as a sergeant in the Union army from 1861- 1863; removed to Iowa in 1865, and spent two years in farming and teaching. In September, 1867, he entered the Saint Lawrence University, New York, graduating in 1870; removed to Maine and entered the ministry; removed to New Hampshire in 1873. In politics he is a Democrat, and was elected a Representative from the 1st Congressional district of New Hampshire to the 50th Congress. In 1890 he was elected from the same district to the 52nd Congress. 1038 MCLANE, Lonrs (1786-1857), an American states- man. From 1798 to 1801 he was in the United States navy, and then studied law and was ad- mitted to the Delaware bar in 1807. From 1817 to 1827 he was a Democrat in Congress, and then till 1829 served as a United States Senator. From 1829 to 1831 he was minister to England, and then be- came Secretary of the Treasury. In 1834 he retired from political life, and from 1837 to 1847 was president of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Com- pany. In 1845-6 he again served as minister to England. MCLANE, ROBERT MILLIGAN, an American diplo- matist, born in 1815. In 1837 he joined the army and took an active part in the Seminole war as a lieutenant. In 1839 he was on a military survey of the northern lakes, and in 1841 went to Europe to examine the system of dykes and drainage in Holland and Italy. In 1843 he began the practice of law at the Delaware bar, and in 1845, 1847, and 1849 was elected to Congress. From 1854 to 1856 he was United States commissioner to China, and in 1859 was appointed minister to Mexico. In 1877 he was elected to the United States Senate, and in 1888 to the House of Representatives, receiving a reélection in 1880. In 1883 he became governor of Maryland, and in 1885 was appointed minister to France. MGLAWS, LAEAYETTE, an American soldier, born in 1821. He entered the United States army in 1842 and was in active service till 1861, when he became a colonel in the Confederate army. A little later he was commissioned a brigadier-general, and in 1862 was promoted major-general. He participated in nearly all the important battles of the civil war, and at the close went into business at Savannah, Ga. In 1875 he was appointed collector of internal revenues in that city. and the following year was made post-master. In 1886 he opened a series of lectures in Boston by northern and southern mili- tary leaders, his subject being “The Maryland Campaign.” MCLEAN, J OHN (1785-1861), an American jurist. In 1807 he began the practice of law at Lebanon, Ohio, and in 1812 was elected to Congress, receiv- ing a reelection two years later. From 1816 to 1822 he was judge of the State supreme court, and then was appointed commissioner of the general land office. From 1823 to 1829 he was postmaster-gen- eral, and in 1830 became associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. He wrote Reports of the United States Circuit Court (1829-1855) ; and Eulogy on James Monroe (1831), besides several ad- dresses. MCMAHON, MARIE EDME PATRIcE MAURIcE DE, Duo DE MAGENTA, marshal of France and second president of the French Republic, born at Sully Saone-et-Loire, in 1808, He came from an Irish Catholic family settled in France. He was edu- cated at the military school of St. Cyr, and took partin the expedition to Algiers. McMahon dis- tinguished himself in the assault on Constantine in 1837. In 1845 he rose to be colonel; in 1848 general of brigade, and in 1852 general of division. During the Crimean war he captured by a spirited assault the Malakoif, which was the key to the defenses of Sebastopol. For this achievement he was made a Senator in 1859. At the opening of the Italian war in 1850 he commanded the second corps of the army of the Alps. At the battle of Magenta, on June 4, he arrived just in time to make it a decisive vic- tory. For this service he was created Duke of Ma- genta and marshal of France. In 1870 when the Franco-Prussian war broke out McMahon commanded the first army corps which had to defend Alsace. But he was defeated at Wbrth and afterwards at Sedan. At the latter 1 MoLANE——MoWHINNEY place he was chief in command, but was wounded at the beginning of the engagement. In 1871, as chief of the army at Versailles, he wrested Paris from the commune. When Thiers resigned the presidency in 1873, McMahon was chosen to suc- ceed him; but he was too conservative for the ma- jority of the Republicans. When the latter de- manded the removal of some Bonapartist generals, McMahon resigned the presidency, Jan. 30, 1879. He has since lived in retirement. MONAB, SIR ALLEN NAPIER, a Canadian states- man, born at Niagara in 1798, died at Toronto in 1862. In the war of 1812 he served as midshipman in expeditions against Sackett’s Harbor and other American ports on Lake Ontario, and afterwards as ensign in the army. After that war he studied law. Subsequently he was made clerk in the assem- bly of Upper Canada, and finally he became speaker of that body. In the insurrection of 1837 McNab- was colonel of the militia on the Niagara frontier and routed the insurgents near Toronto. When: their leader, VV. L. Mackenzie, took Navy Island and received reinforcements and supplies by the steamer Caroline from the American side, McNab> seized and burnt the steamer and sent her adrift over the falls. He was speaker of the united prov- inces of Canada in 1844, prime-minister, 1846-56, and a member of the legislative council in 1860- He was made a baronet in 1858. MCPHERSON, JAMES BIRDSEYE (1828-1864) an American soldier. He entered the army in 1853,. became 2nd lieutenant in 1854, lieutenant in 1858,. captain and lieutenant-colonel in 1861, colonel, brigadier-general of volunteers, and major-generals of volunteers 1862, and brigadier-general in the regular army, 1863. He took part in many import-- ant battles of the civil war, always displaying a correct judgment, coolness in danger, quick per- ception, knowledge of ground, and untiring energy. He was killed near Atlanta, Ga., while in command.‘ of the Army of the Tennessee. His statue in bronze- stands in one of the public parks of VVashington. ' MCTYEIRE, HOLLAND NIMMoNs, an American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church, South, born in 1824. He joined the Virginia conference in 1845, and the following year took charge of St. Francis street church, Mobile, Ala. Afterwards he was stationed at Demopolis, Ala., Columbus, Miss., and New Orleans, La. In 1851 he became editor of the New Orleans “Christian Advocate,” and in 1858 of the Nashville “Christian Advocate.” During the- civil war he was pastor at Montgomery, Ala., and in 1866 was elected to the episcopate. In 1873: he became president of the board of Vanderbilt University. He has written Duties of Christian Mas-~ ters (1851); Catechism on Church Government (1869); Catechism on Bible History (1869); Manuel of Disci- pline (1870) and History ofMethodism (1884). MCVEAGH, WAYNE, born in Phoenixville, Pa. April 19, 1833; admitted to the bar in 1856; captairr of cavalry, 1862; minister to Constantinople, 1872; member of the commission to investigate the af- fairs of Louisiana in 1877 ; appointed attorney-gen- eral of the United States in 1881; resigned in 1881. MGWVI-IINNEY, THOMAS MARTIN, D. D., an Amer- ican minister, born i11 Ohio in 1823, and educated at Oxford University, Ohio, and at the Meadville Theological School, Pa. During the civil war he was. appointed chaplain of the 57th Indiana Volunteers. He has been editor of the “Herald of Gospel Lib- erty.” He was called to the pastorate of St. Paul’s Evangelical church, 34th Street, New York City in 1881,which position he occupied for six years. He is. now (1891) pastor of the First Christian church of Marion, Ind. Union Christian College, Ind., con- , ferred upon him the degree of Doctor of Divinity: MCVICKAR~—MAFFITT He is the author of Crime Legalized; Heavenly Recog- nition, and Reason and Revelation, which latter work- has gone through several editions. MCVICKAR, JCHN (1787-1868), an American cler- gyman. In 1811 he took orders in the Protestant Episcopal church, and became rector of St. J ames’s church, Hyde Park, N. Y. From 1817 to 1864 he was professor of moral philosophy, rhetoric, and evidences of Christianity in Columbia College, and from 1844 to 1862 was chaplain to the United States forces on Governor’s Island, N. Y. He wrote Narrative of the Life of Dr. Samuel Bard (1822) ; First Lessons in Political Economy (1825) ; Memoirs of Rev. Edmund D. Griflin (1831); Early Years of Bishop Ho- bart (1834), and Professional Years of Bishop Hobart (1836). MADAGASCAR. For general article on MADA- GASCAR see Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 168-176. The area of the island is now estimated at 228,500 square miles; total length, 975 miles, breadth at widest point 358 miles. Population, about 3,500,000. No census has ever been undertaken by the native govern- ment, and it resents any attempt at census taking by foreign- ers. It is therefore on y b vague and uncertain estimates that any idea can be forme of the population of the island as a whole or of that of particular districts. There are reasons for thinking that the population of Imerina was decreasing during the sanguinary reign of Queen Ranavalona I. (1828-1861); but it is believed that it is now slowly increasing in consequence of the spread of education, civilization, and Christian teaching. The female population seems in excess of the male. A number of foreign residents live on the coasts, chiefly Creoles from Mauritius and Bour- bon, mostly English subjects. The most powerful, intelli- gent, and enterprising tribe is the Hova, whose language allied to the Malayan and Oceanic tongues, is understood over a large part of the island, and who have been dominant for the last fifty years. The people are divided into a great many clans, who seldom intermarry. The Hocas are estimated to number 1,000,000; the other races, more or less mixed, are the Sakalavas in the west, 1,000.000; the Bétsileos, 600,000; Bavas, 200,000; Betsimi Sakaras, 400,000; Antatiavas, 200,000. In the coast towns are many Arab traders and there are be- sides many negroes from Africa introduced as slaves. The capital, Antananarivo, in the interior, is estimated to have, with suburbs, a population of 100,000. The principal port is Tamatave, on the east coast,with a opulation of 10,000. Mo- janga, the chief port on the nort —west coast, has about 14,000 inhabitants. Slavery exists in a atriarchal form. PRESENT REIGNING FAMILY AND ovERNnENT.—Queen Ranavalona (or Ranavalona) III. was born about 1861; ap- pointed successor by the late Queen Ranavalona II.; suc- ceeded to the throne on her death, July 13, 1883; shortly after she married the prime minister, Rainilaiarivony. and was crowned Nov. 22, 1883. The present queen is great-granddaughter of Rahety, sister of King Andrianampoinimerlna (1787-1810). At various peri- ods, 1820, 1861, 1865, and 1868, treaties have been concluded with Great Britain, the United States, and France. By a treaty signed at Tamatave. Dec. 12, 1885, a French resident- general, with a small military escort, resides at the capital, and the foreign relations of the country are regulated by France, which occupies a district around the Bay of Diego- Suarez as a colony. But the native government has retained the right of receiving the crequaters of foreign consuls, and has maintained its right of direct negotiation with foreign owers in all commercial matters; an retains absolute in- ependence in all domestic legislation and control of the other tribes of the country. The government is an absolute monarchy. modified and tempered by customs and usages having the force of law; and during the last quarter of a century the power of the sovereign has been gradually limited and controlled. REVENUE AND FINANCE.—ThS chief source of revenue is the customs, and a small poll tax is paid; but the personal serv- ice which every Malagasy has to render is the mainstay of the government. The only fixed payments are those made to the queen, the prime minister, and the army. In 1886 the Malagasy government borrowed from the Paris Comptoir d’Escompte a sum of 15 millions francs, of which 10 millions went to pay the Indemnity to France. No statistics of public revenue are obtainable. MADISON, a village, the county-seat of Morgan county, Ga., about seventy miles from Atlanta. The cotton trade is the chief business, and granite and iron ore are found here. MADISON, a city of Indiana. Population in 1870, 10,709; in 1880, 8,945; in 1890, 8,923. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 181. 1039 MADISON, a post-village of Morris county, N. J ., twenty-eight miles from New York. It is the home of many New York business men. It manufactures screws and contains Drew Theological (M. E.) Sem- mary. MADISON, the capital of Wisconsin, celebrated for the beauty of its location between two lakes, and its cool, healthful summer climate. The Capi- tol Park, with the fine State capitol building, is in the center of the city. Madison is an important railroad center. Population in 1890, 13.392. See- Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 181. MADISON, JAMES (1749-1812), an American Prot- estant Episcopal bishop. In 1773 he became pro- fessor of natural philosophy, and later of mathe-- matics in William and Mary College, and in 1777 was chosen president, holding the ofiice till his. death. In 1775 he was made priest of the Protest- ant Episcopal church, and in 1790 was consecrated bishop. His most important publication was a Eulogy on Washington (1800). MADISON UNIVERSITY, now CCLGATE UNI- VERSITY. See CCLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE. UNITED STATES In these Revisions and Addi- tions. MADISONVILLE, a post-village, the county-seat of Hopkins county, Ky. It is situated in a tobacco- growing region, and contains tobacco-stemmeries, a pearlash and potash factory, flour and planing mills, a cotton gin, and wagon and carriage manu- factories. Coal fields are in the vicinity. MADLER, J OHANN HEINRICH, a German astrono- mer, born at Berlin in 1794, died at Hanover, in 1874. While a teacher in the normal school at Ber- lin he constructed a map of the moon, which was. published in 1836. After this he became success- ively director of the observatory at Berlin, and at Dorpat, Russia, where he made important observa- tions on Mars and Jupiter, and on double and vari- able stars. He published Populdre Astronomie (18-11); Allgemeine Selenographie, and Geschichte der H immelskunde (1873). In his work Die Centralsonne he presented the hypothesis of a central sun,, around which the whole stellar universe revolves. He named the star Alcyone as the central sun. MADOC, a post-village in Hastings county, On- tario, twenty-eight miles north of Belleville. It. has good water-power, and marble, iron and gold are found in the vicinity. MADSTONE, a stone popularly reputed to be a cure for hydrophobia and snake bites. The stone is applied to the wound, from which it is supposed to absorb the virus. Madstones are credited with remarkable cures by many people, but the be- lief in their value has no scientific sanction. MADVIG, J OHANN NIKCLAI, a Danish statesman and philologist, of Jewish descent, born at Svaneke, Bornholm, in 1804, died in 1886. After being edu- cated at the University of Copenhagen he was made professor of the Latin language and litera- ture there. He published editions of Livy, Juvenal, Cicero, and Lucretius, a Latin Grammar, and Adver- saria Critica ad Seriptores Grazcos et Latinos (1871- 8-1) ; also Die Verwaltung des riimischen Staates (1882). In 18-18 Madvig was minister of public worship, and in 1852 minister of public instruction. Afterwards he was again professor of classical philology at the University of Copenhagen. He excelled in the knowledge of the classics. MAFFITT, J OHN NEWLAND (1795-1850), an Ameri- can clergyman. Born in Ireland, in 1819 he emi- grated to America and in 1822 entered the New England conference of the Methodist Episcopal church. In 1832 he became a local preacher in New York City and an evangelist. In 1833 he es- tabhshed at Nashville, Tenn., the “Western Metho- 1040 dist,” afterwards the “Christian Advocate,” and later was for a short time professor of elocution in La Grange College, Ala. In 1841 he became chap- lain to the National House of Representatives, and in 1145-46 edited at Auburn, N. Y., the “Calvary Token.” Toward the close of his life his popularity waned, and his mind was troubled by charges which were brought against his moral character. He wrote Tears of Contrition (1821) ; Pulpit Sketches (1828) ; and a volume of Poems (1839). MAFIA, or MAEEIA a secret Italian organiza- tion with a history dating its origin probably in Sicily, and having for its present object the enforce- ment of private vengeance.* In Southern Italy, and specially in Sicily, its membership was largely made up of murderers and assassins. Its ramifica- tions extended into some cities and towns of the United States, and in New Orleans, where a large Italian population has gathered during several years past, the murderous work of the Mafia in 1888, 1889, and 1890, was constantly on the increase and in J une, 1890, culminated in a desperate fight between two factions of the streets of New Orleans. This determined the municipal authorities to break up the organization. In order to prevent, this, the Mafia, in October of that year, murdered Hennes- sey, chief of police. Arrests were made, but owing to the secrecy and influence of the conspirators, the criminals after great delays were brought to trial before a jury which failed to convict. In March, 1891, six of the arrested men had escaped conviction by the jury, and ten were in jail with the prospect also of a similar escape from justice. Multitudes of the people were incensed over the re- sults of the trial, and an indignation mass meeting was called, and after exciting speeches were made, an excited populace, under determined leaders, broke open the jail, and in defiance of all law, shot the Italian prisoners who had been charged with the assassination of chief Hennessey. This in brief is the incipient story of the “Mafia incident,” which led to an exciting controversy between the Italian government and that of the United States. MAGADOXO, or MUKDISHA, a commercial town on the east coast of Africa, in the Somali country, in Lat. 2O 2’ N. It belon s to the Imaum of Mus- cat. The town is divide into two parts; one com- posed wholly of tombs, the other comprising about 150 houses, a mosque, and several minarets of Arabian architecture. The exports are dhurra, beans, peas, cattle, cotton, spices, etc. *Aletter in an old English magazine tells the following story of the origin of the Mafia organization: The “Mafia” societ is over six hundred years old, having its origin at the revo t of Palermo which took place during an Easter ceremonial in the suburbs of that cit 1n the year 1282. Abeautiful young girl and her betrothe , In accord- ance with the quamt and primitive customs of that peo le, approached the Church of the Holy Ghost to be umte in marriage at its altar and while the lover sought the vener- able padre in the lit le room at the rear of the building, his bride paused upon its threshold. As she stood, expectant- graceful as a fawn, fair as a dream, her innocent heart throb- bing with its new-born happiness—-a drunken ser eant of the French garrison, Druet by name, strode up behin her threw his arm about her wais , and thrust a huge, brutal hand into her pure, snowy bosom. With a cry of horror and fear the poor child tore herself from his polluting grasp and turned to fly, but the heel of her dainty slipper cau ht In the coping of the stone pavement and she ell, striking er head against a sharp projection of the church cornice. At that instant the returning lover’s eyes fell upon his beautiful mistress—lying lifeless, her white brow gaping with its cruel wound, her long tresses dabbled with her blood. With the savage fury of a wild beast he threw himself upon Druet, bore him to the earth, and drove his stiletto to the wretch’s heart crying “Morte alla Francial” “Death to the French I’’ There was amoment, a pause of silence, and then that maddened cry became the roar of infuriated thousands. It swelled and deepened; it took more solemn meanin —be- came nationalized-and then burst forth:_ “Morte alla ran- cia Italia anela 1” “Death to the French is Italy’s cry I" For MAFIA—MAGINN MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES, an instrument invented by Otto von Guericke. consisting of two hollow hemis- pheres, gener- ally made of copper or brass, with their edges accurate- ly fitted to- gether, and one of them fur- nished with a stopcock. When the edges are rubbed over with grease, pressed tightly together, and the globe thus formed exhausted of air through the cock, the hemispheres, Which fell asunder before ex- MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES. haustion, are now pressed together with immense . force. MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, or NUBECULZE MAJOR AND MINoR, two cloud-like masses of nebulous stars in the sky of the southern hemisphere. See As- TRONOMY, Britannica, Vol. II, p. 821. MAGENDIE, FRANcoIs, a French physiologist, born at Bordeaux, Oct. 15, 1783, died Oct. 7, 1855. He studied at Paris; in 1819 became a member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1831 professor of anatomy in the College de France. He practiced vivisection extensively, and by this and other means of observation made important additions to knowledge of nerve-physiology, the veins, and the physiology of food. He was the author of Elements de Ph siologie; Lecons sur les Phénoménes physiques de la %'ie; Lecons sur les Fonctions et les Maladies du Systéme Nerveux; and Lecons sur le Sang. He was also the founder, and for ten years the editor, of the Journal de la Physiologic Expérimentale. MAGEROE, the most northerly of the larger European islands, belonging to Norway and lying close to the coast of Finmark, in the Arctic Ocean. It terminates, towards the North Cape, 950 feet in height. Mageroé is twenty-two miles in length, fifteen miles in breadth, and is deeply indented by bays. It supports a few Norwegian and Lappish families. MAGILP, or MEGILP, a composition used by artists in oil-colors as a medium and for glazes. It is made of linseed-oil and mastic varnish. MAGILUS, a remarkable gasteropod found on the coral reefs of warm eastern seas. The young animal settles on the growing coral at the obvious risk of being gradually surrounded and smothered. This is avoided, however, by an entire change in the form of the shell, which is diverted from its original spiral type and grows out into a long ir- regular tube. “A neck and neck race is kept up until the mollusk or the coral dies.” MAGINN, WILLIAM, an Irish author, born at Cork, Nov. 11, 1793, died at Walton-on-Thames, Aug. 21, 1842. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he won a brilliant re utation for precocious scholarship; taught in ork for ten years; and in 1823 removed to London to pursue a seventy-two hours armed bands, headed b the father and betrothed of the hapless girl, hunted own the hated French, and their search was as the quest of the tiger and bloodhound. But retribution was to come after this carnival _of blood, and in dread of the vengeance of the French nat1o_n these unhap y people formed themselves into secret orgamzations witht e password and name of the society made up of the initial letters of the words which compose that fateful death cry, thus forming "Mafia." Its object was resistence to op- pression, and as the lapse of years added to its power and nfluence it stretched forth its hands against the rich and mi hty in behalf of the poor and the down-trodden. To-day it s but the hideous cloak of the creepmg thug and the assassin of the night. IMAGNIFICAT-QMAINE life of letters. His first contributions to “Black- wood’s Magazine” appeared in 1819, and from that date for nine years scarcely a number appeared without an article from his pen. In 1824 Murray started the short-lived “Representative,” a daily newspaper, and Maginn was sent to Paris to act as foreign correspondent. In 1828 he joined the staff of the “Standard,” and was one of the originators of “Fraser’s Magazine” in 1830. He also contribut- ed numerous papers to the “Quarterly Review,” to “Bentley’s Miscellany,” and to “Punch,” and wrote two romances. His writings were character- ized by learning and wit, but his habit of intem- perance gained the mastery over him and ren- dered his career a failure. His critical and miscel- laneous essays, Homeric Ballads, and Shakespeare Papers were collected in the United States and ed- ited by Dr. R. S. Mackenzie (1855-57). MAGNIFICAT, the “Song of the Virgin Mary,” which, in the Vulgate, begins with Magnificat. MAGNUSEN, FINN, a Danish archaeologist, born at Skalholt, Iceland, in 1781. died at Copenhagen in 1847. After being educated at Copenhagen he became a lawyer in Iceland in 1803, but was in 1815 appointed as professor of northern antiquities and afterwards as keeper of the Archives in Copenha- gen. He prepared a dictionary of Scandinavian mythology and a full exposition of its system. But his chief work is a translation of the older Edda which he published with abundant commentaries in 1821-23. All his writings indicate excellent judgment and extensive learning. MAGRUDER, JoHN B., an American general, born in Virginia about 1810, died in Texas in 1871. He graduated at West Point, and won distinction in the Mexican war; he was wounded at the battle of Chepultepec. He entered the Confederate army in 1861, and served in the Yorktown and Chicka- hominy campaigns. He was put in command of the Western department as major-general in 1862, and was distinguished as an able general. MAHAFFY, J oHN PENTLAND, an Irish educator, born at Chafonaire, Switzerland, in 1839. After be- ing educated in Germany and at Trinity College, Dublin, he was a tutor and lecturer at the latter college, and became a professor of ancient history there in 1869, and Donellian lecturer in theology for 1873-74. He is a veryr able teacher, thorough scholar, and has progressive ideas on education. His most meritorious writings are Lectures on Prim- itive Civilization; Prolegomona to Ancient History, which treats on Egyptian antiquities; Greek Social Life From Homer to Menander; Rambles and Studies in Greece ;History of Greek Classical Literature (1880); and Kant’s Critical Philosophy for English Readers. He is clear, often very brilliant, but not seldom in- accurate in his statement of facts. MAHAN, ASA, an American clergyman, born in 1800. In 1829 he was ordained pastor of the Pitts- ford, N. Y., Congregational Church, and two years later accepted the pastorate of a Presbyterian Church in Cincinnati, Ohio. From 1835 to 1850 he was president of Oberlin College, and then till 1855 of Cleveland (Ohio) University. From 1855 to 1857 he had charge of a Congregational parish at Jackson, and from 1857 to 1860 at Adrian. From 1860 to 1871 he was president of Adrian (Mich.) Col- lege, and then became a resident of England. He has published Scripture Doctrine of Christian Perfec- tion (1839) ; System of Intellectual Philosophy (1845); The Doctrine of the Will (1846); The True Believer-— His Character, Duties and Privileges (1847); The Science of Moral Philosophy (1848) ; Election and the Influence of the Holy Spirit ( 1851) ; Modern Mysteries Explained and Exposed (1855) ; The Science of Logic (1857); Science of Natural Theology (1867); Theism 1041 and Anti-Theism in their Relations to Science (1872); The Phenomena of Spiritualism Scientifically Ex- plained and Exposed (1876); Critical History of the late American War (1877); A System of Mental Phil- pigpgiy (1882); and Critical History of Philosophy MAHAM, DENNIS HART (1802-1871), an Ameri- can engineer. In 1823 he became assistant profes- sor of mathematics in the United States military academy, and in 1825 was made principal assistant professor in engineering. From 1826 to 1830 he was in France studying, and then till his death was pro- fessor of engineering at 1Vest Point, being dean of the faculty after 1838. His death was by suicide during a fit of insanity that resulted from his learn- ing that the Board of Visitors had recommended that he be put on the retired list, although assured by the President that he should be retained. Among his published works are Treatise on Field Fortifica- tions (1836); Elementary Course of Civil Engineering (1837) ; Elementary Treatise on Advanced Guard, Out- posts, and Detachment Service of Troops (1847) ; Ele- mentary Treatise on Industrial Drawing (1853); De- scriptive Geometry, as Applied to the Drawing of For- tifications and Stereometry (1864) ; Military Engineer- ing (1865) ; and Permanent Fortifications (1867). MAHAN, MILo (1819-1870), an American clergy- man. In 1845 he took orders in the Protestant Episcopal church, and in 1848 became rector of Grace church, Jersey City, N. J . From 1857 to 1864 he was professor of ecclesiastical history in the General Theolo ical Seminary, New York City, and then till his eath was rector of St. Paul’s Church, Baltimore, Md. He wrote The Exercise of Faith (1851) ; History of the Church During the First Three Centuries (1860); Reply to Colenso (1863); Pal- mino, a Free Inquiry (1864); and Comedy of Canoni- zation ( 1868). MAHANOY CITY, a borough of Pennsylvania, near the watershed between the Delaware and Sus- quehanna rivers. It has about 20 collieries, and an active trade with the other coal-mines in the neigh- borhood. Population in 1890, 11,291. See Britan- nica, Vol. XX, p. 285. MAHIM, a town of the island of Bombay, 10 miles north of the city of Bombay. The town is ill-built and inhabited chiefly by Christians of Por- tuguese descent, who have here a church and some other relics of former prosperity. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in fishing, the place being famous for its oysters. Population, 9,000. MAIDENHAIR (Adiantum Capillus- Veneris), a small fern with bipinnate frounds, alternate obo- vate and wedge-shaped membranaceous pinnules on capillary stalks, and marginal sori hidden be- neath oblong indusia; growing on moist rocks. MAIGRE (Sciana aquila), a fish of the acanthop- terous family Scianider, common in the Mediter- ranean. It attains a large size, and much resem- bles a large bass. MAILED CHEEKS (Sclerogenidee or Triglidee), a. family of acanthopterous fishes, characterized by an extension of certain sub-orbital bones to the gill-covers to form a bony armor for the checks. The species are widely distributed in the seas of all parts of the world. MAIMATCHIN, a Chinese trading town on the northern boundary of Mongolia, opposite Kiachta, from which it is separated by a narrow strip of neutral territory. Population, 3,000. MAINE, SIR HENRY SUMNER, an English jurist, born in 1822. After graduating at Pembroke Col- lege, Cambridge, he became professor of civil law there, and was afterwards reader on jurisprudence at the Middle Temple, London, until 1862. In 1870 he was professor of jurisprudence at Oxford Uni- 2-29 1042 versity, and since 1877 he has been master of ‘Trinity Hall, Cambridge. His most important works are Ancient Law, Its Connection with the Early History of Society; Village Communities in the East and ll/“est, and Early History of Institutions (1875). He has proved the inaccuracy of the theories which had long prevailed in regard to the institutions of ~civilized society. He died in 1888. MAINE LAW, a law passed by the legislature of the State of Maine, in 1851, prohibiting in that State, in stringent terms, the sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage. MAINE, STATE or. For general article on the State of Maine, see Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 297-- 302. The census reports of 1890 record the revised figures showing the area and population as follows: Area, 33,040; population, 661,086, a net gain during the last decade of 12,150, or 1.87 per cent Capital, Augusta, with a population of 10,521. The total area here given includes 29,895 square miles of land -area and 13,145 of water area. The population of other cities and towns of the state which had each 8,000 inhabitants or over were as follows: Cities. 1890. 1880. Increase. Per Cent. Auburn . . . . . . . . 11,250 9,555 1,695 17 .74 Bangor ........ . . 19,103 16,856 2,247 13.33 Bath . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,723 7,874 849 10.78 Belfast. . . . . . . . . 5,294 5,308 *14 *0. 26 Biddefed. . . . . . . 14, 12,651 1,791 14.16 Lewiston . . . . . . . 21,701 19,081 2,618 13.72 Portland... . . . .. - 36,425 33,810 2,615 ‘ 7 .73 Rockl and . . . . . . 8,174 7,599 575 7. 57 * Decrease. The land areas and populations of the several counties of the State were returned in the census of%890 as follows-the areas being given in square mi es: Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Androscoggin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 48,968 45,042 Aroostook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,700 49,589 41,700 Cumberland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,005 90,949 86,359 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,660 17,053 18,180 Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,312 37,312 38,129 Kennebec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57,012 53,058 Knox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 31,473 32.863 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 21,996 24,821 Oxford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,892 30,586 32,627 Penobscot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,332 72,865 70,476 Piscataquis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,722 16,134 14,872 Sagadahoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 19,452 19,272 Somerset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,664 32,627 32 do. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 27,759 32,463 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,452 44,482 44,484 York ............................. . . 920 62,829 62,257 The column of county areas above gives the land areas only. The following is a full list of the governors of the State of Maine from the beginning, with their dates of service severally: Anson P. Merrill . . . . . . .1855-56 Samuel Wells . . . . . . . . . .1856-57 7 William King, . . . . . . ..1820-21 W. D. Williamson . . . . . .1821-22 Albion K. Parris... . . . . .1822-27 . Hamhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..185 Enoch Lincoln . . . . . . . ..1827-29 Joseph H. Williams.. . .1857-58 E1 MAINE LAW--MAKART Nathan Cutler ........ ..1829-30 Lot M. Morrill ....... . .. 1858-61 Jonathan D. Hunton.. .1830-31 Israel Washburn, Jr... .1861-68 Samuel E. Smith . . . . . ..1831-34 Abner Coburn ........ . .1863-64 Robert P. Dunlap . . . . ..1834-38 Samuel Corry . . . . . . . . ..1864-67 Edward Kent . . . . . . . . . .1838-39 J . L. Chamberlain... . . . 1867-71 John Fairfield . . . . . . . . ..1839—40 Sydney Perham . . . . . . . . 1871-74 Edward Kent . . . . . . . . ..1840-41 Nelson Dingley, J r.. . . .1874-76 John Fairfield . . . . . . . . ..1841-43 Seldon Connor ....... ..1876-79 Edward Kavanagh. . . . .1543-44 Alonzo Garcelon . . . . . ..1879-80 Hugh J . Anderson... . ..1844—47 Daniel F. Davis ...... ..1880—81 John W. Dana . . . . . . . . . .1847-50 Harris M. Plaisted. . . . .1881-83 John Hubbard ........ ..1850-53 Frederick Robie... . . . . .1883—87 W. G. Crosby . . . . . . . . . ..1 Joseph R. Bodwel1.....1887-89 853-55 Edwin C. Burleigh, 1889-93. The governor’s term of oflice is for two years; salary $2,000. Governor Burleigh was reélected for the term beginning Jan. 1, 1891. , ABBREVIATED HISTORIC REooRD.—The territory ' of Maine was first discovered by Norsemen in 990, and re-discovered by Sebastian Cabot in’ 1497. It. is believed, however, that the coast was not visited until the French expedition under Verazzano in 1524. The first settlement was made in 1604 by the French under DuMont. In 1605 the coast near the river St. George was visited by Capt. Weymouth, and this resulted in the expedition to the mouth of the Kennebec River in 1607. In 1616 Capt. John Smith took possession of Monhegan Island. In 1620 James I. of England granted to the Plymouth Colony the whole country from the 40th to 48th de- gree of north latitude. In 1622 Capt. John Mason and Gorges obtained from the Plymouth Colony a grant of the territory between the Kennebec and Merrimac rivers, and a year later planted a col- ony at the mouth of the Piscataqua. Most of the settlements were destroyed by the Indian war of 1675. The French claimed the territory east of the Penobscot River until after the Revolution of 1775. The province between the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers was granted by Charles II. to his brother James, the Duke of York (afterwards James II.), in 1664, and the whole country was surrendered to Massachusetts in 1689; but the latter relinquished Nova Scotia, and the rest was secured to her by the treaty of 1783, and thence forward she retained jur- isdiction over it as “the district of Maine.” By act of Congress approved March 3, 1820, Maine was ad- mitted (March 15 of the same year) as a State into the Union. The “Maine Boundary Question,” long pending between Great Britain and the United States, was finally settled by the Ashburton treaty concluded Aug. 9, 1842. _ For numerous other items of interest relating to the State of Maine, see the article UNITED STATES in these Revisions and Additions. - Progress of the State in population by decades: In 1790, 96,540; 1800, 151,719; 1810,. 228,705 ; 1820, 298,269; 1830, 390,455; 1840, 501,793; 1850, 583,169; 1860, 628,279; 1870, 626,915; 1880, 648,936; 1890, 661,- 086. MAINTENANCE, CAP or, sometimes called CAP or DIGNITY and CAP or ESTATE, a cap of crimson velvet lined with ermine, with two points turned to the back, originally in heraldry, belonging to nobles exclusively, but afterward assigned to various fam- ilies of distinction. Those families who are en- titled to a cap of maintenance place their crests on it instead of on a wreath. Also a cap of state car- ried before sovereigns of England at their corona- tion, and before the mayors of certain cities on special occasions. AIZE, INDIAN CORN. See CoRN in these Revi- sions and Additions. MAKART, HANS, an Austrian painter, born at Salzburg, in 1840, died at Vienna, in 1884. He studied under Piloty, at Munich. Afterwards he became professor of painting in the Vienna acad- emy. In 1876 his large picture of Venie Doing Homage to Catharine Cornaro was exhibited at the MAKEMIE—MAURITIUS centenial exhibition in Philadelphia. It is now in the Berlin national gallery. Among his other works are Roman Ruins; The Plague at Florence; Cleopatra, and Entrance of Charles V. into Antwerp. He also painted many scenes from Shakespeare. All his large canvases are brilliant in coloring, but often too crowded; and some of his themes are sensuous. MAKEMIE, FRANCIS, an American clergyman, died in 1708. He was licensed to preach in 1681, and subsequently engaged in trade with the West Indies. In 1699 he returned to preaching and traveled through many of the colonies, delivering sermons wherever he could find an audience. He wrote Catechism (1691) ; An Answer to George Keith’s Libel (1692); Truth in a New Light (1699); A Plain and Loving Persuasive to the Inhabitants of Indiana and Virginia, etc. (1704), and a Letter to Lord Corn- bury (1707). MALACHI. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 313. MALACOLOGY (Gr. Malalcos, “soft”), a name sometimes employed to designate that branch of natural history which has mollusks for its subject. MALAN, CESAR HENRY ABRAHAM, a Swiss clergy- zman, born at Geneva, in 1787, died there in 1864. While studying theology at Geneva, he was a rationalist; but in 1817 he became an Evangelical Trinitarian. He held Calvinistic views that were not tolerated at the time, and he was therefore ex- cluded from that pulpits. Malan was a man of a deeply spiritual nature. He made missionary tours in various Protestant countries and produced re- markable revivals. His hymns Les Chants de Lion, with music, were very popular. His works, The Church of Rome; Stories for Children, and Pictures from Switzerland have been translated into Eng- ish. MALAN, SOLOMAN CESAR, an English clergyman, son of the preceding, born at Geneva, in 1812. He graduated at St. Edmund’s Hall, Oxford, went to Calcutta as classical professor in Bishop’s College in 1838, and took orders in the church of England. After his return to England he became vicar of Broadwindsor, Dorsetshire, in 1845, and was made prebendary at Sarum in 1870. Malan has written many works on ecclesiatical subjects, British birds, travels, etc., and has translated many books from Russian, Chinese, Ethiopic, and other languages. He understands many languages and is considered the greatest polyglot scholar now living. MALARIA, SWAMP-FEVER. XV, pp. 316-320. MALCOM, HOWARD (1799-1879), an American Baptist clergyman. He held pastorates in Hud- son, N. Y., and Boston, Mass, and from 1839 to 1849, was president of the college in Georgetown, Ky. From 1851 to 1858, he was president of the Univer- sity of Lewisburg, Pa., and from 1874 to 1879, of Hahnemann medical college, Philadelphia. He pub- lished Dictionary of the Bible (1828) ; Nature and Ex- tent of the Atonement (1829) ; Christian Rule of Mar- riage (1830) ; Travels in Southeastern Asia (1839), and an Index to Religious Literature (1869). MALDEGHEM, a town of East Flanders,Belgium, twelve miles by rail east of Bruges. Population, 8,522. MALDEN, a city of Massachusetts. Containing the villages of Linden and Maplewood. Population in 1890, 22,984. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 327. MALIBRAN, MARIA FELICITA (1808-1836), one of the most celebrated mezzo-soprana singers of recent times, born at Paris, March 24, 1808, the daughter of Manuel Garcia, a Spanish singer and teacher of singing. When she was still very young, her reputation extended over Europe. Her father attempted to establish the Italian opera in New See Britannica, Vol. A 1043 York, but without success. She married M. Mali- bran, a Frenchman, who soon became bankrupt, and she went again upon the stage, and was received with great enthusiam in France, England, Germany and Italy. Her first marriage having been dissolved, she married M. Beriot, a famous violinist, in 1836; but, in September of that year, she died at Man- chester, whither she had gone to take part in a musical festival. She was a woman of noble heart and high intellect, and her conversation possessed an exquisite fascination. MALINGERING, feigning disease in order to es- cape duty or to excite pity. As defined in the Eng- lish army act of 1881, it implies some overt act, such as the previous application of a ligature, or the taking of some drug, which produces the ap- pearance of the disease said to exist. MALLOCH, WILLIAM HURRELL, an English author, born in Devonshire, in 1849. He is a nephew of J . A. Froude. At Oxford he obtained a prize for an English poem in 1871. He wrote Every llfan his Own Poet, and New Republic (1876). The last is a dialogue in which representative English persons are brought forward in a very realistic way. It established his reputation as a satirist. Then followed his New Paul and Virginie',or Positivism on an Island (1878). He excited still further sensation by his essay Is Life Worth Living, which is a forci- ble statement of pessimism. MALLORY, STEPHEN RUSSELL (1813-1873), an American statesman. In 1839 he was admitted to the Florida bar and became judge of probate, and in 1745 was appointed collector of customs at Key West. In 1851 he was chosen to the United States Senate, and continued to represent his State until 1861, when he resigned to take part with the south- ern States. He was then appointed by Jefferson Davis secretary of the navy, and held the post during the war. From 1866 until his death he prac- ticed law at Pensacola, Fla. MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIs, THIRD EARL OF, born in London, March 25, 1807, died May 7, 1889. He was educated at Eton and at Oriel Col- lege, Oxford, graduating in 1827. In 1837 he stood as a Tory for Portsmouth, and in 1841 had just been returned for Wilton, when his father’s death called him to the House of Lords. He was foreign secre- tary under Lord Derby in 1852, and again in 1858- 59; and was lord privy seal in 1866-68, and again in 1874-76. In 1884 appeared his Memoirs of an Ex-lllinister. MALONE, a post-village, the county-seat of Franklin county, N. Y., on Salmon River, sixty miles from Ogdensburg. It is the center of a large agricultural trade and carries on several manu- factures. MALTA. For general article on MALTA, see Bri- tannica, Vol. XV, pp. 339-43. The latest figures place the area at 95 square miles, and that of the neighboring island, Gozo, 20, making a total of 115 square miles. Population in 1888, 162,423. Chief- town and port, Valetta. In 1888 there were a uni- versity, a lyceum, and two secondary schools. The governor is appointed by Great Britain; salary $25,000. Revenue in 1888, 240,l56l; expenditures, 212,313l ; chief sources of income: Customs, 156,- 600l.; land-tax, 14,957Z.; rents, 22,744l.; postage, 9,710I.; interest, 9.163l.; licenses, 3,915l. Branches of expenditure: Establishments, 90,477l.; services, etc., 121,836l. MALTESE CROSS, a cross of eight points, of the form worn as a decoration by the Hospitalers and other orders of knighthood. ‘MAURITIUS. For general article, see Britan- nica, Vol. XV, pp. 639-42. The latest reliable re- ports place the area of Mauritius and its depend- 1044 encies at 705 square miles. Population in 1890, 372,664. The government of the British colony of Mauri- tius, with its dependencies, Rodrigues, Diego, Garcia, and the Seychelles Islands, is vested in a governor, aided by an executive council, of which the oflicer in command of her majesty’s troops, the colonial-secretary, the procureur-general, the re- ceiver-general, and the auditor-general, and two elected members of the council of government are ex-oflicio members. There is also a council of government, consisting of the governor and twenty- seven members, ten being elected, eight ex-ofiicio, and nine nominated by the governor. The oflicial councillors comprise the five executive members, the collector of customs,the protector of immigrants, and the surveyor-general. The constitution was altered by letters-patent dated Sept. 16, 1885, which introduced an elective element into the legislature. Under a moderate franchise ten members are now elected, one for each of the following districts :— Moka, Plaines Wilhems, Grand Port, Flacq, Savanne, Riviere Noire, Pamplemousses, Riviere du Rempart, and two for Port Louis. The governor receives a salary of 50,000 (Indian) rupees, and the colonial secretary a salary of 13,500 rupees. MALURUS, a genus of Australian birds, having generally a long tail. It gives its name to a large subdivision of the family Sylciadav, in which are contained many Asiatic and African species, and some that are natives of the south of Europe. One of the most noted Malawi is M. cyaneas, the blue wren or superb warbler of Australia, gorgeously attired in black, blue, white, and brown. MAMELI, GQFAREDO, an Italian patriot and poet, author of the stirring national hymn “Fratelli d’Italia,” born at Genoa in 1826, died fighting against the French upon the walls of Rome in 1849. Maz- zini, his most tender admirer, said of the young hero: “Mameli was beautiful and graceful in per- son, of a very fair and ruddy complexion, with hair inclining to blonde. His eyes were flashing and full of command, and his expression, naturally sweet, became stern and determined whenever his mind’ was resolutely bent to accomplish an ob- 'ect.’ MAMIANI DELLA Rovnna, COUNT TERENZIO, an Italian scholar and statesman, born in 1799 at Pe- saro, in the Romagna, died at Rome, May 21, 1885. He took a prominent part in the futile outbreak at the accession of Gregory XVI., and was compelled to flee to Paris, whence he returned to Rome in 1848 after the unconditional amnesty of Pius IX., and actually held office for three months in the pa pal ministry. He next withdrew to Turin, where he founded his society for promoting Italian unity. On the flight of Pius IX. from Rome to Gaeta he re-entered the political arena, and was for a short period foreign minister in the cabinet of Galetti. On the fall of Rome he retired to Genoa; in 1856 he was member of the Sardinian parliament, and in 1860 entered Cavour’s ministry as minister of in- struction. He was appointed ambassador to Greece in 1861, to Switzerland in 1865. MAMMEE APPLE (M ammea Americana), a high- ly esteemed fruit of the ‘Nest Indies and of tropical America, produced by a beautiful tree, 60 to 70 feet high, of the natural order Gattiferee. The fruit is roundish, from the size of a hen’s egg to that of a small melon, with a leathery rind, and a delicate bitter inner rind adhering closely to the yellow pulp. A similar fruit is produced by Mammea Afri- cana, an African species. MANATIDZE, a family of Cetacea, including all the herbivorous section of the order. It has been MALURU&—MANDAN supposed that some of the stories of mermaids may have originated in the females of some of the Mana- tidw being seen with the head and breasts raised out of the water. There are several genera of Manatidae described in the articles Dueone and MANATEE. MANBY, GEORGE WILLIAM, inventor of life-sav- ing apparatus for shipwrecked persons, born in 1765,. at Hilgay, England, died Nov. 18, 1854. He served in the militia, and became barrack-master at Yar- mouth in_ 1803. In 1808 he succeeded, with appar- atus designed by him, in saving the lives of the crew of the brig “Elizabeth.” A career of useful- ness was thus commenced, which he followed for the remaining forty-six years of his life. It was es- timated that, by the time of his death, nearly 1,000 persons had been rescued from stranded ships by means of his apparatus. MANCHESTER, a post-village, one of the county- seats of Bennington county, Vt. It contains Burr and Barton Seminary, a classical school, and is a pleasant summer resort. MANCHESTER, a post-town of Chesterfield-. county, Va., on the south bank of James River, opposite Richmond. It is a manufacturing town. Population, 9,229. MANCHESTER, a post - village of Delaware county,Ia., on the west branch of the Maquoketa River, forty-seven miles west of Dubuque. Farm- ing is the chief business. MANCHESTER, a post-village and railroad junc- tion of Washtenaw county, Mich.,flfty-five miles west of Detroit. It has medicinal springs, a brew- ery, foundry, saw and planing mills. MANCHESTER, the largest city of New Hamp- shire, and one of the greatest manufacturing cen- ters of New England, The Merrimac River falls here 54 feet (Amoskeag Falls), and supplies ample water-power for driving a number of mill and ma- chine works. In the value of its cotton and woolen fabrics Manchester ranks the fourth city in the United States. Population in 1870, 23,536: in 1880, 32,630; in 1890, 43,983. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 465. MANCHESTER, a post-village of Adams county, Ohio, on the north bank of the Ohio River. It is a shipping point for farm produce, and has manufacs tories of furniture. MANCHINEEL (Hippomane Mancinella), a tropi- cal American tree of the natural order Eaphorbz'a- ceae, celebrated for the poisonous properties of its acrid milky juice. The Indians of tropical Ameri- ca use it for poisoning their arrows. The fruit is not unlikea small apple, and the wood is well suited for cabinet-making. MANCINI, PASQUALE, an Italian statesman, born at Naples in 1820. After graduating in his native city he became professor of jurisprudence there. As a member of the Neapolitan parliament he op- posed the king and had in 1848 to flee to Turin, where he became professor of international law. In 1860 he became minister of justice and religion in the new Italian government. He was a leader of the liberal party in the first Italian parliament in 1861, and in the next year he was also minister of education. Mancini resides at Rome where he is professor in the university as well as deputy in parliament. He has published Diritto Internazionale (1873). His wife LAURA BEATRICE OLIVA MANCINP (1723-1869) was a noted poetess. Many of her Iptoelms had reference to the political condition of a y. MANDAN, a thriving town, the county-seat of Morton county, N. Dak., about five miles west of IS3iii1ma1rck. It is the seat of the State Reform c oo . MANDANS-MANGNALL MANDANS, a small tribe of North American In- dians, living now on a reservation on the Yellow- stone River, in northwestern North Dakota and eastern Montana. Being of light complexion they have acquired the name of the “'White Indians.” They live by agriculture, and are peaceful and friendly, but have made no great steps -towards civilization. See INDIANS, NCRTH AMERICAN, in these Revisions and Additions. MANDARA, or VVANDALA, an African kingdom, capital Doloo, with a population of 30,000 Moham- medan negroes. MANDAVEE, or MANDIVEE, the principal sea- port town of Cutch, India, on the Gulf of Cutch, about 35 miles from Bhooj, or Bhuj. It is fortified, has an open roadstead and an active trade with Sinde, Malabar, the Persian Gulf, Arabia, and the west coast of Africa as far as Zanzibar, besides a large inland trade. Its exports comprise cotton, silk and other piece-goods. Its imports are bullion, ivory, hides, dates, .cocoa-nuts, grain and timber. Population, 50,000. MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE, a gifted Irish poet, born in .1803, died at Meath Hospital, Dublin, June 20, 1849. He was for many-years employed in copy- ing in an attorney’s oflice. His heart was framed l045 for suffering, and his whole life was a tragedy of hapless love, poverty and intemperance, until he found rest in death. There is fine quality in his original verse, as well as in his translations from the German, but more especially from the old Irish, as in the impassioned ballad of Dark Rosa-, leen. His German Anthology was published in two volumes in 1845, and a complete edition of his poems at New York in 1870, with a biographical in- troduction by John Mitchel. MANGANESE. Besides the black and brown oxides of manganese the “bog manganese” has re- cently become an article of commerce in the United States. It is found in earthy or kidney-like masses. The bog ore is the common one from Maine to Pennsylvania; whereas from Maryland to Georgia the black ore is the most common one. The latter is mined at the Crimora mine of Au- gusta county, Va., and the mines of Barton county, Ga. Deposits on Red Rock Island, in San F ran- cisco Bay, are also worked. About 75 per cent. of all the native manganese ore comes from the Cri- mora mine. PRCDUCTICN OF MANGANESE ORES IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1880.—The production of manganese from 1880 to 1889, inclusive, was as follows: ' States. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,761 4,895 4,532 6,155 10,180 23,258 30,193 34,524 29,198 23,927 Xigginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,661 3,288 2,382 5,363 8,233 18,132 2g,g6’g 12,2? 17.346 14,616 r ansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75 1,‘ , 1 , 1 4, 12 2,528 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,800 1,200 1,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,580 6,041 9,024 5,568 5,208 Other States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 300 375 400 400 I 450 269 14 1,672 1,575 This table shows the production of what may be strictly regarded as manganese ores. It has been impossible in some cases to separate the manganese and manganiferous ores which are the product of a given mine, but where the total production of a State averages 'more than 44.25 per cent. of metallic manganese its production is regarded as mangan- ese ores. PRCDUCTICN OF MANGANESE ORES IN 1889.—In the following table will be found a complete statement of the production of manganese ores in the United States in 1889; also a statement as to its total value, the average value per ton, the number of employés engaged in mining, total wages of such employés, and total capital for all the States in which manganese ore was mined, except Vermont and Virginia: The black oxide from Nova Scotia is very valu- able for glass-making, because it contains very lit- tle iron. It neutralizes the green tint which iron States. Production. ‘;ra(fif‘e1_ pg]__a%.}ég_ Employés. Wages. Capital. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,927 $238,939 $9 . 99 432 $123,858 $2,094,475 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,528 23,173 9.17 96 33,191 1,200,000 Cahfornia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 901 17 .00 10 1,149 2,400 Georgia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,208 50 ,1-13 9.63 117 19 .486 175,125 Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 83 5 .53 2 53 600 North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17 170 10.00 2 60 250 South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 124 744 6.00 6 400 5,000 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 120 4. 00 3 70 100 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,335 I 7,348 5.50 25 3,510 (*) Virgima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14516 156,257 10.69 , 171 65,939 711,000 * Included in Virginia. gives to glass. Besides as a source for oxygen man- ganese is now mostly used as an alloy combined with steel (manganese steel), also with copper for brass and bronze, which are rendered much harder and denser by the addition of manganese. See Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 479-481. MANGE, a contagious disease of the Skin in horses, dogs, and cattle, similar to itch in the hu- man subject. It results from the attacks of min- ute mites or acari, animal or vegetable parasites, some burrowing in the skin, others moving upon it, causing much irritation and the eruption of min- ute pimples. The symptoms and treatment are fully described in Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 206. MANGNALL, RICHMAL, of Irish extraction, but born in London, was the head-mistress of a ladies’ school near \Vakefield, and died in 1828. Few par- ticulars of her personal history have been pre- 1046 served; she survives only in her redoubtable Ques- tions, the pride and terror of several generations of school-girls. She was an amiable and excellent woman, but as awriter she has been well called “the very high-priestess of the great god Cram.” Of the popularity of her schoolroom encyclopaedia, compiled entirely by herself, there can, however, be no doubt; an impression, printed in 1857 in America, was taken from the 84th London edition. It has been reprinted in England and the United States as recently as 1886. MANHATTAN, a railroad center, a city and the county-seat of Riley county, Kan., situated at the junction of the Big Blue and Kansas rivers. It has manufactories of boots, shoes, carriages, wag- ons and cigars. The Kansas State Agricultural College is located here. Population, 2,972. MANHEIM, a post-borough of Lancaster coun- ty, Pa., ten miles northwest of Lancaster, on the Reading & Columbia Railroad. It has manufac- tories of flour, carriages, cigars, and lumber. MANIFESTO, a public declaration, issued usu- ally by a sovereign, a prince, or a government on some state emergency, expressive of intentions, opinions, or motives. MANISTEE, a city of Michigan, the terminus of a branch of the Flint Pere Marquette Rail- way. It has several foundries, ten salt-works, and a large number of lumber-mills. Population in 1890, 12,799. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 490. NIANITOWOC, a city of 1/Visconsin. Population in 1890, 7,525, See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 491. MANKATO, a city of Minnesota. Three lines of railway pass here, and small steamboats can ascend the Minnesota River as far as this point. Popula- tion, 8,805. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p.491. MANLINS, a post-village of Onondaga county, N. Y., about twelve miles east of Syracuse. It is the seat of St. J ohn’s Military School, and contains manufactories of paper, iron, flour, woolen goods and cement. MANLY, BASIL (1798-1868), an American Baptist clergyman. He was ordained in 1822. and then was pastor of churches in Edgefield Court House and Charleston, S. C. From 1837 to 1855 he was presi- dent of the University of Alabama and then en- gaged in missionary travels throughout Alabama. He wrote The Baptist Psalmody (1850). MANNERS, JOHN JAMES RoRERT, an English statesman, second son of the fifth Duke of Rutland, born at Belvoir Castle, near Grantham, Leicester- shire, in 1818. He took part in the movement for reviving the chivalric spirit of the Middle Ages. In furtherance of this object he published a volume of poems called England’s Trust (1841), in which the famous couplet occurs: “Let wealth and commerce, law and learning die, But leave us still our old nobility.” It expresses the aims of that movement, the ad- vocates of which were known as “Young England.” In parliament he opposed the repeal of the Corn Laws and identified himself with the Conservatives. Under Lord Derby’s administration he was first commissioner of works, and under Disraeli he was postmaster-general. Manners published a Plea for National Holidays; Notes of an Irish Tour; Notes of a Cruise in Scotch Waters in 1848; and English Ballads and Other Poems. MANNING, HENRY EDWARD, an English car- dinal, born at Totteridge, Hertfordshire, in 1808. Af- ter graduating as double first he was in 1834 ap- pointed rector of Lavington and Grafl’ham in Sus- sex, and in 1840 he was made arch-deacon of Chi- chester. In 1851 he left the Church of England and joined the Roman Catholic Church. After study- MANHATTAN—MANSFIELD ing for some years in Rome he was ordained priest in 1857, and founded the congregation of the Oblates of St. Charles Borromeo, at Bayswater, London. On the death of Cardinal Wiseman in 1865 he was appointed archbishop of Westminster. Being a zealous supporter of the papal infallibility, Dr. Manning was made a cardinal in 1875. He is the foremost spirit in all Catholic movements in Eng- land, has organized many parochial schools, pro- motes temperance, started many benevolent so- cieties among the poor, and takes a lively interest in all practical reforms. He wrote The Temporal Power of the Pope; England and Christendom; Petri Privilegium; and The Internal Mission of the Holy Ghost (1875), besides many sermons and pamphlets. MANNING, JAMES (1738-1791), an American clergyman. In 1763 he was ordained to the Bap- tist ministry, and in 1765 became president of Rhode Island College (now Brown University). He held this position until his death, and from 1771 was also pastor of the First Baptist Church in Prov- idence. MANRENT, or MANRED, BONDS or, agreements which used to be entered into in the Highlands of Scotland between the greater and lesser magnates, where protection on the one hand was stipulated in return for allegiance on the other; vassalage. MANSARD, or MANSART, FRANQOIS, a distin- guished French architect, born at Paris in 1598, died in 1662. He initiated the peculiar roof known by his name. This roof (Mansard) is constructed with a break in the slope, so that each side has two planes, the lower being steeper than the upper. The framework ought to be so arranged that its parts shall be in equilibrium. This kind of roof has the advantage over the common form of giv- ing more space in the roof for living room. MANSION HOUSE,the official residence ofI he Lord Mayor of London, built on the site of the Old Stocks Market in 1739, at a cost of about $215,000. It is an oblong building, and at its farthest end is the Egyptian Hall. Four hundred guests can dine in this grand banqueting-room, which was designed from the description of an Egyptian chamber given by Vitruvius. All the great banquets, public and private, given by the Lord Mayor take place here, and there are also fine ball and reception rooms. At the close of exhibition of 1851 the Corporation of London voted $50,000 to be expended on statuary for the adornment of the Mansion House; and there is also a fine gallery of portraits and other pic- tures. Among its curiosities may be mentioned a state bed which cost $15,000, and a kitchen and culinary utensils extraordinary for their vast size. The Mansion House is often a centre of be- nevolent enterprise .in the collection of money for sufferers by war, famine, flood, pestilence, and earthquake abroad, or by colliery explosions, shipwrecks, and lack of employment at home; and Mansion House Funds are also raised for memorials to heroic worth. MANSFIELD, a post-village and a railroad junction of Bristol county, Mass., where cutlery, baskets, gold, shell and horn jewelry are manu- factured. The town also contains foundries, spindle-works, and straw-works. MANSFIELD, a city of Ohio. Population in 1890, 13,542. See Britannica, Vol. XV. p. 498. MANSFIELD, a post-borough of Tioga county, Pa., on the Tio a River. It has a State normal school, school or soldiers’ orphans, a planing- mill, a bedstead factory, and an iron furnace. MANSFIELD, EDWARD DEERING (1801-1880), an American author. In 1825 he was admitted to the MANSFHNJL—MAQUI Connecticut bar, and in 1835 became professor of constitutional law in Cincinnati (Ohio) College. From 1836 to 1849 he was editor of the “Cincinnati Chronicle,” from 1849 to 1852 of the “Atlas,” and from 1854 to 1872 of the “Railroad Record.” He published A Discourse on the Utility of Mathematics (1835) ; A Treatise on Constitutional Law (1835); A Political Grammar of the United States(1835); The Legal Rights, Duties, and Liabilities of Married I/Vo- men (1845); The Life of Gen. Winfield Scott (1848); The History of the Mexican War (1849); American Education (1851); The Memoirs of Daniel Drake (1855); and APopular Life of Gen. Ulysses S. Grant (1868). MANSFIELD, JARED (1759-1830), an American mathematician. From 1777 to 1802 he taught in New Haven, and Philadelphia, and then entered the army as captain of engineers. In 1805 he was made major, and in 1808 lieutenant-colonel. From 1803 to 1812 he was United States surveyor of Ohio and the Northwest Territory, and then till 1828 was professor of experimental and natural philoso- phy in the United States military academy. He wrote Essays, Zlfathematicol and Physical (1802). MANSFIELD, J OSEPH KING FENNC (1803-1862), an American soldier. He entered the army in 1822, and was assigned to the engineer corps. In 1832 he became 1st lieutenant, and in 1838 captain. He took part in the Mexican war, and received the brevet of colonel for meritorious conduct. In 1853 he was appointed inspector-general of the United States army. and in 1861 was placed in command of the department of Washington. Later he was assigned to Suffolk, Va., where he acted as mili- tary governor. At the battle of Antietam he was mortally wounded. He had previously been pro- moted major-general of volunteers. MANT, RICHARD, an English prelate, born at Southampton in 1776, died at Ballymony, Ireland, in 1848. He was educated at Oxford, and, after holding curates at Southampton and London, he became successively bishop of Killaloe (1820) and of Down and Connor (1828). He is best known by an Annotated Bible, which he prepared in partner- ship with George D’Oyly; an Annotated Book of Common Prayer; and a History of the Church of Ire- land, which he published in 1839-41. His metrical Version of the Book of Psalms, and Ancient Hymns of the Roman Breviary have considerable merit. MANTES, a town in the French departmentrof Seine-et-Oise, on the left bank of the Seine, thirty- six miles from Paris. It has a fine tower (1344) and a Gothic church, a reduced copy of Notre Dame at Paris. Mantes in 1083 was burned by 1Villiam the Conqueror. who here received the injury that caused his death. Population, 6,607. NIANTEUFFEL, EDWIN HANS KARL, FREIIIERR VoN, a Prussian general and administrator, born at Dresden, Feb. 24, 1809, died at Carlsbad, June 17 , 1885. Entering the Prussian guards in 1827,he rose to be colonel by 1854, and three years later was nominated head of the military bureau at Berlin, a post which he held until 1865. Having been ap- pointed commander of the Prussian troops in Sles- wick, he protested against the summoning of the Holstein estates by marching his men into that duchy. On the outbreak of hostilities Manteuffel commanded a division of the army of the Main, which was destined to act against the south Ger- man allies of Austria. He took part in the battle of Langensalza, which brought about the capitula- tion of the Hanover army, and on the 19th of July succeeded Von Falckenstein as com mander-in-chief of the Main army, and by winning the battles of Werbach, Taubenbischofsheim, Hemstiidt. and Rossbrunn over the Bavarians and others, he 1047 brought that part of the campaign to a successful issue. He entered the war of 1870 as commander of the first corps, but was soon promoted to the command of the first army, which fought success- fully at Amiens and other places. Transferred in January, 1871, to the command of the army of the south, operating against Bourbaki, Manteuffel as- sailed the enemy’s rear near Belfort, and drove 80,- 000 men across the frontier into Switzerland. VVhen peace was proclaimed he was placed at the head of the army of occupation in France, and in 1879 was appointed imperial viceroy of the newly- organized provinces, Alsace-Lorraine. MANTI, a city, the county-seat of San Pete county, Utah, situated near the center of the State, twenty-three miles southeast of Nephi, in a beauti- ful and fertile valley. MANTIGER, MANTICHCRA or MANTEGRE, a fabu- lous monster with the body of a beast of prey and a human head. MANTLET, a shield or screen to protect the men working guns in embrasures, casements or port- holes from the bullets of sharp-shooters, or to pro- tect besiegers in making attacks. MAN-TRAPS, engines for the terrifying of tres- passers and poachers (formerly often indicated by the warning notice “man-traps and spring-guns set here”), resembled gigantic rat-traps 4 feet long. MANURES. See Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 505- 512. MAPLE, a tree, the best known species of which is the sugar-maple (Acer saccharin/um). It is most abundant in the New England States, and Canada. Together with the beech it forms sometimes whole forests. The extraction of the sap does not injure the trees. They yield for many years. To obtain the sap the tree is tapped in February, March, or April, according to the locality and the season. Frosty nights followed by warm days favor the flow of the sap. An incision is made in the trunk with an auger or axe, at first %-inch deep, and is in- creased by degrees to 2 inches. A tube made of sumach or elder is then inserted % inch within the wood. As many as 20 such tubes are sometimes in- serted into one tree. The sap flows through these spouts into a trough, whence it is daily conveyed into a large receiver. From this, after being strained, it is carried to a boiler. AS it is liable to ferment the sap cannot be kept long after it is col- lected. The boiling and refining processes are the same as those in the manufacture of cane-sugar. A single tree yields from two to six pounds of sugar in a season, good vinegar is made from it, and a kind of molasses, called “maple-syrup,” which is much superior to that from the sugar-cane, and is much used along with buckwheat cakes, etc. Be- side New England, the States of Indiana, Michi- gan, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania produce considerable quantities of maple-sugar. The entire product of the United States has reached nearly 35 millions of pounds in one year. The wood of the sugar-maple has a satiny appear- ance when polished, and is therefore often used for cabinet-making. Sometimes it is finely marked with undulations of fibre, and is then known as “bird’s-eye maple.” This kind makes excellent veneers. Maple timber makes also superior saddle- trees. The average height of the maple trees is from 60 to 80 feet. But the dwarf-maple of the Rocky Mountains and the vine-maple of the Pacific Coast are much smaller. See Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 523, 524. MAQUI (Aristotelia Maqui), the only known spe- cies of the genus, which belongs to the natural order Tiliacean It is an evergreen shrub of consid- erable size, a native of Chili, where wine is made 1048 from its berry and administered in malignant fevers. The wood is used for making musical in- struments, and the tough bark for their strings. MAQUCKETA, a city, the county-seat of Jackson county, Iowa, in the eastern part of the State, on Maquoketa River, and on the Davenport & St. Paul and the Iowa Midland railroads. MARACAYBO, or Mxnxcxrno, GULF OF, a wide inlet of the Caribbean Sea, extending from the peninsulas of Paraguana and Guajira to the strait by which it is connected with the lake. The latter forms the fioor of a great valley shut in by lofty mountains. Its waters are sweet, and deep enough for the largest vessels; but the bar at the mouth, Where a swift current runs, makes entrance difi?1- cult. The gulf and lake were discovered in 1499 by Ojeda, who found here houses built on piles, and so gave the district the name Venezuela (“Little Venice”), which was afterwards extended to the entire country. See Britannica,Vol. XIV, p. 222. l\/IARAJO, an island of Brazil, situated between the estuaries of the Amazon and the Para, with an area of nearly 18,000 square miles. It is for the most part low and covered with grass and bush,but in the east and south with dense forest. The soil is fertile, and large herds of cattle are reared “Z the northeast. l\’1ARATEA, an Italian town of the province of Basilicata. Population, 6,480. MARATHON, a post-village of Cortland county, N. Y., 50 miles south of Syracuse. It is a shipping point for butter, cheese and live stock. Carriages and cheese-boxes are here manufactured. MARAVEDI, an old Spanish copper coin in use from 1474 to 1848, worth about one-thirteenth of a penny. There were also at an earlier period mara- vedis of gold and of silver. MARBLE, a limestone or carbonate of lime of many varieties. Pure white marble without any clouds, streaks or spots is very scarce in the United States. The best marble quarried in West Rut- land, Vt., comes nearest to it. It is used for statu- ary work. The white marble quarried at Brandon, Vt., is in too thin layers for statuary. Of mottled, clouded and colored marbles there is an abundance in this country. The most beautiful of American colored marbles are those of eastern Tennessee, which are now quite extensively used for ornamen- tal purposes. They have, for instance, been em- ployed in the capitols at VVashington, Ohio, Illinois and Iowa, and the Lake Champlain region yields large quantities of colored marble. California has quarries of white marble on the McCloud River, near Copper City. But none has been found yet equal to the Carrara marble for statuary. In 1880 there were 616 quarries being worked in the United States for producing marble and limestone for building purposes. The quantity mined was 66% millions of cubic feet per annum at a value of $7,000,000. See Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 528-530. MARBLEHEAD, a town and port-of-entry of Massachusetts, on a rocky promontory 18 miles northeast of Boston. It is largely engaged in the shoemaking business. Population in 1890, 8,200. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 530. MARCEAU, FRANQOIS SEVERIN DESGRAVIERS (1769-1796), a French general, born at Chartres March 1, 1769. On the outbreak of the revolution he was appointed inspector of the national guard in his native town, and in 1792 helped to defend Verdun with a body of volunteers till its surrender. Sent to join the Republican army in La Vendee, he was promoted to the rank of general of division. He commanded the right wing at Fleurus, and after the allies retreated occupied Coblenz. During the campaign of 1796 he was given command of the MAQUCKETA-—-MARCCU first division of Jourdan’s army, and sat down to invest Mainz, Mannheim and Coblenz. But whilst covering the retreat of the French at Altenkirchen he was shot on the 19th of September, and died four days later. His body was buried in the en- trenched camp at Coblenz, but was transferred to the Pantheon in Paris in 1889. l\/IARCET, JANE,bOI’Il at Geneva in 1785, died in London June 28, 1858. She was the daughter of a rich London merchant and the author of a popular introduction to chemistry entitled Conversations on Chemistry, through which Faraday made his first acquaintance with the subject. She married Alex- ander M arcet, a Genevan, who settled in London as a doctor in the last years of the 18th century, and later in life devoted himself to experimental chem- istry. Besides the book on chemistry, she wrote Conversations on Political Economy, which was warmly praised by Macaulay; Conversations on Nat- ural Philosophy, and similar books on botany, be- sides numerous charming Stories for Very Little Chilolren. MARCH, a market-town of Cambridgeshire, from which the Earls of March took their title, is on the N ene, 14 miles east of Peterbcrcugli ano. 16 north- Must] oi Ely. its cnurch has a fine perpendicular clerestory, with splendid roof. Population of parish, 6,190. MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW, an American philolo- gist, born at Mi1bury,Mass., in 1825. He graduated at Amherst College in 1845, and after serving as tutor there for two years, he studied law at New York and was admitted to the bar in 1850. In 1855 he became tutor in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., where he was made professor of the English lan- guage and comparative philology in 1858, and in 1877 lecturer in the law department. March takes rank as one of the first of American philologists. Among his published writings are A Method of Phi- lological Study of the English Language; An Anglo- Saxon Grammar; Latin Hymns; Parser and Analyser for Beginners; Eusebius; Tertullian; Justin Martyr, and many contributions to the Princeton Review. In 1873 March was elected president of the American Philological Association. MARCHES, the border districts that run con- tiguous on each side of the boundary line between England and Scotland, and between England and Wales. The lords of the marches were the nobles to whom estates on the borders were given on con- dition that they defended the country against the aggressions of the people on the other side. Under the Norman and Plantagenet kings of England there was almost chronic war between the English_ lords of the marches and the Welsh. The corre- sponding German word mark was in like manner applied to the border countries or districts of the German Empire conquered from neighboring na- tions, as the marks of Austria, of Brandenburg, Altmark, Steiermark, etc. MARCHETTI, FILIPPO, an operatic composer, born at Rome in 1835, became in 1881 president of a musical college in Rome. His best-known operas are Romeo e Giulietta and Ruy Blas. MARCIANISI, an agricultural town of Sicily, situated in a marshy district 12 miles north of Naples. Population, 11,083. MARCOU, JULES, a French geologist, born in 1824. In 1846 he was appointed assistant in the mineralogical department of the Sorbonne, and a year later became traveling geologist for the Jar- olin des plantes. He visited the United States, gath- ering much important information, and making valuable collections of minerals. In 1853 he en- tered the United States service and did good work until his health compelled him to return to France. MAROY-—MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE From 1855 to 1859 he was professor of geology in the Polytechnic school at Ziirich, but in 1861 re- turned to the United States and was associated with Louis Agassiz in the foundation of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, having charge of the pale- ontological department till 1864. In 1875 he again entered the United States service. He is the author of Reeherches géologiques sur la Jura Salinois (1848); Geology of North America (1858); Lettres sur les Roches du Jura et leur Distribution géographique dans les deux hemispheres (1860); Geological Map of the World (1861) ; De la Science en France (1869); A Catalogue of Geological Maps of America (1884), and The Taeonic System and its Position in Strati- graphic Geology (1885). MARCY, RANDOLPH BARNES (1812-1887), an American soldier. He entered the army in 1832, and served in the Black Hawk expedition, on the frontier, in the Mexican war, and in the hostilities against the Seminole Indians. In 1861 he was made brigadier-general and was assigned to inspection duties in the departments of the Northwest, Mis- souri, Arkansas, Mississippi and the Gulf until 1865, when he was made inspector-general of the division of the Missiouri. From 1869 to 1881 he was inspector-general of the United States army. He wrote Exploration of the Red River in 1852 (1853); The Prairie Traveler, a Handbook for Overland Emi- grants (1859); Thirty Years of Army Life on the Bor- der (1866), and Border Reminiscences (1871). MARCY, VVILLIAM LEARNED (1786-1857), an American statesman. See Britannica, Vol. XXIII, . 789. P MAREY, ETIENNE JULES, a French physiologist, born at Beaune, in the department of Cote-d’Or, France, in 1830. He studied medicine at Paris, ob- taining his degree in 1859. In 1867 he was made professor of natural history in the Collége de France. Dr. Marey has invented several instru-- ments for recording the movements of the heart, lungs, arteries, muscles and other parts of the hu- man body, and made many experiments with them. He has written Physiologic médicale ole la circulation du sang; Du Mouvement dans les fonctions de la vie; La Machine animals, of which an English transla- tion has appeared in New York in 1874 under the title Animal Mechanism; Physiologic expérimentale (1875), and La Méthode graphique dans les Sciences expérimentales (1878). MARDI GRAS, a festival preceding the first day of Lent. or Ash Wednesday; specially observed in New Orleans, and familiarly called “Fat NVednes- day ;” observed by a unique and gorgeous roces- sion under the direction of “King Carnival.’ MARENGO, a flourishing manufacturing town of Illinois, about 65 miles northwest of Chicago. It is the trade-center of a rich agricultural district. MARENGO, a manufacturing town, the county- seat of Iowa county, Iowa. It is well situated in the midst of an excellent farming and grazing re ion. MARGRY, PIERRE, a French historian, born at Paris in 1818 Being one of the archive-keepers of the marine department he was in 1842 commis- sioned to make researches regarding French expe- ditions to America. The result of his labors ap- peared in a series of volumes. Among these are Les Indian Rewards (1854) ; La Navigation du Missis- sippi (1859) ; Les Normans dans les Vallées de l’Ohio et du Mississippi (1860) ; Mémoires sur les décoavertes et les établissements des Frangzais (1879). Dr. Margry has also published Les Navigateurs Francais et la Révolution Maritime du XIVe au X Vle siecle (1867), and other works relating to French explorers. MARHEINEKE, PHILIPP CONRAD, a Protestant theologian, born at Hildesheim, May 1, 1780, died 1049 May 31, 1846. He began to teach at Giittingen in 1804, was appointed a theological professor and uni- versity preacher at Erlangen in 1805, and subse- quently held theological chairs at Heidelberg and Berlin. After Hegel’s death Marheineke was the chief figure among the right wing of that philoso- pher’s disciples. MARIA CHRISTINA, queen of Spain, born at Naples in 1806, died at Ste. Adresse, near Havre, in 1878. She was the second daughter of King Fran- cis I. of Naples. In 1829 she became the fourth wife of King Ferdinand VII. of Spain. She bore two daughters, one of which was the future Queen Isabella II. The king died in 1833 after declaring the crown inheritable in the famale line and ap- pointing the queen as regent in his will. After three months she married a soldier of the royal guard named Mufioz. In 1840 she abolished the municipal liberties of Spain. This produced a gen- eral insurrection, which compelled her to abdicate in favor of Marshal Espartero as regent. She re- tired to Paris. When Isabella was declared of age in 1843 Christina returned to Madrid, took part in public affairs, and was ten years afterwards again driven from Spain. After September, 1864, she again resided in Madrid for four years. She was then driven out of the country in company with her daughter Isabella. MARIANNA, an episcopal city of Brazil, three miles east of Ouro Preto. The neighboring gold- mines are exhausted. Population, 5,000. MARIE GALANTE, a French island in the West Indies, discovered by Columbus in 1493. It lies 17 miles southeast of Guadeloupe. Its area is 58 square miles. Population, 15,000. See Britannica, Vol. XI, p. 229. MARIENWERDER, a town of ‘Vest Prussia, picturesquely situated three miles east of the Vis- tula and 55 miles by rail south of Danzig. It was founded in 1233 by the Teutonic Knights, and has an old castle and a domkirche (1384). Population, , 79. MARIETTA, a prosperous manufacturing town, the county-seat of Cobb county, Ga. It is the seat of several educational institutions. Kenesaw Mountain is about two miles distant. Population in 1890, 3,376. MARIETTA, a city of Ohio, the oldest town in the State. It has varied manufactures, and re- markable traces of the mound-builders. Popula- tion in 1890, 8,308. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 542. MARIETTA, a post-borough of Lancaster county, Pa., on the Susquehanna River and on the Colum- bia branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad, 25 miles southeast of Harrisburg It has rolling-mills, fur- naces, large hollow-ware and enameling works and lumber mills. It is a market for lumber. Popula- tion, 2,385. MARIGOLD, a plant. . 544. P MARINE CITY, a post-village of St. Clair county, Mich., seven miles below St. Clair, and on St. Clair River. Salt is found here and ship-build- ing is an important industry of the town. MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE. This is the medical bureau of the United States Treasury De- partment, which is charged with the duty of pro- viding relief for the sick and disabled seamen and employés of the United States merchant marine, the management of the national quarantine, exam- ination of the United States merchant marine pilots for color-blindness, examination of officers and men of the United States revenue cutter service as to physical condition. examination of cadets of that service as to their fitness for appointment, physi- See Britannica, Vol. XV, 1050 cal examination of surfmen of the life-saving ser- vice as to their ability to perform the duties as- signed them, and the physical examination of officers and crew of any United States merchant vessel whose master desires such examination. In 1870 an act of Congress was passed that reorgan- ized this service, increased the tax on seamen to forty cents per month, and authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to appoint a “supervising surgeon” to manage all business connected with this service. In 1875 the title of supervising surgeon was changed by act of Congress to “supervising surgeon-gen- eral,” and the appointment made a Presidential one. In 1884 the montly tax on seamen was abol- ished. and a tonnage tax substituted, which is now supplemented by a small annual appropriation. Since the service has been reorganized in 1871, the surgeon-general has made annual reports to the Secretary of the Treasury, which give detailed statements of the operation of the service, describe interesting cases of diseases and injuries, and give other valuable information, especially in regard to quarantine, hygiene, hospital construction, etc. The medical corps of the service consists of a super- vising surgeon-general, a number of hospital sur- geons, passed assistant surgeons and assistant surgeons. ~ Hospital stewards are assigned to duty at all the marine hospitals and larger stations, and are graded into three classes, according to effici- ency. Acting assistant surgeons are on duty at stations where there are no marine hospitals, and where but few seamen apply for relief. MARINE LEAGUE, a distance of three miles generally acknowledged as the shore distance over which the nations severally may have exclusive right upon the sea water abutting against their re- spective coasts. With respect to the limitation of jurisdiction on the sea coast there are two principles universally admitted—first, that the sea is open to all nations; and second that there is a portion ad- jacent to every nation over which the sovereignty of that nation may rightly extend to the seclusion of every other political claim. It is difficult in many cases to define the limits of these waters.* Such portions as harbors and waters above low water mark are recognized as within the lee loci, and those persons on board of ships are subject to the local laws and regulations as fully as if they were residing on the land. I/Vith reference to parts more seaward, the question is more complicated. The cannon-shot limit is the popular rule: “Finitur terrae dominium ubi finitur armorum vis.” For all practical purposes this is the marine league of three miles. The United States and Great Britain have agreed to this claim as between themselves but other nations have not. Norway specified in one case four miles, England six miles under an act of George IV., and again twelve miles under the “Hovering Acts.” The United States in 1875 claimed the same for revenue purposes, and even as far as the Gulf Stream for the exclusion of belligerints. Spain claimed a six- mile belt round Cuba. Great Britain has been granted by China jurisdiction over British subjects on vessels up to one hundred miles from the coast of China. The question of jurisdiction over bays has been much disputed. St. George’s Channel has been diplomatically acknowledged to be British territory, and the Bay of Newfoundland has been legislated for as if British territory. Generally speaking, however, the three-mile limit is acknowl- edged as the limit. Foreigners have a right of use L * See Government Year Book, edited by Lewis Sargent, 1889; also “Commentaries on Internatwnal Law” by Sir Robert Phil- more. MARINE LEAGUE-MARIO over such waters subject to definite limitations. Bellig- erent acts must not be carried on there ; piracy and smuggling can be stopped, and quarantine regula- tions enforced. The one general rule is that the State may exercise any rights over these waters in defense of herself and her own interests, or in maintaining the right of free passage to all others. It is commonly acknowledged that the “fructus” of the waters belongs to the country, but much differ- ence of opinion exists as to how the nations are to be protected in its enjoyment. The most conspicuous illustrations of the principle of free navigation of inland seas are to be found in the opening up of the Sea of Marmora and the Black Sea, and in the liberation of the Sound from the toll formerly collected by Denmark—which, as a kind of concession to a small state without ene- mies, was effected in 1857 by a payment from the European powers of a sum approaching to three and a half millions of pounds sterling. The princi- ple of free navigation has been still further ad- vanced, so as to include navigable rivers. The Congress of Vienna claimed freedom for rivers bordering or separating several States; and first the Rhine, then the Scheldt, Meuse, Po, Vistula, and other rivers were freed from toll and prohibi- tion. The Danube was not liberated until 1856. From navigation it is but an advance of principle to the other channels of intercommunication. Much remains to be achieved in regard to interna- tional railway lines, postal and telegraphic services, and possibly an international free press. In the meantime something has been done by the Postal Union, and the various telegraphic treaties and conventions, to prepare the way for a more liberal and harmonious system. MARINE STORE: in England, a place for the buying and selling of old ships’ materials. Dealers in these articles are bound, under penalty of $100, to have their name and the words “Dealer in Ma- rine Stores” distinctly painted over their shop; to keep books stating the names of buyers and sel- lers; not to purchase marine stores from any per- son apparently under the age of sixteen; and not to cut up any cable or article exceeding five fath- oms in length without a permit from justices of the peace. MARINETTE, the county- seat of Marinette county, Wis., at the mouth of the Menomonee River. The chief business is lumbering. The town contains saw and planing mills, also iron-works. Population, 11,513. MARIN O, a town on the Alban Hills, twelve miles southeast of Rome. It has a castle belonging to the Colonnas, who took it from their rivals, the Orsinis, in 1424, and a cathedral and churches with pictures by Guido, Domenichino, and Guercino. It produces wine and has manufactories of soap, leather, etc. MARIO, GIUSEPPE, a famous Italian tenor, by birth the Caviliere di Candia and son of General di Candia, born at Cagliari in 18l0,died at Rome, Dec. 11, 1883. He served in the army for some years, but ayouthful escapade led to his forsaking Italy for Paris, where he quickly won his way into the most exclusive circles both by the charm of his manners and his exquisite voice. Having contracted debts, however, he accepted the appointment of first tenor of the opera, with a salary of 1,500 francs per month, changing his name at the same time from De Candia to Mario. He made his debut as Robert in Robert le Diable, and achieved the first of a long series of operatic triumphs in Paris, London, St. Petersburg, and America. By the famous singer Giulia Grisi he was the father of six daughters. In his later years he lost his fortune through disas- MARlON—JHARRIAGE trous speculations. In May, 1878, a benefit concert in London yielded him as much as $5,000. MARION, the county-seat of Perry county, Ala. It has railroad repair-shops, carriage-factory, two colleges and two female seminaries. MARION, a railroad center and the county-seat of Linn county, Ia. It contains factories and mills for the manufacture of lint, flour, beer, carriages, furniture, and farm-implements. MARION, a railroad center and county-seat of Grant county, Ind. It contains wood-working fac- tories, flax factories, a foundry, and flour-mills. Population, 8,734. MARION, or MARION CENTRE, a city, the county-seat of Marion county, Kan., situated near the center of the State, about fifty miles west of Emporia. MARION, a railroad center and county-seat of Marion county, Ohio, forty miles north of Colum- bus. It contains grain elevators, machine-shops, and manufactories of carriages, wagons, rakes, and chains. Population, 8,808. MARITZA (anc. Hebrus), a river of European Turkey, rising in the Balkans, and flowing east by south past Philippopolis to Adrianople, where it bends and flows south by west to the Gulf of Enos in the ./Egean. It is 270 miles long, and is naviga- ble for small boats to Adrianople. MARKHAM, a village of York county, Ontario, situated twenty-three miles northeast of Toronto, on the Toronto & Nipissing Railroad. MARKHAM, CLEMENTS RORERT, C. B., F.R.S., F.S.A., geographer and author, son of the Rev. D. Markham, canon of Windsor, born at Stillingfieet, England, in 1830, educated at Westminster, and en- tered the navy in 1844. In 1851 he left the navy, and in 1855 became a clerk in the board of control. In 1863 he was elected secretary of the royal geo- graphical society, and in 1867 became assistant- secretary in the India office. In 1868 he was placed in charge of the geographical department in that ofiice. He served in the Arctic expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. He explored Peru and the forests of the Eastern Andes; he intro- duced the cultivation of the cinchona plant from South America into India; served as geographer in the Abyssinian expedition, and was present at the storming of Magdala. His numerous publications include many translations from the Spanish, and several antiquarian and genealogical works. He edited the “Geographical Magazine” from 1872 to 1878. MARL, a clay containing a large proportion of lime. If it contains many shells or shell fragments, it is called “shell-marl.” Marl is frequently used as a fertilizer. The name “marl” is sometimes also ap- plied to friable clays, or mixtures of clay and sand which are used for the same purpose. But the pres- ence of anotable proportion of lime is essential to marls, properly so called. The green-sands of New Jersey are largely mined for fertilizing purposes under the name of marl. It contains green silicate of iron and potash,which forms its bulk. But some phosphate of lime is also present. Its value de- pends upon these ingredients. The bulkiness of marl confines its use to the neighborhood in which it is found. The marles of the United States belong to the cretaceous, the tertiary, and the recent geological formations. The first of these are green sand and marine calcarious marls. The second add to these argillaceous and phosphatic marls. The recent marls are fresh-water calcareous deposits. The first and second kinds of marl occur in great depos- its from the upper New Jersey coast throughout nearly all the Atlantic and Gulf States to Texas. 1051 Recent marls are found in small deposits in the New England States, but in very large deposits in Central New York and along the valley of the Hudson. Extensive beds are also found in Ohio. The green-sand bed of New Jersey is the most important. It is ninety miles long and from six to ten miles wide. The New Jersey farmers use it very largely, some of them using over 1,000 tons each year, strewing it upon their lands as manure. It is sold at fifty cents per ton at the pits. The granular marl loosens the texture of stiff soils and opens them to the air and moisture. The phos- phate of lime and potash contained in the marl of New Jersey are a very valuable plant-food. De- posits of phosphate marls have recently also been opened in Alabama, which are claimed to be very valuable on account of their large contents of phos- phoric acid. MARLITT, EUeENE,whose real name was EUGENE J OHN, a German novelist, born at Arnstadt in Thur- ingia, Dec. 5, 1825, died at Arnstadt, in 1887. Her beautiful voice and musical talent gained her the favor of the princess of Schwarzburg-Sonders- hausen, who sent her to Vienna, where, after three years of study, she appeared on the stage. But a successfully-begun career was cut short by an af- fection of the ear, and Fraulein John acted as reader to her patroness till 1863. Retiring in that year into private life, she spent her time in writing romances. MARRIAGE IN THE UNITED STATES. For article on the general subject of MARRIAGE, see Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 565-69. Marriage as de- fined in statutes and courts of the United States is first, the legal union of a man with awoman for life; and, secondly, a mutual agreement formally declared, by which a man and awoman of the pro- per respective ages and conditions join one another in wedlock. As far as the parties themselves are concerned, it is a civil “contract ” implying free consent on both sides; and as far as the State is concerned, the parties must have certain qualities with respect to age, mutual relationship, and free- dom from any previous connection. The State sees to it that the contract is not rescinded either by mutual consent nor one-sidedly; because interests of the State and of the children, if there are any, require the afixing of certain permanent duties and obligations upon the contracting parties. In most of the United States marriage does not require any special formalities. Ifa man and a woman promise and agree by word of mouth to take each other as husband and wife, the contract and the resulting legal status of marriage are per- fected. Their marriageis valid. Such is the de- cision of the highest courts. Solemnization by a clergyman, or by a civil magistrate, the presence of witnesses, and all the ceremonies usually ob- served on such occasions, even those provided for by statute, are only means to perpetuate the evi- dence of the contract made between the two spouses, which itself constitutes the marriage. These ceremonies are not in the least essential to the eflicacy of the contract. In States where a li- cense, public notice (“bann”), or other preliminary steps are prescribed by statute, a failure to comply with these provisions does not impair the marriage if it has been contracted without their presence. It merely subjects the delinquent parties to a pen- alty. The words of the contract by which the par- ties take each other as husband and wife, must be of present force and operation (in presenti). If they are only mutual promises of a future force and operation (in futuro), it is held in New York and several other States that no marriage arises, even if it is followed by immediate cohabitation. 1052 MARRIAGE EPITOME OF STATUTES RELATING TO MARRIAGE. The subjoined table presents, in brief and convenient form, an epitome of the statutes of the differ- ent States and Territories of the United States relating to marriage. The interested reader will do well to consult, on any mooted question which may arise. the special requirements of the latest laws and court decisions relating to marriage in the particular State in which the question is raised: States. Alabama . . . . . . Arizona . . . . . . . Arkansas. . . .. California . . .. Colorado. . . Connecticut. . Dakota (i) Delaware . . . . . Dist.of C0l’bia Florida . . . . . . . Georgia. . . . . . . Idaho . . . . . . . . . Illinois. . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . Kentucky . . . . Louisiana. . . . . Maine . . . . . . . . . Maryland. . . .. Massachusetts Michigan . . . . . Minnesota. . . Mississippi ... Mi ssour1 . Montana (2') Nebraska . . H g, A eEntitlgd go ' . . . . Q icense it - Milgéglullilrrééitge Deg1'ie§7s1;)1fO(1:J1E.irx (1701- 1781), a French statesman. \Vhen 14 years of age he was appointed minister of marine, and in 1738 became minister of state. In 177-l he was made minister of the council. MAURER. Konnan von, a German archaeologist, born at Frankenthal, in Rhenish Bavaria, in 1823. After being educated at Munich, Leipzig and Ber- lin, he was in 1847 made professor of jurisprudence at Heidelberg. He has devoted a great deal of time and study to the early Scandinavian history, 1064 #11 ,,_;...> 5 _. ‘-1 ‘ ‘ t. ‘ . ' .1 \ Q _-{M 2, ' l ' . ' £?"l'"§ wi“Iawjs, ‘languages and literature. He has published Die Entstehung des isldndischen Staats und seiner Verfassung; Die Belcehrung des norwegischen Stammes zum Christenthum (2 vols.), and has edited Isldn- dische Volksagen (1860). MAVROCORDATOS, ALEXANDER, a Greek states- man, born at Constantinople in 1791, died at Aegina in 1865. He took a prominent part in the struggle for the independence of Greece, presided in the first national assembly, and was afterwards distin- guished as a general. ‘When Otho was made king of Greece, he was several times prime minister, and also ambassador to Prussia, England and France, holding the latter post 1850-54. Towards the close-of his life he lost his sight. MAWV-SEED, a name by which the seed of the opium poppy is sold as food for cage-birds when moulting. MAUSOLEUM, a sepulchral monument of large size, containing a chamber in which urns or coffins ._\ are deposited. The name -~ is derived from the tomb __~._ erected at Halicarnassus 5‘ to Mausolus, king of Caria, by his widow, Artemisia, in 353 B. c. \ _\ (See HALICAR— NAssUs, Britannica, Vol. _- _ . fl XI, pp. 883, 384.) It was -' ‘---1*‘ — " esteemed one of the seven MAUSOLEUM- wonders of the world. Al- though apparently in good condition as late as the 12th century, it fell into decay during the following two centuries. The ruins were ran- sacked for building materials by the Knights of St. John in the 16th century. The site was re-dis- covered in 1857 by Newton, who was instrumental in getting the remains carried to the British Mu- seum. The mausoleum consisted of a basement 65 feet high, on which stood an Ionic colonnade 23% feet high, surmounted by a pyramid, rising in steps to a similar height, and on the apex of that stood a colossal group, about 14 feet in height, of Mausolus and his wife in the quadriga; these statues are sup- posed to have been the work of the celebrated Scopas. Later instances of large and magnificent mausoleums are Metella’s tomb, Hadrian’s (Castle of San Angelo) and that of Augustus at Rome, the mausoleum of Frederick William III. and Queen Louisa at Charlottenburg near Berlin, that of the House of Hanover at Herrenhausen, of the Prince Consort at Frogmore in Windsor Park, of Napoleon III. at Farnborough and of A. T. Stewart at Garden City, Long Island, N. Y., in the United States. The neighborhood of San Francisco is studded with the mausoleums of American millionaires, one instance being the Lick observatory; while magnificent structures mark the burial-places of such promi- nent men as Lincoln, Grant and Garfield. MAUSTON, a post-village, the county-seat of Juneau county, VVis., 124 miles west of Milwaukee. It has excellent schools, good water-power, and manufactures lumber, barrels and carriages. MAX-MULLER, FRIEDRICH, philologist, born at Dessau,Dec.6,1823. His father, Willielm Miiller, was librarian of the ducal library, but died prema- turely in 1827. Max-Miiller received the elements of his education at Dessau, and then went to Leip- zig, where he studied Greek and Latin and took his degree in 1843. He began the study of Sanskrit and chose it as his special pursuit. The first fruits of his labors appeared in a translation of the Hito padesa. In 1844 he went to Berlin to study and to consult the Sanskrit MSS. to be found there. In Paris, whither he repaired in 1845, he began to pre- pare for an edition of the Rig-Veda, with the com- mentary of Sayanacarya. With this view he went WMMAUROCORDATOS—MAYER to England in 1846, to examine the MSS. in the East India House, London, and the Bodleian Li- brary at Oxford. The East India Company com- missioned him to edit the Rig-Veda at their ex- pense. In 1850 Max-Miiller was appointed profes- sor of modern languages at Oxford; and in 1858 he was elected a Fellow of All Souls. While pursuing his labors connected with the Rig-Veda, Max-' Miiller has published treatises on a variety of philological topics, which have done more than the labors of any ‘other single scholar to awaken a taste for the science of language in its modern sense. He has at command such a felicity of illustration that subjects dry under ordinary treatment be- come in his hands attractive. He is one of the eight foreign members of the Institute of\France, and one of the twenty knights of the Ordre pour le Mérite. He has received the degree of LL. D. from Canhbridge, Edinburgh and Bologna. MAY, SAMUEL J osnrrr (1797-1871), an American reformer. In 1822 he became pastor of a Unitarian church in Brooklyn, N. Y., and from 1836 to 1842 had charge of the church at South Scituate, Mass. From 1845 to 1868 he was pastor of the Unitarian society in Syracuse, N. Y. He was early interested in the anti-slavery cause, and wrote and preached on the subject. He published Education of the Fae- ulties (1846); Revival of Education (1855), and Recol- lections of the Anti-Slavery Conflict (1868). MAY, SIR TIIo1vIAs ERSKINE (1815-1866), assistant- librarian of the House of Commons in 1831, and clerk of the House in 1871. He was called to the bar in 1838, was made in 1860 Companion, and in 1866 Knight Commander of the Bath, and shortly after his retirement from ofiice in 1866 was raised to the peerage as Baron Farnborough, but died May 18 of that year. His most important works are A Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament; Constitutional History of England since the Accession of. George III; and De- mocracy in Europe. MAYAS, a race of Yucatan Indians, supposed to be the descendants of those civilized nations who built Uxmal; Chichen, Itza, Copan, Palenque, and other towns and temples in Yucatan which have excited the admiration of archaeologists in a high degree. Some of the latter think that the Mayas have originated from the Toltecs, who were driven from the table-land of Mexico by the Aztecs in the 11th or 12th century, A. D. They were Christian- ized in the latter half of the 16th century, and led the lives of peaceful and loyal agriculturists until the year of 1848. At that time there was a terrible outbreak in Southern Yucatan. The Mexican rule was overthrown, hundreds of white citizens of Span- ish descent were massacred, and several flourish- ing towns laid in ashes. The Mayas have asserted and since then maintained their independence, carrying on an often repeated warfare with the frontier settlements. They are, however, on friend- ly terms with the English settlers of Belize, from whom they obtain arms and ammunition. See Bri- tannica, Vols. XII, p. 828,; XVI, p. 208; XXIV, p. 758. MAYER, ALFRED MARsI-IALL, an American phys- icist, born in 1836. In 1856 he was made professor of physics and chemistry in the University of Maryland, and from 1859 to 1861 held a similar posi- tion in 'Westminster College, Mo. He afterwards held professorships in Pennsylvania College, and Lehigh University, until 1871 when he accepted the professorship of physics in the Stevens institute of technology, Hoboken, N. J . Besides numerous con- tributions to cyclopeedias and journals, he has published Lecture Notes on Physics ( 1868) ; The Earth a Great Magnet (1872); Light (1877); Sound (1878); MAYERMMEADE and Sport with Gun and Rod in American Woods and Waters (1883). MAYER, BRANTZ ( 1809-1879 ), an American author. He was admitted to the Maryland bar in 1829, and in 1843 was appointed secretary of lega- tion to Mexico. In 1863 he became a paymaster in the United States army, and served until 1871 when he retired with the rank of colonel. He wrote Mexico as it Was, and as it Is (1844); Mexico,Aztec, Spanish, and Republican (1851); Captain Canot, or Twenty Years of an African Slaver (1854) ; Observa- tions on Mexican History and Archzeology (1856); Mexican Antiquities (1858) ; Memoir of Jared Sparks (1867); and Baltimore as it Was, and as it Is (1871). MAYFIELD, a city, the county-seat of Graves county, Ky., on Mayfield Creek, twenty-six miles south of Paducah. It has tobacco houses and manu- factures flour and woolen goods. MAYHEW, AUGUSTUS (1826-1875), an English author, wrote in conjunction with his brother Hen- ry (“the Brothers Mayhew”) several notable works of humorous fiction. In addition he wrote several stories which were popular at the time. MAYHEW, EXPERIENCE (1673-1758), an Ameri- can missionary, great-grandson of Thomas May- hew. He had charge of several Indian congrega- tions, and translated the Psalms and the Gospel of John into their language. He also wrote Indian Converts (1727), and Grace Defended (1744). MAYHEW, HENRY, an English journalist and litterateur, born in London in 1812. He ran away from Westminster school, was sent on a voyage to Calcutta, and on returning was articled to his father,a solicitor. Mayhew’s first adventure in literature was the starting, in conjunction with Gilbert s. Beckett, of The Cerberus, the production of which was stopped by a Beckett’s father. The two youths in disgust left their homes, and with but fifteen shillings between them walked to Edin- burgh, hoping to make fortunes there as actors and authors at the theatre of which Mayhew’s brother Edward was lessee; this failed, for they were at once sent back. In 1831 they started Figaro inLon- don, and the year following The Thief, which was the prototype of the “Bits” journals of to-day. In 1841 Mayhew produced The wandering Minstrel, a farce, and shortly after joined with his brother Augustus in one of the most successful of literary partnerships, during which (as “the Brothers May- hew”), they produced some remarkably clever works of fiction. One of the originators and first editor of “Punch,” Mayhew was from early in the forties a voluminous writer on many subjects. His brother Horace (1816-72), also made some mark in literature, more especially of a humorous and ephemeral kind. He was a constant contributor to “Punch,” of which he was at one time sub- editor. He died in 1887. MAYHEW, JONATHAN (1720-1766), an American clergyman, son of Experience Mayhew. From 1747 till his death he was pastor of the \Vest church in Boston, Mass. From his youth he pleaded fervent- ly in behalf of colonial freedom in church and state from the English oppression. He published Seven Sermons (1749); Discourse Concerning Unlimit- ed Sabmission and Non-Resistance to the higher Powers (1750); Sermons (1751), and Sermons on Young Men (1767). MAYHEW, THOMAS (1592-1682), a governor of Martha’s Vineyard. He was for some time an Eng- lish merchant, but having obtained a grant of a large portion of Martha’s Vineyard, with the title of governor, emigrated in 1641 to Massachusetts, and the following year settled in Edgartown,where he organized a mission to convert the Indians. His 1065 influence among the natives became so great that during King Philip’s war they took no part in the conflict. MAYO, AMORY DWIGHT, an American clergyman, born in 1823. From 1846 to 1854, he was pastor of the Independent Christian church at Gloucester, Mass., of a church in Cleveland, Ohio, from 1854 to 1856, and then till 1879 of Unitarian churches in Albany, N. Y., Cincinnati, Ohio, and Springfield, Mass. He has since been engaged in educational work in the southern States. He has published The Balance (1847) ; Graces and Powers of the Christian I/ife (1850); Symbols of the Capital (1859); Religion ii1i87C2';(;nimon Schools (1869), and Talks With Teachers ( . MAYO, WILLIAM STARBUOK, an American author, born in 1812. He practiced medicine in Ogdensburg, N. Y., for several years, and then settled in New York City, to devote himself to literature. He is author of Flood and Field, or Tales of Battles on Sea and Land (1844); Kaloolah, or Journeyings to the Ejebel Kumri (1849); The Berber, or the .Mountaineer of the Atlas (1850) ; Romance Dust from the Historic Placer (1851), and Never Again (1873). MAYSVILLE, a city of Kentucky, the river port of a rich territory. It contains some flour and lum- ber mills, distilleries, car shops, etc. Population in 1890, 5,350. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 651. MAZARRON, or ALMAZARRON, a seaport town of Spain, twenty-seven miles from Cartagena. Pop- ulation. 11,002. l\IAZURKA, a lively Polish dance, the music of which is 3/4 time with a strong accent on the second beat. It is danced by four or eight couples, and is much practiced in the south of Germany and in Poland, from whose province Mazovia it gets its name. MAZZARINO, a town of Sicily, fifteen miles southeast of Caltanisetta. Population, 12,964. MEAD, LARRIN GOLDSMITH. an American sculptor, born in 1835. He displayed talent for modeling at an early age, and in 1855 produced the Recording Angel. After completing several other works he went to Florence, Italy,where he has since resided. He has modeled numerous statuettes, and the groups The Returned Soldier; Columbus’s Last Ap- 'peal to Queen Isabella; America; Venice, the Bride of the Sea; The Discovery of America; Cavalri ; Infantry; Artillery, and Navy. MEADE, GEORGE GORDON (1815-1872), an Amer- ican soldier. See Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 790. MEADE, RICHARD KIDDER (1795-1862), an Amer- ican politician, William Meade’s brother. He be- gan the practice of law in Petersburg, Va., and from 1847 to 1853, was a member of Congress. From 1857 to 1861, he was United States minister to Brazil. MEADE, RICHARD WORSAM (1807-1870), a United States naval ofificer, brother of George Gordon Meade. He entered the navy in 1826 as midship- man, became lieutenant in 1837, commander in 1855, and captain in 1862. He was retired in 1867 with the rank of commodore. In 1861 he was given command of the receiving-ship “North Carolina,” and in 1864 of the steam sloop-of-war “San J acinto.” MEADE, RIOHARD WORSAM, a United States naval ofiicer, son of the preceding. born in 1837. He entered the navy as midshipman in 1850, and was promoted lieutenant in 1858, lieutenant-command er in 1862, commander in 1868, and captain in 1880. During the civil war he served with distinction on the Mississippi River, and in the South Atlantic and Western Gulf blockading squadrons. MEADE, WILLIAM (1789-1862), an American Protestant Episcopal bishop. He was made deacon in 1811, and ordained priest three years later. In 1066 1811 he became deacon of Christ church, Alexan- dria, Va., and in 1813 went to Millwood, where he remained till 1829, then becoming assistant to Bishop Richard Channing Moore. In 1841 he suc- ceeded Dr. Moore as bishop of Virginia. He wrote Family Prayers (1834) ; Pastoral Letters on the Duty of Afi‘ord*ing Religious Instruction to those in Bondage (1834); Companion to the Font and to the Pulpit (1846); Lectures on the Pastoral Ofiice (1849); Rea- sons for Loving the Episcopal Church (1852); Old Church ll[z'ntsters, and Farm'ltes of Virginia (1857); and The Bible and the Classics (1861). MEADVILLE, a city, the county-seat of Craw- ford county, Pa. Population in 1890, 9,502. See Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 656-57. MEAGHER, Tnonns FRANCIS (1823-1867), an Irish—American soldier. From 1843 he devoted himself to the cause of Ireland, and in 1848 was ar- rested and sentenced to death on the charge of treason. The sentence was afterward com- muted to banishment, and he was transported A.-—PRODUCTION AND MEADVILLE-—MECHANICSVILLE v to Van Diemen’s Land, but in 1852 he escaped to the United States. At the beginning of the civil war he organized the “Irish brigade,” and was chosen its brigadier-general. He was afterwards made brigadier-general of volunteers. In 1865 he became secretary of Montana, and the following year while acting as governor pro tempore he fell into the Missouri River and was drowned. He was the author of Speeches on the 'Legt'slatt've Independ- ence of Ireland (1852). MEASLES. See Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 657-8. MEATS. The production of meats is a subject of special American interest because it is grow- ing to be one of the most important industries of this country, In the following table we give the yearly production of beef, mutton, pork, and fowl in the most important European countries, as well as in the United States and Canada, for 1880 (the census figures for 1890, have not yet been published at the time of going to press). The figures are here given in thousands of tons. CONSUMPTION on MEATS. Production, Thousands of Tons. - , . Consum tion, Countnes. Tons, hou- Beef Mutton. Pork. Fowl, etc. Total SandS~ United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 666 346 145 38 1,195 1,640 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 210 240 60 1,060 1,210 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 230 285 45 1,345 1,405 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,050 420 445 50 1,965 1,920 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 180 275 40 1,150 1,090 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 70 55 25 315 295 Spam and Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170 180 130 10 490 460 Bel ium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82 6 6 118 190 H01 and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95 9 12 5 121 98 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 18 16 2 116 76 Sweden and Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 27 18 6 201 196 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 15 1 1 29 31 Roumania, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160 50 60 10 D 280 300 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,620 1,761 1,706 298 8,385 8,911 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,750 340 1,420 60 3,570 3,060 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 36 45 5 221 198 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,505 2,137 3,171 363 12,176 12,169 The following table gives the yearly consumption of beef, mutton, pork, and fowl per inhabitant in pounds. ' B—MEAT CONSUMPTION PER INHABITANT. Per Annum, Lbs. Countries. Beef. Mutton. Pork. Fow1,etc. Total. United Kingdom. . . .. 52 24 26 3 105 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 12 19 ’ 3 74 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 12 15 2 69 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 11 11 2 48 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 10 15 2 64 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 5 4 2 23 Spain and Portugal. 16 18 14 1' 49 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44 3 27 2 76 Holland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 5 7 2 56 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 19 17 2 69 Sweden and Norway. 48 9 6 2 65 Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 12 11 2 57 United States . . . . . . . . 62 14 41 3 120 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52 17 21 3 93 In table C the export of bacon, beef, live cattle, and pork is given for the years 1861, 1871, and 1881, live cattle being computed at 560 pounds per head. C—MEAT Exronrs OF THE UNITED STATES.‘ Tons. 1861 1871. 881. Bacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,400 32,300 336,400 Beef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,400 19,890 68,100 Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,300 - 11,900 26,200 Pork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,300 18,100 49,500 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,400 82,100 510,200 MECHANIC FALLS, or Mncr-IANIo’s FALLS, a post-village of Androscoggin county, Me., thirty- three miles north of Portland. Paper, rifles, shoes, cheese, harness, organs, and furniture are manu- factured here. There is also a corn-canning es- tablishment. - MECHANICSBURG, a post-village of Cham- paign county, Ohio, seventeen miles northwest of Springfield. MECHANICSBURG, a post-borough of Cum- berland county, Pa., eight miles west of Harris- burg. It contains a foundry, spoke and bending works, door and sash factories, Irving Female College, and Cumberland Valley Institute. Pop- ulation, 3,690. MECHANICSVILLE, a post-village and a rail- road junction of Saratoga county, N. Y., eighteen miles northeast of Schenectady. It manufacture’ linen thread. ' MEDEAH-—MEDICAL COLLEGES MEDEAH, a town of Algeria, forty miles south- west of Algiers. It is supplied with water by means of an aqueduct. Population, 3,620. MEDIATE, in the old German Empire; a term applied to those possessions which were held by feudal tenure under one of the greater vassals, and so only mediately under the emperor as the supreme feudal lord. MEDIATOR, a term applicable to any person who endeavors to reconcile parties at variance. In theology, it is employed to denote Christ, both with respect to his sacrifice of Atonement, and to his continual intercession. MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN. The num- ber of physicians belonging to the school repre- sented b this organization in 1890 is estimated at 75,000. t comprises 100 medical colleges, 1,800 pro- fessors and instructors, and about 10,000 students in attendance in the colleges. About 3,000 of the latter received the degree of M. D. in 1890. The resident of the association is Dr. William T. Briggs, of Tennessee, and the permanent secre- tary is Dr. William B. Atkinson, of Philadelphia, Pa. The colleges had libraries equalling 45,000 volumes. Their buildings, lands, and scientific ap- paratus amounted to three millions of dollars in value. , Forty States have State medical societies. The American Medical Association, the parent body, so to speak, has a‘ membership of over 5,000. In addition, there ‘are a number of special organiza- tions. such as the American Academy of Medicine, composed only of medical graduates who have re- ceived a degree in letters prior to graduation; membership, about 500; American Association for the Study and Cure of Inebriates, American Cli- I067 matological Association, American Dermatological Association, American Gynaecological Association, American Larynological Association, American Neurological Association, American Ophthalmo- logical Association, American Otological Associa- tion, American Association of Paediatrics, and Amer- ican Public Health Association. In many of the States the county medical socie- ties alone are represented in the State body, but in others, particularly those of the West, the counties are poorly organized, and the State body is made up independently. The aggregate membership of these State societies at present is not far from 40,000. The aggregate number of county and dis- trict medical societies is 650. All these are in as- sociation with and entitled to send delegates to the American Medical Association. The number of hospitals, whether attached to colleges or other- wise, is about 720. MEDICAL COLLEGES or THE UNITED Srarns. There are at present (1891) over 100 medical schools in active operation in the United States,with about 1,800 professors. To this number we must add 10 colleges of eclectic and 13 of homeopathic medi- cine, 18 dental, and 17 pharmaceutical colleges, making a total of 148. In 1885 the number of pro- fessors in all the medical schools (as returned by commissioner of education) was 2,235; of students, 15,300; and of graduates, 4.617. The following list gives_ the most notable of the medical colleges in the United States in the order in which they have beenorganized: It must be remarked here, that Philadelphia, the seat of the first medical college in the United States, is also the seat of the first Woman’s Medi- cal College. After Philadelphia come Boston, New _ Profes- Grad- Medical Colleges. Founded‘ sors. uates. Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755 53 101 Harvard Medical School, Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1782 52 59 College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..\._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807 53 115 School of Medicine of the University of Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807 19 17 Medical College of Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . 1819 13 100 Jefferson Medical College, Ph1ladelp_h1a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1825 19 215 Medicial Department of the Unlversity of Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 1825 5 14 Medical Department of the University of Louisville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837 13 84 Medical Department of the University of the City of New York _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ 1840 27 213 Missouri Medical College, St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1840 18 103 Rusn Medical College, Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1843 37 166 W_om_an’sMed1cal College of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1850 15 26 Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1851 14 14 New England l§‘emale Medical College. Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1756 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bellevue Hospital Medical College. New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1861 28 149 Woman’s Medical College of New York Infirmary, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1868 20 9 College of Physicians and Surgeons, Baltimore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1872 10 127 Woman’s Med1_cal College of Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.870 28 21 Woman’s Medical College of Baltimore .......................................................... . . 1882 17 5 York, Chicago, and Baltimore in establishing col- leges for women. Of the now existing homeopathic schools in the United States the first one, in point of time, is the “Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia.” It was founded by Dr. Constantine Hering, and in- corporated in 1848 as the “I-Iomeopathic Medical of Pennsylvania.” The first class consisted of 15 students. In 1867 a rival institution was organized, entitled the “Hahnemann Medical College of Phil- adelphia.” These two schools were combined in 1869, retaining the name of the latter, but working under the charter of the former. Since that time the college has been prosperous. It graduated 1,648 students up to 1886. A third school of medicine in America is the “Eclectic.” It claims to adopt all that is of pro red value in either of the other two systems. and to hold itself free to vary in accordance with every new discovery. To this it adds the employment of “specifics” which are nearly always from the vege- table kingdom, and are directed to special patho- logical conditions, on the principle that certain diseases generate similar morbid products which may be excreted from the system by the use of these “specifics.” The first regular Eclectic school was instituted at Cincinnati in 1843, under the title of the “Eclectic Medical Institute.” Up to 1875 this school had matriculated 5,375 students and gradu- ated 1,804. In 1882 it had 8 professors and 272 stu- dents, of whom 100 graduated. In 1866 followed the establishment of the Eclectic Medical Colle e of the City of New York with 9 professors, and %n 1878 that of the United States Medical College of 1068 New York, with 13 professors. Similar colleges ex- ist now in Chicago, St. Louis, Atlanta and Oakland, Cal. In the year 1886 the Eclectic system had in all about 100 professors and On an average of 312 graduates per annum. Yet eclecticism cannot be said to be in a very flourishing condition. The best-known homeopathic colleges of the United States, are the following,with dates of their organization, up to 1876: Colleges. Organized Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia 1848 Cleveland Homeomthic Hospital College . 1849 Pennsylvania Me ical University, Philadel- 1853 Hahnemann Medical College of Chicago . .. 1855 Homeopathic Medical Colle e of St. Louis, MO. 1858 New York Homeopathic Me ical College . .. 1860 New York Homeopathic Medical College for Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 1863 Boston University School of Medicine .. . 1869 Homeopathic Medical College of Detroit... .. 1871 Pulte Medical College, Cincinnati........ .. . 1872 Homeopathic Medical College of the University of Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . .. 1875 Chicago Homeopathic College . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 1876 The great drawback of many of the medical col- leges is the fact that they cannot give any valua- ble clinical instructions, because they‘ have no ac- cess to the large hospitals, only those of the largest cities being connected with such hospitals. Many of them draw students by low prices and easy examina- tions. These inducements, together with the desire of many young Americans to become doctors at little cost of money. time, and study, has forced some of the best medical schools to make their courses less thorough and their examinations comparatively easy; for they have to compete with the third-rate colleges for patronage and their existence depends on the public patronage. The consequence is that the United States have now more physicians in pro- portion to the population than any other country in the world. In 1880 there was one physician for every 584 inhabitants. The first-class medical col- leges, as those in New York, Philadelphia and Bos- ton, have instituted a three years’ course of study. But the majority of these colleges throughout the country have only a two years’ course of about twenty weeks’ duration each. MEDICAL TREATMENT, SPEOIAL METHODS OF. In this article we do not refer to the standard (al- lopathic) and the homeopathic and eclectic med- ical treatments, but to some of those popular meth- ods with which many of the educated physicians will have nothing to do, such as water cure, oxygen treatment, electrical applications, massage, etc. WATER-CURE (Hydropathy) consists in using water at dif- ferent temperatures and in various forms,as having it douched in solid streams, from a height, being wrapped in wet sheets, and so rubbed, taking clysters of tepid water, putting the feet firstinto pold, then into hot water, etc It is credited with re- ducing local or general inflammation, and stimulating re- laxed or enfeebled tissue. The “steam-bath” produces sweat- ingtand assists in depurification, but it also debilitates the sys em. AIR-CURE consists in inclosing the body up to the neck in a compartment filled with compressed air, and also in inhal- ing various gases or medicated vapors. The vacuum treatment is the inclosing of a limb or the body in an air-tight box from which the air has been exhausted. This expands the vessels, makes the capillaries wider, and forces more blood into the parts so inclosed. The compressed air treatment acts in the opposite way. Both methods are used in paralysis, rheumatism, anthrophy, etc. OXYGEN TREATMENT is the inhalation of oxygennpure, or combined with air, or with nitrous oxide (laughing gas). Oxygen inhalations are for stimulating respiration and for puri ying the blood; and the nitrous oxi e is used as an anaesthetic, mostly for the purpose of suspending pain. MEDICAL TREATMENT—-MEEKi ELECTRICAL TREATMENT may be galvanic, faradic, or franklinic. A galvanic current can be used for cauteriz- ing, if we make a platinum wire red hot and apply this to the tissue which is to be burnt away. Applied to the principal nerve leading toamuscle, the current causes apowerful contraction of that muscle. It is used to stim- ulate the nerves of the special senses and in various other ways. The faradic or induced current is alternat- ing. It gasses through the secondary circuit of an induction coil. W erever it is applied it produces local heat. It is of- ten used in rheumatism, paralysis, dyspepsia, and simi-' lar ddiseases. Franklinic or static electricity is now little use . MOVEMENT-CURE.—The claim is made that exercising the shoulders and arms arrests cough and lung dis- orders. Movements about the waist and abdomen help the stomach and bowels. Movements about thejoints re- duce stiffness, swelling. and deposits by increasing the activity of the absorbents. Nerve affections are relieved by muscular exercise, because they are mostly produced by congestion, and the muscular action draws the blood supply away from the nerves by causing a} greater de- mand in the exercised muscles. Lung congestion is re- lieved by vibrating the extended arms by two attend~ ants,the surcharge of blood being drained off to meet the call_ of the agitated arms. The peristaltic action of the bow- els is promoted by kneading and percussion of the liver. Ma- chinery 1S often employed to give agreat variety of move- ment and vibrations in the parts of our body, and it is claimed that in producing heat and tissue changes, these m1.Ovements are much more effective than hand movements a one. LIFT—CURE is a single movement. The lifter stands with s ine erect, but the knees bent3 or 4 inches, upon a Eatform resting upon spiral s rings, and grasps with is hands a cross-bar connecte with springs and ad- justed weights. The operation consists in straightening the bent knees, preserving the spine, erect-shoulders. hips, and ankles p umb—and slowly raising the weights through a space of 3 or 4 inches, and as slowly return- ing them, then raising up again, drawing adeep inspira- tion. By the action of the springs the muscles are caused to act very gradually so that al strain is prevented. This lift- movement brings all the muscles into play, and causes the blood to flow from center to circumference, thus filling the ca illaries of the superficial parts,warming the extremities, in ucing sleep, relieving sluggish digestion, etc. It gives the greatest amount of exercise with the least nervous ex- haustion, and in the shortest possible time. MASSAGE.—-See the article on this subject in these Revis- ions and Additions. MIND-CURE utilizes the effects of the various einotions of the mind upon the art of the body for the purpose of curing disease. Fait -cure is a s ecial form of mind-cure, the effects of religious emotions eing utilized for healing bodily ailments. . _ COLOR-CURE induces certain bodily conditions by expos- ing the person to the efiects of certain colors. It main- tains that red walls in our rooms,or red light coming in through a window, etc., stimulate and excite our nerves. while blue ones de ress us etc., and claim that neuralgia. rheumatism and ot er disorders can be cured byusing cer- tain colors on walls or windows. SUN—CURE is the healing of certain diseases by exposing the affected parts to the direct rays of the sun. The effects of the sun’s rays are as beneficient to man as to plants. We have seen a cancer apparently cured by this means. MEDlCK”(Medv.'cago), a genus of plants of the natural order Leguminosaz sub-order Papilionaceze, nearly allied to clover, but distinguished from that and kindred genera by the sickle-shaped, or, in most species, spirally twisted legume. The species, which are very numerous, are mostly annual and perennial herbaceous plants, with leaves of three leaflets like those of clover, and are natives of tem- perate and warm climates. They afiord good green food for cattle, and some of them are cultivated like the clovers for this use, amongst which the most important is the Purple Medick, of Lucerne. Besides this, the Black Medick or Nonsuch (M. lapalina) is one of the most generally culti- vated. MEDINA, a post-village of Orleans county, N. Y., on the Erie Canal. It has manufactories of flour, carriages, pumps and farming tools. MEDINA, a post-village, the county-seat of Me- dina county, Ohio. It contains a normal school, flour, saw, and planing mills, a foundry and other manufactories. MEEK, FIELDING BRADFORD, an American paleon- tologist, born at Madison, Ind., in 1817, died at Washington, D. C., in 1876. He first engaged in ' the brow and forehead of one side. MEeAtoNYx_MELANoRRHmA mercantile pursuits until 1848, when he became an assistant in the United States geological survey of Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota. During 1852—58 he assisted James Hall in his paleontological work of the State of New York, except in summers, when he was engaged in field-work. After 1858 he resided in Washington, D. C., and devoted his time to inves- tigating the organic remains gathered by the gov- ernment exploring expeditions. The invertebrate paleontology of the Rocky Mountains, as developed by the survey of Prof. Hayden, was entrusted to Mr. Meek. He also studied the paleontology of Illinois, Ohio, California, and of several of the territories. Witli Ferd. V. Hayden he published through the Smithsonian Institution: Paleontology of the Upper Missouri (1865); and alone Check-I/ist of the Inverte- brate Fossils of North America (1864), and also Report on the Invertebrate, Cretaceous, and Tertiary Fossils of the Upper Missouri Country (1876). MEGALONYX, a large fossil edentate of the United States, smaller than the Megatherium. MEGRIM, the popular term for neuralgia occu- pying one half of the head, or more commonly only It is often peri- odical, but may be‘ induced by any cause that debilitates the system. MEGRIMS AND VERTIGO, terms usually em- ployed when a horse at work reels, and then either stands for a minute dull and stupid, or falls to the ground, lying for a time partially insensible. These attacks come on suddenly and are most frequent during hot weather when the animal is doing heavy work. Liability to megrims constitutes unsound- ‘ness, and usually depends upon the circulation through the brain being temporarily disturbed by the presence of tumors, or by weakness of the heart’s action. _ MEIAPONTE, a town of Brazil, sixty-five miles east of Goyas, on the river Almas. It has five churches, a hospital, a Latin and primary school, and many distilleries and potteries, and is well sit- uated for trade. MEIGGS, HENRY (1811-1877), an American con- tractor. For several years he was in the lumber business in New York City, but in the financial crisis of 1854 his debts amounted to $1,000,000 and he fled to South America. He then engaged in building bridges on the Valparaiso and Santiago road in Chili, and later constructed railroads in that country from which he realized a profit of over $1,500,000. He next undertook the building of six railroads in Peru, three of which he completed, and the remainder were in course of construction when he died. One of these, the Callas, Lima, and Oroya road ranks among one the most daring achievements of modern engineering. Before his death Mr. Meiggs met all of his former obligations in the United States. MEIGS, CHARLES DELUCENA (1792-1869), an Amer- ican physician. He began the practice of medi- cine in Augusta,Ga., but in 1814 went to Philadelphia. From 1841 to 1861 he was professor of obstetrics and the diseases of women and children in Jefferson Medical College. He published, besides numerous translations, The Philadelphia Practice of Midwifery (1838); Woman, Her Diseases and Remedies (1847); Obstetrics, the Science and Art (1849) ; Observations on Certain Diseases of Children (1850) ; Treatise on Acute and Chronic Diseases of the Neckof the Uterus (1854), and On the Nature, Signs and Treatment of Child- Bed Fevers (1854). MEIGS, MONTGOMERY CUNNINGHAM, an American soldier, son of Charles Delucena Meigs, born in 1816. He entered the United States army in 1836, and served on the corps of engineers till 1861 when he was appointed to organize an expedition to relieve 1069 Fort Pickens, Fla., which was besieged by the Con- federate forces. The same year he was made colonel of the 11th infantry, and a little later quartermaster-general of the United States army, which post he held until his retirement in 1882. He has published the annual reports of the quar- termaster’s department from 1861 to 1882, besides other government reports. He died in 1892. MEIGS, RETURN JONATHAN (1740-1823), an Ameri- can soldier. He entered the American army at the beginning of the Revolutionary war, became' a ma- jor, and in 1777 a colonel. In that year at the head of 170 men he attacked the British troops at Sag Harbor, L. I., captured ninety prisoners and de- stroyed twelve vessels without the loss of a man. MEIGS, RETURN JONATHAN (1765-1825), a United States Senator, son of the preceeding. He began the practice of law in Marietta, Ohio, in 1788, and in 1803-4, was chief justice of the State supreme court. In 1807 he was appointed judge of the United States district court of Michigan, and in 1809-10, was a United States Senator from Ohio. From 1810 to 1814, he was governor of his State. He then became Postmaster-General in President Madi- son’s Cabinet, and continued to hold the oflice until 1823, when he retired at Marietta, to pass the re- mainder of his life. MEILHAC, a French playwright, born in Paris, in 1831. He was trained as an artist, and published his first dramatic work in 1855. He has subsequent- ly produced a long serious of light comedies-—some in conjunction with Halevy. Some are well-known through Offenbach’s music. His Chef-d’ (Euvre is Frou-Frou. MEISSONIER, JEAN LOUIS ERNEsT, figure pain- ter, born at Lyons, Feb. 21, 1813, died Jan. 31, 1891. When he was still a child his father established himself as a druggist in Paris; and the son, having resolved u,pon art as a profession, studied under Jules Potier and Leon Cogniet. His drawings were praised by Johannot, and about 1833-34, he was em- ployed by Curmer the publisher on designs for the Royaument Bible and other works. He first made a distinct mark in 1838, and by his illustrations to Paul and Virginia and the Cha'umz'ere Indienne. In 1834 he began to contribute to the Salon. Two years later he exhibited the first of his various groups of Chess-Players. It was followed by a long series of elaborate and successful genre-pictures, in which, with the most careful and finished execution, and with the most perfect verisimilitude of costume and local coloring, the artist depicted the civil and military life of the 17 th and 18th centuries. Pass- ing to subjects of genre or history taken from the nineteenth century. Among the most celebrated of his military scenes may be named La Rirre, pur- chased by Queen Victoria. He also executed some striking portraits. Finally, we may refer to his de- sign for the decoration of the Panthéon—“the apo- theosis of France”—the cartoons of which were ex- hibited to the commission in 1889. He became a commander of the Legion of Honour in 1867, grand cross 1889, and a member of the institute in 1861, and he was an honorary member of the Royal Academy. M ELANORRHCEA, a genus of trees of the natural order Anacardiaceze. To this genus be- longs the black varnish tree (M. Usitatissz'ma) of Burmah and of the northeast of India. It attains a height of 100 feet, with large, leathery, entire leaves, and axillary panicles of flowers. It yields a viscid rust-colored juice, which becomesblack on exposure to the atmosphere, and is valued as avar- nish for painting boats, and also as a size-glue in gilding. A similar varnish is yielded in India by ' sewing-machine needles. 1070 the fruits of H oligana Longifolia, also of the natural order I/lnacarcliaceee. MELA-ROSA, a fruit of the genus Citrus, and probably a variety of the Lime, cultivated in Italy. MELASTOMACE./E, a natural order of exo- genous plants, containing about 1,200 known species; trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, mostly natives of warm climates, although a few are found in the temperate parts of North America. They have opposite undivided leaves, destitute of dots. The flowers are regular. None of the Metas- tomacez-.e possesses poisonous properties; some are used in dying, and the fruit and leaves of others as articles of food. MELICOCCA, a genus of trees or shrubs of the natural order Sapindaeeee, with alternate, abruptly pinnate leaves, and elongated racemes or panicles of many small whitish flowers. M. bijuga, a native of the NVest Indies, is there universally cultivated for its fruit. It is called the Honey Berry, and the Jamaica Bullace Plum. It is from 16 to 20 feet high. The fruit is jet black, about the size of abul- lace, and the seeds are roasted and eaten like chestnuts. Other species of Melicocea yield eat- able fruits. h/IELIKOFF, LORIS, a Russian general, born at Lori, Jan. 1, 1826, died in 1888. He served with dis- tinction in the Crimea, and was made a count. He was successively governor of Astrakan and govern- or of Kharkov. In 1880 he was appointed chief of a commission to which was granted extraordinary power to deal with Nihilism. Subsequently he be- came minister of the interior. MELILOT (Melilotus), a genus of clover-like plants of the natural order Leguminosee. The Com- mon Melilot, a yellow-flowered annual, has when in flower the peculiar sweet odor of Tonka Bean. The flowers and seeds are_ used in flavoring Gruyére cheese. The Blue Melilot (M. ceerulea), a native of the north of Africa, with short racemes of blue flowers, is cultivated in many parts of Europe. The name Bokhara Clover has been given to one or more species. MELODRAMA, strictly a half-musical drama, in which declamation is interrupted from time to time by instrumental music. The name, however, which was first applied to the opera, has come to designate a romantic play, depending mainly on sensational incidents, thrilling situations, and an effective dénouement. The expression “transpon- tine drama” refers to a time when such plays were identified with houses on the Surrey side of the Thames. _ MELON, the common name for fruits of vines of the Cucurbitaceee or gourd family. In speaking of melons in America we always mean either “water-melons” or “musk-melons.” Both of these varieties are grown in enormous quantities, and are very popular as dessert-fruits. Among musk- melons (cantaloupes) the small netted forms are the sweetest and most popular. Water-melons grow best in the sandy soils of the seaboard of southern countries. In South Carolina they have reached 45 lbs. Their flesh is red, very juicy, and watery. As many as 160,000 water-melons have passed over the ferries to New York City in a sin- gle day. Where the ground is richly manured, the culture of water-melons pays very handsomely, often over $500 per acre. See Britannica,Vol. XV, . 841. P MELROSE, a city of Middlesex county, Mass., nine miles north of Boston. It has manufactories of boots and Shoes, furniture, silver polish, and _ Population, 8,500. MELTING-POINT. The following are some of the most important melting-points, which may also MELA-RosA;- MEMMINGER be regarded as the freezing-points of the corres- ‘ ponding liquids : Cent. Fah. Cent. Fah. O O _ o 0 Alcohol pure -130 —202 Sulphur......,. 115 239 Hydro bro— Lithium . . . . . . . 180 356 mic acid. —120 -184 Solder about.. 180 356 Strongest in . . . . . . . . . . . 228 442 sul )huric Bismuth. . . . ... 267 513 aci . . . . . . . . . .—116 -177 Lead . . . . . . . . . . . 334 633 Sulphureted Antimony.. . . . . 430 806 hydrogen. . . . — 85 —121 Zinc . . . . . . . . . .. 450 842 Ammoma . . . . ..— 75 —-103 Magnesium 1'' - Sulphurous .. . . . . . ..about 750 1382 acid . . . . . . . . ..— 75 --103 Bronze... “ 900 1652 Chloride. 75 -103 Silver.... “ 1000 1832 Carbonic acid.-— '70 — 94 Brass.. . .. “ 1015 1860 Ch1oroform....— 70 - 94 Copper .. “ 1100 2012 hIe_rcury . . . . . . ..— 39-38 — 38-88 Iron, white Ol1_ve and cast. . . . . “ 1100 2012 linseed oil. . .- 20 — 4 Iron, gray Bromine . . . . . . .— 7-3 x19-86 cast.. . .. “ 1225 2237 Ice. ._ . . . . . . . . . . .-- 0 32 Gold, pure “ 1250 2282 Glacial acetic Steel . . . . .. “ 1350 2462 ac1d . . . . . . . . . . 17 62-6 Soft iron . . ‘ ‘ 1550 2822 Phosphorus.... 44-2 111 Manganese “ 1600 2912 Potassium. . . . . 62-5 144-5 Platinum “ 1800 3272 Sodium... . . . . .. 95-6 204 Iridium. . . “ 1950 3542 Iodine . . . . . . . . .. 113 235 Osmium.. “ 2500 4532 Melting-points beyond about 9000 or 1,0000 F. are merely approximate and relative. MELVILLE, the name of an island, a sound and a peninsula in the polar regions -of North America. The island is 200 miles long by 130 miles broad. The sound, about 250 miles long by 200 broad, ex- tends southeast of the island and communicates with the Arctic Ocean and with Baffin Bay. The peninsula projects from the continent at its north- eastern corner. It is 250 miles in length by about 100 in average breadth. Another Melville Island . lies ofl the coast of North Australia. Its length is 70 miles; breadth 30 miles. MELVILLE, HERMAN, an American author, born in 1819. He became a sailor in 1837. In 1842, while cruising in the South Pacific, he and several of his companions determined to leave the ship on account of the harsh treatment of the captain; and while she lay in a harbor of the Marquesas Islands they made their escape. The party of sailors fell in with a war-like tribe of cannibals and were taken prisoners, but after four months of captivity the party made its escape on board an Australian whaler. On his return to the United States Mel- ville published a narrative of his captivity entitled Typee: a Peep at Polynesian Lij'e During a Four Months’ Residence in a Valley of the .Marquesas, which passed rapidly through several editions. Among his later works are Omoo, a Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas (1847) ; M ardi, and a Voyage Thither (1848); Redburn ( 1848); White-Jacket, or the World in a Man-of- War (1850); Moby Dick, or the White Whale (1851) ; Pierre, or the Ambiguites (1852) ; Israel Potter, His Fifty Years of Exile (1855) ; The Piazza Tales (1857); Battle-Pieces, and Aspects of the War (1866), and Clarel, a Pilgrimage in the Holy Land (1876). ' MEMMINGER, CHARLES GUSTAVUS, an American statesman, born in Wiirtemberg, Germany, in 1803, died in Charleston, S. C., in 1888. Being left an orphan when an infant Gov. Thomas Bennett adopted and educated him. He graduated at South Carolina College in 1820 and was admitted to the bar of Charleston in 1825. During the nulliflcation excitement he was a leader of the Union party, and wrote The Book of Nullification (1832-33), in which he satirized the advocates of that doctrine in Bibli- cal style. In the legislature he opposed the sus- pension of specie payments by the banks in 1839, and served for about 20 years as chairman of the finance committee. In 1860 Memminger was one of the leaders of the secession movement, and when MEMP_HIS—MERE-DITH the Confederate government was formed, he be- came secretary of the treasury, and held this post until 1864. After the civil war he lived in retire- ment. MEMPHIS, a post-village, the county-seat of Scotland county, Mo., containing flour-mills. MEMPHIS, a city of Tennessee, the commercial metropolis of West Tennessee, and the most im- portant commercial city between St. Louis and New Orleans. In addition to the facilities afforded by the Mississippi River, on which it is situated, nu- merous lines of railroads bring the products of a large section of country to its wharves. The city is handsomely built on a bluff overlooking the river. It is one of the most extensive cotton markets of the country,the shipments of cotton amounting to over 400,000 bales per annum. The principal man- ufactures are iron, iron-goods, cotton-seed oil, lum- ber, tobacco, farm-machinery, etc. Memphis has a number‘ of excellent public and private schools and seminaries. Population in 1880, 33,592; in 1890, 64,586. See Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 847, 848. MENABREA, LUIGI FEDERICO, Manours VALL- DORA, an Italian statesman, born at Chambery, France, in 1809. He was professor of engineering in the military academy at Turin. Afterwards he served in the Italian ministry of war and of the interior. In the war against Austria in 1859 he was chief of staff, and fortified Bologna and other cities, and conducted the siege of Gaéta. In 1861 he was made count and appointed minister of the marine, and in 1867 he was minister of foreign affairs. In 1875 he was created Marquis of Vall- Dora, and in 1876 he served as ambassador to England. He is an accomplished mathematician and engineer, and has published Le Génie Italien dans la Campagne 1860-61 (1866). MENAGERIE, see ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN in these Revisions and Additions. _ MEN ASHA, a city and railroad center of Winne- bago county, \Vis., eighteen miles north of Osh- kosh. It has a number of manufactories. Popula- tion, 4,569. MENDE, the capital of the French department of Lozere, on the Lot, in a valley surrounded by high hills, sixty-six miles from Nimes, has a cathe- dral, and manufactures serges and coarse cloths. Population, 6,740. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 31. MENDELEEFF, DMITRI IVANOVITCH, a Russian chemist, born at Tobolsk, Feb, 7, 1834, studied at St. Petersburg, and, after having taught at Simfer- opol, Odessa, and St. Petersburg, became professor of chemistry in the University of St. Petersburg in 1866. He has enriched every section of chemical science, but is especially distinguished for his con- tributions to physical chemistry and chemical phil- osophy. MENDOTA, a city of La Salle county, Ill., con- taining an organ-factory and iron-foundry. MENIER, EMILE JUs'rIN,a French manufacturer and writer, born at Paris, May, 18, 1826, died at Noisiel-sur-\/Iarne, February 17, 1881. He estab- lished at Noisiel the celebrated chocolate factory, chemical works at St. Denis, and a sugar manufac- tory at Roye, besides a caoutchouc factory, and in Nicaragua a cocoa plantation. A warm advocate of free trade, he expounded his views in Economic Rurale and in L’Avem'r Economiqae. MENIPPU S, a satirist who lived in the first half of the 3rd century, B. 0., was born a Phoenician slave and became a cynic philosopher. His works in Greek have perished, and he is known only through the imitations of Marcus Tarentius Varro. See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 93; Vol. IX, p. 655. MENOMINEE, a city, the county-seat of Menom- (nee county, Mich., situated on Green Bay, at the 1071 mouth of the Menominee River. Iron-mining, marble-quarrying, and lumber-shipping are the chief industries. Population in 1890, 10,606. MENOMON IE, a city, the county-seat of Dunn county, Wis, about twenty-five miles northwest of Eau Claire. It is extensively engaged in the fur- trade, has manufactories of iron, machinery, car- riages, sash and blinds, and enjoys excellent edu- cational facilities. MENZEL, ADoLPH, a German painter, lithograph- er, illustrator, and engraver, born at Breslau, Dec. 8, 1815. He is best known for his drawings and oil- paintings illustrative of the times of Frederick the Great and VVilliam 1., emperor—pictures charac- terized by historical fidelity, strong realistic con- ception, originality, and humor. His Adam and Eve; Ch/rist Among the Doctors, and Chmist Ea:peZZiwg the Money-changers, are also notable pictures. MEPPEL, a town in the Netherlands province of Drenthe, eighteen miles from Zwolle. It has a trade in lgutter and linen manufactures. Population, 8,41 . - MERCADANTE, Savnnro (1798-1870), an Italian composer, born at Altamura, June 26, 1797, studied music at Naples, and began his career as a violin- ist and fiutist. In 1818 he produced the first of some sixty operas. From 1827 to 1831 he was in Spain; in 1833 he was appointed musical director in the cathedral at Novara, and in 1840 of the con- servatory of music at Naples. He died in that city Dec. 17 , 1870—blind since 1861. MERCED, a city, the county-seat of Merced county, Cal., on the Central Pacific Railroad, 152 miles southeast of San Francisco. , MERCER, a post-borough, the county-seat of Mercer county, Pa., sixty miles northwest of Pitts- burgh. Population, 2,134. MERCER, CHARLES FENTON (1778-1858), an Amer- ican soldier. In 1798 he was commissioned captain in the United States army, but subsequently prac- ticed law in Fredericksburg, Va. From 1810 to 1817 he was a member of the legislature, and then until 1840 was a member of Congress. During the war of 1812 he Was aide to the governor of Virginia, and in command of the defenses at Norfolk. MERCER, HUGH (1720-1777), an American sol- dier. He served in the French and Indian war of 1755, and in 1758 was made a lieutenant-colonel. In 1776 he was appointed colonel of the 3rd Virginia regiment, and the following year was chosen by Congress brigadier-general. He was mortally wounded in the night march on Princeton in which he commanded the advance. MERCERSBURG, a post-borough of Franklin county, Pa., ten miles northwest of Greencastle. It contains Mercersburg College, and was formerly the seatof Marshall College and aTheological Sem- inary of the German Reformed church. MEREDITH, Gnonen, an English novelist and poet, born in Hampshire, Feb. 12, 1828, and made his first appearance as an author in 1851 in a little volume of poems. This was followed by The Sharing of Shagpat: an Ara-bian E'ntertar2'mne'nt, a highly origi- nal tale, in burlesque imitation of the manner of the Eastern story-teller. The series of Mr. Mere- dith’s greater and more characteristic works began in 1859 with The Ordeal of Richard Feverel: A His- tory of a Faz‘her and a Son, a tragic romance, deal- ing With the larger problems of education, especially in its ethical aspects. Be-auchamp’s Career is per- haps the most perfectly constructed of all the series. Diana of the (7'r0ss'wa/ys is by general consent the most charming of Mr. l\’Ieredith’s novels. Much of his writing deals more or less directly, in a seri- ous manner, with the most important problems of politics, sociology, and ethics. It is in his poetry 10725 that his deepest views of life really find their di- rectest and most elementary expression. MERIDEN, a busy inland manufacturing city of Connecticut, on the Hartford & New Haven Rail- road, about midway between these cities. The leading articles of manufacture are britannia, metal and silver plated ware, in which it exceeds any other city of the world. It produces much other hardware, bronze goods, fire-arms, cutlery, etc. Population in 1890, 21,230. See Britannica, Vol XVI, p. 37. MERIDIAN, a post-village, the county-seat and a railroad junction of Lauderdale county, Miss., eighty-five miles east of Jackson. It has two female seminaries, machine shop, steam corn- mills, and manufactories of furniture, doors, sashes and blinds plows, and cotton yarn. Population, 10,889. MERIVALE, J CIIN HERMAN, an English scholar and translator, born at Exeter, 1779, died in 1884. He was sent to St. John’s College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1805. He contributed largely so Bland’s Collections From the Greek Anthol- ogy. From 1831 to the time of his death he held the office of commissioner of bankruptcy. Works of no little merit were his Poems, Original and Translated, and Minor Poems of Schiller. CHARLES, his son, was born in 1808, and educated at Har‘row, Haileybury, and St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he took his decree in 1830. He was chaplain to the speaker from 1863 to 1869, when he was ap- pointed dean of Ely. His chief works are the Fall of the Roman Republic, and History of the Romans Un- der the Empire. Another son, HERMAN, born in 1806, was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Ox- ford, elected Fellow of Balliol, called to the bar in 1832, and appointed professor of political economy at Oxford, in 1837, and, later, permanent under-sec- retary of state first for the colonies, next for India. In 1859 he was made C.B. He died on Feb. 8, 1874. His son, HERMAN CHARLEs, born in 1839, has writ- ten a number of successful plays. MERMAID’S GLOVE (Halichondria Palmata), the name given to the largest of British spon es. It grows in deep water, and is sometimes 2 eet high. It is yellowish and rough, with myriads of minute fragile spiculae. The surface is very porous. MEROM, a post-village of Sullivan county, Ind., on the Wabash River, thirty-five miles below Terre Haute. It is the seat of Union Christian College (Christian connection). MERRILL, a city, the county-seat of Lincoln county, Wis., on Wisconsin River. MERRIMAC, a village of Massachusetts, on the Merrimac River, about eight miles northeast of Haverhill. It is engaged in the manufacture of shoes and carriages. MESAGNA, a town in southern Italy, twelve miles southwest of Brindisi. It produces good olive-oil. Population, 9,601. MESENTERY, the broad fold of peritoneum which attaches the intestines posteriorly to the vertebral column. It serves to retain the intes- tines in their place, while at the same time it allows the necessary amount of movement; and it con- tains between its layers the blood vessels and nerves which pass to them, the lacteal vessels, and the nesenteric glands. MESQUIT. See MEZQUITE in these Revisions and Additions. MESSENGERS, KING/s (QUEEN’s), officers em- ployed by secretaries of state to convey valuable. and confidential dispatches at home and abroad. METALLURGY. See Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 57-63. MERIDEN-MEXICO METALS. _See Britannica, Vol. XV I., pp. 63-70. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. See Britannica, Vol. XVI., pp. 185-93. See also RELI- GIOUS DENCMINATICNS IN THE UNITED STATES in these Revisions and Additions. METHUEN, a post-village of Essex county, Mass., lying between the New Haven State line and the Merrimac River. It manufactures cottons, woolens, jute, hats and shoes. Population 4,807. METONYMY (Gr. metonymia, signifying a change in the name) a figure of speech by which one thing is put for another to which it bears an important relation, as a part for the whole, the effect for the cause, etc. For example, “Lying lips are an abom- ination to the Lord.” This figure is very express- ive, and is much used in proverbial and other pithy modes of speech. METROPOLIS CITY, the county-seat of Mas- sac county, Ill., on the Ohio River. forty miles from its mouth. It has a steam-ferry, ship-yards, saw and flour-mills. METTRAY, a village of France, five miles north of Tours, noted for its great agricultural and in- dustrial reformatory, the parent of all such institu- tions. It dates from 1839, and in 1886 had 537 in- mates. MEULEBEKE,a town in the Belgian province of VVest Flanders, on the Mandel, a tributary of the Lys, twenty-four miles southwest of Ghent. Population, 9,063. MEXICAN VVAR. See Britannica, Vol. XVI., pp. 219-20; Vol. XXIII, p. 767. MEXICO, the county-seat of Audrain county, Mo., 108 miles northwest of St. Louis. It contains mills and a female seminary. Population, 4,789. MEXICO, a post-village of Oswego county, N. Y. It has a tannery, flour and grist mills, foundry and carriage factories. MEXICO, REPUBLIC or. For general article on IVIEXICO, see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 206-222. The latest oificial estimates of the area and .pop- ulation of Mexico are those of 1889, which furnish the following figures: Total area of the Repub- lic, 740,970 square miles; population, 11,632,924, an increase during the last ten years of 1,724,912. CoNsTITUTIoN AND EXECUTIVE GovERNMENT.—The Mexican Constitution now in force, was adopted Feb.5,1857, and modified at different dates down to 1887. Under its terms Mexico is declared a fed- erative republic, divided into states—19 at the out- set, but at present 27 in number, with two territo- ries and the federal district—each of which has a right to manage its own local affairs, While the whole are bound together in one body politic by fundamental and constitutional laws. The powers of the supreme government are divided into three branches, the legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative power is vested in a congress con- sisting of a house of representatives and a senate, and the executive in a president. Representatives elected by the suffrage of all respectable male adults, at the rate of one member for 40,000 inhabi- tants, hold their places for two years. The qualifi- cations requisite are, to be twenty-five years of age, and a resident in the state. The senate con- sists of fifty-six members, two for each state, of at least thirty years of age, who are returned in the same manner as the deputies. The members of both houses receive salaries of 3,000 dollars a year. The president is elected by electors popularly chosen ina general election, holds ofi-ice for four years, and, according to an amendment of the con- stitution in 1887, may be elected for two consecu- tive terms of four years each. The senator who presides over the senate by monthly election acts temporarily in default of the president of the Re- MEXICO public. Congress has to meet_annually from April 1 to May 30, and from September 17 to December 15, and a permanent committee of both houses sits during the recesses. President of the Republic, 1891.—General Por- firio Diaz; installed president of the Republic, as successor of General Manuel Gonzales, December 1, 1884 ; reélected and entered his second period of four years on December 1, 1888. The administra- tion is carried on, under the direction of the,Presi- dent, by a council of six secretaries of state, heads of the departments of justice, finance, the interior, war and navy, foreign affairs, and public works. The following table gives the populations of the Federal (capital city) district and the states severally, as carefully reported in the general census of 1879, and as officially estimated by the State governments in 1889: Area in . Estimated State. square P°Pu1fLt1°n~ Population, - miles. 18/9; 1889. Federal District . . . . . . . 463 351,804 451,246 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,840 710,579 778,969 Morelos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,776 159,160 151,540 Tlaxcala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,622 138,988 155,151 Guanajuato . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,413 834,845 007,1,16 Pue a ............... .. 12,019 784,466 839,468 Querétaro .... . . , . . . . . . . 3,205 203,250 213,525 Hidalgo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,161 427,350 494,212 A uas Calientes . . . . . .. 2,897 140,430 121,926 M1ch oacan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23,714 661,534 830.926 J alisco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,174 983,484 1,161,709 Oaxaca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,582 744,000 806.845 Vera Cruz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,232 542,918 644,157 San Luis Potosi. .. . . . .. 27,503 516,486 546,447 Zacatecas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,999 422,506 526,966 Colima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,746 65.827 69,547 Chiapas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,048 205,362 266,496 Guerrero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,552 295,590 332,887 Yucatan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,569 302,315 282 ,502 Tabasco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,849 104,747 114,028 Nuevo Leon . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,637 203,284 244,052 Sinaloa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 .200 186,491 ' 223,684 Tamoulipas . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.916 140,137 189,139 Durango . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 .511 190.846 265.931 Campeche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.834 90.413 91,180 Chihuahua . . . . . . . . . . . . 83,715 225.541 298,073 Coahuila . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,904 130,026 183,327 Sonora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79,020 115,424 150,391 Ter. Lower California. 4 61,563 30,208 34,668 Territory of Tepic 11,270 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130,019 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740,970 9,908,011 11,632,924 The chief cities in 1889 reported their popula- tions thus: Mexico, 329,355; Guadalajara, 95,000; Puebla, 78,530; San Luis Potosé, 62,573; Guana- juato, 52,112; Leon, 47,939; Monterey. 41,700; Aguas Calientes, 32,355; Merida, 32,000; Oaxaca, 28,827 ; Colima, 25,124; Vera Cruz, 24,000. In 1887 the num- ber of Spaniards residing in the country was 9,553. REVENUE AND ExPENDITUREs.—The revenues and expenditures since and including 1885, have been: REVENUE. EXPENDITURE. 1885-86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..$26,770,873 1885-86 . . . . . . . . . . . 872,886 1886-87 . . . . . . . . . . . . ..28,711,817 1886-87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..38.783.919 1887-88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..s2,s21,s99 188788 . . . . . . . . ........36.270,448 1888-89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..32,7~1-5,981 1888-89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..38.527,239 1889-90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..36,500,000 1889-90 . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . .. 36,729,542 The expenditures for 1887-88 and 1888-89 being given as approximately correct. The following are the budget’ estimates of reve- nuge and expenditure for the year ending June 30, 18 1: REVENUE. EXPENDITURE. Customs . . . . . . . . . . ..$ 26.200000 Legislative power. .3 1,054,036 Excise . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,500,000 Executive “ . . . 49,849 Stamps . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,400,000 Judicial _“ 468,884 Direct taxes . . . . . . .. 1,400,000 Foreign Afia1rs 471,303 Posts and Tele- Home Department.. 3,678,679 graphs . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,200,000 Justice and Educa- Mmt .............. .. 270,000 tion .............. .. 1,424,972 Lotteries . . . . . . . . . .. 300,000 Public works _ . . . . .. 7,310,320 Various . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,500,000 Finance . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,365 7 War and Navy . . . . .. 12,629,543 $ 41,770,000 8 38,452,803 The Revenue and the expenditure of the various states, according to the latest official data collected in 1885, balanced at 9,118,977 dollars. In the five years 1881-85 the total revenues of the States amounted to 40,163,241 dollars, and of the munici- palities to 24,323,200 dollars. - THE DEBT OF MExIoo.—The debt is held in Eng- land. On June 23, 1886, arrangements were made between the Mexican government, and the bond- holders of the several Mexican debts by which the total amount of the English debt recognized by Mexico was 22,341,322l., and the arrangement re- duced it to l3,991,775l.; Mexico, therefore, being re- lieved by 8,349,597'l. On July 1,1889, in accordance with -this arrangement, 41% per cent of the whole outstanding debt was redeemed, viz., 40 per cent. for the capital as per agreement of June 1886, and 1% per cent. for the interest of the half-year. On June 11, 1888, the conversion was primarily closed and another delay given, with the following results (January 1890) :— Of the 10,241 ,650l. of the 1851 bonds 10,194,000l. were presented to the conversion, 47,6501. thereby remaining as deferred. In exchange of the arrears of interest of the above bonds, new converted bonds of 1886 were given to the amount of 912,632l. 1s. 3d. Of the 4,864,000Z. of 1864 bonds, 4,792,100l. were pre- sented to the conversion, and in exchange of them now converted bonds of the value of 2,395,971l. 15s. were given ; balance not presented is 63,400l. With other classes of bonds the total of the new converted bonds issued in London by the Mexican Financial Agency was 4,585,000l., which, added to the 1851 bonds-10,142,400l.———give a total of 14,727,- 400l. In March 1888 the Mexican government con- tracted a loan in London and Berlin for 10,500,000l. in 6 per cent. bonds. Of these, 3,700,000l.were issued at 78%, and the proceeds applied by the Mexican government to the payment of the outstanding oating debt of the Republic since the year 1882. The remainder, 6,800,000l..according to the contract for the loan, was taken at the option of the con- tractors before July 1,1889, at 864.; per cent. The contractors gave in exchange one part in converted bonds, and the proceeds of the other part were ap- plied to effect the redemption at 41% per cent. of all the outstanding converted bonds in July 1889. The object (which has been realized) of this part of the loan was to redeem the 1851 debt and the con- verted bonds at the rate of 40 per cent., according to the agreement made between the government and the bondholders, and referred to above, on June 23,1886. The conversion of all the internal debts of the Republic, which is being carried into effect in Mexico, has reached 31,500,000 dollars and very little more remained to be converted. The in- terest on the internal debt for claims not presented for conversion is. from 1890, at 3 per cent. All cou- pons have been punctually paid since 1886. On May 27,1890, the conversion of the Old debts was closed. O11 September 12, 1890, a new 6 per cent. loan for 6,000,000l. was issued at 9312 in London, Berlin and Amsterdam, the proceeds to be ap- plied to paying off arrears and balances of rail- 2-31 1074 way subventions amounting to $40,000,000, assigned in the form of percentages of customs revenue. Including this loan the total foreign debt amounts to 16,500,000Z. . The total Mexican debt (including foreign and home) on Jan. 1, 1891, was $113,600,000. ARMY AND NAVY. The army consists of infantry, 22,437; artillery, 2,120; cavalry, 6,359; auxiliary cavalry, 1,483; rural guards or police, 2,200; gen- darmery,229; total, 34,833. There are 2,270 oificers. Every Mexican capable of carrying arms is liable for military service from his twentieth to his fiftieth year. There is a fleet of two unarmored gun-vessels, each of 450 tons and 600 horse-power, and armed with two 20-pounders; and three small gunboats. TRADE AND CoMMERcn—The subjoined table shows the proportion of precious metal and other produce of Mexico for several recent years: MEYER--MIALL " l . The following table shows the principal articles exported: . . Products. 1887-88. 1888-89. Hemp ........................... . . $6,229,460 $6,872,593 Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,431,025 3,886,035 Hides and skins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,864,470 2,011,129 Woods ......................... . . 1,752,297 1,390,215 Vanilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,370 926,903 (/‘_0p_per . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615,666 _ 817,989 Living animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508,713 9 _ 587,063 Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382,236 467,737 Gum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 .657 595,636 Ixtle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361,687 594,118 Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830,362 971,886 Sllvel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,928,304 7,725,589 SHIPPING AND RAILWAY COMMUNICATIONS.-—Tll9 shipping of Mexico (now, 1,270 vessels) mcludes small vessels engaged 1n the coast- In the first six months ing trade. Years. Sundries. Precious Metal. Total. of 1889, 2,768 vessels o_f987,083 tons (118 of 70,489 tons, Br1t1sh),entered the ports of Mexico. 1884-85 18,425,190 $°3,128,190 8 46,55°,f‘80 , - 1885-86 13,741,316 29,906,400 43,647,716 In 1890 there “ere 4,648 mlles of 1886-87 15,631,427 33,560,502 _49,€1g9%,g29 railway open for traffic and 1,369 1887-88 17,879,720 ‘1,006,188 48, 8 , 08 ' d t- _ T -_ 1888-89 21,878,148 38,785,275 60,158,423 gile-iugsteg cgllsgxcl-10$ Gorge capl 1890-91 28,878,098 38,621,290 62,499,388 1 V 9 Y 3 1s P341193 was 14,601,380l., and by American The trade of Mexico lies chiefly with the following countries in the last four years, so far as exports are concerned; the follow- ing table includes precious metals: companies $245,126,249 (U. S.) In 1889 twenty concessions were grant- ed or amended for railways in va- rious parts of Mexico. In 1889 there were 12,977,952 passengers, paying 2,090,505 pesos; and 875,894 tons of goods were conveyed at a Exports to charge of 4,822,690 pesos. Countries_ ' The-total length of telegraph lines 188586 188687 188788 1888_89 In 1889 was 27,861 English miles, of ' ' ' ' which 14,841 miles belonged to the —- Federal government, the remainder }glnited(§tates.... $ 25,429,594 823,332,754 s8(1),gi9),gg7 $4l02,855§3,f-g6i belonging, in about equal parts, to ng an . . . . . . . .. 11,600,067 1? ,- , , , 5 , 5, 3 ' “ _ France ......... .. 4,986,276 5,112,521 4,474,723 8,496,088 the Stat%S’fg’8Ig1%)1?n1eS’ an% Egg ralé Germany ....... .. 1,571,899 2,175,760 2,177,106 2,061,563 WayS- I1 ere Were , POS - Spain ........... . . 918,258 625,294 457,842 659,330 offices. Other countries. 122,192 187,444 175,645 552,596 The inland post carried 87,509,640 letters, newspapers, etc. ; and the MEYER, CONRAD FERDINAND, a ‘Swiss poet and novelist, born Oct. 12, 1825 at Ziirich, near which he finally settled in 1877. His style is graceful, and he excells in character-drawing and in genre-pic- tures of descriptive work. MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILIIELNI, commen- tator, born at Gotha, J an. 10, 1800, died in Hanover, June 21, 1873. He studied at Jena, was pastor at Harste, Hoyde, and N eustadt, retired in 1848, and settled in Hanover. His name survives in his commentaries on the New Testament—a mon- ument of exegetical science. MEYER, J01-IANN GEORG, a German painter, born at Bremen in 1813. He studied art at Diisseldorf, and turned his attention to genre, acquiring great popularity by his pictures of children. They have given him the surname of “Kinder-Meyer.” Several of his pictures are owned in the United States. Among the most noted are: The Little HOZtS67.U’lf6,' The New Sister; What has Mother Brought? Little Brother Asleep; The First Prayer. He died in 1886. MEZZANINE, a low story introduced between two higher ones, or occupying a part of the height of a portion of a high story. The term is also ap- plied to the small windows used to light such apart- ments. international, 37,193,403. MEZZOJ USO, a town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, eighteen miles from Palermo city. It is one of the four colonies of Albanians, who, on the death of Scanderberg, in the 15th century, fied to Sicily to avoid the oppression of the Turks. They preserve their language to a great extent, and fol- low the Greak ritual, their priests being allowed to marry. Population, 7,161. MGLIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Tchernigov, 125 miles northeast of the town of Tchernigov. Mglin has a large cloth-factory, and a considerable number of German families. Popula- tion, 5,940. MIAGAO, a town on the island of Panay, one of the Philippine Isles, in the province of Iloilo. The inhabitants, who are industrious, comfortable, and well educated, are estimated at 30,000 in number. MIALL, EDWARD, an apostle of dis-establishment, born in 1809, died at Sevenoaks, April 29, 1.881. He served as an Independent minister at Ware, and afterwards at Leicester, down to 1840, when he founded the “Nonconformist” newspaper. In 1844 he helped to establish the British Anti-State Church Association, known later as the Liberation Society, and sat in the House of Commons for Rochdale, 152-67, and for Bradford, 1869-74. On MIAM1—%MICHIGAN retiring he was presented with ten thousand guineas. MIAMI, a river of Ohio, which rises by several branches'in the western center of the State, and after a southwest course of 150 miles through one of the richest regions of America, and the important towns of Dayton and Hamilton, empties into the Ohio River twenty miles west of Cincinnati. It is sometimes called the Great Miami, to distinguish it from the Little Miami, a smaller river, which runs parallel to it, fifteen to twenty miles east, through the Miami Valley. MIAMISBURG, a post-village of Montgomery county, O., situated in the center of the tobacco region of Miami Valley. It has fine water-power several mills and factories, a foundry and excellent schools. ‘ MICHEL, FRANCISQUE, a learned French anti- quary, born at Lyons, Feb. 18,1809, became in 1839 pro- fessor in the Faculté des Lettres at Bordeaux, and died May 19, 1887. He earned a great reputation by his exhaustive researches in Norman history, French chansons, the Basques, the history of me- diaeval commerce, and many more among the by- ways of learning. _ MICHELET, KARL LUDWIG, a celebrated German author and philosopher, born at Berlin,Dec. 4, 1801, died in 1876. In 1829 he became professor of philos- ophy in the University of Berlin. His works are of interest to students of Aristotle and of German philosophy. - MICHIGAN CITY, a town of Indiana. Popula- tion in 1890, 10,704. See Britannica, Vol. XVI., p. 241. MICHIGAN LAKE. See Britannica, ‘Vol. XIV, p. 217; Vol. XXI, pp. 178, 182. MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY. these Revisions and Additions. MICMACS. See NORTH .A.MERICAN Ixnrans in these Revisions and Additions. MICROLESTES, the name given to the earliest known mammalian form—a marsupial; it is dis- See COLLEGES in ' covered in the Trias of England and Wiirtemberg. Only the teeth, which are of small size, have been met with. MICROSCOPE. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 257—78. MICROTOME, an instrument for cutting thin sections of portions of plants and animals prelim- inary to their microscopic examination. The ob- jects to be out are imbedded in some material such as paraffin or celloidin, or frozen in gum, which makes the slicing of minute or delicate objects readily feasible. The instrument is a simple de- vice by which a sliding razor slices a fixed but ad- justable object, or by which the object is made to move up and down across the edge, of a razor. MIDDLEBURY, a post-village, the county-seat of Addison county, Vt., on Otter Creek. It is the seat of Middlebury College, has six marble quarries, good water-power, and manufactures flour, woolen, cotton, paper, leather, sash, blinds, and doors. MIDDLEPORT,a post-village of Meigs county, Ohio, on the Ohio River. MIDDLETON, ARTHUR (1742-1787), a signer of the Declaration of Independence. In 1775 he be- came a member of the Provincial Congress, and the following year was a delegate to the Continental Congress. In 1880 he was active in the defense of Charleston, S. C., and after the fall of that city was for sometime held as a prisoner of war. After his exchange he served in Congress until the close of the war. Later he was a State senator. MIDDLETON, a town of Ireland, thirteen miles east of Cork. At the college (1696) Curran was educated. Population, 3,358. 1075 MIDDLETOWN, a city of Connecticut. Popu- lation in 1890, 9,012. 283 See Britannica, V 01. XVI, p. MICHIGAN, STATE OF. For general article on the STATE or BIICHIGAN, see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 237-240. The census of 1890 reports the re- vised area and population of the State as follows: Area (including ].,485 square miles of water sur- face), 58,915 square miles; population, 2,093,899, an increase of 456,952, or 27.92 per cent., during the last decade. Capital, Lansing, with a popu- lation in 1890 of 13,102. The population of the chief cities and towns of the State having a population of 8,000 or over were as follows in 1890: Population. Cities and Towns. Cr];-,],1,se_ C1:§1rt_ 1890. 1880. Adrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,756 7,849 907 11.56 Alpena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,283 6,153 5.13 83.37 Ann Arbor . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,431 8,061 1,370 17.00 Battle Creek . . . . . . . . . .. 13,197 7,063 6,134 86.85 Bay City. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27,839 20,693 7,146 34.53 Detroit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 205,876 116,340 89 .536 76 .96 Grand Rapids . . . . . . . . .. 60,278 32,016 28,262 88.27 Iron Mountain . . . . . . .. 8,599 (*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ishpeming . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,197 6,039 5,158 8541 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,798 16,105 4,693 29.14 Kalamazoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,853 11,937 5,916 49 .56 Lansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,102 8,319 4,783 57 .49 Manistee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,812 6,930 5,882 84.88 Marquette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,093 4,690 4,403 93. Men ominee . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ,630 3,288 7 ,342 223.30 Muskegon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,702 11 ,262 11,440 101.58 Port Huron . . . . . . . . . . .. 13,543 8883 4.660 52.46 Saginaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43,322 29 .441 16,781 56 .81 West Bay City . . . . . . . .. 12,981 6,397 6,584 102.92 * No population in 1880. The land areas and populations of the several counties of Michigan, as reported in the census of 1890 were as follows, the areas being in square miles: Counties. Area. 11389918: 1138816‘. Aloona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 5.409 3,107 Alger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983 1,238 . . . . . . . . . Allegan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 38.961 37,815 Alpena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 15,581 8,789 Antrim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 10 ,413 5,237 Arenac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 5,683 . . . . . . . . . Baraga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915 3,036 1,804 Barry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 23.783 25,317 Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 56,412 38,081 Benzie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 5,237 3,433 Berrien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 41.285 36,785 Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 26,791 27,941 Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 43.501 38 .452 Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 20,953 22,009 Ch arlevoix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 9,686 5,115 Cheyboygan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815 11,986 6 ,524 Chippewa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.608 12,019 5,243 Clare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 7,558 4,187 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 26,509 28.100 Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 2,962 1,159 Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 15,330 6.812 Eaton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 080 32,094 31,225 Emmet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 8.756 6.638 Genesee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 39 ,430 39 ,220 Gladwin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 4,209 1,127 Gogebic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,115 13,166 . . . . . . .. Grand Traverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 13,355 gggg Gratiot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 28.668 21.936 H1llsdale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 30.660 32,723 Houghton . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._, . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 35,389 22,473 l 1076 \ Counties. Area. Huron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 23,555 20,089 Ingham ........................... . . 552 37,666 33,676 Iona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 32,801 33,372 IOSGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 15,224 6,873 Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,100 4,432 _ . , . _ , _ _ , I b ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 18 784 12 159 I216 eRgyal ........................ .. 215 ’135 ’ 55 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 45 ,()31 42,031 Kalamazoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 39 373 34,342 Kalkaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 5,160 2,937 Kent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 109,922 L 73,253 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 4 270 ........................ . . 530 61505 31233 Lapeer . . . . . . . . T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 29,213 30,138 Leelanaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 7,944 6,253 L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 720 48,448 48,343 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 20,858 22,251 Luce. . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 915 2,455 . . . . . . . .. Mackinac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,045 7,830 2,902 Macomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 31,813 31,627 M ' t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 24,230 12,532 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 860 1,334 Marquette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,399 39,521 25,394 Mason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 16,385 10,065 Mecosta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 19,697 13,973 ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 362 33,639 11 987 iIh’1§.n.c.‘.7 ..................... . . 520 40.013 25535 Newaygo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 20,476 14,688 Oakland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 41,245 41,537 Oceana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 540 15,698 11,599 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . .. 570 5,583 1 914 oiilgiiaalgon ........................ . . 1342 5555 21555 Osceola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 14,630 10,777 Oscoda. . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 1,904 467 Otsego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 4,272 1,974 Ottawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 35,358 33,125 Presque Isle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715 4,637 3,113 Roscommon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 2,033 1,459 Sa inaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816 82,273 59,095 Saint Clair . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . .. 705 52,105 46,197 s ' tJ 11 .................. 504 25,356 26 626 s§i11i15.c(’.S.GT1.) ........................ . . 960 32582 261541 Schoolcraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,215 5,818 1,575 Shiawassee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 30,952 27,059 Tuscola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 32,503 25 .738 V B ........................ .. 630 30.54-1 30.807 wvailhtléfiealiv ....................... . . 720 42,210 41348 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 257,114 166,444 Weirford .......................... . . 580 11,278 6,815 The list of governors of Michigan, with the dates of service, is as follows: UNDER FRENOII DOMINION. Samuel Champlain. . . .1622-35 Count de Frontenac. . .1672-82 M. de Montmagny . . . . . .1636-47 M. de la Barre . . . . . . . . . .1682—85 M. cl’ Aillebout . . . . . . . ..1648—50 M. de Nonville . . . . . . . ..1685-89 M. de Lauson . . . . . . . . . ..1651-56 Count de Frontenac. . .1689-98 M. de Lauson, Jr . . . . . ..1656-57 M. de Callieres . . . . . ..1699-1703 M. d’Aillebout . . . . . . . . ..1657-58 M. de Vaudreuil... . . . . .1703-25 M. d’ Argenson . . . . . . . ..1658-60 M. de Beauharnois. . . .1726-47 Baron de Avangour. . . .1661-63 M. de Galissonier . . . . ..1747-49 M. de Mesey . . . . . . . . . . ..1663-65 M. de la Jonquiere. . . . .1749-52 M de Courcelles . . . . . ..1665-72 M. du Quesne . . . . . . . . ..l752-55 M. de Vaudreuil de Cavagnac, 1755-63. UNDER BRITISH DOMINION. James Murray. . . . . . . . . .1763-67 Frederick Haldimand.1777-85 8 Guy Carleton . . . . . . . . . .1768-77 Henry Hamilton. . . . .17 5-86 Lord Dorchester, 1786-96. TERRITORIAL GovERNoRs, NORTHWEST TERRITORY. Arthur St. Clair, 1796-1800. MIDDLETOWN-MIDDLETOWN‘ INDIANA TERRITORY. William Henry Harrison, 1800-5. MICHIGAN TERRITORY. William Ehill . . . . . . . . . .1805-13 George B. Porter . . . . . .1831-34 Lewis Cass . . . . . . . . . . . ..1813-31 Stevens T. Mason . . . . ..1834-35 GOVERNORS OF THE STATE. Stevens T. Mason.. . . . .1835-40 Moses Wisner . . . . . . . . . .1859-60 William Woodbridge. .1840-41 Austin Blair . . . . . . . . . . .1861-64 J. Wright Gordon. . . . .1841-42 Henry H. Cra O . . . . . . .1865-68 John S. Barry . . . . . . . ..1843-45 Henry P. Bal win.. ...1869-72 Alpheus Felch . . . . . . . ..1846—47 John J . Bagley . . . . . . ..1873-77 Wi liam L. Greenly . . . . ..1847 Charles M. Croswel1..1877—81 Epaphroditus Ransom 1848-49 David H. Jerome . . . . ..1881-83 John S. Barry . . . . . . . ..1850-51 Josiah W. Begole . . . . .._1883-85 Robert McCle1land. . . .1852-53 Russell A. Alger . . . . . . .1885-87 Andrew Parsons . . . . . ..1853-54 Cyrus G. Lu_ce . . . . . . . . .1887-91 Kinsley S. Bingham. . .1855-58 Edwin B. W1nans . . . . . .1891-93 Gov. Winans’ term of ofiice expires Jan. 1,1893. Governor’s salary, $4,000. BRIEF HISTORIC NOTES OF MIoHIGAN.—There are two opinions as to the origin of the name of the State. One is that the name is derived from the Indian words Mitchi Sawgyegan, meaning “lake country ;” the other is that the word (first given to the lake) is the Indian equivalent of “ fish weir” or “trap,” which was suggested by the shape of the lake. The present territory had no white inhabit- ants up to 1641, although French missionaries vis- ited Detroit about 1620. The first settlement was at the Falls of St. Mary in 1641; but no permanent settlement was made until 1668, when Alcuez Dab- lon and James Marquette founded the Mission of St. Mary at St. Mary. A fort was built at Macki- naw in 1671. A colony was planted. at Detroit in July, 1701, by M. Antoine de la Mottee Cadillac. France surrendered all its possessions in that region to England by the treaty of Paris in 1763. Michigan was included in Canada until it was sur- rendered to the United States as one of the results of the Revolutionary War; the formal transfer, however, was not made until 1796, when Michigan became a part of the Northwest Territory. When that territory was divided, May 7,1800, Michigan became a part of the Indiana Territory, and Gen. William Henry Harrison (afterwards President of the United States) became the first governor of the new territory. Michigan Territory was organized June 30, 1805. A State constitution was adopted in 1835, and on June 15, 1836, Congress voted to admit the territory into the Union as a State, on condi- tion that Michigan should accept the boundary line claimed by Ohio. Its admission was formally declared by act of Congress passed J an. 26, 1837. The seat of government was transferred from De- troit to Lansing, May 16, 1847. For numerous other items of recent interest re- lating to the State, see the article UNITED STATES in these Revisions and Additions. Progress of population in Michigan by decades: 1810, 4,762; 1820, 8,765; 1830, 31,639; 1840, 212,267; 1850, 397,654; 1860. 749,113; 1870, 1,184,854; 1880, 1,636,937 ; 1890, 2,093,899. MIDDLETOWN, a post-village of Newcastle county, Del. It is a great peach shipping depot and contains fruit-preserving establishnnents. MIDDLETOWN, a town in New York. Popula- tion in 1890, 11,908. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 284. MIDDLETOWN, a railroad center of Butler Coun- ty, Ohio, thirty-two miles north of Cincinnati. It contains seven paper-mills,a tobacco factory,flour- ing mills, foundry,and a paper bag and scissors fact- ory. Population, 7,637. MIDDLETOWN, a post-borough of Dauphin county, Pa., situated at the junction of Swatarra creek and the Susquehanna River. It is noted for l\IIDDLEWICH—'\4ILES its lumber trade and iron business. It contains the American Tube and Iron Works, Tusquehanna Iron Works, Middletown Car Works, Cameron Iron Fur- naces, a furniture factory, and planingmills. Popu- lation, 5,104. MIDDLEWICH, an old-fashioned market town of Cheshire, on the river Dane and the Grand Trunk Canal, fwenty-one miles east of Chester. Its salt- manufacture has declined. Population, 3,379. MIDHAT PASHA(1822-1884), a Turkish states- man, born in Bulgaria in 1822. In 1839 he entered the civil service. In 1857 he suppressed brigand- age in Roumelia, and was then made a member of the ministry. In 1860 he was made pasha. After a short service as governor of Bulgaria he was made grand vizier. In 1876 he took part in deposing Abdul Aziz, and again Murad V., who was declared insane. In 1878 he was made governor-general of Syria. In 1881 he was tried for complicity in the murder of Abdul Aziz, and was condemned to death ; but by diplomatic intervention the sentence was commuted to banishment to Southern Arabia, where he died in 1884. MIFFLIN, THOMAS (1744-1800), an American soldier. He was in the Pennsylvania legislature in 1772-73, and in 1774 was a delegate to the Conti- nental Congress. When the news of the fight at Lexington became known he was made major of one of the first regiments organized, and shortly afterward Washington chose him as his first aid-de camp with the rank of colonel. In 1775 he was made quartermaster-general, in 1776 brigadier-gen- eral, and in 1777 major-general. In 1783 he be- came a member of Congress, and in 1785 was in the legislature. In 1787 he was a delegate to the con- vention that framed the United States constitution, and from 1788 to 1790 was a member of the supreme executive council of Pennsylvania. From 1790 to 1799 he was governor of the State, and then till his death was a member of the assembly. MIFFLINBURG,a post-borough of Union county, Pa. It has manufactories of flour and lumber, and deposits of anthracite and bituminous coal, lime- stone and iron. MIGNE, J ACQUES PAUL,t0 whom Roman Catholic theology owes a great debt of gratitude, was born at St. Flour in Cantal, Oct. 25, 1800, and died in Paris on his seventy-fifth birthday. He was edu- cated at the seminary at Orleans, was ordained priest in 1824, and served some time as curate at Puiseaux in the diocese of Orleans. A difference with his bishop about a book on the liberty of the priests drove him to Paris in 1833, where he started “L’Univers.” In 1836 he sold the paper, and set up a great publishing house at Petit Montrogue, near Paris, which gave to the world, besides numerous other works of theology, Scriptures Sacra: Cursus Completus and Theologiae Cursus (each 28 vols.), Col- lection des Orateurs Sacres (100 vols.), Patrologiaz Cur- sus Completus (Latin series 221 vols., 1st Greek series, 104 vols., 2nd series, 58 vols.), and the Ency- clopedic Theologique (171 vols.) Unfortunately, these editions were prepared too hastily, and do not possess critical value. The Archbishop of Paris, thinking that the great undertaking had become a mere commercial speculation, forbade it to be con- tinued, and, when the indefatigable director re- fused to obey, suspended him. A great fire, how- ever, put an end to the work in February, 1868. MIGNET, FRxNgo1s AUGUSTE MARIE (1796-1884), a great French historian, born at Aix in Provence, May 8, 1796, studied at Avignon, and then studied law at Aix with Thiers. In 1821 he went to Paris, and began to write for the Courrier Francais, and to lecture on modern history at the Athenee. In the spring of 1824 appeared his Histoire de la Révolution 1077 Francaise ole. Mignet joined the stafi of the National, and with Thiers signed the famous protest of the journalists on July 25, 1830. After the revolution of 1830 he became Keeper of the Archives at the foreign office, but lost this in 1848. In 1833 he went on a confidential mission to Spain, and used the op- portunity to explore the famous Simancas Ar- chives. Elected to the Academy of Moral Sciences at its foundation in 1832, he succeeded Comte as its perpetual secretary in 1837, and was elected to fill Raynouard’s chair among the Forty in 1836.. He died March 24, 1884, within three months of Henri Martin. Mignet was the first great special- ist in French history who devoted himself to the complete study of particular periods, and in his work he displayed a marvelous mastery of documents. MIKLOSICH, FRANZVON, the greatest of Slavonic scholars, born at Luttenberg, in the Slovenian part of Styria, Nov. 20, 1813, died in 1891. After study- ing law at the University of Gratz, he went in 1838 to Vienna to practice as an advocate, but was led by Kopitar to the study of philology, and in 1844 obtained a post in the Imperial Library. From 18501 to 1885, he was professor of Slavonic at Vienna, in 1851 being elected to the academy of sciences, and in 1869 made a “ Bitter.” His works, nearly thirty in number, include Radices Linguze Poleeoslooenicae; Lexicon Linguoe Paloposlovenicze; Vergleichende Grammatik der Slawischen Sprachen (4 vols.), which have done for Slavonic what Grimm and Diez have done for the German and Romance languages; Die Bildung der Slawischen Personenomen; Ueber die Munda7‘teii und die Wanderuitgen der Zigeuner Europas (12 parts) ; Rumdnische Untersuchungen, and Etymologisches Wiirterbuch der Slawischen Sprachen. MILAN, the county-seat of Sullivan county, Mo.,, 250 miles northwest of St. Louis. It has deposits of fireclay, mineral paint, building-stone, and coal, and contains a woolen mill, flour-mills, and coop- erage. MILAN, a railroad junction of Gibson county, Tenn., ninety miles northeast of Memphis. It has cotton and planing mills, a high-school and a college. MILBURN, YVILLIAM HENRY, an American cler- gyman. born in Philadelphia, Sept. 26, 1823. When a boy, although of defective sight, he studied at Illi- nois College; at the age of 20 became a Methodist preacher; was chaplain to Congress ; in 1859 went to, England and lectured with success; on his returm was ordained in the P. E. Church, but in 1872 re-_ turned to Methodism. He is known as the “blind. preacher,” and has published some able works. MILEAGE, in the United States, fees paid to ofi-‘1- cials, and in particular to members of Congress, for their traveling expenses, at so much per mile.. There is a fixed table of mileage, and the largest allowance paid is $1,440; the total annual cost, for both houses of Congress, is nearly $150,000. In all countries of Europe, except Britain, the same sys- tem prevails with regard to members of the popu- lar chambers, at least, they being paid either their traveling expenses or a fixed annual sum. MILES, NELSON A1>PLE'roN, an American soldier,. born in 1839. In 1861 he entered the volunteer‘ service of the United States as lieutenant, and in. 1862 became lieutenant-colonel, the same year‘ colonel, brigadier-general in 1864, and major-gen- eral in 1865. He became colonel in the regular- Army in 1865, and served in this capacity till the end of the war. He then served on frontier duty until 1880, when he was made brigadier-general and placed in command of the department of the Co- lumbia. In 1885 he was assigned to the department of the Missouri, and in 1886 was transferred to Ari- zona. 1078 MILFORD, a post-village and seaport of New Haven county, Conn., on Long Island Sound. It manufactures straw goods. Population, 3,800. MILFORD, a post-borough of Kent county, Del., on Mispillion River. It is a shipping point for farm and orchard produce.. MILFORD, a post-village of Oakland county, Mich., thirty-five miles northwest of Detroit. It has a foundry and several manufactories. MILFORD, a post-village of Hillsborough county, N. H., fifty miles north of Boston, to which city it ships 220,000 gallons of milk annually. It has man- ufactories of picture and mirror frames, tassels, furniture, men’s boots and shoes, and knitting- cotton. Here are granite quarries. MILFORD-HAVEN, a harbor of Pembrokeshire, South Wales, one of the deepest, safest, and most commodious in Great Britain. It is formed by an inlet of St. George’s channel, northwest of the en- ‘-trance to British channel, Its openingis toward ‘the south, but after penetrating a short distance inland it changes its direction and runs east, branching off into numerous bays, creeks and ‘roads. It is defended by two batteries, and on the northwest extremity of the entrance is St. Anne’s ,Head, on which are three light-houses with fixed .lights. The length of the haven is about fifteen miles; average breadth, two miles. The tide rises .-from 28 to 30 feet. The harbor is completely land- locked, and has so great an area of deep anchorage ‘that the whole shipping of the empire might ride here in safety. The access is easy, and the egress can be accomplished even in head-winds. It has substantial docks and piers, and is a great resort for shipping. See Milford, Britannica, vol. XVI, . 294. . MI ITARY ACADEMIES. The Military Acad- emy of the ‘United States is at West Point, N. Y., on the Hudson River. It was founded by act of Con- gress, March 16, 1802. At first it consisted of fifty cadets, forty of them being attached to the artil- lery and ten to the engineer service. This was the nucleus to which various additions were made until 1812, when the institution became substantially what it is at present. The staff of instruction and government consists of, 1. The superintendent of instruction and military staff ; 2. The comman- -dant of cadets and six assistants; 3. eight non-com- missioned oflicers, and one professor with thirty- two assistants. Each Congressional district and territory is entitled to one cadetship, and the Pres- ;ident appoints ten cadets annually, who must be ‘-between the ages of 17 and 22. Those admitted lbind themselves, by special articles, to serve the United States for eight years unless sooner dis- »charged. The course of study, which is very thorough, especially in the mathematical depart- -ment occupies four years, and the discipline, in- tended to secure habits of prompt, implicit obedi- ence to lawful authority, as well as habits of neat- -ness, order and regularity, is more strict even than that of the army, or that in any similar institution. At graduation the class is divided into three grades, according to scholarship, and recommended for promotion, according to this schedule, in different ‘corps, and commissions for the rank of second lieu- itenant conferred. In order to superadd a special professional train- ing for the graduates of the military academy, and :also to give the needed opportunity to those who have received their commissions from civil life or '.-from the ranks of the army, post-graduate schools .have been opened at Fortress Monroe, Fort Leav- enworth, and at Willet’s Point. These schools are also maintained by the United States government. The School at Fortress Monroe, Va., was commenced MILFORD——MILITARY ACADEMIES in 1867. It has a two-years’ course. It is intended for subalterns of artillery, yet officers of other arms of the service have, by special permission of the secretary of war, been educated there. The School at Fort Leavenworth, Kan., began in 1882. It is designed for the training of infantry and cavalry officers. The School at Willet’s Point, N. Y.,was es- tablished in 1865. It is intended for the education of officers of the engineer corps and also of artillery officery. The course is for two years. S ecial at- tention is given to permanent works, t eir con- struction and management; also to torpedoes and the electrical service. OTHER MILITARY COLLEGES AND SoHooLs.—The most notable military school maintained by a State is the Virginialtfilitary Institute. It ranks next to the United States Academy. This school is located at Lexington, Va. It has eight professors,‘ and is modelled after the West Point school in its general plan, instruction and discipline. It has usually about 150 students. The Kentucky Military Institute is similar. It has its existence since 1846. first at Frankfort, and now ,1 ,- ;'.'.:-.*/.1::-:-:- -. - , . I _ .',-,. ,.'_. , 1,- / - .' /'-/ < I‘ I - "':'..".'/.-" ' I 3"} '.~" \\ .' . /’ I/"-"I/filo! , 3 _.;\‘\_‘~ .1 I 4' 7 . I ...;-N _ ‘(V2 ___ _ WEST POINT PARADE GROUNDS- at Farmdale, Ky. It has eleven professors and in- structs usually about 130 students. There are a ' number of other military schools, especially in the southern States; some are also maintained pri- vately in New York, Massachusetts, Vermont, Penn- sylvania, Ohio, and Michigan. Since 1883 the general government details forty non-commissioned officers of the army to act as pro- fessors of military science and tactics at certain designated colleges which had accepted from the United States certain grants of land for education- al purposes. It had been stipulated in the grants, and made obligatory upon each college so helped, to embrace military training in its course of in- struction. These officers are distributed among the several States as nearly as possible according to the population. Recently, however, State insti- tutions which introduce a military branch of in- struction are preferred in the distribution of these military instructors. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1888, forty insti- tutions in different parts of the Union availed themselves of the opportunity of giving instruction in military science, with practice in military drill, to such of their pupils as chose to receive it. The whole number of students over 15 years of‘ age at- tending these institutions was 7,791. Of this num- MILITARY LAW-MILK ber about 4,000, or 51 per cent., attended infantry drill. During the previous year the same system had been pursued. The total number of students was, however, less, and only 49 per cent. had at- tended the drills. This shows that the interest of the students in military matters is increasing. MILITARY LAW. See ARTICLES or WAR in these Revisions and Additions. MILITELLO, a town of Sicily, twenty-one miles southwest of Catania. Population, 10,505. MILITIA (from Latin Miles, a soldier), has now the acquired meaning of the domestic force for the defense of a nation, as distinguished from the regu- lar army, which can be employed at home or abroad in either aggressive or defensive operations. Every nation has a reserve, under its military law, upon which its defense would fall on the discomfi- ture of the regular army; but the system differs in each country, and with the exception perhaps of the United States during‘ peace, none are formed on the model of the British militia. The United States militia is only national when in the actual service of the United States Government. Congress has constitutional power to provide for the organiza- tion and equipment of such troops during such time, and the President is then commander-in-chief, and is empowered to call them out by orders to the ofli- cers appointed by the respective States. While so employed they receive the pay, rations, etc., of the regular army. Various acts of Congress require the enrollment of all non-exempted able-bodied male citizens between 18 and 45, in every State, and prescribe the manner of organization, discipline, etc. The actual or organized militia consisted of, in 1875- General officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 119 General staff officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 883 Regimental. field, and staff officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,065 Company ofiicers....._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . ..__ 4,008 Non-commissioned, mcluding musicians and pn- vates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78,649 Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84,724 The regularly organized and uniformed active militia of the several States in the year 1885 aggre- gated 84,739 men; in the year 1866 the number was 92,734; in 1887 it had increased to 100,837, and in 1888 it had an available force of 106,814 men. According to the laws of several of the States, the State militia is required to go into camp for one week in each year. During this time the men have to conduct themselves like troops of the regu- lar army. Whenever the State authorities request it, oflicers of the regular army are detailed to in- spect these encampments and give instruction to the militia. These ofiicers make afterwards minute reports of the results of their observations to the Adjutant-General of the United States army. Dur- ing the year ending Sept. 30, 1888, such encamp- ments were held in fifteen States, including among them the three largest in the Union. MILK CELLARS. A cellar dug to the depth of twelve feet, and, having a sub-cellar beneath the upper one, is believed to be the best for milk in either summer or winter. There is a certain depth inthe soil where the temperature is even through the whole year. This point varies very little from seven feet from the surface, and below this an ex- cavation from which the air can be excluded will be the best place for a cellar for keeping articles which are perishable in a warm temperature. Such a cellar makes safe storage for fruits and vegeta- bles or for those domestic supplies which require such protection. It can easily be kept safe from dampness by means of a small quantity of quick- lime in a dish, which will absorb the moisture; _1079 and the purity of the air may be preserved by washing the brick or stone walls with fresh lime occasionally. The upper part of the cellar will af- ford every convenience for the dairy-work, as churning, etc. No part that is below the surface and in contact with the soil, should be made of timber. MILK, ADULTERATION OF. For general article on MILK, see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 301-306. The adulteration of milk has re- cently for obvious reasons, he- come a question of great im- 51, portance especially in the 5 United States. In order to fur- 50 nish the reader with a practical as well as scholarly discussion *4 asto the principal methods used 7; 80 2 90 in this country in testing the quality of milk, we insert by permission some interesting notes from a recent paper by -' Henry A. Mott, Jr. E. M., Ph. D. of New York, published in W the Scientific Amem'can.* Dr. Mott first invites attention to 0, the chief appliances for detect- E ing the adulteration of milk. The GENTESIMAL GALACTOME- TER was inventedby Dinocourt: it is shown in the figure. The stem of the instrument has two scales: one for pure milk, the other for skimmed milk; the scale A, in part colored yellow, serves to weigh the milk with its cream; the first degree on the top of the scale is marked 50, which corresponds to the sp. gr. 1014. The following marks extend from 50 to 100 (sp. gr. 1029), and over. Each degree starting from one hundred in mounting up to 50, represents a ' hundredth of pure milk; the degrees formed by a line are equal, as 50, 52, 54, etc.; the degrees formed by a dot are unequal;as 81,83, 85, etc. To illus- trate by an example: If the galactometer is sunk to the 85th degree,that will indicate 85 hundredths of pure milk, and consequently that 15 hundredths of water has been added to this milk; if sunk to 60 degrees,that will indicate 40 hundredths of water, or four-tenths of water added. If it is desired to count by tenths, it is only necessary to notice that the first tenth is white, that the second is colored yellow, the third white, the fourth yellow, and that the fifth is also white; toward the middle of each tenth the figures 1, 2 3, 4, 5 are placed to in- dicate their order. The scale, a, is in part colored blue, and is des- tined to weigh skim milk; it is, like the first, di- vided into hundredths (100 degrees), of which the first 50 have been cut off as useless, as in the case of the other scale, each degree commencing from 100to 50 and mounting upwards represents a hun- dredth of pure skimmed milk, consequently the manner of estimating the quantity of water added to skim milk is absolutely the same as for pure milk with cream. The degree 130 corresponds to a specific gravity 1038, the degree 120 to 1035, the degree 110 to 1'032, the degree 100, which, is the standard, to 1'029, the degree80 to 1023, the degree Z0 500114020, the degree 60 to 1'017 and the degree 50 o ' . unnni'n'&i:6'*"'_ uunuguuq *_ For an extended discussion of the subject the profession- al mquirer is referred to Scientific American in Zoc. 1080 Another Centesimal Galactometer was invented by Chevallier; it is similar to the above instrument. It serves to determine the specific gravity of cream, milk, and skimmed milk. This instrument is used in. connection with the creamometer. The specific gravity of the milk not skimmed is first deter- mined, noting the temperature, then the volume of cream is ascertained by means of the cream- ometer, and finally the specific gravity of the skimmed milk is determined, noting the tempera- ture. From the data obtained, by referring to tables compiled by Chevallier, the additional water con- tents of the milk is ascertained. THE LAC'1‘ODESIMETEB.——-Tl1lS is an instrument dif- ering from the galactometer just described only in the division of its scale. It is the pro- duction of Bouchardat and Quevenne, and is represented in the figure. This instru- ment, like all the densimeters, gives im- mediately and without calculation the ' density of the liquid in which it is plung- ed; its scale comprises only the densities which may be presented by pure or adul- terated milk. The shaft bears three dis- tinct graduations. The first, which is the middle one in the figures, contains the whole numbers intermediate between 14 and 42. In reality, the whole numbers comprised between 1014 and l'042 ought to be inscribed; but on account of the small size of the shaft the two first figures have been suppressed which do not change. If, consequently, the instrument is sunk in a liquid up to the figure 29, this signi- fies that a litre of this milk weighs 1029 grams, and that its density is conse- quently 1029. The instrument has been , gaduated for the temperature of + 15° . _It is necessary, therefore, for obtain- ’ ing an exact indication, to be assured the liquid under examination is at this tem- - perature. In the contrary case, it may 9 be brought back to this degree by plung- \' ing the gauge containing the milk in 3’ Water that is cold, or in lukewarm water, according as the thermometer is above or below -|- 15°. The scale on the right is employed when it is certain that the milk acted on is not skimmed. This scale shows what are the variations of the density of milk in proportion as water is added, and the figures 116, T26, etc., indicates that the liquid operated upon has been mixed with this proportion of water.‘ The scale on the left contains the same indications relative to skimmed milk. Milk is marked pure on this instrument, be- tween the specific gravities 1030 and 1'034, skimmed milk is marked pure between the gravities 1034 and 1037. THE LACTCMETER. The original lactometer was discovered by Prof. Edmund Davys in 1821. It is represented in the figure. It is made of brass, and consists of a pear-shaped bulb, at the top of which is a graduated stem, and at the bottom a brass wire, to the end of which a weight is screwed. This instrument is only intended for skimmed milk, and the 0 mark corresponds to the sp. gr. 1'035, which, according to Davy’s experiments, represents the lightest genuine skimmed milk. The dots in the figures, which extend from 0 to 35, indicate parts of water in 100- parts skimmed milk at 60°. Who invented the lactometer for testing milk I am unable to ascertain; one thing is certain, however, the one who first divided the scale from 0 water to 100 pure milk was, of course, the inventor. Of the various lactometers that have been in use, the only MILK y: I difference was the specific gravity represen-tedrby the 100 degree of the scale. The specific gravity corresponding to the 100 degree on the centesimal galactometer invented by Dinocourt, as I have already stated, was 1029, which was intended to represent the proper minimum. This sp. gr. has been adopted by the Board of Health of New York as the standard for their lactometers. The old standard adopted by the milk dealer was 1.030; this was changed by Dr. Chilton to 1034, and has gradually dropped to 1033. So thatthe stand- ard now employed by the milk dealers to secure for themselves pure milk is 0004 higher than that adopted by the Board of Health. In graduating the board of health lactometer shown in the figure, the 100° is placed at the stand- ard 1 ‘O29, and 0 at 1 ‘O00, the gravity of water, the intermediate spaces being divided into 100 equal divisions. Great care should be taken to deter- mine with absolute accuracy the 0 degree and the 100 de- gree; other points may also be determined, but they are not absolutely necessary if the space is properly divided. The point to which the lactometer sinks in the milk under examination indicates the per- centage of milk in 100 parts. Thus, if the lactometer sinks to 80, the milk must consist of, at least, 20 per cent. of water and 80 of milk. This assumes the original milk to have had a speci- fic gravity of 1 '029; but, if the milk had originally a gravity of 1 ‘O34, it would require 16'67 per cent. of water to bring it down to 1 ‘O29, and 20 per cent. more water to lower it to 80° on the lactometer. The temperature at which examinations are made with the lactometer should be 60 F., for exact de- terminations, as the instrument is graduated for that temperature. If it is only necessary to estab- lish the fact of an adulteration by water, the milk may be cooled to a temperature below 60° F., which MILKWORTS ' an expert can easily ascertain by the sense of taste, 1 etc.—the lower the milk is cooled the more dense it becomes; consequently, if the lactometer should sink below 100 in a sample of milk known to be be- low 60° F., sufficient evidence to establish the fact of its adulteration is indicated. A sample of milk tested by Dr. Chandler, of New York, which stood at 100 by the lactometer at 60° F., was found to stand at 106 at 44° F., at 98 at 66° F., at 90 at 80° F., and at 74 at 100° F. VALUE or THE DEGREES or THE BOARD or HEALTH Laoromnrnn IN SPECIFIC GRAVITY.—BY DR. WALLER. T 2 >2 2' Q) Q) Q Q) -69 +2 4- 4: Q Q) Q) Q) Q Gravity. El) Gravity. g Gravity. (F-5 Gravity. ‘<3 *5 ‘S ‘S 05 <5 62 s *1 Q Q I-1 0 1'00000 31 1 00899 61 1'0l769 91 1'02639 1 . 1'00029 32 1 00928 62 1‘01798 92 l'02668 2 1'00058 1 00957 63 1'01827 93 l'02697 3 1'00087 34 1 00986 64 l'01856 94 1'02726 4 1'001l6 35 1 01015 65 1'01885 95 1‘02755 5 1'00145 36 1 01044 66 1'01914 96 1 02784 6 1'00174 37 1 01073 67 l‘019-'13 97 102813 7 100203 38 1 01102 68 1‘0l972 98 1'02842 8 100232 39 1 01131 69 1'02001 99 1'0287l 9 1'00261 40 1 01160 70 1'02030 100 1'02900 10 1'00290 41 1 01189 71 1'02059 101 1'02929 11 1'20319 42 1‘02088 102 1'02958 12 1 00348 43 1'01247 73 102117 103 1'02987 13 1'00377 44 1'01276 74 102146 104 1'030l6 14 1'00406 45 101305 75 1 02175 105 1'030-45 15 1‘00435 46 1‘01334 76 1 02204 106 1‘03074 lb 1'00464 47 1'01363 77 1 02233 107 1'03103 17 1‘00493 48 1' 01392 78 1 02262 108 103132 18 1'00522 49 1 01421 79 1 02291 109 1'03161 19 l‘00551 50 1 01450 80 1 02320 110 103190 20 1'00580 51 1 01479 81 1 02349 111 1'032l9 21 1‘00609 52 1 01508 82 1 02378 112 1'032-48 22 1’00638 53 1 01537 83 1 02407 113 1'03277 23 l'00667 54 1 01566 84 1 02436 114 103306 24 1'00696 55 1 01595 85 1’02465 115 1'0£35 25 1'00725 56 1'01624 36 1'02494 116 1' 03364 26 1'00754 57 1'0l653 87 102523 117 103393 27 1 00783 58 1' 01682 88 1‘ 02552 118 1‘03422 28 100812 59 1017 11 89 1'02581 119 T0345]. 29 1'00841 60 l'0l740 90 1'02610 120 1'0348fl The following table by De Voelcker (withan ad- dition by Dr. Chandler, of the 2d column), illus- trates the effects of watering and skimming: UNSKIMMED. sxmmnn. Sp. Gr. Lact. Sp. Gr. Lact. Pure milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . .. 10314 108 10337 117 10 per cent. water added. . 10295 102 10308 106 20 “ “ “ .. 10257 88 10265 91 30 “ " “ 10233 80 10248 86 40 “ “ “ 10190 66 10208 72 50 “ “ “ 10163 56 10175 60 Thus it is seen that with a sample of pure milk of sp.gr.1'0314 more than 10 per cent. of water could be added before the gravity is reduced to 1029 or 100 on the lactometer; and after skimming, considerable more. That the specific gravity l'029, is the true minimum standard for pure whole cow’s milk, I think I have already fully demonstrated, yet it is interesting to bear in mind that it has been confirmed by “Miiller, Fleischmann, Goppelsroeder, Kramer, and other specialists.” Miiller says: “From more than 6,000 notes by Quevenne and Bouchardat, the minimum is 1029, and the maximum 1038. For the hospitals and ublic institutions in Paris, the minimum is 1030"’ e further says: “If,” . . . “we go through all Europe, from country to country, from place to ‘ 1081 place, from dairy to dairy, from Alp to Alp, with the lactodensimeter in hand, and mix at times the milk of several cows together which have been milked under conditions sufficiently touched upon, we shall find that the milk which is divided as a trade commodity from the physiological milk weighs between 1.029 and 1.033.” Let us consider, now, if there are any objections to the use of the stanard lactometers for the de- tection of adulteration. I have already stated that a sample of perfectly pure cow’s milk, possessing a high specific gravity, can be considerably addi- tioned with water, and the lactometer is unable to detect the fraud. The question naturally arises, is there any method by which the fraud can be de- tected‘? The answer comes, unfortunately, no-— owing to the variation in the proportion of each constituent, a proper margin has to be left for the maximum and minimum proportions, and between these limits the fraud can be perpetrated, and defy all science to detect it. Milk may be skimmed, which will increase the specific gravity of the fluid; it may then be wa- tered and the sp. gr. reduced to the standard of the lactometer, or the sp. gr. may be still further re- duced, and, by the addition of some solid substances, such as sugar or salts, increased to the standard specific gravity. The question naturally arises here, can the lactometer detect such adulteration‘? To answer this question we must first inquire into the method adopted, where the lactometer is used to detect adulteration. It is to be supposed that an expert commissioned to examine milk for adul- ' teration, using as a means the lactometer, will perform the test which is to be made in connection with the senses-—that is to say, the sample under examination should be examined as to its opaque- ness and color, its taste and odor, etc. If, on the contrary, he performs the task automatically, simply taking the degree of the instrument, noting the temperature, without examining the sample otherwise, the lactometer itself will not detect such adulteration; but such an experimenter is not fit or competent to make such investigations; for, no matter what the method of examination may be, the common sense is always required to accomplish the object in view. I say w-itlzout fear of success_ful contradiction, that if the lactometer is used in connection with the senses, that is to say, regard- ing the flow of milk from the bulb of the instru- ment, observing its opacity and color, as also ex- amining as to flavor andodor of the sample under examination, the lactometer will detect all the practical frauds perpetrated by m-ilkmen. In my opinion there is not one unprejudiced person, with the experience and education that the milk expert should have, that cannot distinguish a fair sample of pure milk from a fair sample of skimmed milk or cream; and if such is the case, how readily could be detected an adulterated sample. In the first part of this paper I stated that the indications of the lactometer are infallible; this is the case; for if a sample of milk should indicate a degree less than the standard, there is indisputable evidence that the sample has been tampered with. MILKWORTS (so called from the milky juice), various species of plants belonging to the natural order Polygalezs or PoZyga.Za.cea>.. The order com- prises about twenty genera and 500 species, which are widely distributed over the tropical and sub- tropical world; several species are natives of North America and Europe. They are herbaceous plants or shrubby. The leaves are usually simple and destitute of stipules ; the flowers irregular. They are generally tonic and slightly acrid, and some are very astringent. The ‘common Milkwort 1082 (Polygala oulgaris) is a small perennial plant, with an ascending stem, linear-lanceolate leaves, and" a terminal raceme of small beautiful flowers. It varies in size and in the flowers and leaves; P. Senega is a North American species, with erect simple tufted stems about one foot high, and ter- minal racemes of white flowers. The root is the Snake Root of the United States, famous as an imaginary cure for snake-bites, but really possess- ing important medicinal virtues. See Britannica, Vol. XXI, p. 189. The root of P. poaya, a Brazilian species with leathery leaves, is an active emetic. P. tinctoria, a native of Arabia, furnishes a blue dye like indigo. order is the Rattany Root. MILL. See Britannica, Vol. IX., pp. 343-47. MILL (Lat. mille, a thousand), in the United States, the tenth part of acent the thousandth part of a dollar. As a coin it has no existence. MILLAIS, SIR J OHN EVERETT, a celebrated Eng- glish painter, born June 8, 1829. At the age of seventeen he exhibited at the Royal Academy his Pizarro Seizing the Inca of Peru. He has won, per- haps, the front rank among contemporary English painters by his popular subject compositions, such as The Black Brunswicher and The Huguenot Lovers, and for his portraits, for which latter he has re- ceived as high as two thousand dollars for a full- length. He has also achieved decided success in landscape, a noted example of which is his Over the Hills and Far Away. He carries talent very near the line of genius, and is unsurpassed in the mat- ter of technical skill. MILLBROOK, a manufacturing town of Durham county, Ontario, eighteen miles from Port Hope. MILLBURY, a post-village and railroad junction of Worcester county, Mass., on Blackstone River, six miles south of Worcester. It manufactures cotton and woolen goods, stockings, cutlery, cast- ‘ ings, shoes, whips, lumber, and carriages. tion, 4,427. MILLEDGE, J oHN- (1757-1818), a United States statesman. He took part in the Revolutionary war on the side of the colonies, ‘and was appointed attorney-general of Georgia in 1780. From 1792 to Popula- " 1802 he was a member of Congress, except in the years 1799 and 1800, and then till 1806 was gov- ernor of his State. From 1806 to 1809 he was a United States Senator. MILLEDGEVILLE, the former capital of Geor- gia, a city and the county-seat of Baldwin county. It is in a cotton-growing rgion, has cotton manu- factories, the State lunatic asylum, State peniten- tiary, and the Middle Georgia Military and Agri- cultural College. Population, 3,306. MILLER, GINCINNATUS HINER (J oAQwIN), an American poet, born in 1841. He began the prac- tice of law in 1863, and from 1866 to 1870 was ju e of Grant county, Oregon. He then devoted hi - self entirely to literature, and has written several plays, including The Danites. Among his poems are Songs of the Sierras (1871); Songs of the Sunlands (1873); Songs of the Desert (1875); and Songs of the Mexican Seas (1887). His prose Works are The Baro- ' ness of New York (1877); The Danites in the Sierras (1881) ; Shadows of Shasta (1881) ; Memorie and Rime ‘ (1884) ; and ’49, or the Gold Seekers of the Sierras (1884). MILLER, J osnrn, an English comedian, born about 1684, died in 1738. In 1739 a collection of stale jokes was made by John Mottley and published as Joe Miller’s Jests, and i.t is by this work that he is best known. MILLER, SAMUEL, a distinguished American di- vine, born near Dover, Del., in 1769, died at Prince- ton, N. J ., in 1.850. He was professor of ecclesiastical Another medicinal plant of the MILL—MILNE-EDWARDS history at Princeton, from 1813 to 1849. He wrote ' numerous polemical treatises, and some valuable historical and biographical works. _ MILLER, WARNER, an American statesman, was born in Oswego county, N. Y., Aug. 12, 1838. He served with credit in the civil war; was elected to the New York assembly in 1874, to Congress in 1878, and became United States Senator in 1881. He was the Republican nominee for governor of New York in 1888. He is president of the Nicaragua Canal Company. MILLER, WILLIAM ALLEN, an English chemist, ' born at Ipswich in 1817, died in 1870. He is best known by his valuable Elements of Chemistry. MILLER, WILLIAM HALLowEs (c 1801-1880), an English mineralogist and physicist. In 1843 he superintended, by order of parliament, the con- struction of standards of weight and length, the old standards having been destroyed by fire. In 1870 he served on the international commission upon the metric system. He was a prominent member of the principal scientific societies of the world. MILLERSBURG, the county-seat of Holmes county, Ohio. It contains a flour-mill, a foundry, and a machine shop. MILLERSVILLE, a post-village of Lancaster county, Pa. It contains the Millersville State Nor- mal School. ~ MILLIARD, the French collective name for a thousand millions; familliar in connection with the five milliards of francs (5,000 millions of francs, or $1,000,000,000) paid by France as war indemnity to Germany in 1871-73. MILLIKEN’S BEND, a village of Louisiana, about 15 miles above Vicksburg, the scene of an en- gagement in June, 1863, between the Confederates under General McCullough, and a body of colored troops, in which the former, owing to the timely arrival of Porter’s fleet, were repulsed. MILLS, CLARK (1815-1883), an American sculptor. For several years prior to 1835 he was in the stucco business in Charleston, S. C., and then resolved to try cutting in marble. His first work was- a bust of John C. Calhoun, for which he received a old medal from the city council, and it was place in the city hall. Subsequently he executed busts of several eminent men of South Carolina, and in 1848 made the model for the equestrian statue of An- drew Jackson, which stands in Lafayette Square, Washington, D. C. Mr. Mills has since executed several other popular statues, besides many busts. MILLS, SAMUEL J OHN (1783-1818), an American clergyman. In 1812-13 he was exploring agent of the Massachusetts and Connecticut Missionary So- cieties, and in 1814-15 missionary and’ Bible agent. In 1817 he was chosen to explore the coast of west- ern Africa in behalf of the American Colonization Society. He reached Africa in the early part of 1818 and after two months on that continent began his homeward voyage. He died while at sea. MILLTOWN, a post-town in Charlotte county, N. B., on St. Croix River. It is a great lumber depot. MILMORE, MARTIN (1844-1883), an American sculptor. He entered the studio of Thomas Ball in , 1860, and several years later opened a studio of his own in Boston. Among his works are soldiers’ and sailors’ monuments in several cities, bulsts of Pope Pius IX., Charles Sumner, Wendell Phillips, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Longfellow, Theodore Parker and 1 George Tickner, besides the ideal figures Cores, Flora, Pomona, America and Weeping Lion. MILNE-EDVVARDS, HENRI, a French naturalist, born at Bruges, Oct. 23, 1800, died July 29, 1885. His father was an Englishman. Milne-Edwards studied medicine at Paris, where he took ‘his degree of M. D. in 1823, but devoted himself to natural his- MILNER—MINII] tory. He was elected in 1838 member of the Acad- émie des Sciences in the place of Cuvier. In 1841 he filled the chair of Entomology at the J ardin des Plantes, and in 1844 became professor of zotilogy and physiology. He published numerous original memoirs of importance in the Annales des ‘Sciences Natwrelles, a journal he himself assisted in editing for 50 years. His Elements de Zoiilogie had an enormous circu- lation, and long formed the basis of most minor manuals of zoiilogy published in Europe. His Lec- tures on the Physiology and Comparative Anatomy of Man and the Animals (14 vols.) have a great perma- nent value for their immense mass of details, and copious references to scattered sources of informa- tion. His researches in the distribution of the lower invertebrates led him to the theory of cen- ters of creation; and to this he adhered through- out life, in spite of the general acceptance of the newer and larger views of Darwin by his fellow- scientists. His elder brother, Frederick William, was almost equally celebrated. He founded the Ethnological Society in Paris, and is considered the father of ethnology in France. MILNER, Is./4.40, an English author and scholar, born near Leeds in 1751, died in 1820. He was a brother of Joseph Milner, whose Church History he brought down to a later date. MILNER, JOSEPH, an ecclesiastical historian, born near Leeds in 1744, died Nov. 15, 1797. He studied at Catharine Hall, Cambridge, and after- ' wards became well known as head—master of Hull grammar-school. He was vicar of Forth Ferriby seven miles from Hull, and lecturer in the princi- pal church of the town, and in 1797 became vicar of Holy Trinity Church. Milner’s principal work - is his History of the Church of Christ, of which he lived to complete three volumes, reaching to the 13th century‘; a fourth volume coming down to the 16th century, was edited from his MSS. MILREIS, o_r MILEAES, a Portuguese silver coin and money of account, contains 1,000 reis. The coin is commonly known in Portugal as the corda, or “crown,” and is the unit of the money system in that country. It is also used in Brazil. MILTON, a city, the county-seat of Santa Rosa county, Fla., on Blackwater River. It contains foundries, and a dry dock, and has a large lumber trade. MILTON, a post-village of Norfolk county, Mass, nine miles south of Boston. Ice and building- stones are here obtained, and Raper, leather, choco- late, and rubber-goods are manufactured. Market gardening is largely carried on in the vicinity. opulation, 4,278. MILTON, a post-borou h of Northumberland county, Pa. It has manu actories of lumber, and contains can-works, machine shops, agricultural works, and foundries; also a rolling-mill and a nail factory. Popuhation‘, 5,317. MILWAUKEE, a city of Vifisconsin, the com- mercial rnetropolis, railroad center, and port of entry of the State. Milwaukee is one of the great- est wheat markets in the country; it has exten- sive rnanufactories of iron, flour, malt liquors, and leather. From its elevated position it overlooks Lake Michigan. It is noted for the h-ealthfulness of its situation. Po ulation in 1890, 203,979. See Britannica, Vol. X I, p.340. MINAS, the capital of a wild, mountainous pro- vince (area, 4,844 square miles; population, 23,000), of the same name in southern Uruguay, seventy- ' five miles by rail northeast of Montevideo. Pop- umamtzdm, MINDEN, a post-village, the capital of Webster. parish, in the northwestern part of Louisiana. 1083 Cotton and lumber are the chief articles of ex- port. MINDERERUS SPIRIT, a valuable diaphoretic, much used in febrile diseases. It is prepared by adding ammonia or the carbonate of ammonia to acetic acid till a neutral liquid is obtained. It is sometimes applied hot on flannel in cases of mumps, while it has also been employed as an eyewash in chronic ophthalmia. MINEOLA, a flourishing town of Texas, and an important railroad junction, situated about a hun- dred and twelve miles west of Shreveport, Louis- iana, at the intersection of the Texas and Pacific and the Missouri Pacific railroads. MINER, ALoNzo A., an Americhn clergyman and temperance advocate, born in New Hampshire in 1814. He has held many important offices con- nected with education; and has been a voluminous writer, especially in the anti-slavery and temper- ance causes. He was president of Tufts College from 1862 to 1875. MINERAL POINT, acity of Iowa county, Wis. It contains grist-mills, foundries, a car-shop, and zinc and lead furnaces. Population, 2,694. MINERAL VVOOL. When a jet of steam is al- lowed to escape through a stream of liquid slag.the slag is blown into very fine white threads, called “mineral wool,” which is used as a covering for steam-pipes and steam-boilers; as a deafening for floors and buildings; and, generally, as a non-con- ductor of heat. MINERSVILLE, a post-borough and a railroad junction of Schuylkill county, Pa., on the west branch of the Schuylkill River. Coal-mining is the chief industry, and the town contains water- works, a fire department, foundries and an an- thracite furnace. Population, 3,502. MINGHETTI, MARCO, an Italian statesman, Ca- vour’s disciple and successor as leader of the Italian Right, born Sept. 8, 1818, died at Rome Dec. 10, 1886. He supplemented a brilliant course at his university by a prolonged tour in France, Germany and Great Britain. With the election - in 1846 of Pope Pius IX. Minghetti started a jour- nal in aid of his country’s regeneration. In 1859—60 he was Ca‘vour’s secretary for foreign affairs. His next post was that of minister of the interior, and on Cavour’s death in 1861 he was regarded as his ablest re resentative in the Italian chamber. In 1863 he ecame prime-minister, in 1864 he con- cluded with the Emperor Napoleon the “Septem- ber Convention.” In 1868 he was Italian minister in London, and thereafter minister of agricul- ture. In 1870 the collapse of the Second Empire brought with it the dissolution of the September Convention, and Rome became the capital of Italy and seat of government. From 1873 to 1876 Min- ghetti was prime-minister for the second time, and among many useful measures earned his country’s gratitude by effecting the “parraggio” or financial equilibrium between her outlay and income. For the next ten years Minghetti was still the most rominent member of the Italian parliament. is lectures and essays on Raphael and Dante illustrate on the eesthetic side a caitholioity of culture which in the sphere of practical politics can point to his treatises on Economica Publica (1859), and La Chiesa e lo State (1878). . MINIE, CLAUDE ETIENNE, inventor of the Minié rifle, be‘ in Paris in 1810, died in 1879. He en- listed in he army as a private soldier, and quitted it as Colonel in 1858. He devoted his principal thought to the per‘-fecting of fire-arms, and in 1849 mvented the Minié rifle. In 1858 the khedive of Egypt appointed him director of a small-arms factory and musketry school in Cairo. 1084 These returns of the World’s mining are based on Mulhal1’s tables, and are for 1880. In the following list we give the mineral products of the United States for 1887 and 1888. United States Geological Survey on the Mineral Production of the United States :)* MINING. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 440-472. The product of the world’s mining for 1880 was: Value of a Year's Product. Number of R M ' . U CSI1 C°‘mt“eS- Gold. Silver. Coal. Sundries. T°t"'1' Mine1‘S- Per Man Australia .................................. . . $25,000,000 ........... . . $5,000, $10,000,000 $40,000,000 95,000 $421.00 Austria ................................................. . . $2,500,000 22,500,000 15,000,000 40,000,000 92,000 430.00 Belgium .............................................................. .. 30,000,000 2, ,000 32,500,000 105,000 310.00 France ................................................................ . . 55,000, 15,000,000 0,000, 206,000 350.00 Germany . . . . . . . . ........................................ . . 5,000,000 70,000,000 20,000,000 95,000,000 231,000 400.00 Gt. Britain and Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... .. 335,000,000 60,000,000 395,000,000 538,000 736.00 Italy ........................... ... .................................................. . . 10 000,000 10,000,000 36,000 260.00 Russia ...................................... . . 30,000,000 ........... . . 15,000,000 5,000,000 50,000,000 207,000 240.00 Spain ...................................... .. ........................ .. 30,000,000 30,000,000 ~ 70,000 430.00 ‘Spanish America .......................... .. 5,000,000 25,000,000 2,500,000 17,500,000 50,000,000 150,000 333.00 Sweden ............................................................................ . . 5,000,000 5,000,000 29,000 175.00 United States .............................. .. 35, 0,000 40,000,000 140,000,000 170,000,000 335,000,000 560,000 687.00 Other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. - 5, ,000 2,500, 5,000, 5,000,000 17,500,000 ~ 70,000 -250.00 The World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $100,000,000 $75,000,000 $680,000,000 $360,000,000 $1,215,000,000 2,339,000 $508.00 (From the latest report of the 1888. 1887. Products. Quantity. Value Quantity. Value. METALLIC PRODUCTS. Pi iron, spot value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..long tons 6,489,738 $107,000,000 6,417,148 $121,925,800 Si ver, coining value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..troy ounces 45,783,632 59,195,000 41,269,240 53,441,300 Gold, coining value . . . . . . . . . . .._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1,624,927 33,175,000 1,596,500 33,100, Cop er, value at New York City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..lbs. 231,270,622 33,833,954 184,670,524 21,052,440 Lea , value at New York City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..short tons 180, 15,924,951 160,700 14,463,000 Zinc, value at New York City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 55,903 5.500, 50,340 4,782, Quicksilver, value at San Francisco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..flasks 33,250 1,413,125 33,825 1,429,000 Nickel, value at Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..lbs. 207,328 128,382 205,556 133,200 Aluminium, contained in alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,000 65,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74,905 Antimony, value at San Francisco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . short tons 100 20,000 75 15,500 Platinum, value (crude) at New York City, . . . . . . . . . . . . troy ounces 500 2,000 448 1,838 Total value metallic products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $256,258,267 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $250,419,283 NON-METALLIC (spot values). Bituminous coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..long tons 91,106,998 122,497,341 78,470,857 ,004, Pennsylvania anthracite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 41 ,624,610 89,020,483 37,578,747 84,552,181 Building stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,500,000 . ............ .. ,000, Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . barrels 49,087,000 24,543, 46,750,000 23,375,000 Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 27,346,013 24,598,559 28,249,597 18,856,626 Natural gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . .. 22,662,128 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,838, gefiient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . barrels g,2gf)3,gg5 4 4 g,gg2,gg a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,0 , , 1 , Limestone for iron flux ........................................ ..long tons 5.433.000 217111.000 513771000 3’,226.200 South Carolina phosphate rock.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . . .. “ 433,705 1,951,673 480,558 1,836,818 Zinc-white . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . short tons 20,000 1,600,000 18, 1,440,000 lfiiineral waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ga1lons Sfl)1d 3,628,888 1,Zgg,%2) 18,2)(5)9),% 1,266,473 orax, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. s. 589, , , 9 ~ Gypsum ......................................................... ..short tons ’ 96,000 430,000 ’ 25, 425,000 Manganese ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . long tons 25,500 255,000 34,524 333,844 Mineral paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ 24,000 380,000 20,000 310,000 New Jersey Marls... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..short tons 600,000 300,000 600,000 300,000 Pyrites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..long tons 54,331 167,658 52,500 210,000 {4} _1nt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “lb 3g,ggg 1Z5,388 322% 123% Ica ..................................................................... .. s. 4 , 0, , 1 , gO1I‘l11ll1d.l1ID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..short tons 589 91,620 3 % 18(8) % u p ur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 1 , Precious stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64,850 ............. .. , -Crude barytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .long tons 20,000 110,000 15,000 75,000 ‘Gold quartz, souvenirs, jewelry, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75,000 Bromine ............................................. ..v . . . . . . . . . . . .- .... ..lbs. 307,386 25,290 199,037 61,717 Feldspar, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..long tons 8,700 50,000 10,200 56,100 \ghroIfi1e’ 1I‘0I1 ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ lb 01,500 20,000 4 3,000 40,ggg 4. rap 1 e ................................................................ .. s. 4 0 000 33,000 16000 , Fluorspar ....................................................... ..short tons 61000 30,000 51000 20,000 Slate, ground as pigment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..long tons 2,500 25,000 2,000 20,000 Cobalt oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..lbs. 12.266 18,441 18,340 18,774 Novaculite ........................................................... .. “ 1,500,000 13,000 1,200,000 16,000 fisghatltum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .shOrt ‘tons 53,800 331,500 4,008 12,g8?) s es us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 3 000 15 , SRutile. .... ... .......................................................... ..lbs. 1,000 31000 1,000 3,000 Total value non-metallic lhineral roducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328,914,528 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285,864,942 Total value metallic mineral pro ucts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256,258,267 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 250,419,283 Estimated value of mineral products unspecified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..‘ 6,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,000,00 Grand total ..................................................................... ..| $501,172,725 ............ .. $542,234,225 * The report 01' the United States Geological Survey Office, of mineral productions in 1889, had not been completed when this edition -was ready for publication. MINING The following lists are taken from the eleventh census, as published in 1891. The COAL product of the several States was: 1085 1890. 1880. States. Short Tons. Value. Short Tons. Value. Alabama ............................................................ . . 3,378,484 $3,787,426 323,972 $476,911 Georgia and North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. -226,156 339,382 154,994 232,005 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. ............................... . . 12,104,272 11,755,203 6,115,377 8,779,832 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 2,887,852 1,454,327 2,150,258 Kentuck ........................................................... . . 2,399,755 2,374,339 946,288 1,134,960 Marylan ............................................................ . . 2,939,715 2,517,474 2,228,917 585,537 I2)£%chigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 937 31 ségg, 95 7 io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. , 6787 , ,5 , Pennsylvania anthracite .......................................... .. 45,544,970 65,718,165 I640, 42,17-2’,942 Pennsylvania bituminous coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36,174,089 27,953,215 18,425,163 18,567,129 $ennessee ........................................................... . . 1,g62g,689 2,§.38;,i>g5 422$? 62)sg,'(i)g4é irginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' ‘ ' ' ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ,786 , , 1 . West Virginia ....................................................... .. 6,231,880 , ‘ 1,829,844 2,013,671 GOAL PRODUCT WEST on THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IN 1889. [The figures given are for the short ton of 2,000 pounds.] Number of Miles. - V l f t t l A Divisions and States. Country Total Made mto a'pr‘1§1,(1’ct 3,? P1-Y1'r§€i)g:r Regular Banks product. coke. mines ton eSI’£a’élZ11t1Ssh' and local ' mines. Grand total .................................. .. 569 1,326 16,067,500 . 321,462 $24,413,262 $1.52 Trans-Mississippi Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 449 1,234 10,051,229 13,143 14,271,622 1.42 Dakota and Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 338 30,307 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46,331 1.53 Kansas ......... . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 295 2,230,763 500 3,294,754 1.48 Indian Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 . . . . . . . . . . .. 752,832 12,618 1,323,806 1 76 Iowa. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172 223 4,061,704 25 5,392,220 1.33 M1SSOl11‘l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 356 2,567,823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,478,058 1.35 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ' 16 279,584 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 395,836 1.42 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 6 128,216 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340,617 2 66 Rocky Mountain Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98 91 4,836,368 308,319 7,486,004 1.55 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . 8 22 363,301 30,576 881,523 2.43 Wyommg ......................................... . . 15 10 1,388,947 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,748,618 1.26 Colorado .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 40 2,360,536 269,526 3,605,622 1.53 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 18 12 486,983 6, 872,785 .79 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7 236,601 377,456 1.60 2,217 Pacific Coast . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22 1 1,179.903 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,655,636 California and Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 1 186,179 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 451,881 2.43 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 .......... . . 993,724 ............ .. 2,203,755 2.22 The total amount of coal produced in the States in 1880—namely, North Dakota,Texas, New Mexico, and_Territories west of the Mississippi River aggre- and Indian Territory. gated in the calendar year: The LEAD product of the United States in 1889 Short ions, was as follows: 1889 ............................................ .. 16,067,500 SUMMARY OF LEAD PRODUCTION OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,584,324 ' STATES AND TERRITORIES. Increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,483,176 St S dT _t _ T ‘I 1 _ 9. es an erm ones. ons. ’a us. The value of this product at the mines was as follows: £23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s2g,g;g,ggg Total ........................... .. 130,903 $4,712,757.27 Increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 ,583,540 _ _ Arizona._ ........................... . . 3,158 98,747.84 It 15 apparent, therefgre, that the quantlty of California. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53 1,999.65 coal produced in 1889 has increased to more than gglgrado ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " 72’7§S 2*10.§’°§§‘*-31 1 f d ~ 0. d d h.1 h T 1 1 £1. 0 - . - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . 20,112 1,04-7,6-19.31 tires 0 urmg ie eca e, w 1 e t e \a ue ias Montana .......................... .. 10,183 456,975.40 decreased from $1.93 per ton at the mines in 1880 to Nevada. ._ .......................... .. 1,994 72,653.64 $152 in 1889_ New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,764 17-0,754.59 F . . . south Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4,653.44 our States and Territories are now given as pro- Utah . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,675 763,329.09 ducers of coal, for which no product was reported 1086 The total as follows: MINING . { ToTAL PRODUCT or THE LEAD AND ZINC MINES EAST OF THE Rocxx MoUNTAINs. product of the lead and zinc mines of the. States east of the Rocky. Mountains has been Zinc Ore. Lead Ore. States. Total value. Short tons. Value. Short tons. Value. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $4,804,179.24 234,503 $3,049,799.25 50,238 $1,754,379.99 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,650.00 130 3,250.00 20 , 400.00 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,800.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 4,800.00 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,600.00 450 3600.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kansas . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402,428.47 39,575 299 ,192.05 3,617 103,236.42 Missoun .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,595,218.18 93,131 2,024,057.14 44,482 1,571,161.04 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,520.00 140 2,520.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Pennsylvania and New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 175,052.20 63,339 175,052.20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .’. . . . . . . . . .. Southern States ............................ .. 152,280.00 12,906 141,500.00 268 10,720.00 Wisconsm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464,630.39 24,832 400,567.86 1,678 64,062.53 TOTAL PRoDUcTIoN or PRECIOUS STONES, ORNAMENTAL MIN- ERALS, ETc., IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1889. Names of Gems or Precious Stones. Value of stones before cut- Value of stones after cutting into gems for ornamenta Value of stones sold as speci- mens and curiosities, occa- sionally polished to beau- tify or show the structure. 6 3 g s 3 e Z F1 5 ed 37» Q1 *5 B Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $107645 $81,162 $188,807 Sapphire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2,600 6,725 . . . . . . . . . . 6,725 Emerald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 300 150 450 Aquamarine . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 597 150 747 Phenacite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200 200 Topaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 200 200 490 Turquoise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 .000 23,175 500 23 .675 Tourmaline . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,030 2,250 . . . . . . . . . . 2,250 Garnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 1,633 075 2,308 Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 2,750 11,250 14,000 Amethyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 98 . . . . . . . . . . 98 Rose Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . A 200 400 200 600 Smoky Quartz . . . . . . . . .. 700 4,007 225 4,232 Gold quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,000 9,000 . . . . . . . . .. 9,000 Rutilated quartz... . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . .. 30 Dumortiente in quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 250 250 Quartz coated with chalcedony . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 2,000 2,000 4,000 Chrysoprase. . . . . . . . . . . . 50 200 . . . . . . . . . . 200 Agatized and jasperized wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42,725 53,000 175 53,175 Banded and moss jas- -' per ............................ .. so 550 030 Amazon stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 500 Pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 500 1,500 2,000 Chlorastrolite . . . . . . . . . . 200 300 200 500 Thomsonite. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 200 200 400 Fluorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 500 Fossil coral . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 200 500 700 Azurite and malachite. 1,000 . . . . . . . . .. 2,037 2,037 Catlinite (pipestone).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,000 5,000 *Zircon ................................... . . 10,000 10,060 *Gadolinite, ferguson- ite, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,590 1,500 *Monazite- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 1,000 *Spodumene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 200 1-Wooden ornaments decorated with min- erals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,500 15,500 Illrfiscellaneous miner- als . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,000 20,000 *Used to extract the rarer elements for chemical pur- BGS. . -l- Such as clocks, horseshoes, boxes, etc. IFor cabinets, museums, etc. The production of Mdnganese from 1880 was as follows: PRODUCTION or IIIANGANESE ORE IN THE UNITED STATES. to 1891, inclusive, , I> QOGJOOIQ ¢-, cs v-¢c\1c>I- g °3. =ev=.-rs. "- s sass § H. <°.'-‘°.‘°.‘°.‘. , 1-! if g 3. £33" -1 E3 3°-‘°°° - a rear § H. §8.¢s.¢>.§ ' § 333% § - l‘.‘1“l"‘ H 2% 8"“-“ - 3 335% § 5" 05 : 5 3, 3333 H =9 10 A s as s § -F on“ --T f A 3 3% 3 § é‘[£ A - s s ass Q 3‘ SEA, :1? 1 I Q I I I :3 3 r ss-3 .52 -*m.§6D 3 “see Esoe -|-If-¢, h -1-Ii-4-<1-1 v-h—h—h—1 Q H Ham m mmm¢mHob$m dW® M gwwmfiwbm b 3 peg m -QEQQQQQQQ Q OHM d momgmwmmww $ E; l."D.'5~°‘.§=°*.\r>.***.<=>.<’>.g=’. 3. OH m w Ess - Hfinfinnfisss g 5 . “ W mmwbwmm Nb m U®F NMHDQHQ b was Q RQQ1QQ1QQQ 3 QG®WHMHQ " fififi E $$¢q¢¢nmm¢ § "3 =2 figg 5 wHmmmmHoo OD“ M mammfibwwmg R 365 g O1 -L‘.l‘.°>.‘°..l*.‘-‘W1 <0. momwfima mm ggw E mwmvmmmgmm § H5 ' g IEIIIZIIII ; <8 : . : : : : : : : 1 ' g . . . . . . . . .. 1 I . : : : : : : : : ,_,- . I : : : : : : : : -3 I - I I I O I I I 0 9 . . . . . . . . . . O déa . . . . . .. B CO L! COFHOD eased sass HHHHHHHHHH The production of cut mica in the United States in the census year amounted to 49,500 pounds, val- -*ued at $50,000. In addition to this, 196 short tons of scrap or waste mica were sold for grinding pur- poses, with a value of $2,450. The production in 1880, as given in the Tenth Census report, was 81,- -669 pounds of cut mica, valued at $127,825. - A review of the annual production during the past nine years shows that the industry advanced in importance until 1885. Since then the tendency has been downward, though the fluctuations in the production of the different regions have caused much irregularity in the annual totals. The fol- lowing table does not include statistics of scrap and -waste mica, as there had been no attempt prior to 1889 to determine the amount of this waste which :has been utilized: I MINING CUT MICA PRCDUCED IN THE UNITED STATES. Amount Years. (Pounds)_ Value. 1ss0 ............................. . . s1,0s9 $127,825 1881 ............................. . . 100,000 250, 1882 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100,000 250, 1883 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114,000 285,000 1884 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147,410 368,525 1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92,000 161,000 1&6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. wan WMN 1887 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,000 142,250 1888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48,000 0, 1889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49,500 , During the years 1883 and 1884, when mica min- ing was in its most flourishing condition, the man- ufacturers of stoves consumed probably 95 per cent. of the product, and the fancy grades and large sizes of sheet mica which were then used found a ready sale at highly profitable prices. Under this stimulus of large profits many surface deposits or pockets were opened by farmers, who worked them occasionally when other business was dull and re- alized a considerable profit on their production. As long as the demand for large sizes continued, this ._ intermittent sort of mining could be carried on with success, but when the fashion in stbve panels changed, and small sheets were used in place of large ones, the demand for the latter fell off to a great extent. PRCDUCTICN AND VALUE or MICA IN THE UNITED STATEs IN 1889. Distribution. Cut. Scrap. Pounds. Value. Short tons. Value. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49,500 $50,000 196 2,450 New Hampshire . . . . .. 40,000 40,000 160 2,000 North Carolina. . . . 6,7000 7,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Virginia and South Dakota . . . . . . . . 2,800 3,000 36 450 SLATE MINING IN THE UNITED STATEs.—The total value of all slate produced in the United States in 1889, as shown by the following table, is $3,444,863. Of this amount, $2,775,271 is the value of 828,990 squares of roofing slate, and $669,- 592 is the value of' slate for all other purposes be- sides roofing, As compared with the statements of the tenth census report of 1880, the roofing slate product of 1889 is nearly twice as great in number of squares and i-n value. A consideration of the slate used for purposes other than roofing appears to have been omitted from the Tenth Census report. The total value of all slate produced in 1889 is more than twice as great as that considered in the Tenth Census. According to “Mineral Resources of the United States, 1889,” the total number of squares of roofing slate produced in that year is 662,400, valued at $2,053,440. DISTRIBUTION or THE QUARRIES.-—Twe1ve States at present produce slate. A line drawn on to the map from Piscataquis county, Maine, Polk county,- Georgia, and approximately fol- lowing the coast outline, passes through all the important slate-producing localities. According MINING to amount and value of product, the most impor- tant States are, in' the order named, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Maine, New York, Maryland, and Vir- ginia. In the remaining six States productive oper- ations are of limited,extent, and in the case of Igréransas, California, and Utah, of very recent a e. 1089 CQPPER MINING IN THE UNITED STATEs.—Since the census year 1880 the United States has risen to the rank of the largest copper producer in the world, outstripping by far any other country. During the decade Arizona and, later, Montana have become important producing States,the latter now acquiring and maintaining its rank as the PRODUCTION OF SLATE IN THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR 1889. Number of Total value of Total value of States. Nl:1I:;31_%Ie.S°f squares of '1;_((’)1é)a1%nv8‘1SI1:letOf slate for oth- all slate q ’ roofing slate. g .9‘ 9' er purposes. produced. Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 60 $240 ((1) $240 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2,504 13,889 (a 13,889 Gaprgm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3,050 14,850 $480 15,330 Mame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . 4 43,500 214,000 (a) 214,000 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 23,100 105,745 4, 110,008 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3,000 15,000 (a) 15,000 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2,700 10,800 125 10,925 New York.. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 17,167 85,726 44,877 130,603 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 474,602 1,636,945 374,831 2,011,776 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 (a) (a) (a) ((1) Vermont ................................................ .. 60 . ,850 592,997 245,016 838.013 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 23,457 85,079 a) 85,079 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 828,990 $2,775,271 $669,592 $3,444,863 (a) None. CCPPER PRCDUCTICN IN 1889. l Ore - Black Fine co per 1 States and Territories. roduced (flélggggl) copper Phggglgé conteiiJts (S ort tons). ' (Pounds). ' (Pounds). , Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 3,322,742 117,804,926 39,713,237 159,547 ,390 220,569 ,438 _ Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 2,433,733 117,804,926 _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87,455,675 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698,837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,176,744 147 ,800,5 97,868 ,064 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155,586 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29,532,493 4,126 .000 31,362,685 New Mexico .............. .. 34,586 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,000 7620.800 3,883,014 leader. While by far the greater part of the metal produced is obtained from ores carrying only the baser metal, important quantities in the aggregate are derived from ores in which lead, gold and sil- ver are the principal constituents of value. These quantities are difficult to trace to their source. The ores are purchased by lead and copper smelters in the open market, often in small parcels, indirectly, through sampling works. Sometimes copper is not even present in the original ore in marketable quantity, and becomes a factor only when it ap- pears in a concentrated form in the mattes of lead smelters and refiners. The copper product of the United States was as follows, in pounds, in the calendar year 1889: Pounds. Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,586 ,185 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87,455,675 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 222,444 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ~ 3,686,137 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,170,053 Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156,490 Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,420 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65,467 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151,505 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100,000 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72,000 Southern States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,144 Lead smelters and refiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,345,442 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 226,055,962 These figures include the quantities of copper re- ported as an incidental constituent of other ores. The details of the copper mining of the principal producing States during the year 1889 are given in the following table, but does not include those mines fairly to be considered as precious-metal mines: GCLD AND SILVER PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES.-—The following estimate of the gold and silver produced in the United States, since the dis- covery of gold in California, is complied from the official reports of the director of the United States mint: Year. Gold. Silver. Total. 1849 $40,000,000 $50,000 $40,050,000 1850 50,000,000 50,000 50,050,000 1851 55,000,000 50,000 55,050,000 1852 60,000,000 50,000 60,050,000 1853 65,000,000 50,000 65,050,000 1854 60,000,000 50,000 60,050,000 1855 55,000,000 50,000 55,050,000 1856 55,000,000 50,000 55,050,000 1857 55,000,000 50,000 55,050,000 1858 50,000,000 500,000 50,500,000 1859 50,000,000 100,000 50,100,000 1860 46,000,000 150,000 46,150,000 1861 43,000,000 2,000,000 45,000,000 1862 39,200,000 4,500,000 43,700,000 1863 40,000,000 8,500,000 48,500,000 1864 46 ,100,000 11,000,000 57,100,000 MINNEAPOLIS—MIRECOURT, MINT, UNITED STATEs. . For general article on MINTS AND CQINAGE, see Britannica, Vol.'XVI, pp. 480-91. In the United States there are five mints— - ‘at Philadelphia (since 1793), New Orleans (1835), San Francisco ( 1854), Carson City, and Denver-all under the charge of the Bureau of the Mint of the United States Treasury Department, and presided over by the Director of the Mint. Only the first three are in active operation, the other two are really assay offices; and at Philadelphia alone all the authorized coins are struck. The United States coins and their weights are as follows, those marked with an asterisk having been discontinued: Year Gold. Silver. Total. 1865 53,225,000 11,250,000 64,475 ,000 1866 53,500,000 10,000,000 1 63,500,000 1867 51 ,725,000 13 ,500,000 65,225,000 1868 48,00 12,000,000 60,000,000 1869 49,500,000 12,000,000 61,500 ,000 1870 50, 16,000,000 66,000,000 1871 1 43,500,000 23,000 ,000 66,500,000 1872 36,000,000 28,750,000 64,750,000 1873 36,000,000 35,750,000 71,750,000 1874 33,490,902 37 ,324,594 70,815,496 1875 33,467,856 31,727,560 6 195,416 1876 39,929,166 38,783,016 78,712,182 1877 46,897,390 39,793,573 86 ,690,963 1878 51,206,360 45,281,385 96,487,745 1879 38,899 ,858 40,812,132 79,711,990 1880 36,000 ,000 38,450,000 74,450,000 1881 34,700,000 43,000,000 77,700, 1882 32 ,500 ,000 46,800,000 79 ,300 ,000 1883 30,000,000 46,200,000 76,200,000 1884 39,800,000 48,800,000 79,600,000 1885 30,800,000 51,600,000 83,400,000 1886 35,000,000 51,000,000 86,000,000 1887 33,000,000 53,357,000 86 ,357,000 1888 33,175,000 59 ,195,000 92,370,000 1889 32 ,800 ,000 64,646,000 97,446 ,000 Denomination W(‘:;ri1,ga1i1g;n ‘Denomination W(‘;"11%Ii11t;;_I1 Gold. 20-cent* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7'16 Double eagle . . . . . . . . . . .. 516 Dime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3858 Eagle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..258 Half-dime* . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19'2 Half-eagle ............. ..129 3-cent* ................. .. 11-51 Quarter-eagle . . . . . . . . . . .. 645 Minor Coins. - 3-dollar piece . . . . . . . . . . .. 77'4 5-cent nickel) . . . . . . . . .. 7716 Dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25'8 3-cent nickel . . . . . . . . .. 3 Silver. 2-cent bronze)* . . . . . . . .. 96 Dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..412'5 Cent (co per)* . . . . . . . . ..168 Trade-dollar* . . . . . . . . . . ..420 Cent (nic el)* . . . . . . . . . .. 72 Half-dollar . . . . . . . . . . . . ..192'9 Cent (bronze) . . . . . . . . . .. 48 Quarter-dollar . . . . . . . . . .. 96'45 Half-cent (copper)*. . . .. 84 The total value of the precious metals exported from Alaska up to the present time approaches 84,000,000, the annual production of gold dust and bullion being now $700,000. Within a radius of 100 miles from Juneau quartz mills have been estab- lished, with an aggregate capacity of 500 stamps. Of these, 240 stamps are employed at the well- known Treadwell or Paris mine, on Douglas island, capable of reducing 600 tons of ore per diem when both steam and water power are utilized. MINNEAPOLIS, a city of Minnesota, the metrop- olis of the State, built on a broad plain overlooking the Mississippi River and St. Anthony Falls, the scenery being very picturesque. The celebrated Minnehaha Falls are situated between Minneapolis and St. Paul. Several important railroad lines have their junctions at Minneapolis. This place has some extensive grain elevators, large flour- mills, and works for the manufacture of iron-ma- chinery, engines, boilers, farm implements, furni- ture, carriages, etc. Population in 1891, 164,738. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 474-475. MINNEAPOLIS, a city, the county-seat of Otta- wa county, Kan., on Solomon River. It contains .saw and grist-mills,a carriage factory, a machine .shop, and foundry. , MINNEHAHA, a beautiful waterfall near Min- neapolis, Minn. The Minnehaha River falls 60 feet down a limestone precipice. The legend of a love- lorn Indian girl leaping over the fall has been utilized by Longfellow in his oem Minnehaha. MINONK, a city of VVoo ford county, Ill., 118 miles southwest of Chicago. Mining and agricul- ture are the principal occupations, and the city has a steam mill, eight elevators, and coal mines. MINOT, GEORGE RICHARDS (1758-1802), an Amer- ican jurist. He began the practice of law in Bos- ton, Mass., and in 1771 became clerk of the Massa- chusetts house of representatives. In 1792 he was made probate judge for the county of Suffolk, in 1799 chief justice of the court of common pleas, and in 1800 judge of the municipal court of Boston. Judge Minot published History of the Insurrection in Massachusetts in 1786 (1786), and Continuation of the (Hutchinson’s) History of Massachusetts Bay From the year 1748, with an Introductory Sketch of Events from its Original Settlement (1798). MINT, the common name of a number of fragrant labiate plants._ See Britannica, Vol. XVI. p. 491; ‘Vol. XII. p. 289; Vol. XVIII, p. 517. The following table shows the total coinage of the United States from the beginning up to and including 1885, and also for each subsequent year to and including the fiscal year closing June 30,1890: Gold. Silver. Minor Coin. To 1885 $1,389,981,508 $434,224,610 $ 17,463,608 1886 28,945,542 32,086,709 343 86 1887 23,972,383 35,191,081 1,215,686 1 28,346,170 34,136,095 1,218,977 1889 25,543,910 34,515,546 906,473 1890 22,021,748 36,815,837 1.416,852 Total $1,518,829,261 $ 606,969,878 6 22,564,782 MINUIT, or MINNEWIT, PETER (1580-1641), a Dutch colonist. He was born in Wesel, Rhenish Prussia, and for a time was deacon in the Walroon church in his native town. He then removed to Holland, and in 1625 was appointed by the Dutch West India Company its director in New Nether- lands, and was the first governor of the island. He returned to Europe in 1632, and in 1637 set sail from Gothenberg with a body of Swedish and Finnish colonists. He ascended the Delaware River, and planted his colony near the present city of Wil- mington. MINUTE MEN, in the American Revolution, the militia who were prepared for service at a minute’s notice. MIRACLES. See Britannica, Vol. II, pp. 188,191; Vol. X, pp. 804, 809 ;' Vol. VIII, p. 141; Vol. I, 127; Vol. IV p. 754; Vol. XXIV, p. 664. MIRAJ, a native state of India in the southern Mahratta country. Population, 69,732. The capi- tal, Miraj, near the Kistna River, has a population of 20,616. MIRAMAR, a palace standing on the rocky shore of the Adriatic near Grignano, six miles north-west of Trieste, the home of the Archduke Maximilian, afterwards Emperor of Mexico. MIRANDOLA, a town of northern Italy, nine- teen miles by rail northeast of Modena. It has a fine cathedral and an old castle. Population 3,059. MIRECOURT, a town in the department of Vos- ges, 236 miles southeast of Paris with manufac- tures of lace and musical instruments. Popula- tion 5,341. MIRl?Il§lLD—M1SSISSIPPI MIRFIELD, a manufacturing town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, three miles from Dewsbury, and four and a half from Huddersfield. It has a townhall, a parish church, and manufactories of wog(l)en cloths, carpets, blankets, etc. Population 11, 8. , MISERERE, the name by which, in Catholic usage, the Fiftieth Psalm of the Vulgate (51st in Authorized Version) is commonly known. It is one of the so-called “Penitential Psalms,” which are said after Lauds on the Fridays in Lent, except Good Friday. It has been commonly understood to have been composed by David in the depth of his remorse for the double crime which the prophet Nathan rebuked in the well-known parable (2 Sam. xii). For anaccount of the celebrated Mtsereré of Allegri, performed annually in the Sistine chapel, see Britannica, Vol. I, p. 581. MISERERE, a small movable seat attached to each of the stall-seats of the choir of mediaeval 7.} ll hf: Ii I! [Ill II! I |I‘i{Hll|-- I 1 r. _ \, “ ' 7 . :_,' I _ _ l . . .~ - \ ,_ “ - '--,. __..--_T=.,__.__._'_ Ir.-.' - ' '_ : _ .- _- e v_— ... ...._.‘,.-.~:_.—..:~.—..'- " i; _“ =z:z=. - ' _ ~ ‘ . . I. , . I __._.‘__..' ' .'._.."'. =_. -,_—._._'_7."'.' l 7:?- ’- _-a I ~"'I~I".1 i. 1. churches and chapels, etc. It is usually ornament- ed with carved work, and is so shaped that when the seat-proper is folded up it forms a small seat at a higher level, sufiicient to afford some support to a person resting upon it. Aged and infirm ec- clesiastics were allowed to use these seats during long services. MISHAWAKA, a post-village and a railroad 'unction of St. Joseph county, Ind., four miles east of South Bend. Wagons, carriages, farm-tools, windmills, furniture, brushes, woolen goods and flour are made here. Population 3,369. MISIONES, an Argentine territory, lies between the Uruguay and the Paranzi, and is bounded on all sides but the southwest by Brazil and Paraguay. Area, 20,823 square miles; population, 30,000— though before the expulsion of the Jesuits (1767) it exceeded 100,000. There are three low mountain- chains radiating from the center. The greater portion of the surface is covered with forest, pro- ducing building and dye-woods, oranges, medicinal herbs, and the yerba maté. Maize is largely grown, and sugar-cane to some extent; of late years sev- eral sugar-houses have been erected. Capital, Posadas. ‘ MISSISSIPPI, STATE or. For general article on MISSISSIPPI, see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 518-524. The United States census of 1890 reports the area as 46,810 square miles, including 470 square miles of water surface. Population, 1,289,600, an increase of 158,003 durin the decade. Capital, Jackson, with a population 0 6,041. ' 1091 The land areas in square miles and the popula- tions of the several counties of the State in 1890 were as follows: Counties. Areas. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 26 ,031 22,649 Alcorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 13,115 14,272 Amite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 18,198 14,004 Attala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 22,213 19.988 Benton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 10,585 11,023 Bolivar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , _ _ _ _ _ 876 29,980 18,652 Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , _ _ , _ _ 600 14,688 13,492 Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 18,773 17,795 Chickasaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ 520 19 ,891 17,905 Choctaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ , , , _ _ _ , _ 406 10,847 9,036 Claiborne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 14 ,516 16,763 Clarke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 15 .826 15 921 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 18,607 17 .367 Coahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 18,342 13,563 Copiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 30,233 27,552 Covington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 8,299 5,993 De Soto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 24,183 22,924 . Franklin. . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 556 10,424 9,729 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820 3,906 3,194 Grenada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 14,974 12,071 Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 8,318 6.439 Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990 12,481 7 ,895 Hinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870 39,279 43,958 Holmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 30.970 27,164 Issaqueana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 12,318 10,004 Itawamba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 11,708 10 .663 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,072 11,251 7,607 Jasper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 720 14,785 12,126 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 18,947 17,314 Jones _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 8,333 3,828 Kemper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 17,961 15,719 Lafayette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 20,553 21,671 Lauderdale . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 29,661 21,501 Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 12,318 9,420 Leake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 14,803 13,146 Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 20,040 20,470 Lefiore .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 16,869 10246 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 17,912 13,547 Lcwndes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 27,047 28,244 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 27,321 25,866 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,055 9,532 6,901 Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 26,042 29,330 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 30,730 28,553 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 14,459 13,348 Neshoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 11,146 8,741 Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 16,625 13,436 Noxubee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 27,338 29,874 Oktibbeha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 17,694 15,978 Panola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 26,977 28,%2 Pearl River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 2,957 . . . . . . . . . . Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,116 6,494 3,427 Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 21 _.203 16,688 Pontotoc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 14,940 13,858 Prentiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 13,679 12,158 Quitman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 3,286 1,407 Rankin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 17,922 16,752 Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 11,740 0,845 Sharkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 8,382 6,306 Simpson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 10,138 8,008 mith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 10,635 8,088 Sumner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,534 Sunflower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 9,384 4,661 Tallahatchie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 14,361 10,926 Tate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 19,253 18,721 Tippah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 12,957 12,867 Tishomingo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 9,302 8,774 Tunica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 12,158 8,461 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 15,606 13,030 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 590 33,164 31,238 Washington . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880 40,414 25,367 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 9,817 8,741 Webster . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 12,060 . . . . . . . . . . Wilkinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 17,592 17,815 Winston . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 12,089 10,087 Y alobusha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 16.629 15,649 Yazoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,020 36,394 33,845 1092 The full list of governors of the Stateof Mis- sissippi, including the dates of their terms of ser- vice, is as follows: TERRITORIAL. . Winthrog Sargent... .1798-1802 Robert Williams . . . . . . ..1805—9 Wm. C. ‘. Claibourne. .1802-5 David Holmes . . . . . . . . ..1809—17 STATE. David Holmes . . . . . . . . . .1817-19 James Whitfield . . . . . . . .1851-52 George Poindexter .. . .1819—21 Henry S. Foote . . . . . . . ..1852-54 Walter Leake . . . . . . . . . . 1821-25 John J . McRae . . . . . . . . ..1854-58 David Holmes... 1825-27 William McWillie. ....1858-60 Gerhard C. Brandon.. .1827-31 John J . Pettus . . . . . . . . ..1860-62 Abraham M. Scott... . . .1831-33 Jacob Thompson. . . . . ..1862-64 Hiram G. Bunnels .. . . .1833-35 Charles Clarke . . . . . . . ..1864-65 Charles Lynch . . . . . . . . . . 1835-37 William L. Sharkey. . . .1865—66 Alexander G. McNutt..1837—41 Benj. G. Humphreys. . .1866-70 Tilghman M. Tucker.. .1841-43 James L. Alcorn . . . . . . ..1870-71 Albert G. Brown . . . . . ..1843-48 Rid ley C. Powers... . . .1871-74 Joseph W. Matthews. . .1848—50 Ade bert Ames ........ ..1874-78 John A. Quitman . . . . ..1850—51 John M. Stone . . . . . . . . ..1878-82 John J . Guion . . . . . . . . . . . ..1851 Robert Lowry . . . . . . . . ..1882-90 John M. Stone, 1890-94. The governor’s salary is $4,000. The population of the chief cities and towns are as follows : ‘Vicksburg, 13,298; Meridian, 10,889; Natchez, 10,101 ; Greenville, 6,655; Yazoo City, 5,247 ; Columbus, 4,552; Aberdeen, 3,445; Water Valley, 2,828. ' ABBREVIATED Hrsromc OUTL1NE.——The Territory of Mississippi was first visited by white men (it is believed) in 1539. In the spring of 1541 Fer- nando de Soto, the first visitor, who had spent about a year on the Yazoo Bottoms, reached the Mississippi River. Over a century later (1673), J oliet and Marquette, two French explorers, passed down the Mississippi, touching at several points in the territory. In 1682 De la Salle and de Tonti visited the Natchez Indians. The first colony proper was established -by Iberville, with 200 French immigrants, on the eastern shore of Biloxi Bay. A French colony and a fortress were established at Natchez about 1716 and named Rosalia, in honor of the Countess of Pontchar- train. Rosalia Fortress was assaulted and cap- tured by the Indians in 1729, but was retaken in 1830. In 1763 Eastern Louisiana, including most of the present State of Mississippi, was ceded by France to Great Britain, and in 1783 the whole passed into the possession of the United States under treaty stipulations. The territorial govern- ment was organized in 1798. In March, 1817, Ala- bama was set ofi' from the Mississippi Territory, and in December, 1817, Mississippi was admitted into the Union as a State. Progress of population of Mississippi by decades: 1800, 8,850; 1810, 40,352; 1820, 75,448; 1830, 136,621; 1840, 375,651 ; 1850, 605,948; 1860, 791,631; 1870, 827,- 922; 1880, 1,131,597; 1890, 1,289,600. For numerous additional items relating to Mis- sissippi, see the article UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. MISSOURI, STATE OF. For general article on Mrssounr, see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 524-27. The United States census of 1890, reports the area as 69,415 square miles, including 680 square miles of water surface. Population, 2,679,184, an increase of 510,804 during the decade. Capital, J efierson City, with a population of 6,732. The population of other chief cities and towns was as follows: St. Louis, 450,245; Kansas City, 132,416; St. Joseph, 52,811; Springfield, 21,842 ; Sedalia,13,994; Hanniba1,12,816; Joplin, 9,909; Moberly, 8,213; Carthage, 7,962; In- dependence, 6,373; Chillicothe, 5,699; Louisiana, 5,071; Trenton, 5011; Mexico, 4,789; Clinton, 4,689; Warrensburg, 4,682; Lexington, 4,538; Brookfield, 4,534; Fulton, 4,289; Cape Girardeau, 4,238; Mar- MISSOURI\ shall, 4,258; Booneville, 4,132; Maryville, 4,017; Columbia, 3,985; Carrollton, 3,858 ; Kirksville, 3,491; Macon City, 3,350; Cameron, 2,895; Butler, 2,812; Holden, 2,515. ' The land area in square miles, and the popula- -tions of the several counties in the State of Mis- souri in 1890, were as follows: Pop. Po . Counties. Areas 1890. 188% Adair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 17,470 15,190 Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 16 .000 16,318 Atchison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 15,533 14,556 Audrian . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 22,074 19,732 Barry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 810 22,943 ' 14,495 Barton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 18.504 10,332 Bates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874 32,223 25,381 Benton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744 14.973 12,396 Bollinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 13,721 11,180 Boone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 26.043 25,422 Buchanan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 70,100 49,792 Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 9,964 6,011 Caldwell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 15,152 13,646 Callaway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 25,131 23.670 Camdem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . 692 10.040 7,266 Cape Girardeau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 540 22,060 20,998 Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 25,742 23,274 Carter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 5,799 2.168 Cass ............................... . . 688 23,301 22,431 Cedar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 15,620 10,741 Chariton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 26,254 25.224 Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 14,017 9,628 Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 15,126 15,031 01 ay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 19,856 15,572 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 17,138 16,073 Cole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 17,281 15,515 Cooper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 22,707 21,596 Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710 11,961 10,756 Dade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 17,526 12,557 Dallas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 12,647 9,263 Daviess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 576 20,456 19,145 DeKalb ........................... . . 440 14,539 13,334 Dent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 12,149 10,646 Dou las . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . .. 792 14,111 7,753 Dun lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 15,085 9,604= Frariklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866 28,056 26,534 Gasconade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 11.706 11,153 Gentry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 19,018 17,176 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 48,616 28,801 Grundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 17,876 15,185 Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 21,033 20,304 Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 28,235 23,906 Hickory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 9,453 7.387 Holt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 15,469 15,509 Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 17,371 18,428 Howell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,61?) 2,83} ron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .11 1 Jackson .......................... . . 630 160,510 82,626 J as er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 672 50,500 32,019 Je erson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 640 22,484 18,736 J{ohnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ggg 2s,g32 28,173 nox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 01 13 04 Laclede ........................... . . 740 141701 111524 Lafayette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 30,184 25,710 Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 26.228 17,583 Lewis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 15,935 15,925 Iflincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2,336 17,328 1nn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 20 Livingston ....................... . . 520 201666 101196 McDonald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 11,283 7,816 Macon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820 30,515 26,222 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 9,268 8,876 Maries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 8,600 7,304 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 26,233 24,837 Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 14,581 14,673 Miller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 14,162 9,805 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 10,134 9,270 Moniteau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 15.630 14,346 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 20,790 19,071 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 16,850 16,249 MISSOUR,.I VALLEY-—-MITCHELL Counties. Areas ¥§;£: %%8: r an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 638 12.311 10,132 IN/Igwgllliadrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 317 7,694 Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 -22,108 18,947 Nodawav . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 30,914 29,544 Oregon. i .......................... . . 480 10,257 5,791 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 586 13,080 11,824 822%: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 9,795 5,618 Pemiscot.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 5,975 4.299 Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 13.237 11,895 Pettis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 31,151 27,271 h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 640 12,623 12,568 Pilfdlls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 26,321 26,715 Platte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 16,248 17,366 Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 20,339 15,734 Pulaski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 9,387 250 Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 15,365 13,555 ' Ralls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 490 12,294 11,838 Randolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 24,893 22,751 Ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 584 24,215 20,190 Reynolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 6,633 5,722 Ripley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 8,332 5,377 Saint Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 520 22,977 23,065 Saint Clair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 16,747 14,125 Sainte Genevieve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 450 9,883 10,390 Saint Francois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 410 17,347 13,822 Saint Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 492 36,307 31.888 Saint Louis city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48 451,770 W518 Saline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 33,762 29,911 Schuyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 11,249 10,470 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 12,674 12,508 Scott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 11,228 8,587 Shannon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 8,718 3,441 Shelb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 15,642 14,024 Stoddard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840 17 .327 13,441 - Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 516 7,090 4,404 Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 19,000 16,565 Taney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 7,973 5,599 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,145 19,406 12,206 Vernon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850 31,505 19,369 Warren.. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 435 9,913 10,805 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . 780 13,153 12,896 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 11,727 9,096 Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 15,177 12,175 Wort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . 270 8,738 8,203 Wright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 14,484 9,712 The full list of governors of the State, with their date of service, is shown in the subjoined table: Alexander McNair. . . . .1820-24 Claiborne F. Jackson. .1861 Frederick Bates . . . . . ..1824-26 Hamilton R. Ga.mble...1861-64 John Miller . . . . . . . . . . ..1826-32 Thomas C. Fletcher. .1865-69 Daniel Dunklin . . . . . . ..1832-36 Joseph W. McClurg.. . . .1869-71 ' Lilburn N. Bog s . . . . ..1836-40 Benj. Gratz Brown.....1871-73 Thomas Reynol s . . . . ..1840-44 Silas Woodson . . . . . . . . ..1873-75 John C. Edwards . . . . ..1844-48 Charles H. Hardin.....1875-77 Austin A. King . . . . . . ..1848-53 John S. Phelps. . . . . . . ..1877-81 Sterling Price . . . . . . . . ..1853-57 Thomas T.Crittenden.. .1881-85 Trusten Polk . . . . . . . . . . . ..1857 John S.Marmaduke. . .. .885-187 Hancock Johnson . . . . . . ..1857 Albert T. Morehouse.. . .1887-89 B. M. Stewart . . . . . . . . ..1857-61 David R. Francis . . . . . ..1889-93 Governor Francis’ term expires J an. 10, 1893. The governor’s salary is $5,000. ABBREVIATED HISTORIC RECORD OF MIssouRI.— Territory first explored by De Soto, in 1541-42; visi- ted by Marquette and followers in 1673. -It formed part of “Louisiana Purchase,” a portion of which was organized as the District of Louisiana in 1805. The territory took the name of Missouri in 1812. In 1821 _ Missouri was admitted into the Union the “Missouri Compromise,” by which compact it was provided that slavery should be forever excluded “from all that part of Louisiana north of 36° 30' latitude, ex- cept Missouri.” Progress of population of Missouri by decades: 1810, 20,845; 1820, 66,557; 1830, 140,455; 1840, 333,- 702; 1850, 682,044; 1860,1,182,012; 1880, 2,168,380; 1890, 2,679,184. 1870, 1,721,295; 1093 For numerous additional items relating to Mis- souri,- see the article UNITED STATEs in these Re- visions and Additions. MISSOURI VALLEY, a post-village and a rail- roadjunction of Harrison county, Iowa, situated tlgwenty-one miles north of Council Bluffs, onVVillow Iver. MISTASSINI, LAKE, in Labrador, some 300 miles north of Quebec, is strictly speaking an ex- pansion of the River Rupert, which flows into the southern extremity of Hudson Bay. It is 100 miles long from northeast to southwest by twelve in average breadth. ' MISTRAL, FREDERICK, a Provencal poet, born a peasant’s son near hfaillaune, Sept. 8, 1830, and studied law at Avignon; but for law he had no lik- ing, and went home to work on the land and to write poetry. In 1859 he published the epic Mireio, written in his native Provencal dialect. This charming representation of life in southern France made Mistral’s name famous throughout the coun- try, and gained for him the poet’s prize of the French Academy and the cross of the Legion of Honor. It also led to the formation of the society called Lou Felibrige, which set itself to create a modern Provencal literature. In 1867 Mistral published a second epic, Calenolou, and in 1876 a volume of poems entitled Lis Iselo d’Or, songs steeped in the golden sunshine of the Mediterran- ean and its vine-clad shores. Since then he has written a novel, Nerto, and issued a dictionary of the Provencal dialect, the preparation of which oc- cupied him many years. MISTRETTA, a town of Sicily, near the north coast, half-way between Palermo and Messina. Population, 12,235. MITCHEL, JOHN (1815-1875), an Irish patriot. He practiced law for several years in Banbridge, and then for a time was editor of the Dublin “Nation.” In 1847 he founded the “United Irish- man,” and the following year was arrested for treason. He was sentenced to fourteen years of banishment, and sent to Tasmania, but escaped to New York in 1853. There he started the “Citizen,” and advocated slavery, and later established the “Irish Citizen.” Subsequently he returned to Ire- land, and was elected to Parliament in 1874, but was declared ineligible. The following year he was again returned, but died before any action was taken in his case. He published Life of Hugh O’Nei-ll, Prince of Ulster ( 1845); The Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps) (1861) ; Ifistory of Ireland from the Treaty of Limerick (1868), and Life and Times of Aodh O’Nez'lI, Prince of Ulster (1868). MITCHELL, a manufacturing town of Perth Co., Ontario, thirty-two miles southeast of Goderich. MITCHELL, a railroad junction and county-seat of Davison county, S. Dak. It is the seat of a Methodist University. MITCHELL, a post-village and a railroad junc- tion of Lawrence county, Ind., situated 62 miles ‘ northwest of New Albany. MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT, an American au- thor, born in 1822. From 1841 to 1844 he worked on afarm for the benefit of his health, and then spent two years in Europe for the same purpose. From that time his life has been given almost en- tirely to literature. He has published Fresh Glean- ings, or a New Shea F from the Old Field of C-ontinen- ta-lEurope (1847); The Battle Summer (1850); The Rene-ries of a Bachelor (1851) ; Dream Life (1852) ; llfy Farm at Edgewooo.’ (1863); Wet Days at Edgewood (1864) ; Doctor John (1866) ; Rural Studies, with Notes for Country Places (1867) ; and About Old Story- tellers (1875). written under the pen-name of “Ike Marvel.” Many of his books have been 1094 MITCHELL, Jenn KEARSLEY (1798-1858), an American physician. From 1819 to 1822 he was a ship-surgeon, and then settled in Philadelphia. In 1824 he became lecturer on the institutes of medi- cine and physiology at the Philadelphia Medical Institute, and in 1826 was made professor of chem- istry. From 1833 to 1841 he held a similar position in Franklin Institute, and then was chosen profes- sor of the theory and practice of medicine 1n Jef- ferson Medical College, in which capacity he served until his death. He was the author of Saint Hele- na, a poem, (1821) ; Indecision, a Tale of the Far West, and other Poems (1839) ; On the Wisdom, Good- ness, and Power of God as Illustrated in the Properties of Water (1834); On the Cryptogamous Origin of Ma- larious and Epidemic Feoers (1849); and Five Essays on Various Chemical and Medical Subjects (1858). MITCHELL, MARIA (1818-1889), an American as- tronomer. She studied under her father who was an astronomer, and in 1847 she discovered a comet, for which she received a gold medal from the King of Denmark. In 1865 she became professor of as- tronomy at Vassar College, which position she held till her death. Miss Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the American academy of arts and sciences. _ _ MITCHELL, SILAs WEIR, an American physiolo- gist, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 15, 1829. He is celebrated for his researches on nerve-physiology ‘ and the poison of serpents, and for his valuable Smithsonian Contribution. MITCHILL, SAMUEL LATHAM, an American nat- uralist and physician, born at North Hempstead, N. Y., Aug. 20, 1764, died in 1881. He was an active promoter of the study of natural science, and the author of several scientific works. He held many important educational and legislative ofiices. A MITFORD, WILLIAM, an English historian, born in London Feb. 10, 1744, died at Exbury, Feb. 8, 1827. He entered Queen’s College, Oxford, but left without a degree. In 1761 he succeeded to the family estate of Exbury near the New Forest, and in 1769 became a captain in the South Hampshire militia, of which Gibbon was then major. By Gib- bon’s advice and encouragement he was induced to undertake his History of Greece. The author is an intense hater of democracy, and can see in Philip of Macedon nothing but a great statesman, in De- mosthenes nothing but a noisy demagogue. Yet his zeal urged him, for the very purpose of substan- tiating his views, to search more minutely and critically than his predecessors into certain por- tions of Greek history, and the result was that Mitford’s work held the highest place in the opinion of scholars until the appearance of Thirl- w8al8l and Grote. He sat in parliament from 1783 to 1 1 . MITTWEIDA, a town of Saxony, 11 miles from Chemnitz. It has an engineers’ and a weavers’ school, and manufactures linen, woolen and cotton oods. Population, 9,461. _ MIVART, Sr. Gnonen, a distinguished naturalist, born in England in 1827. He was educated for the bar, but devoted himself to biological sciences. In 1862-84 he acted as professor of zoology and biology at the Roman Catholic University College in Ken- sington, and in 1890 was appointed to the chair of philosophy 'of natural history at Lovain. He is known as an able and zealous opponent of the “Natural Selection” theory; Among his works are The,Genesis of Species; Man and Apes; Contemporary Evolution; Lessons from Nature; The Cat; Nature and Thought, and The Origin of Ifuman Reason. MIZEN, the sternmost of the masts in a three- masted vessel. MITCHELL-—M.OHAVE INDIANS MNEMOSYNE, in Greek mythology, the daugh- ter of Uranus, and mother of the nine muses by Zeus. The principal seat of her worship was at Eleutherae, in Boeotia. MOBERLY, GEORGE, an English author and edu- ' cator, born about 1803, died July 6,1885. He was long head-master of Winchester School, and in 1869 became bishop of Salisbury. His writings were mostly theological. MOBERLY, a city and railroad center of Ran- dolph county, Mo., 148 miles west of St. Louis. It contains the shops of the Wabash Western Rail- road Company, flour and planing mills, and repair shops for all kinds of machinery. Population in 1890, 8,215. MOBILE, a city of Alabama. Population in 1890, 31,822. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 539-540. MOCCASIN, the shoe of the North Ainerican In- dian, made all of soft hide, and often ornamented. The Moccasin Snake (Toxicophis pisoioorus) of North America is a brown-colored poisonous swamp snake; the skin is marked with black bars. MOCK ORANGE, the name applied in England to the S ringa, and in the United States to the Prunus aroliniana, a small evergreen resembling the cherry-laurel. MODE STO, a post-village, the county-seat of Stanislaus county, Cal., 29 miles southeast of Stockton. - MODJESKA, HELENA, a Polish actress, born in Cracow, Oct. 12, 1844. She began to act in a travel- ing company in 1861 and four years later she made a great name at Cracow, and from 1868 to 1876 was the first actress at Warsaw. Then she settled with hersecond husband near Los Angeles, Cal., to try farming; but the enterprise not succeeding, she returned to the stage, and won a complete tri- umph as Adrienne Lecouvreur at San Francisco in 1877, although she acted in.English, of which lan- guage she had known nothing seven months be- fore. Since that time she has been acknowledged one of the best of modern emotional actresses, achieving her greatest triumph, both in the United States and in Great Britain, in such roles as Juliet, Rosalind, Beatrice, and in the Dame aux Camélias and Sardou’s Odette. MODOCS. See NORTH AMERICAN Innmns, in these Revisions and Additions. MODULATION, IN MUSIC. When in the course of a melody the keynote is changed, and the orig- inal scale altered by the introduction of a new sharp or fiat, such change is called modulation. The art of good modulation from one key -to another con- sists in the proper choice of intermediate chords. Sudden transitions, without intermediate chords, should be employed but sparingly. MOFUSSIL (from an Arabic word meaning “sep- arate”) a term commonly used by Anglo-Indians , for the rural part of a district as opposed to the administrative headquarters. Thus in Bengal the Mofussil means practically the whole province be- yond the city Calcutta. MOGUER, a town and small port of Spain, on. the Rio Tinto, near its mouth, and eight miles east of Huelva, with some trade. Population, 8,322. MOHAIR. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 544. MOHARRAM, the first month of the Mohamme- dan year, kept by the Shiite Mohammedans as a month of feastin and mourning, in 'c'6mmemora- tion of the su erings of Hassan and Hussein, nephews of the Prophet. A celebrated passion-play is performed during this month in honor of the two saints at several towns in Persia and India. ’ MOHAVE INDIANS. See NORTH AMERICAN IN- DIANS in these Revisions and Additions. MOHAVE DESnML-MOMMSEN MOHAVE DESERT, a basin, with little water or vegetation, chiefly in the southeast of California, and extending into Arizona. The Mohave River rises in the San Bernardino range, and finally dis- appears in the Mohave Sink. MOHAWKS. See Nonrn AMERICAN INDIANS in these Revisions and Additions. MOHEGANS. See NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS in these Revisions and Additions. MOHL, I-Iueo voN, a German botanist, born at Stuttgart in 1805, died at Tubingen in 1872. He studied medicine at the University of Tiibingen, and in 1835 was made professor of botany there. He was in his time the highest authority on veg- etable anatomy and physiology. He published Beitrdge zar Anatomic and Physiologic der Gewdchse; Grandzitge zar Anatomic and Physiologic der vegeta- bilischen Zelle (1851); and Vermischte Sohriften. MOIRE (from the French verb moirer, “to water,” silk in a large pattern, as distinguished from tabiser, to water or waive it in a small pattern), silks fig- ured by the peculiar process called “watering.” They are wetted, and then folded with particular care, to ensure the threads of the fabric lying all in the same direction, and not crossing each other, ex- cept as in the usual way of the web and the warp. The folded pieces of silk are then submitted to an enormous pressure, generally in a hydraulic ma- chine. By this pressure the air is slowly expelled, and in escaping draws the moisture into curious yvaved lines, which leaves the permanent marking called watering. MOLESCHOTT, JAKOB, a Dutch physiologist, born at Bois-le-Duc, Aug. 9, 1822. He studied med- icine at Heidelberg, and taught there physiology, anatomy and anthropology from 1847 until 1854, when he resigned his chair, the senate of the uni- versity having “warned” him on account of the strong materialistic tendency of his writings. In 1853 he established a private laboratory and worked in it until.1856, when he was nominated professor of physiology at Ziirich; in 1861 he moved to the uni- versity of Turin, and in 1878 to that of Rome. He has written Untersnchangen zur Natarlehre des Men- schen and der Tiere; Licht and Leben; Kleine Schrif- ten. and other works. MOLESWORTH, MES. MARY LoUIsA STEWART, novelist and popular writer for the young. She was born of Scotch parentage at Rotterdam, and her childhood was passed in Manchester and Scotland, and partly in Switzerland. She began to write when ' very young, and her first attempts were published when she was only sixteen. Her first complete works were written under the nom de plume of Ennis Graham, when she was about twenty-four. When she was about thirty she began to write for chil- dren and was at once successful, and has since held foremost rank in this department. She has also contributed largely to the better class of juvenile magazines. MOLESIVORTH , IVILLIAII NASSAU, an English divine and historian, born at Southampton in 1816, and died in 1890. He is best known by his valuable History of England From the Year 1830. His brother GUILEORD, born at Millbrook in 1828, is an eminent civil engineer, and author of the popular Pocket- book of Engineering Formulae. MOLINE, a city of Illinois. Population in 1890, 11,995. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 631. MOLTKE, HELMUTH, CoUN'r VoN, field-marshal of the German empire, born at Parchim, in Meck- lenburg-Schwerin, Oct. 26, 1800, died April 24, 1891. As chief of the general staff at Berlin he planned the Prussian campaign of 1866 against Austria, and the German campaign of 1870-71 against France. In 1812 he was sent to the military academy at l 1095 Copenhagen, where he remained under the strict- est discipline for six years, and distinguished him- self in the scientific branches of military study. In 1819 he became lieutenant in a Danish regiment, but on the separation of Denmark from Norway he determined to retire from the Danish and enter the Prussian service. This change being effected, he entered a Prussian regiment at Frankfort. His parents having lost the whole of their property from war and misfortune, he had to undergo many hardships in order to maintain himself on the slender pay of a Prussian officer, and at the same time obtain instruction in foreign languages. In 1832 he was appointed to the staff, and for three years he continued to develop by scientific and ex- act study his extraordinary powers of combination and organization. He obtained leave to travel, and, arriving in Turkey at a critical moment, he was entrusted by the sultan with the task of re- modelling the Turkish army, and remained with Mahmoud II. as military adviser till October, 1839, when he returned to his old position at Berlin. From 1858 to 1888 he was chief of the general staff in Berlin, and he at once commenced the re-organi- zation of the Prussian army. He elaborated plans for the defense of the German coasts, and the crea- tion of a German navy. His wonderful strategetical power was displayed in the wars with Denmark in 1863-4, with Austria in 1866, and with France in 1870—71, bringing them all to triumphant issues. He married in 1845, Mary Burt, the daughter of an English gentleman residing in Holstein, but had no family, and his wife died in 1868. He mas a man of great modesty and simplicity, and so reserved as to have gained the popular epithet of The Silent. His ninetieth birthday was the occasion of numer- ous honors at the hands of the emperor and the Ger- man people. He was the author of several import- ant works, of which the first, Letters from Turkey and the Campaign in Turkey, were published in 1835, and the Italian Campaign of1859 in 1863. The His- tory 0 the German and French War of 1870-71, pub- lishe by the general staff in Berlin, was written entirely under his direction, and the greater part of it is alfiually from his pen. His Letters from Rassia,written in 1856 to his wife, were published in 1877. MOMIEN, a Chinese frontier town in the extreme west of Yunnan, 135 miles northeast of Bhamo. MOMMSEN, CHRISTIAN MATTHIAs THEoDoR, the most learned historian of Rome, born at Garding, in Sleswick, Nov. 30,1817. He studied at Kiel. next spent three years traversing France and Italy in the study of Roman inscriptions under commission of the Berlin Academy, and in the autumn of 1848 was appointed to a chair of jurisprudence at Leip- zig, of which two years later he was deprived for the part he took in politics. In 1852 he was ap- pointed to the chair of Roman law at Ziirich, in 1854 at Breslau, and in 1858 to that of ancient his- tory at Berlin. Here he was engaged for many years in editing the monumental Corpus Inscrip- tionum Latinarum, and in 1873 he was elected per- petual secretary of the academy. In 1882 he was tried for slandering Bismark in an election speech, but was cleared both in the lower court and in that of appeal. His fine library was burned in 1880, whereupon a number of English students presented him with a collection of books to make good part of his loss. Freeman characterizes Mommsen as “the greatest scholar of our times, well-nigh the greatest scholar of all times . . . language, law, mythology, customs, antiquities, coins, inscriptions, every source of knowledge of every kind—-he is master of them all.” Of his brothers, two have achieved distinction: Tycho, born at Garding, .The latest accredited reports 1096 May 23, 1819, studied at Kiel, traver-sed Italy and Greece, and held educational appointments at Eisenach, Oldenburg, and Frankfort—on-Main until his retirement in 1885. August, born at Oldesloe, July 25, 1821, studied at Kiel. and taught in schools at Hamburg, Parchim, and Sleswick. Most of his works belong to the field of Greek and Roman chronology. MOMPOX, or Monros, a town of Bolivar in Co- lombia, on the Magdalena, 110 miles southeast of Cartagena. Founded in 1538; it containsagood secondary school and a distillery. Population, 8,000. ‘ MONACO. For general article on this small principality see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 717-718. place the area at eight square miles; population (in 1890), 12,000, of whom 3,292 were in the town of Monaco, 6,218 in Coudamine, and 3,794 in Monte Carlo. The capital is under French protection. Prince Albert (born in 1848. succeeded his father, Prince Charles III. Sept. 10, 1889), the present sovereign, has one son, Louis, by a marriage, dissolved in 1880, with Lady Mary Hamilton.* About 1,000 of the inhabitants are employed in the rooms and gardens of the cele- brated Casino. These gambling-rooms, built at HONACO. Monte Carlo on ground leased from the Prince of Monaco, belong to a joint stock company, and have about 400,000 visitors. The climate of Monaco is milder than that of any other place in the Riviera; palms and aloes grow most luxuriantly, and rare wild-flowers are found on its rocky promontory. See Métivier, Monaco et ses Prirces (2d ed. 1865), and Boyer de Sainte- Suzanne, La Principauté de Monaco (1884). MONA PASSAGE, a water-way for vessels be- tween San Domingo and Porto Rico. On the west end of Porto Rico is Mayaguez Harbor opening di- rectly out upon the Mona Passage. The water at the landing is not deep enough for vessels of large draft, and for them the anchorage is about a half ' mile from shore. MCNA ISLAND is a small, desolate, but beautiful island lyin about the middle of the Mona Passage. MONCA IERI, a town of Italy, on the Po, five miles south of Turin, with a royal palace (1470). Population, 3,463. *The marriage was declared dissolved by the Pope of Rome, Jan. 2-), 1880, and by the reigning prince, July 28,1880. - and wagon factories. MOMPOX—MONSIGNOR MONCKTON, RCRERT, a British general, gov- ernor of New York in 1762, and lieutenant-general in 1770. He died in 1782. MONCONTOUR, a village in the French depart- ment of Vienne, 48 miles from Tours. It was the scene of the defeat of the Huguenots under Coligny by the troops of the King of France, Oct. 3, 1569. MONEY. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 720- 738. MONITOR. See NAvY, in these Revisions and Additions. MONK, MARIA (1817-50), a woman of bad charac- ter who pretended in 1835 to have escaped from the Hotel Dieu nunnery at Montreal, and who, coming to New York, found a good many credulous adher- ents, and published Awful Disclosures and Further Disclosures, which had an enormous sale. MONMOUTH, a city, the county-seat of Warren county, Ill., 179 miles by rail west-southwest of Chicago. It is the seat of Monmouth College (United Presbyterian, 1856), with about 400 stu- dents, and manufactures agricultural implements, sewer pipes and cigars. Population in 1890, 5,837. MON(ECIOUS, a term introduced by Linnaeus to those plants which have the stamens and pistil in different flowers, but on the same plant. Such plants formed one of the classes of the Linnean system, but were obviously a specially artificial alliance, since that partial or complete separation of the sexes to which we apply the terms monoc- cious or dioscious respectively arises continually among the most unrelated plants or animals. MONOGRAM, a character composed of two or more letters of the alphabet, often interlaced with other lines, and used as a cipher or abbreviation of a name. A perfect monogram is one in which all the letters of the word are to be traced. MONOGRAPH, a work in which a particular sub- ject in any science is treated by itself, and forms the whole subject of the work—“-an all-sided and exhaustive study of a special or limited subject,” as it has been called. Monographs have con- tributed much to our knowledge, especially in the department of the natural sciences. The term, however, is often loosely used for a small book on miscellaneous topics. MONONGAHELA, a river which rises in West ' . Virginia and flows north to Pittsburgh, where it unites with the Allegheny to form the Ohio. MONONGAHELA CITY, :1 post-borough of Wash- ington county, Pa., 21 miles south of Pittsburgh. It contains a strawboard paper-mill, planing-Inills, manilla paper-mill, and gas works. There are -coal- mines in the vicinity. Population 4,086. MONROE, a city, the capital of Ouachita parish, in the northern part of Louisiana on Ouachita River. Population,3,251. MONROE, a post-village, the county-seat of Union county, N. C., in the southern part of the State, near a branch of the Yadkin River. It man- ufactures carriages. MONROE, a ost-village. the county-seat of Green county, WIis., on a branch of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad. It has a foundry Population 3,865. MONROE DOCTRINE. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 192; Vol. XVI, p. 761 ; Vol. XXIII, p. 762. MONROEVILLE, a post-village and a railroad center of Huron county, Ohio, sixty miles west of Cleveland. It has grain warehouses, and manu- factures flour, beer and woolen goods. MONSIGNOR, a title of honor given to prelates of the Roman Catholic Church. Formerly in France , the corresponding title of Monsetqneur was allowed to all high dignitaries of the church, to the prin- ces of the blood royal, to the higher nobles, and MONSTRANCE—hMHH?CENIS to the presidents of the superior law-courts. But from the time of Louis XIV. Monseigneur without further addition was appropriated as the title of the Dauphin. MONSTRANCE, the sa- cred utensil employed in the Catholic_ Church for the purpose of presenting the consecrated host for the adoration of the people. as well while it is carried in procession as when it is exposed upon the altar on occasions of special solem- ‘ nity and prayer. It con- sists oi two parts, the foot or stand upon which it rests, and the repository or case in which the host is exhib- ited. The latter contains a small serni-circular holder called the Zunula, or cres- cent, in which the host is fixed. It is commonly in the form of a star or sun with rays, the central por- tion oi which is of glass or crystal, and serves to per- mit the host to be seen. Monstrance. MONTAGUE, a village of Muskegon county, Mich., situated on White Lake, five miles east of Lake Michigan. It is a commercial town and is especially noted as a shipping point for peaches. MON TCLAIR, a post-village and a railroad cen- ter of Essex county, N. J ., situated fourteen miles northwest of New York. MONTALCINO, a cathedral city of central Italy. It stands on a hill (1900 feet), twenty-two miles southeast of Siena. Population, 2,353. MONTALEMBERT, ll/IARC RENE, MARQUIS DE, a French ‘military engineer, grand-father of the ora- tor and statesman, born at Angouléme in 1714, died in 1800. He was the author of La Fortificaflon Per- pendiculaire, and the originator of the modern application of the casemate to forts and bat- teries. MONTANA, STATE OF. For general article on Moxrana, see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 772-774. The United States census of 1890 reported the area and population of Montana as follows: Area, 146,- 080 square miles. Population, 132,159, a gain dur- ing the decade of 93,000. Capital, Helena, with a population of 13,834. Population of Butte City, 10,701-. The full list of governors of Montana with the dates of their official service, is as follows: Sidney Egerton . . . . .. 1864-65 J. Schuyler . . . . . . . . . . .. 1882-84 Francis Meagher..... 1865-66 B. Platt Carpenter.... 1884-85 Green Clay Smith. 1866-69 Samuel T. Houser..... 1885-86 James M. Ashley . . . . .. 1869-70 Preston H. Leslie..... 1886-89 Benjamin F. Potts... 1870-82 Joseph K. Toole . . . . . .. 1889-93 Governor Toole’s term expires J an. 3, 1893. Sal- ary of governor $2,600. ABBREVIATED HISTORIC OUTLINE or MONTANA.-The part of Montana lying east of the Rocky Mountains was included in the “Louisiana Purchase ;” that part lying to the west was formerly included in Oregon and Washington, The Territory of Montana was first visited by the French in 1742-43, also by Lewis and Clarke in 1804-06. Gold was discovered in 1861; and mining began in earnest in 1862. The Territory was organized in 1864, and was admitted into the Union as a State Nov. 8, 1889. Progress of population of Montana by decades: 2.870. 20.595: 1880. 39.159: 1890, 132.159. 1097 For numerous additional items relating to Mon- tana, see the article UNITED STATES, in these Re- visions and Additions. In the absence of the reports of the official cen- sus of the chief towns of the State, (not yet published) the following estimates made for 1889, by E. L. Lomax, have been kindly furnished by the passenger department of the Union Pacific Rail- road: Towns. Pop. Towns. POP- Anaconda . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 Wickes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 Great Falls . . . . . . . .. 4,250 Townsend . . . . 1,000 Ph illipsburg in- Castle . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $00 cluding Granite Bonner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 and Rumsey 4,000 Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . .. 750 Bozeman . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,750 Choteau . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 Missoula . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,500 Emp1re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 Livingston.. . . . . . . .. 3.000 Grantsdale . . . . . . . . . 709 Dillon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.500 Frenchtown . . . . . . . . 650 Deer Lodge . . . . . . 2,250 Forsyth . . . . . . . . . . . .. 600 Billings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000 Salesv11le_. . . I . . . . . .. 600 Miles City . . . . . . . . .. 1,600 Fort Mag1nn1s . . . . .. 500 Boulder . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500 Jay Gould . . . . . . . . . . 500 Marysville . . . . . . . . . . 1,-100 Ashley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 White Sulphur Toston . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 Springs . . . . . . . . . . . 1,350 Augusta . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 Fort Benton . . . . . . . 1,300 Park City . . . . . . . . . .. 500 Stevensville . . . . . . . . 1,250 Big Timbers . . . . . . .. 500 Lewistown . . . . . . . . . . 1.200 Cottonwood . . . . . . . . 500 Corvallis . . . . . . . . . . . 1,150 Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Elkhorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,100 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Glendive . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,050 ‘Twin Bridges . . . . . .. 500 Maiden . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 Florence. . . .. . . . . . .. 500 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 New Chicago . . . . . . . 500 Victor . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 Cascade . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Sheridan . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 Chestnut . . . . . . . . . . .. - 500 Glendale . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 Sun River . . . . . . . . . .. 500 Thompson Falls. . . . 1,000 The land areas, and populations of the counties, severally, of the State of Montana in 1890 were as follows: Counties. Areas $805.‘ Beaver Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,200 4,655 2,712 Cascade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 8,755 . . . . . . . . . . Choteau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,280 4,741 3,058 Custer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,580 5,308 2,510 Dawson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,680 2,056 180 Deer Lodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,085 15,155 8,876 Fer us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6.762 3,511 . . . . . . . . .. Gal atin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,295 6,246 3,643 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,850 6.026 2,464 Lewis and Clarke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26,00 19.145 6,521 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,250 4,692 3,015 Meagher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,500 4,749 2,743 Missoula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,850 14,427 2,537 Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,558 6,881 . . . . . . . . .. Silver Bow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 915 23,744 . . . . . . . . .. Yellowstone . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,105 2,065 . . . . . . . . . . MONTBRISON, a French town in the depart- ment of Loire, 35 miles southwest of Lyons, with mineral wells and some ribbon manufacture. Pop- ulation, 6,235. ' MONTCALM, Lours DE, MARQUIS, a French gen- eral, born at Nismes in 1712. killed at Quebec in 1759. See Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 167; Vol. XXIII, p. 735; Vol. XXIV, p. 630. MONT CENIS, or MoNTE Cnmsro, an Alpine peak and pass between Savoy and Piedmont. Height of the mountain, 11,792 feet; of the pass, 6,884 feet. Over the pass a road was constructed (1802-10) by Fabbroni, under Napoleon’s orders, at an expense of $1,500,000. Thirteen miles west of the pass a railway tunnel, seven and a half miles long, was begun in 1857 on the Italian side, and in 1863 on the French side, and was finished in 1870 at 1098 a cost of $15,000,000. Through this tunnel passes one of the main continental overland routes from London via Paris to Brindisi, for Asia, Australia and East Africa. MONT-DE-MARSAN, the capital of the French department of Landes, at the confluence of the Midou and Douze, 92 miles by rail south of Bor- deaux. It has a mineral spring and manufactories of chemicals, iron, etc. Population, 10,714. MONTE CATINI, a watering-place of Italy, 30 miles northwest of Florence. Its mineral springs are eflicacious for abdominal complaints, scrofula and dysentery. The season lasts from May to Sep- tember. Near here the Florentines were defeated by the Pisans in 1315. MONTEFIORE, SIR MosEs (1784-1885), an Eng- lish Jewish philanthropist, descendant of a family of bankers, born in Leghorn, Oct. 24, 1784, where his parents happened to be sojourning. His grand- parents had emigrated from Leghorn to London in 1750. In 1812 he married Judith Cohen, a lady who went hand in hand with him in all his schemes of philanthropy. As a stock-broker he achieved great success. In 1818 he was elected president of the Spanish and Portuguese community. From 1829 onwards he took part in the struggle for removing the civil disabilities of English Jews. In 1835 he was one of the parties to the contract for the $75,000,000 given as compensation to the slave-owners. He was for a time high-sheriff of Kent. and, after long exclusion and repeated re- election, was legally admitted as sheriff of London in 1837. In that year he was knighted, and in 1846 was raised to a baronetcy. He distinguished him- self by his sympathy with his countrymen in various parts of the East. He made seven journeys to the East, chiefly for the amelioration of the con- dition of his countrymen. At Bucharest, during an anti-Jewish ferment, he boldly faced the mob at the risk of his life. He was presented with the freedom of the City of London in 1873, and an ad- dress in 1883. In memory of his wife he endowed a Jewish college at Ramsgate in 1865. In his hun- dredth year he was still hale and well, but died July 29, 1885. MONTEGUT, EMILE, a French critic, born at Limoges, June 24, 1826, and early made a reputa- tion by a series of brilliant studies on English lit- erature. He contributed to various journals, and has published books of travel, a study of Marshal Davout, and translations of Shakespeare, Macau- lay and Emerson. Books of altogether exceptional value in their critical insight are Poétes et Artistes do l’Italie; Tyyes Littéraires, et Fantaisies Esthétiques; Essais sur la Littérature Anglaise; Nos Morts contem- porains; Les Ecrivains modernes de l’Angleterre; Livres et Ames des Pays d’ Orient; Mélanges critiques, and Dramaturges et Romanciers. MONTENEGRO. For general article on MoN- TENEGRO, see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 779-81. The latest authorized figures report the area at 3,630 square miles. The total population was stated in official returns to number 220,000 in 1879; a later estimate makes it 236,000. The capital is Cettinjé, with 1,500 population; Podgoritza, 6,000; Dulcigno, 5,000; Nisksic, 3,000; Danilograd, 1,000. The popula- tion is mainly pastoral and agricultural. The Mon- tenegrins belong almost entirely to the Servian branch of the Slav race. The constitution of the country, dating from 1852, with changes effected in 1855 and 1879, is nom- inally that of a limited monarchy, resting on a patriarchal foundation. The executive authority rests with the reigning prince, while the legisla- tive power is vested according to an “Administra- tive Statute” proclaimed March 21, 1879, in a state MONT-DE-MARSAN—MONTE ROSA council of eight members, one-half of them being nominated by the prince, and the other elected by the male inhabitants who are bearing, or have borne, arms. Practically, all depends on the abso- lute will of the prince. The inhabitants are divided into 40 tribes, each governed by elected “elders,” and a chief or captain of district called Knjez, who acts as magistrate in peace and as commander in war. By the “Administrative Statute” of 1879, the country was divided into 80 districts and six military commands. REIGNING PRINcE AND ROYAL FAMILY.--Nicholas I., Petrovic Njegos, was born October 7 (September 25),1841. He was educated at Trieste and Paris, proclaimed Prince of Montenegro, as successor of his uncle, Danilo I., August 14, 1860. He was mar- ried, November 8, 1860, to Milena Pétrovna Vuco- ticova, born May 3, 1847, daughter of Peter Vukotic, senator, and vice-president of the council of state. Offspring of the union are six daughters and three sons, Danilo Alexander, heir-apparent, born June 29, 1871 ; Mirko, born April 17, 1879 ; Peter, born in 1889. Prince Nicholas’s nominal yearly income is fixed for the present at 9,000 ducats, or 4,100l. A yearly sum of 48,000 roubles, or 4,800l., has been received by Montenegro from Russia since the Crimean war, as a reward for its friendly attitude during that period. The Austrian overnment is stated to con- tribute about 30,000 orins per annum towards the construction of carriage roads in Monte- negro. FINANcEs AND DEEENsE.—-No ofiicial returns are published regarding the public revenue and ex- penditure. Reliable estimates state the former at 600,000 Austrian florins, or 60,000l. A loan of 1,000,- 000 florins was raised in Vienna in 1881 at an inter- est of 6% per cent. on the salt monopoly of the principality, and 70,000l. is owed to Russia for grain supplied in 1879. The number of men capable of bearing arms, be- tween the ages of 17 and 60, is calculated at about 29,000. There exists no standing army, but all the inhabitants, not physically unfitted, are trained as soldiers, and lia le to be called under arms. Re- cently the Moslem inhabitants of Dulcigno have been exempted from military service on payment of a capitation tax. The infantry are armed with the Russian Werndl rifle, of which 25,000 have been distributed, and the long 11-millimetre Gasser revolver. The artillery consists of 24 9-centimetre Krupp field pieces, and 24 mountain guns. By the Berlin treaty Montene- gro is precluded from owning vessels of war. Schools for elementary education are supported by government; education is compulsory and free; there were in 1889, 70 elementary schools, with 3,000 male and 300 female pupils. All males under the age of 25 years are supposed to be able to read and write. There is a theological seminary and a gymnasium or college for boys at Cettinjé, and a girls’ high-school maintained at the charge of the Empress of Russia. MONTENOTTE, a small village of northern Italy, twenty-six miles west of Genoa, where Napoleon {$08161 his first victory over the Austrians, April 12, MONTEPULCIANO, a town of Italy, abishop’s see, situated on a high hill, forty-three miles from Siena. It was the birth place of Politian and Belarmine, and is famous for its red wine. Popula- tion, 2,952. MONTE ROSA, an Alpine mountain mass with four principal peaks, in the Pennine ridge which separates the Swiss canton of Valais from Italy. The highest peak, the Dufourspitze, 15,217 feet MONTESANO—JHOORE high, is extremely difficult of ascent, and was first climbed by Mr. Smyth in 1855. MON TESANO, a post-village, the county-seat of Chehalis county, Washington, sixty miles south- west of Olympia, on the south bank of the Chehalis 1ver. MONTEVIDEO, a post-village, the county-seat of Chippewa county, Minn., situated at the mouth of the Chippewa, where it enters the Minnesota River. MONTEZ, Lora, adventuress, was born about 1820 at Limerick, died at Astoria, L. I., Jan. 17, 1861. She was christened Marie Dolores Eliza Ros- anna, her father being an English Gilbert, and her mother of Spanish descent. Taken out to India, she there lost her father by cholera; and, her mother having re-married, Lola was sent home in 1826 to Europe, and brought up at Montrose,in Paris, and at Bath. To escape the match,arranged by her mother, with a gouty old judge, she eloped with a Captain James, whom in July 1837, she married at Neath; but the marriage ended in a separation and in her return from India. She now turned dancer, and after visits to Dresden, Berlin, Warsaw, St. Peters- burg, and Paris, she came to Munich. There she soon won an ascendency over the eccentric artist- king, Louis I., who created her countess of Lands- feld, and allowed her $25,000 a year. For more than a twelvemonth she was all-powerful, her power di- rected in favor of Liberalism and against the Jes- uits ; but the revolution of 1848 sent her once more adrift on the world. Again she married, and, after touring through the States and Australia, and after two more “marriages” in California, in 1858 she de- livered in New York a series of lectures written for her by C. Chauncey Burr. She died, a penitent, her last four months being devoted to ministering in a Magdalen asylum near New York, and was buried in Greenwood cemetery. MONTGOMERY, FLORENCE SOPHIA, a popular writer of books for children, is the daughter of Sir Alexander Leslie Montgomery, Bart., of the Hall, County Donegal, Ireland. Her first book, A Very Simple Story, was warmly praised. Of its succes- sors the chief are the widely popular Misunder- stood; The Town Crier; Peggy, and Other Tales, and The Blue Veil. MONTGOMERY, RICHARD. See Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 790. MONTGOMERY, ROBERT (1807-1855), an English poet, born at Bath in 1807, the son of one Gomery, a famous clown. In 1830 he entered Lincoln Col- lege, Oxford; in 1833 took his B. A. with a fourth class; in 1835 was ordained, and was minister of Percy Street Chapel, London, until his death at Brighton, Dec. 3, 1855. Of his 31 works in verse and prose, two-——The Omnipresence of the Deity and Satan -—-are still remembered by Macaulay’s onslaught in the Edinburgh “Review.” MONTGOMERY, a city of Alabama. Popula- tion in 1890, 21,790. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 790. MONTGOMERY CITY, a post-village of Mont- gomery county, Mo., 82 miles west of St. Louis. Farming and dairying are the chief occupations. The place contains a college, mill and manu- factory. MONTI, Vmennzo (1753-1828), an Italian poet of the classical school, remarkable for his political tergiversation, anti-French, Napoleonist, pro-Aus- trian in turn. He was professor at Pavia, and, under Napoleon, state histiographer. His transla- tion of the Iliad is admirable. MONTICELLO, a city, the county-seat of Piatt county, Ill. It contains a steam-elevator and flour-mill. 1099 MON TI CELLO, a post-village, a railroad junction, and the county-seat of White county, Ind., 21 miles west of Logansport. It has manufactories of paper, furniture and woolen goods. MONTICELLO, a city and railroad junction of Jones county, in the eastern part of Iowa. MONTJOIE ST. DENIS, the French war-cry, old at least as Wace’s day (12th century),from the hill near Paris on which St. Denis underwent the joy of martyrdom. MONTMEDY, a town and fortress in the French department of Meuse, 25 miles north of Verdun and 31 miles southeast of Sedan. It consists of two portions, the citadel and upper town overlooking the lower town, which lies in the valley of the Chiers, a tributary of the Meuse. Built and forti- fied in 1285, it was taken by the French in 1542,. 1555, 1586 and 1657, and they, after it was definitely assigned to them by the peace of the Pyrenees; (1659), had it re-constructed and re-fortified by Vauban. and again in 1870. Population, 2,740. MONTROSE, a post borough, the county-seat of Susquehanna county, Pa., eight miles from Mont- rose Station. It is healthfully stituated among the- high hills, and is a pleasant summer resort. MONTROSS, a post-village, the county-seat of Westmoreland county,Va., situated 52 miles south- east of Fredericksburg. MONTYON PRIZES, rewards for single instances of disinterested goodness discovered throughout the year, awarded by the French Academy, ac- cordmg to the will of Jean-Baptiste-Robert Auger, Baron de Montyon, who bequeathed $600,000 to public hospitals, and the remainder of his fortune to g_1ve sums of money to poor patients on leaving Pans hospitals, and to found the prizes since con- nected with his name. The Academy of Sciences awards annually a prize of 10,000 francs to the in- dividual who has discovered the means of making any mechanical occupation more healthy, another of equal value for improvements in medicine and surgery; while the Forty themselves award the prize of_ virtue, and another to the writer of the work likely to have the greatest beneficial in- fiuence on mora1ity—both alike of 10,000 francs a ear. _ MOODY, DWIGHT LYMAN, an American evangel- 1st, born at Northfield, Mass., Jan. 5, 1837. He was for a while a salesman in Boston, and in 1856 went to Chicago, _where he engaged with remarkable success 1n missionary work. In 1870 he was joined by Ira Davld Sankey, who was born at Edinburgh, Pennsylvama, Aug. 28, 1840. In 1873 they visited Great Bntain as evangelists, attracting great crowds, and afterwards worked together there and In America. Mr. Moody is the founder of North-, field seminary, a flourishing Christian educational mstitution located in his native town. MOON, Mounr.-uns on THE, have played a mys- terious part in African geography since the days of Ptolemy, who indicated them as containing the sources of the Nile. Their exact position was not known; they were generally figured on medieeval maps as a high range crossing the entire continent from Abyssinia to the Gulf of Guinea. As modern enterpnse has opened up the interior of Africa d1fierent mountain-chains and peaks have been 1ndentified as Ptolemy’s Mountains of the Moon MOONWORT, an interesting fern, widely dis- tr_1buted over northern Europe, penetrating to within the Arctic regions and Asia, and with the few other species of which the family is composed ap1p{<>61(15iI1{1:,%'3 alfio in North America. ’ _ . ENJAMIN, an American ed divine, born at Newtown, N. Y., Oct. 16l,1(l%i(8)f ($23 It was captured by the Germans in 1815s 1100 in 1816. He was long connected as a minister with Trinity church, New York City; became bishop in 1801; and was president of Columbia College from 1800 to 1811. MOORHEAD, a city, the county-seat of Clay county, Minn., situated on Red River. It contains a State normal school. MOORE, FRANK, an American compiler and pub- lisher, born in New Hampshire in 1828. He has produced a number of valuable works relating to American history. MOORE, GEORGE H., an American author and librarian, born in New Hampshire in 1823. He has been librarian of the New York Historical Society and of the Lenox Library, and has written a num- ber of historical works. MOORE, J ACOB BAILEY, an American writer of 7local histories, born in New Hampshire in 1797, died in 1853. He became librarian of the New York Historical Society in 1845, and was postmaster of ‘San Francisco from 1848 until his death. MOOSE. See Britannica, Vol. VII, p. 24. MORAN, THOMAS, an American artist, born in England in 1837, but came to Philadelphia while a ~child. His magnificent paintings The Grand Caflon »0f the Yellowstone and The Chasm of the Colorado were bought by Congress for $20,000. His brother PETER has devoted himself to the painting of ani- mals, and his brother EDWARD to the production of marine subjects. MORANO, a city of southern Italy, built on a hill in a wild neighborhood, 37 miles northwest of Cosenza. Population, 8,259. MORATA, OLYMPIA FULVIA (1526-1555), an Italian authoress. MORAVIA, a village of Cayuga county, N. Y., 18 miles southeast of Auburn. Woolens, cheese, flour and spokes are manufactured here, and the busi- ness of the surrounding region is largely dairying and stock-raising. MORAVIAN CHURCH. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 811, 812. See also RELIGIOUS DENoMINA- TIoNs IN THE UNITED STATEs in these Revisions and Additions. MORELLA, a town of Spain, eight miles north of Valencia. It was the stronghold of Cabrera, the Carlist general, who scaled the castle Tan. 25, 1839. It was re-taken in July, 1840, by Espartero. Popu- lation, 7,190. MORELOS, JosE MARIA (0. 1765-1815), a Mexi- can revolutionist, born about 1765. His birthplace, Valladolid, was re-named Morelia in his honor. He was the ablest of the leaders in the revolt of the Mexicans against the Spaniards. He was taken prisoner Nov. 15, 1815, borne in triumph to the city of Mexico and there shot. MORENCI, a post-villa e of Lenawee county, Mich. It contains a woo en factory and a flour mill. MORESNET, a small neutral territory, of about seventy acres, between Bel ium and Prussia, five miles south-west of Aix-la-C apelle. There is on it a village of 3,000 inhabitants. MORETON-BAY CHESTNUT, a genus of plants /so named because of the supposed resemblance in form and qualities of the seeds to the sweet chest- nut of Europe. It is a native of Australia. The tree grows to the height of from seventy to one hundred feet, with spreading branches clothed with pinnate leaves about a foot long. The flowers, ‘bright yellow and red, are succeeded by cylindri- cal pendulous pods of a bright brown color, six to eight inches long. MORGAN, DANIEL, an American Revolutionary general, born in New Jersey in 1736, died in 1802. Congress voted him a gold medal for his victory at MOORHEAD--MORLEY the battle of Cowpens. He rendered good‘ service in the suppression of the “whisky insurrection.” He was a member of Congress from 1795 to 1799. MORGAN, EDWIN DENNIsoN, an American mer- chant and statesman, born in Massachusetts in 1811, died in 1883. He became State senator of New York in 1843, and governor in 1859. He ranked as a major-general throughout the war, and became United States Senator in 1863. He twice declined the Secretary ship of the Treasury. MORGAN. GEORGE WASHINGTON, an American soldier and statesman, born in Pennsylvania in 1820. He served with the Texan army of independ- ence, in the Mexican war, and in the civil war. He was the Democratic nominee for governor of Ohio in 1865, and was a member of Congress from 1871 to 1875. MORGAN, JOHN HENRY, a Confederate general in the civil war, born in Alabama in 1826, died Sept. 4, 1864. He became known as a very bold and suc- cessful raider, and his troops were known as “Mor- gan’s guerillas.” He was surprised b Union cav- alry at Greenville. Tenn, and killed w ile attempt- ing to escape. MORGAN, Lnwrs HENRY, an American archaeol- ogist, born at Aurora, New York, Nov. 21, 1818, died Dec. 17 , 1881. He graduated at Union College in 1840, and became a lawyer at Rochester. He served in the State assembly in 1861, and in the senate in 1868. Morgan’s earliest work, The League of the Iroquois was the first account of the organi- zation and government of an Indian tribe; but evenmore va uable are his Systems of Consangm'm'ty and Aflinity of the Hunian Family, and his treatise on Ancient Society. MORGAN CITY, a post-village and port of entry of St. Mary’s parish, Louisiana, on Atchafalaya River, eighty miles southwest of New Orleans. It has a good harbor and is connected by steamer- lines with ports in Texas, Cuba, and Mexico. Pop- ulation, 2,200. MORGUE, a building in Paris, just behind the cathedral of Notre Dame, where the dead bodies of persons unknown, found either in the river (Seine) orin the streets, are exposed to public view for three days. The corpse is put under a glass case, on sloping slabs of marble. When a corpse is iden- tified, it is handed over to the relatives or friends of the deceased, on payment of costs and dues; otherwise it is interred at the expense of the city. The number of bodies yearly exposed in the morgue is about 300, five-sixths of which are males. There are morgues in Berlin, and in Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Chicago and other Ameri- can towns. See Britannica, Vol. V, p. 331. MORIKE, EDUARD, a German poet, born in Wiirtembur , Sept. 8, 1804, died June 4, 1875. MORISO , JAMEs COTTER, an English author and positivist, born in 1831, died Feb. 25, 1888. He was educated at Highgate grammar-school and Lincoln College, Oxfor . His first work was his masterpiece, The Life His latest, The Service of Man, an Essay Towards the Religion of the Future, attracted much attention, but it was commenced when sickness had already seized him, and it does not adequately represent his views. He was one of the founders and first proprietors of the “Fortnightl Review.” His in- tellectual gifts were associate with a most genial and kindly nature; he was reputed one of the best talkers of his time in French as well as English, and had long projected a work on the history of France, but owing to ill health it was never begun. MORLEY, HENRY, an English author, born In London, Sept. 15, 1822, and educated at the Mora- vian school, N euwied-on-the-Rhine, and King’s C01- and Times of St. Bernard.. MORLEYFAMORRIS lege, London, where he edited the “King’s College Magazine.” After practicing medicine at Madeley, from 1844 till 1848, and keeping school for the next two years at Liscard, Liverpool, he settled down in London to literary work in connection with “House- hold Words” and the “Examiner.” Of the latter he was joint-editor from 1856 to 1859, and sole editor from that year till 1864. He was English lecturer at King’s College for eight years previous to 1865, when he became professor of English language and literature at University College, London. In 1870 he was appointed examiner in English language, literature, and history to the university of London. No other man has done so much to make classical literature accessible to the people as Henry Mor- ley through his admirable series, Morleg/’s Universal Library, embracing sixty-three volumes; CasseZZ’s National Library, 209 volumes, and the Carisbrooke Library, a series of volumes issued in alternate months. MORLEY, JOHN, an English writer and states- man, born at Blackburn, Dec. 24, 1838. He was edu- cated at Cheltenham and Lincoln College, Oxford, and, after taking his degree in 1859, was called to the bar, but chose literature as a profession. The kest known of his books are Edmund Burke; Critical Miscellanies; Voltaire; On Compromise; Rousseau; Diderot and the Encyclopaedists, and Richard Cobden. From 1867 till 1882 he edited the “Fortnightl Re- view,” and he has edited the “English Men 0 Let- ters” series. He is an honorary LL. D. of Glasgow. He unsuccessfully contested Blackburn in 1865, and Westminster in 1880. From 1880 to 1883, when he was elected for Newcastle- on-Tyne, Mr. Morley was editor of the “Pall Mall Gazette.” His articles in favor of Home Rule written then, and followed up by action in the house of commons and speeches in the country in 1885, did much to influ- ence public opinion before Mr. Gladstone’s change of policy was known. In 1886 he became Irish sec- retary till the dissolution which followed the rejec- tion of the Home Rule bill in that year. In 1890, during the difficulty as to the leadership of the Irish party, he directly supported Mr. Gladstone. MORLEY, SAMUEL, an English merchant and philanthropist, born at Homerton, Oct. 15, 1809, died Sept. 5, 1886. He was returned to parliament for Nottingham, in the Liberal interest, iii 1865; was unseated on petition; represented Bristol, 1868-85, and declined a peerage which was offered to him in the latter year. He was identified with many religious and philanthropic movements. He gave $30,000 towards the erection of a Noncon- formist memorial hall, and during 1864-70 con- tributed $70,000 towards the erection of Congrega- tional chapels. MORLEY, THOMAS (0. 1545-1604), an English composer. In 160] he published the work by which he is now known, The Triumphs of Oriana, being a collection of 24 madrigals in honor of Queen Eliza- beth, written by 24 Englishmen and set to music by Morley. MORMONS. On Jan. 12, 1887, the House of Rep- resentatives passed without division a bill for the suppression of polygamy in the Territory of Utah. Its chief provisions are: (1) Polygamy is declared to be a felony; (2) The chief financial corporations of the Mormons are dissolved, and the attorney- general is directed to wind them up by process of the courts; (3) Polygamists are made ineligible to vote; (4) All voters in Utah are to be required to take an oath to obey the laws of the United States. and especially the laws against polygamy; (5) Woman suffrage in Utah is abolished, and (6) Law- ful wives and husbands are made competent wit- nesses against persons accused of polygamy. It . I 1101 was reported in September, 1890, that polygamy had been declared to be no longer a feature of the Mormon teaching, and that it was the intention of the sect to submit to the ordinary laws binding on giggericans. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 825- MOROCCO. See under LEATHER, Britannica, Vol. XIV, pp. 388. 389. MOROCCO. Eor general article see Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 830-836. According to the most re- cent investigation the area of the Sultan’s do- minions is about 219,000 English square miles. The estimates of the population of Morocco vary from 2,500,000 to 9.-100,000; it is generally considered to be about 5,000,000 souls, although Dr. Rohlfs, in the “Geographische Mittheilungen” (1883), maintains that the population is not more than 2,750,000. An estimate of 1889 gives the following results: The region of the old kingdom of Fez, 3,200,000; of Mo- rocco, 3,900,000; of Tafilet and the Segelmesa country, 850,000 ; of Sus, Adrar and the Northern Draa, 1,450,000; total, 9,400,000. Again, as to race: Berbers and Tuaregs, 3,000,000; Shella Berbers, 2,200,000; Arabs (1) pure nomadic Bedouins, 700,- 000; ( 2) Mued, 3,000,000; Jews, 150,000; negroes, 200,- 000. The number of Christians is very small, not exceeding 1,500. Much of the interior of Morocco is unknown to Europeans. PRESENT REIGNING FAMILY AND GOVERNMENT.- The present sultan is Muley-Hassan, born in 1831. eldest son of sultan SidioMohamed. He ascended the throne at the death of his father, Sept. 17, 1873. He is known to his subjects under the title of “Emir-al-Mumenin,” or Prince of True Believers. He is the fourteenth of the dynasty of the Alides, founded by Muley-Achmet, and the thirty-fifth lineal descendant of Ali, uncle and son-in-law of the Prophet. The form of government of the sultan ate, or em- pire of Morocco, is in reality an absolute despotism, unrestricted by any laws, civil or religious. The sultan is chief of the state, as well as head of the religion. As spiritual ruler, the sultan stands quite alone, his authority not being limited, as in Turkey and other countries following the religion of Mahomed by the expounders of the Koran, the class of “Ulema,” under the “Shei'k-ul-Islam.” The sultan has six ministers, whom he consults if he deems it prudent to do so; otherwise they are merely the executive of his unrestricted will. They are the vizier, the ministers for foreign affairs and home affairs. chief chamberlain, chief treas- urer and chief administrator of customs. The sultan’s revenue is estimated at $2,000,000 per annum, derived from monopolies, taxes, tithes and presents. In 1883 the sultan granted the claim of Spain to the small territory of Santa Cruz de Mar Pequefia, near the mouth of the Yfnu River, south of Moga- or. MORPHY, PAUL C., an American chess-player, born in New Orleans, in 1837, died in 1884. MORRIS, CHARLES, an American commodore, born at IVoodstock, Conn., in 1784, died at W ash- ington, D. C., in 1856. He served with distinction in the war with Tripoli and in the war of 1812. He held many posts of responsibility in the navy de- partment. MORRIS, CLA,RA, an American actress, born in 1846 at Cleveland, Ohio. In 1874 she was married to F. C. Harriott, of New York. MORRIS, FRANCIS ORPEN, an English author and divine, born at Beverley in 1810. He took orders in the Church of England, and became chaplain to the duke of Cleveland. He has written many valu- able works on natural history. 1102 MORRIS, GEORGE PERRINs, author of “Woodman, Spare that Tree,” born in Philadelphia, Oct. 10, 1802, died in New York, July 6, 1864. He founded the New York “Mirror” and afterwards the “Home Journal,” with both of which N. P. Willis was asso- ciated. MORRIS, GEORGE SYLVESTER, an American philo- sophical writer and educator, born at Norwich, Vt., in 1840. He has been prominently connected with the University of Michigan and with the Johns- Hopkins University. MORRIS, GoUvERNEUR, an American statesman, born in Morrisania, New York, J an. 31, 1752, died Nov. 6, 1816. He graduated at King’s (now Colum- bia) College in 1768, and was admitted to the bar in 1771. He took an active share in the political affairs of the Revolutionary period. In May, 1780,he lost a leg through a fall from his carriage in Phila- delphia. From 1781 to 1784 he was assistant to Robert Morris, superintendent to the national finance. In 1787 he took his seat as a delegate in the convention that framed the United States Consti- tution. The greater part of the year 1791 he spent in England as a confidential agent of Washington, and next served till August, 1794, as United States minister to France. Returning to America in 1798, he sat for New York in the United States Senate from 1800 to 1803, and was chairman of the New York canal commissioners from 1810 till his death. MORRIS, JOHN G., an American clergyman, educator and writer, born at York, Pa., in 1803. He is the founder of the village of Lutherville, Md., and of the female seminary there located. He is prominently connected with many scientific and other societies. MORRIS, LEwIs, one of the signers of the Dec- laration of Independence, born at Morrisania, N. Y., in 1726, died in 1798. He was a half-brother of Gouverneur Morris. MORRIS, LEwIs, an American colonial gover- nor, born at Morrisania, N. Y., in 1671, died in 1746. MORRIS, LEwIs, a popular English poet, born in Carmarthen in 1835. He was educated at Sher- borne School and at Jesus College, Oxford, where in 1855 he graduated first-class in classics, and won the Chancellor’s prize. He was called six years later to the English bar, and practiced till 1881, when he accepted the post of honorary secretary to the university of Wales. His first offerings of verse appeared in 1871, when under the pen-name of “A New W'riter” he published Songs of Two Worlds, which at once passed into numerous editions, and which was followed by a second and third volume. In 1876 appeared The Epic of Hades, the work with which the author’s name is usually associated; it has run into several series, and these series into many editions. He has since published Gwen, a Drama; The Ode of Life; Songs Unsung; Gycia, a Tragedy; and A Vision of Saints (1890). MORRIS, RIoIIARD, an English philologist, born at Bermondsey in 1833. He is an active member of the Chaucer and the Early English Societies, and president of the Philological Society. He has written many valuable philological works, and ed- ited numerous early texts. MORRIS, THOMAS, a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born in West Virginia in 1794, died in 1874. MORRIS, WILLIAM, artist and poet, born at Walthamstow in 1834, and educated at Marlborough and Exeter College, Oxford. Mr. Morris turned his attention for some time to the study of archi- tecture; and in 1868, together with his friends Dante G. Rossetti and Burne Jones, endeavored to MORRIS—MORTON elevate the artistic taste of the public. For this purpose abusiness of “art fabrics,” wall-papers, and stained glass,was started which has been extremely successful. Mr. Morris published in 1867 his poem The Life and Death of Jason, which was followed in 1868-70 by The Earthly Paradise, a series of twenty- four romantic tales. His later works include Love is Enough; The Story of Sigurd the Volsung; and Hopes and Fears for Art. He has recently trans- lated the Odyssey of Homer, and in conjunction with Mr. Eirikr Magnusson rendered into English verse a number of Icelandic Stories. Mr. Morris is one of the leaders of the socialistic movement in England. A book by him entitled The Glittering Plain, appeared in 1890. MORRIS, a city, the county-seat of Grundy county, Ill., one of the largest grain-markets of the West. It manufactures plows, cultivators, school furniture, and carriages, and contains bituminous coal-mines. MORRIS, a post-village. a railroad junction and the county-seat of Stevens county, Minn., in the western part of the State on Pomme de Terre River, 159 miles northwest of St. Paul. MORRISBURG, a town of Ontario, a port of en- try, situated on the St. Lawrence, ninety-two miles west of Montreal. It does an extensive shipping business, and has a valuable water-power. MORRISON, a city, the county-seat of White- sides county, Ill., 127 miles west of Chicago. It has several stores and mills. MORRISTOWN, avillage in St. Lawrence county, N. Y., opposite Brockville, Canada, on the St. Law- rence River. MORRISTOWN, a post-village, a railroad junc- tion and the county-seat of Hamblen county, Tenn., situated in a mineral region where varie- gated marble is obtained. The town contains two colleges. MORRISVILLE, apost-village, the county-seat of Madison county, N, Y., thirty miles southwest of Utica. It is a hop-growing center. MORSE, EDWARD S., an American naturalist, born in Maine in 1888. He has been professor of zoology in Bowdoin College and in Harvard Uni- versity; has written several works on natural his- tory, and is a popular scientific lecturer. MORSE, J EDIDIAH, an American geographer, father of the inventor of the telegraph, born in Woodstock, Conn., Aug. 23, 1761, died in 1826. He is best known as the author of Morse’s Geography. MORTARA, EDGAR, a Jewish boy who, in 1858,. was forcibly carried off from his parents by the or- ders of the archbishop of Bologna, on the plea that he had, when an infant, been baptized into Christ- ianity by a Roman Catholic maid-servant. The manner of the boy’s abduction, and the refusal of the Roman Catholic authorities to give him up to his parents, becoming known throughout Europe, excited great indignation, more particularly in En gland. But the boy remained in the hands of the Roman Catholic church, and became an Augustin- ian monk. MORTAR-VESSEL, a class of gunboat for mounting sea-service mortars. The most ancient form of mortar-vessel was the “bomb-ketch,” con- venient because of the length of deck without a mast. MORTON, GEoRGE, born at York, England, about 1585. He was an active promoter of immigration among the Plymouth Colonists; and was the editor of “Mourt’s Relation,” the first account published in England of the planting of the colony. MORTON, HENRY, a distinguished American chemist, born in New York City in 1836. He has been a voluminous writer on scientific subjects. He- MORTON—hHHHHlDESERTISLAND became president of the Stevens Institute of Tech- nolo %in 1870. MC TON, JAMES St. CLAIR, an American military engineer, born in Philadelphia in 1829. He was killed in the assault on Petersburg, June 17, 1864. MORTON, LEVI PARSONS, vice-president of the United States, born at Shoreham, Vermont, May 16, 1824. He was first a country store-keeper’s as- sistant, then partner in a Boston ]iru1 of merchants, and in 1863 founded banking-houses in New York and London. In 1878 and 1880, he was returned to Congress as a Republican; in 1881 to 1885, he was minister to France, and in 1888 he was elected vice-president of the United States. MORTON, NATHANIEL (1613-1685), brother of George, the Plymouth colonist. He wrote several works on the early history of New England. MORTON, OLIVER PERRY, an eminent American statesman, born in Indiana in 1823, died in 1877. He was governor of Indiana during the civil war, and became United States Senator in 1867. MORTON, SAMUEL GEoRGE, a distinguished American physician and naturalist, born in Phila- delphia, Jan. 26, 1799, died May 15, 1851. He studied medicine in Philadelphia and Edinburgh, and in 1839 was appointed professor of anatomy in the Pennsylvania Medical College. Morton may be re- garded as the first American who endeavored to place the doctrine of the original diversity of man- kind on the scientific basis. His great works are Crania Americana, and Crania Egyptiaca. His museum of comparative craniology, in the academy of natural sciences, Philadelphia, contains some 1,500 skulls, 900 of them human. MORTON, THOMAS (c.1590—c.1646), brought a colony from England to Massachusetts in 1622. He came into conflict with the Puritans on the question of worldly amusements, and published a satire called The New English Canaan, which gives an ex- cellent description of the country. N, WILLIAM T., an American dentist, born in Massachusetts in 1819, died in 1868. He is distinguished as the discoverer of the use of ether as in anaesthetic. MOSES. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, pp. 860-61. MOSKWA, a branch of the Oka. It rises in a marsh in the east of Smolensk, flows east to the city of Moscow, and thence to the Oka. It is nav- i able from its mouth to Moscow, except between ovember and April, when it is enerally frozen, and is connected directly with t e Volga by the Moskwa Canal. MOSTAGANEM, a town of Algeria, on the coast, forty-five miles north-east of Oran. It manufac- tures pottery and has corn-mills and tanneries. Population in 1886, 12,395, more than one-third be- ing Europeans. It was a place of 40,000 in the 16th century; and has again grown up from its decayed state since the French took possession in 1833. MOTHE CADILLAC ANTOINE. See CADILLAC, in these Revisions and Additions. MOTIFF, in a musical composition, the princi- pal subject on which the movement is constructed, and which, during the movement, is constantly ap- pearing in one or other of the parts, either com- pletely or modified. MOTT, LUCRETIA COEFIN, an American philan- thropist, born at Nantucket in 1793, died in 1880. In 1819 she became a Quaker preacher, and thereafter was known as an able advocate of peace and an opposer of slavery. MO D, or MOUI.DINESS, the common name of many minute fungi which make their appearance, often in crowded multitudes, on decaying or diseased plants and animals, and animal and vegetable sub- stances. To the naked eye they often seem like 1103 patches of fine cobweb, which are shown by the microscope to consist of cellular threads. MOULDING AND CASTING. See Britannica, Vol. IX, pp., 479-81. MOULTON, LoUIsE CHANDLER, an American writer, born in Ponfret, Conn., April 5, 1835, mar- ried at twenty W. U. Moulton, a Boston publisher, and has published children’s stories, novels, essays, and poems. Her stories are unaffected and well constructed, full of grace and tenderness; her verse reveals the rarer gift of lyrical music. Here may be named Bedtvlme Stories; Some Women’s Hearts, and In the Garden of Dreams (1890), a volume of charm- ingly tender and pathetic verse. MOULTON, a post-village, the county-seat of Lawrence county, Ala. It contains a boys’ acad- emy and a girls’ institute. MOULTRIE, J OHN, an English poet, born in Lon- don in 1799, died in 1874. MOULTRIE, FORT, a fortress on Sullivan’s Is- land, at the mouth of Charleston harbor, South Carolina, celebrated for the repulse of a British squadron commanded by Sir Peter Parker, Jan. 28, 1776. The fort, which had 26 guns and 435 men, and was commanded by Colonel William Moultrie- (1731-1805), had been hastily built of palmetto logs, in two rows 16 feet apart, with the space between filled with sand. The spongy wood of the palmetto was found to resist the cannon balls perfectly. MOULTRIE, WILLIAM, an American military commander, born in South Carolina in 1731, died. in 1805. He fought with distinction in the Revolu- tionary war. MOUND—BIRDS, a family of galinaceous birds remarkable for the large mounds which they build as incubators for the eggs. They are natives of Australasia and of the islands in the eastern archi- pelago and Pacific. MOUND CITY, a post-village, the county-seat of Pulaski county, Ill., seven miles north of the mouth of the Ohio river. It contains a national cemetery and the western naval station. MOUN D CITY, a post-village, the county-seat of Linn county, Kan., on Little Sugar Creek. It has machine-shops, a foundry, and a system of water- works. MOUNDSVILLE, a post-village, the county-seat of Marshall county, W. Va. It contains the State penitentiary, several saw, woolen, and rolling-mills, and a coal-bank. Here is situated the largest In- dian mound in America. MOUNTAIN, GEoReE, a Canadian bishop, son of Jacob Mountain, born in England in 1789, died in 1863. MOUNTAIN, J ACOB, a Canadian bishop, born in England iI1 1750, died in 1825. MOUNT AYR, a post-village, the county-seat of Ringgold county, Iowa, in the southern part of the State, near the West Fork of Grand River. \ MOUNT CARMEL, a city, the county-seat of Wabash county, Ill., on Wabash River. It con- tains manufacturing establishments, fiour and saw- mills. MOUNT CARMEL, a post-borough and a rail- road junction of N orthumberland county, Pa., con- taining mines of coal. Population, 8,243. MOUNT CLEMENS, a city, the county-seat of Macomb county, Mich., twenty miles northeast of Detroit. It contains lumber manufactories, a fur- nace, and celebrated magnetic mineral springs. Population, 4,742. MOUNT DESERT ISLAND, a mountainous island, fifteen miles long and twelve miles wide, south of Maine in the Atlantic Ocean. It contains beautiful lakes and several villages and is a favor- ite summer resort. ll04 MOUNTFORD, VVILLIAM, an American writer. born in England in 1816. He settled in Massachu- setts as a spiritual minister. He died in 1885. MOUNT GILEAD, a post-village, the county- seat of Morrow county, Ohio, 44 miles north of Co- lumbus. It contains several mills and a carriage manufactory. MOUNT HOLLY, a post-village, a railroad junc- tion and the county-seat of Burlington county. N. J . The town is supplied with gas and water-works, and contains a children’s home, iron-foundries, thread, saw, and planing-mills, machine-shops, and canning-factories. MOUNT JOY, a post-borough of Lancaster coun- ty, Pa., twelve miles northwest of Lancaster. It contains a male and female seminary, Young Men’s Christian Association, and a school for soldiers’ orphans. It manufactories flour, carriages, and farm-implements. MOUNT LEBANON, a post-village of Columbia county, N. Y., noted as the home of a community of Shakers. Horticulture, agriculture and broom- making are the chief industries. MOUNT MORGAN, a gold-mining township of Queensland. The gold-mine at the summit of the mount is said to be the richest deposit in Australia. The gold is of unusual fineness and purity. The yield in 1887 was 83,705 ounces. Population in 1890, about 2,000. MOUNT MORRIS, a post-village and railroad junction of Livingston county, N. Y It manu- factures plaster and lumber, and has an academy and seminary. MOUNT PLEASANT, a city, the county-seat of Henry county, Iowa. It manufactures flour, wagons, sash and blinds, and contains Iowa Wesleyan University, an academy and a female seminary. In the vicinity is the State hospital for the insane. Population, 7,918. MOUNT PLEASANT, a post-village, the county- seat of Isabella county, Mich. It is largely engaged in the lumber trade. Flour, sash and blinds are made here. MOUNT PLEASANT, a post-borough of West- moreland county, Pa., forty miles southeast of Pittsburgh. It is chiefly engaged in manufacturing lime and coke; in mining; and in shipping the lime- stone here quarried. MOUNT PULASKI, a post- village and a railroad junction of Logan County, Ill., situated twenty-one miles northeast of Springfield and containing ele- vators and mills. MOUNT STERLING, a post-village, the county- seat of Brown county Ill., midway between Quincy and Jacksonville. Coal is found near at hand, and in the village barrels, plows, wagons, and earthen- ware are manufactured. MOUNT STERLING, a post-village, the county- seat of Montgomery county, Ky., a manufacturing town on the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad. Popula- tion, 3,627. MOUNT Vernon, a city of Ohio. Population in 1890, 6,016. ‘See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 4-5. MOUNT VERNON, a city, the county-seat of J elferson county, Ill., abount 130 miles southeast of Springfield. MOUNT VERNON, a city, a railroad center and the county-seat of Posey county, Ind. It is on the Ohio River and contains flour and lumber mills. Population, 4,710. MOUNT VERNON, a post-village and a railroad junction of Westchester county, N. Y. It manu- factures carriages, glue, horn and rubber jewelry, and pens. MOUNT VERNON, a township of Fairfax county, Va. It contains the Washington homestead and MOUNTFORD-MUGGE the tomb of George Washington and his wife. This historic property has been purchased by the Ladies’ Mount Vernon Association. MOUSQUETAIRES, the mounted body-guard of the kings of France, all of noble birth, organized by Louis XIII., in 1622. They rode gray horses, and were disbanded in 1815. MOVILLE, a seaside resort in county Donegal, on Lough Foyle, nineteen miles northeast of Lon- donderry. It is a calling-station of the trans- atlantic steam-packets of the Anchor line. Popula- tion, 1,129. MOVING PLANT, a plant of the natural order Leguminoszc, sub-order Pabilionaceaz, a native of In- dia, remarkable for the spontaneous movement of the leaves. MOXA, a peculiar form of counter-irritation which was early practiced in the East, particularly by the Chinese and Japanese, from whom it was learned by the Portugese. One or more small cones, formed of the downy covering of the leaves of Artemz'sz'a Moxa, or of the pith of the common sun- flower, or of linen steeped in nitre, are placed on the skin over the affected part, and the ends re- mote from the skin are ignited. The combustion gradually proceeds through the cone and forms a superficial eschar on the skin. The surrounding parts must be protected by a pad of wet rag, with a hole in it for the moxa. MOZAMBIQUE CHANNEL, a channel between Madagascar and the east coast of Africa, about 1,000 miles in length and 400 in average breadth. At its northern extremity lie the Comoro Is- lands. MOZIER, Josnrrr, an American sculptor, born in Vermont in 1812, died in Switzerland in 1870. MSKET, also written MTSCKETHA and otherwise, probably the most ancient town of the Caucasus, and down to the 5th century the capital of the old Georgian kings. It stands on the south side of the Caucasus, ten miles north-northwest of Tiflis. It con- tains a cathedral, already existing in the 4th cen- tury, in which the Georgian kings were crowned and buried. MUCH WOOLTON, a town of Lancashire, six miles southeast of Liverpool. Near it are large quarries. Population, 4,541. MUCKERS, the popular name of a sect which sprung up at Ktinfgsberg in 1835. The movement seems to have originated in the dualistic and theo- sophic views of John Henry Schiinherr concerning the organization of the universe by the combina- tion of a spiritual and a sensual principle. In 1874 at Porto Aleger in Brazil, a band of German Muck- ers, under a prophetess, were nearly all killed in conflicts with the military. MUDIE, CHARLES EDWARD, founder of the cele- brated library which bears his name, born at Chel- sea, England, in 1818, died Oct. 28, 1890. Having started as a bookseller, he established his library in 1842, which became a limited company in 1864, and had 25,000 members in 1890, the annual receipts being $500,000. MUDKI, often spelled Moonrrnn, a village of the Punjab. India, twenty-six miles southeast of the Sut1ej,on the old road from Firozpur to Karnal. Here the first battle in the Sikh war of 1845-56, was fought, when the British under Sir Hugh Gough re- pulsed the Sikhs, and Sir Robert Henry Sale, “Fighting Bob,” was killed. MUEZZIN, the official attached to a Mohamme- dan mosque, who announces the different times of prayer. MUGGE, Tnnonoa, a German author, born in Berlin in 1806, died in 1861. He wrote many novels, tales, and sketches of travel. MUGWUMP—MUMPS M UGWUMP. A name given in common parlance to such citizens of political experience who refuse to subscribe from year to year to the principals laid down in the political platforms of the parties to which they have belonged, and to the methods pur- sued in the administration of the government by their own party officials. It was especially applied in 1888 to such of the Republicans as openly refused to support the Republican ticket in the national canvass of that year. The word means “big chief” in the Algonquin Indian dialects, and John Eliot, who spelled it “mugquomp,” employed it to trans- late “leader” and “duke” (as in Gen. xxxvi. 15) in his Indian version of the Bible. MUHLBERG, a town of Prussian Saxony. bu the Elbe, thirty-six miles southeast of \Vittenberg. Population, 3,441. Here, April 24, 1547, the Em- peror Charles V. defeated John Frederick the Mag- nanimous, elector of Saxony. MUHLENBERG, HENRY MELCHIOR, founder of the Lutheran church in America, born in Hanover in 1711, died in 1787. His eldest son, JoHN PETER (1746-1807), was a distinguished Revolutionary gen- eral. Another son, FREDERICK A. (1750-1801),was twice speaker of the House of Representatives. An- other son, GOTTHILF HEINRICH (1753-1815), was an eminent botanist and an able theologian. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS (1796-1877), a great-grandson of Henry Melchior, was a distinguished poet and Protestant Episcopal divine. MUIR, SIR WILLIAM, brother of John, was born in 1819. When eighteen years old he joined the Bengal civil service. He was made K. C. S. I. in 1867, and was lieutenant-governor of the northwest provinces, 1863-74, and financial minister to the government of India, 1874-76. After his return to England he sat on the council of India. 1876-85, when he was elected principal of the University of Edinburgh. He is an eminent Arabic scholar, and his Life of Mohamet and Annals of the Early Cali- phate are works of solid and enduring value. MUKADDASI, an Arab geographer, born at Je- rusalem, voyaged extensively for twenty years, and described Moslem lands in a work published A. D. 985. MULDER, GERARD JOHANNES (1802-80), a pro- fessor of chemistry at Utrecht, and best known from his investigations on protein and vegetable physiology. MULFORD, ELISHA (1833-1885), an American author and divine. He was a professor in the Episcopalian Divinity School at Cambridge. MULLER, CHARLES Lours, a French artist, born in 1815. His paintings are chiefly historical. MULLER, GEORGE, founder of the Orphan Homes, Ashleydown, Bristol. England, born near Halberstadt, Prussia, September 27, 1805. ~While in training for the ministry he was dissipated in his habits, and at sixteen he was sent to prison for de- frauding an hotel-keeper. He went to Halle as a student of divinity, and a visit to a private meet- ing for praise and prayer proved the turning point in his career, and in 1856 he began to preach and teach, and took up his abode in free lodgings pro- vided for poor divinity students. Through Tho- luck’s advice he came to London in 1829, and stud- ied Hebrew and Chaldee with the view of becoming amissionary to the Jews. He settled at Teign- mouth as minister of Ebenezer chapel, and in the conduct of his church abolished collections and de- pended on voluntary gifts. In 1835 he printed proposals for the establishment of an orphan house, which took shape in 1836 at Bristol. As the result only of “prayer to God” he announced that he had received $422,205 up to 1856 on behalf of the 1105 orphans, who then numbered 297. By 1875 up- wards of 2,000 children were lodged, fed, and edu- cated. In 1889 it was announced that the orphan homes and associated enterprises cost about $180,- 000, which sum was the result of faith and prayer and voluntary subscriptions on the part of the public. Miiller visited the East on an evangelistic tour in 1889. He has published A lVarrative of some of the Lord’s Dealings with George illitller. MULLER, JrI.IUs, a German theologian, was born at Brieg, April 10, 1801, died at Halle, Sept. 27, 1878. He studied at Breslau and Géttingen, and adopted opinions in religion opposed to those of the rationalists. In 1825 he was appointed pas- tor at Schtinbrunn, in 1831 second university preacher in Gtittingen, in 1834 extra-ordinary pro- fessor of theology there, next year ordinary profes- sor in Marburg, and in 1839 in Halle. His reputa- tion as a theologian chiefly rests upon his great work on sin, Die Chrz'stZiche Lehre ran der Silnde. MUMMIES, RECENT DIscovERIEs on. On Feb. 6, 1891, a great discovery of mummies was made by M. Grébaut and his assistant, in the necropolis of Thebes. In extent and value it was second only to the discoveries of “Royal Mummies” Dehree— Bahri by M. Maspero, in 1881. About half a mile from Dehr-el-Bahari a pit was found containing several hundred magnificent mummies. These, like the royal mummies, had evidently been re- moved from the tombs and concealed in this recep- tacle, as a precaution,by the servants of the priests, probably at the same time and for the same reasons which caused the royal mummies to be placed in the receptacle where they were found by M. Mas- pero. This removal is believed by M. l\Iaspero to have taken place in the reign of Aauputh, son of Shasang, of the twenty-second dynasty (czrca 966 B. C). The coffins hitherto found all belong to the twenty-first dynasty, and are those of the priests of Ra-Amun and their families. The pit is about forty-five feet in depth, at the bottom of which are two corridors filled with coflins and treasures of every description. In the lower corridor-—which as yet has only been explored—it is computed that there are some 200 coffins, and the second corridor is believed to be not less extensive. The shaft is forty-five feet deep, its month is about twelve feet in diameter, and its sides are of rough limestone. One of M. Grébaut’s native assistants, who was superintending the work of hauling up the mummy cases, was the first to enter the corridor where the mummies and treasures lie. The shaft had then been excavated only as deep as to the mouth of the corridor; and he crept on his hands and knees, and stood in what he describes as be- ing like a palace of enchantment. The corri- dor, he said, is some 10 or 12 feet high and 250 feet long. It runs in a northerly direction from the shaft toward the Theban hill. At the end there is a short corridor branching from it at right angles, and at some height above the floor at the end IS the entrance to a second very long cor- ridor, full of treasures. Groups of mummies were found placed at inter- vals in families. The number in each group varies from two to six or seven, father, mother, and chil- dren, and around them, exquisitely arranged, are vases. models of houses, models of dahabiehs, cases and boxes full of ushabtis, statuettes, and every conceivable treasure of ancient Egypt. \Vithout even a speck of dust upon them, this profusion of treasures had remained unlooked at by any eye for nearly 3,000 years. For general article on MUM- MIES, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 20-22. MUMPS. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 22, 23» 2-33 1106 MUNCH, ANDREAS, a Norwegian poet, born in 1810. His cousin, PEDER ANDREAS, a historian, was bornnalso in 1810, and died in 1863. MUNCH, FREDERICK, an American author, born in Germany in 1879, died in 1881. In 1865 he be- -came a member of the Missouri senate. His writ- ings were mostly in the German language. MUNCIE, a city of Indiana. Population in 1890, 11,339. See Brittanica, Vol. XVII, p. 23. MUN CY, a post-borough of Lycoming county, Pa. It has a female seminary and manufactories of lumber, flour and patent hay-forks. MUNDEN, a town of Hanover. at the influx of the Werra and Fulda to the Weser. Engirt by wooded hills, it has a school of forestry, an old cas- tle, and manufactories of India rubber, glass and sugar. Population 7,053. MUNKACS, a market-town of Hungary, situated at the foot of the Carpathians, 101 miles northeast of Debreczin. It has mines of iron and rock crys- tals, called Hungarian diamonds. The citadel, built on an isolated height, resisted the imperial arms for three years (1685-88) ; and, having fallen in 1848 into the hands of the Hungarians, was captured by the Russians in the following year. It is now a state-prison. Population, 9,691. MUN KACSY, MICHAEL, painter, whose real sur- name is Lieb, was born at Munkacs, Oct. 10, 1846. He went a turner’s apprentice to Vienna, and stud- ied painting there, at Munich, and at Diisseldorf, and in 1872 settled in Paris. Except a few por- traits, his works are nearly all genre-pictures. ‘Three classes may be distinguished-—those depict- ing Hungarian life, mostly very dark in coloring; those illustrative of the social life of Paris, much lighter and brighter in tone; historical pieces of which the best known examples are Milton Dictating “Paradise Lost” to His Daughters; Christ Before Pi- late; Crucifixion, and Mozart’s Last Moments. Vig- orous characterization, dramatic power, and picto- rial breadth are perhaps his most conspicuous traits. MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW J OHNSTONE, a Latin scholar, born at Elgin in Scotland in 1819, died at Rome, March 30, 1885. He was educated at Shrews- bury and Trinity College, Cambridge, elected fel- low of his college in 1843, and professor of Latin in his university in 1869. His greatest achieve- ment was an edition of Lucretius, text, trans- lation and notes, one of the finest and most brilliant works of British scholarship. His reputa- tion stands high moreover as a writer of Greek and Latin verse; the best pieces were published along with a Latin translation of Gray’s Elegy in MURAL CIRCLE, an astronomical instrument for the observation of celestial bodies at their mer- idian passage. It consists of a lar e metal circle, turning on an axis the end of whic projects from a solid stone pier or wall (whence the name), close to which the circle moves. The plane of the circle is set as nearly as possible in the meridian. Fixed immovably to the circle is a telescope, which by turning the circle is made to point to the star to be observed, at the time of its meridian passage. Two wires, one fixed and one movable, similar to those in the Transit Circle, enables the altitude, or zenith distance, of the star to be noted, if the instrument has been properly adjusted, and if the zenith or horizontal point on the circle be known. MURE, SIR WILLIAM, of Rowallan in Ayrshire, a Scottish poet, born in 1594. He was wounded at Marston Moor, and died about the end of 1657. He translated into English sapphics Boyd of Trocrganized so as to exclude turbulent ele- ments. They were defeated by Napoleon and the regular army, and practically ceased to exist. Militia organizations called national guards exist in several European countries and in some of the States of the United States. NATHHMULLEAGUE—NATURAL GAS NATIONAL LEAGUE, a league founded in 1882 in succession to the Land League, after the sup- pression of the latter by the British government. It is both a political and an agrarian organization, its main objects being the reform of the land laws, the weakening of the power of the landlords, the increase of peasant proprietors, and the creation of an independent or semi-independent government for Ireland, under the name of Home Rule. There are about 2,000 branches of the league scattered throughout Ireland, each with its president, secre- tary and treasurer. In America there is an organi- zation of a similar character, and another in Eng- land. Scotland also has a league, principally com- posed of Irishmen, which advocates the principles of the parent institution north of the Tweed. See PLAN or CAMPAIGN, in these Revisions and Addi- tions. NATIONAL PARTY, the Greenback-Labor Party of the United States. See PoLITIcAL PARTIES, in these Revisions and Additions. NATIVE, a term much employed in mineralogy to designate substances found as minerals, which are also, and most of them more abundantly, ob- tained from other minerals by chemical processes. Thus silver found pure, or nearly so, is called native silver. NATIVE AMERICAN PARTIES. Since the passage of our liberal naturalization and election laws, many native Americans had misgivings that in the not very distant future the alien-born citi- zens would control the political power in some of the States and large cities, most especially in the cities of New York and Philadelphia. The “Native American party” in 1840 was organized on the basis that only American-born citizens should hold offices of trust. In 1844 James Harper, senior member of the publishing house of Harper & Brothers of New York, was elected mayor of New York City 011 this platform, because many citizens who were desirous of reform voted for him without distinction of party. The success of the party was, however,only local,when in 1852 the IVhigs nominat- ed General Winfield Scott, whose brilliant success as a commander in two wars was a part of the national glory, they were defeated by an over- whelming majority. in spite of strenuous efforts to draw the Irish vote. At this time the Native American party organ- ized itself anew, and as a secret order. Its mem- bers, when questioned about their party aims, would only confess “to know nothing.” This gave the order the popular name of “Know Nothings.” They kept their secret so well, that political leaders first became aware of what was going on, when, in 1855, this new and mysterious party had elected governors and legislatures in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Kentucky, and California, and had elected a part of the State oflicers in Uaryland and Texas. In 1856 the party was organized for a national can- vass, and nominated Millard Fillmore for president. The fundamental principals of its platform were these: “America must be ruled by Americans only.” “No person should be selected for political station who acknowledges allegiance or obligation to anyforeign prince, potentate, or power.” (This was aimed at the Catholics who acknowledge alle- giance to the pope). “The law of naturalization must be so changed that the period of probation is extended to 21 years.” But, although 1855 was the time when the Native American party reached the high-water mark of success in many of the States, yet in the national election of 1856, Mr. Fillmore re- ceived only 8 electorial votes and a popular vote of 874,534, while the newly-organized Republican 1111 party received 114 electorial votes and a popular vote ot 1,341,234. The latter party was therefore at once recognized as the only real competitor of the Democratic party for the possession of the govern- ment. After that election the Native American garty vanished from the politics of the United tates. . NATRON LAKES, eight lakes in a depression to the west of the Damietta branch of the Nile. The locality is renowned for the four monasteries, from whose libraries of Arabic, Coptic, and Syriac MSS. various European collections have been enriched. In the time of St. Pachominus 5,000 anchorites dwelt here. NATUN A ISLANDS, densely wooded and moun- tainous islands, northwest of Borneo, Ranay, on Great Natuna, rising to a height of 3,500 feet. The largest of the islands has about 600 square miles. Population of the whole about 1,300, who grow rice, maize, sage, and cocoa—nuts, and exchange the pro- duce of their fisheries, their sage and cocoa-nut oil, for rice, iron, and cottons, at the European settle- ments on the Strait of Malacca. NATURAL, in music. a note belonging to the diatonic scale of C, and neither elevated by a sharp or depressed by a fiat. NATURAL GAS, a gas frequently found in the United States and mostly in the same regions where petroleum is found. Careful analysis has shown it to be a true gas similar to the illuminat- ing gas of our cities. Men skilled in the natural sciences now agree that both petroleum and natural gas are products of the decomposition of organic remains, vegetable or animal, and probably both, at a high temperature. Geologists generally agree that a great sea once covered the interior of our country, washing the base of the Apalachian moun- tain system on the east and the Rocky mountains on the west. This would naturally wash up accu- mulations of animal and vegetable remains along the shores, and these in the ages following would become buried far beneath the surface of the ground. Now, it is a fact that nine-tenths of all the petroleum, and practically all the natural gas, produced in this country are found in a narrow strip, about thirty miles in width, lying parallel with and about fifty miles west of the Allegheny Mountains, extending from New York State, through Ohio. Indiana, ‘West Virginia, and Ken- tucky. into Tennessee. Not all of this soil is oil- producing country, but the productive spots are found in this belt. Now, if like products were found at the western shore-line of the supposed sea, the correctness of the theory would seem to be established. This condition is met in the oil, a fine lubricant, recently discovered in lYyoming. Those who have made the subject a careful study differ in opinion as to whether the processes of forming the products under discussion are still going on, or whether they belong to the remote past. The fact that some of the greatest wells of the region, pro- ducing millions of cubic feet daily, show no diminu- tion from their output when first bored—from ten to twelve years ago—argues either immense stores of gas yet in the earth to keep up the pressure, or else a constant production. It is now known that the greatest gas-producing wells are on or near the geological summits or an- ticlinals, while the best oil-wells are in the troughs between these. Both the gas and oil are found in a soft, porous rock, technically called “sand,” and its depth varies from 1,000 to 3,000 feet below the surface of the ground. \V hen gas is found it rushes at once to the outer air, as if glad to escape. In some of the greater gas wells the pressure is enor- mous. The drilling tools weigh more than a ton, 1112 and in a number of instances these have been blown from the well many feet into the air by the gas in its first escape, while the roar of the outrushing gas could be heard for miles around. Such an es- eape, fired and burning at night, presents a grand spectacle, with its great sheet of ruddy flame leap- ing high in the air. Natural gas has been used as a fuel in one Pitts- burgh iron mill for about ten years, being piped from a well twenty miles distant, but it is less than one half of that time since its possibilities and ad- vantages as a fuel have become generally apparent to the people of this hive of industry, and the greatest strides in its application have been made in the last three years. In that time many miles of pipe have been laid in the city and surrounding eountry, and the gas has been introduced into thousands of factories and homes. While some good producing wells are within the city of Pitts- burgh, the greatest ones are located at a distance of about twenty miles. These are known as“gush- ers,” or “roarers,” and strangely enough, they are found on all sides of the city at about the distance above named. It seems as if nature had wisely lo- cated these great producing districts in a ring around the busy city, and at a safe distance from it. The surrounding country is laid with a net- work of nearly two thousand miles of pipes. The tubes vary from small ones up to mains twenty- four inches in diameter. There are mains sixteen inches in diameter, reaching from the wells to the eity, each carrying the product of a number of wells. The business is chiefly in the hands of five great companies, having an aggregate capital of millions of dollars, but some great mills have their independent pipe lines. It is estimated that there is a daily consumption of natural gas in the factories and dwellings in and about Pittsburgh to an amount displacing a coal consumption of about twenty-five thousand tons. The mere naming of the figures give but a faint idea of what this amounts to in reality. One of the leading causes of Pittsburgh’s greatness as a man- ufacturing center was its abundant coal supply just at hand; but king coal has been supplanted. In manufacturing, the gas is used almost univer- sally as a steam producer. It is also employed for the heating of the metals: iron, steel, brass, cop- per, etc., in the diverse branches of their utiliza- tion, and has been found in every respect superior to coal or coke for all the various operations of metal working except the first process, the smelt- ing of the ore, in which coke continues to be em- ployed. Its chief points of superiority over other fuels are its intense heating power. the ease with which it is handled, its freedom from sulphur and other substances deleterious to metals, its cheap- ness in first cost, its total lack of cinders, the ac- cumulation of which is a serious matter to large establishments in populous localities, and the uni- formity with which heat may be regulated by its employment. As compared with the best lump coal in heating quality, one thousand cubic feet of gas represents fifty-six pounds of coal, and the sav- ing effected in first cost is about twenty per cent., besides the labor of handling and the transporta- tion ; as the terrific force with which, in the case of strong wells, it pours from the ground, forces it through the pipes without the necessity of any ar- tificial pressure. NATURALIZATION, the legal act by which an alien becomes a citizen of an adopted country. (See ALIEN, Britannica, Vol. I, pp. 574-6). Naturaliza- tion may be accomplished by annexing territory. Thus, when Louisiana was ceded to the United States by France in 1800, all its inhabitants became NATURALIZATION citizens of the United States. When Florida was added to the union by treaty with Spain in 1819, all its inhabitants became United States citizens. lVhen Texas was annexed by the joint resolution of March 1, 1845, its inhabitants became citizens of the United States. This is called “collective nat- uralization.” By far the greater part of the aliens who have become citizens of the United States have, how- ever, become so under the naturalization laws passed by Congress. The basis of the present law is the act of April 14, 1802. The section relating to minors was passed in 1824, and the naturalization of persons of African descent was allowed by a law passed in 1870. The principal provisions now in force for the naturalization of aliens are contained in the following sections of the United States Re- vised Statutes : SEO. 2165. An alien may be admitted to become a citizen of the United States in the following manner and not other- wise: Firsz‘—He shall declare on oath, before a circuit or district court of the United States, or a district or supreme court of the Territories, or a court of record of any of the States hav- incr common law jurisdiction, and a seal and clerk, two years atQleast prior to his admission, that it is Dona fide his inten- tion to become a citizen of the United States,and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, po- tentate, state, or sovereignity, and, particularly, by name, to the prince, potentate, state, or sovereignity of which the alien may be at the time a citizen or subject. Second—He shall, at the time of his application to be admit- ted, declare, on oath, before some one of the courts above specified, that he will su port the Constitution of the United States, and that he abso utelv and entirely renounces and abjures all allegiance and fidc ity to every foreign prince,po- tentate, state or sovereignity; and particularly, by name, to the prince, potentate, state, or sovereignity of which he was before a citizen or subject; which proceedings shall be re- corded by the clerk of the court. Thz'rd—-It shall be made to a pear to the satisfaction of the court admitting such alien t at he has resided within the United States five years at least; and within the State or Ter- ritory where such court is at the time held, one year at least, and that during that time he has behaved as a man of a good moral character, attached to the (principles of the Con- stitution of the United States, an well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same; but the oath of She applicant shall in no case be allowed to prove his resi- ence. F02/rth—In case the alien applying to be admitted to citi- zenship has borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders of nobihty in the kingdom or state from which he came, he shall, in addition to the above requisites, make an express renunciation of his title or order of nobility in the court to which his application is made, and his renunciation shall be recorded in the court. SEC. 2166. Any alien of the age of twenty-one years and up- ward, who has enlisted, or may enlist, in the armies of the United States, either the regular or thelvolunteer forces, and has been, or may be hereafter, honorably discharged, shall be admitted to become a citizen of the United States, upon his etition, without any previous declaration of his intention to ecome such; and he shall not be required to prove more than one year’s residence within the United States,previous to his application to become such citizen; and the court admittin such alien shall, in addition to such roof of residence an good moral character, as now 1)l‘O\ ide b T law,be satisfied by competent proof of such persons having een honorably dis- charged from the serx ice of the United States. SEC. 2167. Any alien, being under the age of twenty-one years, who has resided in the United States three years next preceding his arriving at that age, and who has continued to reside therein to the time he may make application to be ad- mitted a citizen thereof, may, after he arrives at the age of twenty-one years, and after he has resided five years within the United States, including the three years of his minority, be admitted a citizen of the United States, without having made the declaration required in the first condition of sec- tion 2651; but such alien shall make the declaration required therein at the time of his admission; and shall further de- clare, on oath, and prove to the satisfaction of the court, that, for two years next preceding, it has been his bona fide intention to become a citizen of the United States; and he shall in all other respects comply with the laws in regard to naturalization. SEO. 2169. The provisions of this title shall apply to aliens being free white fpersona, and to aliens of African nativity, and to persons 0 African descent. SEC. 2170. No alien shall be admitted to become a citi- zen who has not for the continued term of five years next preceding his admission resided within the United States. The naturalization of aliens is not commonly performed by State courts, although they become citizens of the United NATURE-PRINTING--NAVAL ACADEMY States. In some portions of the States the naturalized citi- zens are more numerous than the native-born ones, and they control the local elections in such places. NATURE-PRINTING, a process by which en- gravings or plates answering thereto are produced by taking impressions of the objects themselves and printing from them, invented or improved about 1853 by Alois Auer of Vienna. Suitable ob- jects, such as dried and pressed plants, embroidery and lace, are placed between a plate of copper and one of lead, both worked smooth and polished; the plates are drawn through a pair of rollers, under pressure; then, when the plates are separated, it is found that a more or less perfect impression of the object has been made in the leaden plate. This may be used directly as an engraved plate, if only a few impressions are wanted; or a fac-simile of it may be obtained in copper by the electrotype pro- cess. NAUCRATIS. an ancient city of Egypt, situated in the Nile delta, near the modern village of Ne- bireh, 47 miles southeast of Alexandria. It existed in the 7th century B. C., and was the only city in Egypt at which the Greeks were allowed to trade. It was celebrated for its artistic pottery; and was a center for the worship of Aphrodite. The site was discovered by Flinders Petrie in 1884, and exca- vated by him in that and the following year. His monograph Naakratis gives an account of the ruined temples and the many valuable archaeologi- cal discoveries made on this site. NAUGATUCK, a village of New Haven county, Conn., on the Naugatuck River, 22 miles northwest of New Haven. It contains the factory of the Goodyear Glove & Rubber Company, and also manufactories of cutlery and ironware. Popula- tion in 1890, 6,218. NAUMANN, EMIL, a German musician, born at Berlin in 1827. He studied music under Mendels- sohn. In 1873 he was made professor of the history and theory of music at Dresden. Among his musi- cal works are an oratorio entitled Christus, de/r Frtedensbote, which was performed at Dresden in 1848; a Grand Mass, performed at Berlin in 1852. and two operas, Judith and Mt'thZenhe.re. He has written Tonkanst in der Kultargeschichte (1869); Italienische Tonclichter; Deutsche Tondichter; Za- Icanftsimtsih and die M usik der Zakanfz‘, and Archi- tectonik der Fuge (1878). NAUMANN, JCHANN FRIEDRICH, a German or- nithologist, born at Ziebigk, near Kiithen, in 17 80, died at Kiithen in 1857. After being educated at Dessau he devoted himself to natural science. The duke of Anhalt-Kdthen made him keeper of the ornithological museum. His chief work is Natur- geschichte der l’5gel Deutschlands (2 vols.). which is a standard work on the ornithology of Germany. NAUMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH, a German miner- alogist, born at Dresden in 1797, died there in 1873. After studying geology at Freiberg, Leipzig and Jena, he became professor at Jena in 1823 and at Freiberg in 1826. In 1842 he was called to the chair of geognosy at Leipzig. Among his published works are Lehrbuch der llfineralogie; Lehrbuch der reirzen. und angewandten Krystallographfi; Elemente der llhneralogie, and Lehrbuch der Geogvzosie. NAUSEA, a distressing sensation always referred to the stomach. It is unattended by pain, but is usually accompanied by a feeling of general lan- guor or debility, a small and often irregular pulse, a pale, cool and moist skin, general muscular relaxa- tion, an increased flow of saliva and a sensation that vomiting will supervene. It is most com- monly a direct symptom of disease or disorder of the stomach, but sometimes it is a very important 'indtrect symptom of disease of some part at a dis- 1113 tance from the stomach—as, for example, the brain or the kidney. NAUTILUS PROPELLER, a vessel propelled by the expulsion backward of a current of water driven through a cylinder by an enclosed turbine- w ee . NAUTCH GIRLS, public female dancers in India and the East Indies. Their performances constitute a principal part in the spectacular en- tertainment called a nautch. NAVAJ O INDIANS, a tribe of North American Indians. See INDIANS, NCRTH AMERICAN, in these Revisions and Additions. NAVAL, BERNHARD HENRY, an American clergy- man, born in Talbot county, Md., in 1812, died at Madison, N. J ., in 1870. He joined the Baltimore Methodist Episcopal Conference in 1835, and la- bored in Maryland, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Brook- lyn, N. Y., and New Haven, Conn. From 1854 to 1857 he was professor in Indiana Ashbury Univer- sity. He afterwards had charge of churches in New York and other cities ; and was for one session chaplain of the United States House of Represen- tatives. On the organization of the Drew Theologi- cal Seminary he was made professor of church his- tory there, and in 1870 he became the acting presi- dent of that school. He was a strong opponent of slavery and exerted much influence in favor of the Union cause during the civil war. NAVAL ACADEMY, UNITED STATES. This school has been opened in October, 1845, with Com- mander Franklin Buchanan as superintendent. It is located at Annapolis, Md. When the bureau of navigation was established in 1862 the naval acad- emy was placed under the supervision of this bu- reau. But March 1, 1867. it was placed under the direct supervision of the Navy Department. The term of the academic course was by a law of 1873 made to be six years, and by an act of 1874 the course of instruction for cadet engineers was made four years. An act of Congress. approved Aug. 5, 1882, pro- vides that from that date “there shall be no more appointments of cadet-midshipmen or cadet-engi- neers at the Naval Academy. but in lieu thereof naval cadets shall be appointed from each Congres- sional district and at large as now provided by law for cadet-midshipmen, and all the under-graduates at the Naval Academy shall thereafter be desig- nated and called naval cadets, and from those who successfully complete the six years’ course appoint- ments thereafter shall be made.” CLASSIFIED Lrsrs or NAvAL VEssELs or THE UNITED STATES. Showing the names of the vessels, date of con- struction,burthen, speed and cost: . a :2 *3 +2 H O . 2 O :2 ,_; ‘=3 >- “-’ Q F-I P“ s 3 Z‘: ,6 5 E Q ,_. O 53 :1 Vessels. Type. 3 5 E -=5 5'5 : 2 Q r; 5 0 ES s .3 5 éf‘ 52 M Q E on 0 Armored. Tons Puritan . . . Barbette coast 1875 6,060 3,700 12.4 _ defense. Mlantonomoh Double turret. 1874 3.990 1,426 10.5 Amphltrlte .. . Barbettc coast 1874 3,990 1,600 12. * defense. Monadnock . “ 1874 3.990 3,000 14.5 Terror.. . Double turret. 1874 3,990 1,600 12. E Appropriated to complete $3,178,046. . sols on the United States naval list. H14 as s rd - *°' 6 8 3 >2 3 £1 Q ,_:4 F: '_'-j ;-1 - s S <» s 52 -I Vessels T e E 3 5 g ‘E51 WE . YP . 3 2 3 U 25 3g 3 .2‘ 3 6,“ ‘.42 M Q 2 02 0 Armored. Tons. Texas . . . . . . . .. Armored bat- 1889 3,300 8,600 17. $2,500,000 tle ship. Maine .. . .. .. .. Armored 1889 6,648 9,000 17. 2,500,000 cruiser. ' Monterey .. . .. Barbette coast 1889 4,048 5,400 16. 1,628,950 defense. New York. . . .. Armored steel 1890 8,150 16,500 20. 2,985,000 . cruiser. Indiana .. . . . . Belted cruiser 1891 10,200 9,000 15. 3,020,000 Massachusetts " 1891 10,200 9,000 15. 3,020,000 Oregon . . . . . . .. “ 1891 10,200 9,000 15. 3,180,000 Monitors. Ajax . . . . . . . . . .. Single turret. 1862 2,100 340 5 to 6 626,582 Comanche . . .. “ ' 1862 1.875 340 5 to 6 613,164 Canonicus . . . . “ 1862 2,100 340 6 622,963 Catskill . . . . . . . “ 1862 1,875 340 6 427,766 Jason . . . . . . . . .. “ 1862 1,875 340 5 to 6 422,766 Lehigh . . . . . . .. “ 1862 1,875 340 5 to 6 422,726 Mahopac . . . . . . “ 1862 3.100 340 6 .1. 635,374 Manhattan.. . . “ 1862 2,100 340 6 I, 628,879 Montauk . . . . .. “ 1862 1,875 340 5 to 6 423 .027 Nahant . . . . . . .. “ 1862 1,875 340 5 to 6 413,515 Nantucket. . .. “ 1862 1,875 340 5 to 7 408,091 Passaic . . . . . . .. “ 1862 1,865 340 5 to 6 423,171 Wyandotte.. . . “ 1862 2,100 340 6 633,327 Unarmored. Chicago . . . . . . . Protected 1883 4,500 5,084 14.0 889,000 ~ cruiser. Boston . . . . . . .. ‘ “ 1883 3,189 4,030 15.6 619,000 Atlanta . . . . . .. “ 1883 3,189 4,030 15.6 617,000 Dolphin . . . . . -. Dispatch boat. 1883 1,485 2,240 15.5 315,000 Newark . . . . . .. Protected 1887 4,083 8,500 18.0 1,248,000 cruiser. Charleston .. . “ 1887 4,04 6,666 18.205 1,017,000 Baltimore... .. ‘f 1887 4,600 10,064 19 375 1,325.000 San Francisco “ 1888 4,083 10,400 20 17 1,428,000 Philadelphia... “ 1888 4,324 8,815 19 678 1,350,000 No. Six . . . . . . .. “ 1890 5,500 13,500 20 0 1,796,000 Cincinnati. . .. “ 1890 3,183 10,000 19 0 1,100,000 Raleigh ..... .. “ 1889 3,183 10,000 19 0 1,100,000 No. Nine . . . . .. Cruiser. 1890 2,000 5,400 17 0 612,500 No. Ten . . . . . .. “ 1890 \ 2,000 5,400 17 0 612,500 No. Eleven... . “ 1891 2,000 5,400 17 0 612,500 No. Twelve .. . Protected. 1891 7,400 21,000 21 0 2,725,000 Gun Boats. Yorktown... .. Gun Boat. 1887 1,700 3,660 16.55 455,000 Concord . . . . . . “ 1888 1,700 3,400 16. 490,000 Bennington.. . “ 1888 1,700 3,400 16, 490,000 Petrel . . . . . . . . . “ 1887 890 1,045 11.55 247,000 No. 5 . . . . . . . . . . “ 1891 1,050 1,600 14. 318,000 N o. 6 . . . . . . . . . . “ 1891 1,050 1,600 14. 318,000 Special Class. Prac. Cruiser. Cruiser. 1891 838 1,300 13. 250,000 Vesuvius . . . . . . Dynamite. 1887 725 3,794 21.5 350,000 TorpedoBoats. Stiletto ..... .. Torpedo boat. 1886 31 359 18.22 25,000 Cushing . . . . . .. Torpedo boat. 1889 116 1,720 22.50 82,750 There are in addition to the above, 60 other ves- The iron steam vessels number 7, bearing names as follows: Ranger, Alert, Monocacy, Michigan, Palos, Pinta and Alarm, the last now fitting at the Brooklyn yard as gunnery ship for training squadron. There are 18 wooden steam vessels in active service, viz: Lancaster, Pensacola, Richmond, Omaha, Swatara, Galena, Marion, l\/Iohican, Iroquois, Kearsarge, Adams, Alliance, Essex, Enterprise, Nipsic, Talla- poosa, Yantic and Despatch. There are 6 wooden sailing vessels, viz: Constellation, Monongahela, NAVAL OBSERVATORY—NAVAL ansnavn Portsmouth, Jamestown, Saratoga and St. Mary’s, all used as training or school ships. There are 14 iron and wooden steam tugs, viz: Catalpa, Cohas- set, Fortune, Leyden, Mayflower, Monterey, Nina, Rocket, Standish, Triana, Triton, and three others now under construction. There are 15 vessels unfit for sea service; 4, Intrepid, Saugus, Speed- well and Rescue, iron, have been condemned and abandoned; 3, Brooklyn, Hartford and Ossipee, wooden, are condemned, and 8, I/Vabash, Franklin, Minnesota, Constitution, Independence, Vermont, S1t._ Louis and Dale, wooden, are used as receiving s nps. NAVAL OBSERVATORY at Washington. United States Naval Secretary Tracy, in his report to Congress Dec., 1891, recommended a radical change in the supervison of this observatory, as follows: “The system in existence hitherto, by which the selection of the superintendent has been confined to line oflicers of the navy, subject like other oili- cers to changes of duty at comparatively short intervals, prevents that continuity of administra-- tion which is essential in carrying on the work of a great national observatory. No programme of scientific investigation, especially in the depart- ment of astronomy, can be carried out successfully by any institution if liable to frequent interrup- tions by a change of its administrative head. I therefore recommend the adoption of legislation which shall enable the President to appoint, at a sufiicient salary, without restriction, from persons either within or outside of the naval service, the ablest and most accomplished astronomer who can be found for the position of superintendent. I would also recommend, in view of the era of pro- gress and scientific development upon which the observatory is now entering, that an advisory council be organized, composed of the superin- tendent of the observatory and its senior professor and of three other persons of scientific attainments, whose duty it shall be to consider and report upon new instruments and their proper installation, to draw up, with such changes as may be necessary, from time to time the programme of scientific work, including observation, reduction and publi- cation, and to make such inspections and reports as may be desirable in regard to the character of the work done by the observatory.” This recommendation of Secretary Tracy was endorsed by twenty directors of astronomical ob- servatories throughout the country. A few years ago Congress authorized the purchase of a new site and the erection of new buildings, which have been completed and liberally equipped at an ex- pense exceeding that of any similar establishment in the world. =- NAVAL ORDNANCE. The United States Con- gress in its naval appopriations in 1890—9l pro- vided for the supply of 100 high-power guns for its fortification. The call was for 25 eight-inch, 50 ten-inch, and 25 twelve-inch breech-loading steel rifles; the maximum cost to be $4,250,000. In the discussions incident to the legislative appropria- tion the hope was expressed that the succeeding Congress (52nd) would call for the construction of an additional 100 guns for the same purpose. NAVAL RESERVE, ROYAL, a sort of militia auxiliary to the British navy. It is a force held in high esteem by naval men, and is considered an ex- tremely valuable reserve of trained men ready to man the fleet in case of emergency. The act under which the force was instituted in 1859 authorizes the engagement of 30,000 men, each for a period of five years, and provides that each shall be trained for twenty-eight days in every year to the use of NAVARRETE—NAVdGATION arms and in naval gunnery, either in ships of the navy or on shore. In case of national emergency, these men can, by royal proclamation, be called out for service in the navy in any part of the world. In 1889 the total number of reserve men drilled was 18,869,of which number 8,294 were receiving an extra penny a day as trained men. The oificers of all ranks now number 558 and the men 19.851. NAVARRETE, MARTINO, FERl\'.-LNDEZ DE, Spanish historian, born at Abalos, . 1115 tags, Wis. It was built by order and at the ex- pense of the United States Government. The canal proper is only two miles in length. uFrom any point along the Mississippi River and its navigable afflu- ents grain and other produce may by this route be shipped to Chicago and New York without break- ing bulk. The principal canals in the United States are the following : - Spain, in 1765, died at Mad- -. rid in 1844. He fought in Ca11a1S- Ifllillgetslf “Flgatgl the Spanish navy against the Barbary pirates and . . . . . - - Ill1no1s andM1ch1gan Canal: Chicago to La Salle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102 60 aganflst the French In the Ohio Canal and feeders: Cleveland dud Portsmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 323 ‘ 40 Mediterranean. Afterwards jléfianga andhErie(:1ffee<(liers: CIi&11i.1():innat€i a1§1dfiTi>ledo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 284 50 ‘ ' ' _ r1e ranc an ee ers: any 0 u a 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36' "0 13-8 madfe gXten-S11;'T%1-nVeS_t1g- 3‘ Oswego Canal: Syracuse to Oswego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 ‘i0 _1O1I31§ Ofift P3135 lgccnerleg Champlain feeder;1 : Wl:é1tehe1s.llHto YVa(.{;e11'ford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81 58 1n e een 1 C611 ury, an Delaware and Hu son ‘ana : ones a e, Pa., to Rondout, N.Y... 108 48 ' Chesapeake and Delaware: Delaware Citv to Chesapeake City . . . . . .. 14 66 £1-lbélshel?“ the reS311t§' After Albemarle and Chesapeake: Norfolk to Currituck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14. 60 _1s eat aPP'ea1'e 115 tre_a' Dismal Swamp: Elizabeth River and Pasquetank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 60 13186 011 the History Of Spamsh Ogeechee Canal: Savannah River to Ogeechee River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16 120 _Z\Tamjgatq‘0n (1846) and the Santa Fe Canal, Florida: Waldo and Melrose, Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10% 35 S - h M- - |- ’ L-b New Orleans to Pontchartrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6i/2 85 ~ Pants G/mtllne 1 Talqy Orleans Bank Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61/2 85 (1851). Galveston and Brazos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 50 N AVASOTA, a post-vil- lage and a railroad junc- tion of Grimes county, Texas, seventy miles north of Houston. It has good educational institu- tions, and manufactures cotton, flour, cotton-seed oil, carria es, and wagons. S A, an island in the West Indian group This island, under the provisions of Title 72 of the Revised Statutes, has been recognized as apper- taining to the United States. It contains guano deposits, is owned by the Navassa Phosphate Com- pany, and occupied solely by its employes. In September, 1889, a revolt took place among these laborers, resulting in the killing of some of the agents of the company, caused, as the laborers claimed, by cruel treatment. These men were arrested and tried in the United States court at Baltimore. under Section 5,576 of the statute re- ferred to, as if the offenses had been committed on board a merchant vessel of the United States on the high seas. There appeared on the trial such evidence of the bad treatment of the men that, in consideration of this and of the fact that the men had no access to any public officer or tribunal for protection or the redress of their wrongs, President Harrison commuted the death sentences passed by the court against three of them; and the President in his message of December, 1891, strongly recommended such legislation by Con- gress as shall place labor contracts upon this and other islands having a similar relation to the United States, under the supervision of a United States Court Commissioner for protection and the redress of wrongs. NAVEW, a garden vegetable much cultivated in France and other parts of the continent of Europe. The art used is the swollen root. N VIGATION, See Britannica,Vol. XVII, pp. 250-277. NAVIGATION, INLAND, on THE UNITED STATES. From the northwest to the seaboard there is a con- tinuous water route by way of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, the Erie Canal and the Hudson River to New York. By connecting the Wisconsin river, which flows into the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien,with the Fox River, which empties into Green Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan, contin- uous water-communication was established between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. The canal connecting the two water systems is at Por- _tween two piers. LAKE Hannons.--W'e append here an enumera- tion of the principal harbors on the Great Lakes: Duluth, Minn., has a dredged basin, 16 feet deep of an area about a half square mile. Grand Marais, Minn., has a similar basin protected by a break- water. Ontonagon Harbor, Mich.,~is shallow at the mouth of the river. But piers have been built from the shore into the lake and the bottom be- tween these piers has been dredged until a depth of 12 feet was secured. Octono,W'is., lies on Green Bay. Its harbor has also been deepened by dredg- ing between two piers. Green Bay Harbor has a dredged channel 14 feet deep to the deep water of Green Bay. Sturgeon Bay, WVis., has a harbor of refuge between two piers 1/4 mile in length. Its channel is 16 feet deep. Sheboygan Harbor, VVis., is approached by a channel from 14 to 18 feet deep. Milwaukee Bay, 1Vis., has an artificial harbor of refuge formed by inclosing a portion of Lake Michigan within an outlet breakwater of cribwork. Milwaukee Harbor has a channel 18 feet deep be- Racine Harbor, W'is., has a dredged channel 13 feet deep between piers. Chicago has an outer-harbor adjoining the Chi- cago River of a depth of 16 feet, and a harbor of refuge, which affords good anchorage in deep water and safe access to the river and harbor. Cal- umet Harbor has a dredged channel 300 feet wide and 16 feet deep from Lake Michigan to the Calu- met River. Michigan City has an outer and an inner harbor. The inner harbor has been deepened at shoal points to 17 feet, and the heaviest vessels can now pass to any part of it. The Harbor of Cheboy- gau, Mich., has a depth of 15 feet in the basin oppo- site the steamboat landing, and a 15-foot channel to the Strait of Mackinac. The width is only from 90 to 100 feet in some parts. The harbor of refuge at Belle River, Mich., has a channel 50 feet wide and 12 to 13 feet deep. It affords a safe refuge against running ice. Monroe Harbor, Mich., has a channel 10 feet deep between the Raisin River and Lake Erie, the entrance into the lake being protected by piers. Toledo Harbor is approached by a channel dredged through Mau- mee Bay. It is from 15 to 17 feet deep at low water. Sandusky City Harbor has a channel 150 feet wide and 14 feet deep, by which it is approached through the outer bar. Huron Harbor is approached be- 1116 tween parallel lines of piers running out into Lake 1 Erie. They give a wide entrance of at least 14 feet depth. Cleveland harbor has now a good, wide chan- nel, where the Cuyahoga river empties into Lake Erie, with a depth of from 17 to 20 feet between the railroad bridge and the lake. Fairport Har- bor, at the mouth of the Grand River, is approached between parallel piers 200 feet apart, leaving a chan- nel 16 feet deep between them. Ashtabula is ap- proached in a similar way. Erie Harbor has a channel of 16 feet depth from the lake to the har- bor. Dunkirk Harbor has been formed by a break- water nearly parallel to the shore. The channel is 13 feet deep between ragged rocks on either side. Buff-alo Harbor is made by a breakwater of crib- work 11/4 miles long running parallel with the shore, and a line of pile and cribwork?/4 mile long running out toward the southern end’of the main breakwater. They leave an open space of about 150 feet width between themselves. Charlotte Harbor, N. Y., has a channel of 15 feet depth into Lake Ontario. It is the harbor for the city of Rochester, N. Y. Great Lodus has a harbor formed of two breakwaters meeting at an angle. From the opening parallel piers extend into the lake, the channel between them having now a depth of 10 feet. Oswego Harbor, N. Y., is made by two breakwaters, one a mile in length, and the other half a mile. The mouth of the Oswego River has been deepened to 15 feet. Sackett’s Harbor, N. Y., was formed by dredging an area of 15 acres to a depth of 12 feet. Ogdensburg Harbor, N. Y., was made by deepening the channel along the St. Law- rence River front to 12 and 14 feet, and dredging a channel 15 feet deep which leads to the deep water of the St. Lawrence. NEAGLE, J OHN, an American portrait-painter, born at Boston, Mass., in 1799, died at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1865. He received only three months’ in- struction from Peter Ancora, a drawing teacher. He was apprenticed to a coach-painter in Philadel- phia; but in 1818 he determined to devote himself to portrait-painting. In 1826 he painted the cele- brated full-size portrait of Patrick Lyon, the Black- smith, at his forge, which is now in the Pennsyl- vania academy of fine arts at Philadelphia. Among his most notable portraits are Washington, Henry Clay, Matthew Carey, Dr. Th. Parker, Gilbert Stuart, . Bishop Meade, of Virginia, and Judge Sharswood. As a painter he was a powerful colorist, a skillful delineator of character, and a vigorous drafts- man. NEAL, DAVID DOLLOFF, an American figure- painter, born at Lowell, Mass., in 1837. In 1862 he went to Munich, where he studied under Ainmi'1l- ler, and afterwards under Piloty. Among his ear- lier works are Chapel of the Nonberg Convent, Salzburg (1864); Chapelof the Kings at Westminster; The In- terior of St. Marks, Venice; and On the.Canal, Venice. His best known work is The First Meeting of Queen Mary Stuart and Riccio. When it was exhibited in 1876, it was awarded the grand medal of the Ba- varian Academy. Among his other pictures are Retour du Chasse; James Watt; The Burgomaster; and Oliver Cromwell visits John Milton ( 1883). He lives mostly at Munich, but has also exhibited in Lon- don and New York City. NEAL, J01-IN, an American author, born in Maine, Aug. 25, 1793, died June 21,1876. In his youth he was a Quaker, and he began the world at twelve as a shop-boy. In 1816 he failed in business, and turned to the study of law, supporting himself the while by his pen. He was one of the first Ameri- cans to write in the greater English magazines, and from 1823 till 1827 he lived in England, part of NEAGLE—NEBRASKA the time as one of Bentham’s students and secre- taries. After his return to America he settled in his native town, practiced law, edited newspapers, lectured, and found relaxation in practicing and teaching boxing, fencing, and gymnastics. Among his numerous works are a series of novels, Ben- tham’s Morals and Legislation, and Wandering Recol- lections of a Somewhat Busy Life. NEAL, JosEI>H CLAY, an American humorist, born at Greenland, N. H., in 1807, died at Philadel- phia, Pa., in 1847. From 1831 to 1842 he edited the “Pennsylvanian,” a Philadelphia newspaper. In order to restore his failing health, he went to Eu- rope in 1842. After his return he established “Neal’s Saturday Gazette,” which abounded in humorous satire and proved remarkably success- ful. In 1846 he married Miss Alice Bradley. His character sketches show much genial humor. Under the title “City Worthies” he described a number of small spendthrifts, pretenders to fash- ion, town loafers, and idle bores. These descrip- tions were collected in book form and published as Neal’s Charcoal Sketches, and Peter Ploddy and other Oddities (1844). NEANDERTHAL, a wildly romantic valley be- tween Diisseldorf and Elberfeld in Rhenish Prus- sia. In a limestone cave in this valley was found in 1857 the skeleton of a prehistoric man, and the peculiar formation of the skull induced several archaeologists to regard it as typical of a separate race of ancient cave-dwellers. Other authorities explain the abnormality as caused by disease dur- ing the lifetime of the individual. NEAT CATTLE, cattle of the bovine genus, as bulls, oxen, cows and calves. NEB-NEB, or N IB—NIB, the dried pods of Acacia Nilotica, a native of Africa, and one of the species of Acacia which yield gum-arabic. These pods are much used in Egypt for tanning. NEBRASKA CITY, the county-seat of Otoe county, Neb., on the west bank of the Missouri River, seventy-four miles below Omaha. It con- tains the Nebraska College, the Academy of the Annunciation, and a number of mills and fac- tories. Population in 1890, 11,472. NEBRASKA, STATE OF. For general article on the STATE or NEBRASKA, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 306-309. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as follows: Area, 77,510 square miles; population, 1,058,910, a gain during the dec- ade of 604,391, or 133.60 per cent. Capital, Lin- coln, with a population of 55,151. ‘ The full list of governors of the territory and State of Nebraska is as follows: TERRITORY. Francis Burt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1854 J . Sterlin Morton... . . .1858—59 T. B. Cuming . . . . . . . . . . ..1854—55 Samuel . Black . . . . . . .1859-61 Mark W. Izard . . . . . . . . . .1855-58 Alvin Saunders . . . . . . . . .1861-66 William A. Richardson... .1858 David Butler . . . . . . . . . . . .1866—67 STATE. David Butler. . . . . . . .1867—71 Albinus Vance . . . . . . . . .:1879—83 William H. James . . . . . .1871—73 James W. Dawes . . . . . . . 1883-87 Robert W. Furnas . . . . ..1873—75 John M. Thayer . . . . . . . . .1887—91 Silas Garber . . . . . . . . . . . .1875—79 James E. Boyd . . . . . . . . . .1891—93 Governor Boyd’s official term expires J an. 6, 1893. The salary of the governor is $2,500. BRIEF HIsToRIo OUTLINE.—-Nebraska was a part of the Louisiana cession from France to the United States in 1803. It was visited by Lewis and Clarke in 1804-5. It formed a part of Missouri in 1812. Nebraska Territory was organized in 1854, and then included part of Colorado, Dakota and Montana, and most of 1Vyoming. In 1861 and 1863 the terri- tory was made much smaller by setting off Dakota, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana territories. Ne- NECEDAH——NECROPOLIS braska was admitted as a State into the Union March 1,1867. The Constitution was revised in 1876. The Union Pacific Railroad was opened through Nebraska. Progress of population of Nebraska by decades: In 1860, 28,841; 1870, 122,993; 1880, 452,402; 1890, 1,058,910. For numerous other items of interest relating to the State of Nebraska, see article UNITED STATES, in t_hese Revisions and Additions. The following gives the population of the cities of over 8,000 inhabitants each in the State, in 1890, together with the increase during the decade: Cities and Towns. Popilslgabtlon’ Increase. Per cent. Beatrice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,823 11,389 465 .43 Hastings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,585 10,767 382 .22 Kearney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,074 6,292 353.09 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55,154 41,151 324.16 Nebraska City . . . . . . .. 11,494 7,311 174.78 Omaha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 140,452 109,934 360.23 Plattsmouth . . . . . . . . . . 8,39 4,217 101.01 South Omaha . . . . . . . . . 8,062 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Grand Island returned a population of 7,632; Fremont, 6,654, and Columbus, 3,118. The land areas-in square miles and the popula- tions, severally, of the counties of the State in 1890 and 1880 were as follows: Population . Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 24,303 10,235 Antelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 10,399 3,953 Arthur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 91 . . . . . . . . . . . Banner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756 2,435 . . . . . . . . . . . Blackbird . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Blaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,146 . . . . . . . . . . . Boone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 8,683 4,170 Box Butte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,080 5,494 . . . . . . . . . . . Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,020 4,359 . . . . . . . . . . . Bufialo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 22,162 7531 Burt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 11,069 6,937 Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.454 9 ,194 Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 24,080 16,683 Cedar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 7.028 2,899 Chase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 4,807 70 Cherry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,668 6.428 . . . . . . . . . . . Cheyenne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,288 5,693 1,558 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 16,310 11,294 Colfax .......................... . . 400 10.453 6,588 Cuming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 12,265 5,596 Custer .......................... . . 2,592 21,677 2,211 Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 5,386 3,213 Dawes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,404 9,722 . . . . . . . . . . . Dawson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,028 10,129 2,909 Deuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,130 2,893 . . . . . . . . . .. Dixon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 8,084 4,177 Dodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 19,260 11,263 Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . 330 158,008 37,645 Dundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 4,012 37 Fillmore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 16,022 10,204 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 7 ,69o 5,465 Frontier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972 8,497 934 Fnrnas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 9,840 6,407 Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 36,344 13,164 Garfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 576 1,659 . . . . . . . . . . . Gosper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 4,816 1,673 Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 458 . . . . . . . . . . . Greely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 4,869 1,461 Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 16,513 8,572 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 14,096 8,267 Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Harlan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 8,158 6,085 Hayes . . . . . . .. ' ' ‘ ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 3,953 119 Hitchcock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 5,799 1,012 Holt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,714 13,672 3,287 Hooker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 426 . . . . . . . . . .- Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 6,430 4,391 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 14,850 8,096 Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 10,333 7,595 Kearney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 9,061 4,072 Keith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,254 2,556 194 Keya Paha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 3,920 . . Kimball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 959 . . . . . . . . . . . Knox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,100 8,582 3,666 Lancaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 76,395 28,090 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,580 10,441 3,632 Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 1,378 . . . . . . . . . . . Loup ............................ . . 576 1,662 ........ . . . McPherson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 401 . . . . . . . . . . . Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 13,669 5,589 Merrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 8,758 5 ,341 Nance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 5,743‘ 1,212 Nemaha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 12,930 10,451 Nuckolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 11,417 4,2 Otoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 25,403 15,727 Pawnee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 10,340 6,920 Perkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 4,364 . . . . . . . . . . . Phelps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 9,869 2,447 Pierce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 4,864 1,202 Platte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 15,437 9,511 Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 10,817 6,846 Red Willow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 8,837 3,044 Richardson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 17,574 15,031 Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 856 3,083 . . . . . ... . . . . Saline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 576 20,097 14,491 Sarpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 6,875 4,481 Saunders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 21,577 15,810 Scott’s Blufi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 756 1,888 . . . . . . . . Seward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 6 16,140 11,147 Sheridan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.180 8,687 . . . . . . . . . . . Sherman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 6,399 2,061 Sioux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,046 2,452 699 Stanton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43‘ 4,619 1,813 Tha-yer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 12,738 6,113 Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 720 517 . . . . . . . . Thurston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 398 3,176 ..... . . . . V alley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57 2 7,092 2,324 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 11,869 8,631 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 6,169 813 Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 576 11,210 7,104 Wheeler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 1,683 644 York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 17,279 11,170 Unorganized territory . . . . . .. 655 695 2,913 NECEDAH, a town of J unean county, Wis., about five miles west of the Vvisconsin River. NECHES RIVER rises in eastern Texas, ‘and flows about 350 miles southeast to Sabine Lake, its waters passing thence by Sabine Pass into the Gulf of Mexico. NECROPHILISM, an unnatural and revolting love or appetite for the dead which has manifested itself in various ways. Consorting or living with the dead has been observed as a characteristic of melancholia. Individuals have inhabited grave- yards, preferring the proximity and association of corpses with which they had no tie, to the cheerful- ness and comforts of home. The most extraordi- nary exhibition of necrophilism is where indi- viduals have exhumed corpses, to see them, to kiss them, to carry them away to their own homes, or to mutilate and tear them to pieces. NECROPOLIS, a Greek term, meaning “the city of the dead,” and applied to the cemeteries in the vicinity of ancient cities. It occurs in classical an- 2 lll8 tiquity only as applied to a suburb of Alexandria, lying to the west of that city, where the corpses were received and embalmed. Here Cleopatra ap- plied the asp to her breast. NECTARY, in botany, an organ in the flowers of many phanerogamous plants, devoted either to the secretion or the reception of the honey. NEEDLES, see Britannica, V01. XVII, pp. 313-14. Needles are now made of many different sizes and shapes, and applied to many different uses. The needle trade has become an important one, al- though less so in America than in Europe. In the tenth census forty establishments were counted in America, where pins and needles are made. Their total product was valued at $1,378,000 for 1880. In manufacturing them each needle has to pass through about fifty pairs of hands before it is fin- ished and ready for the market. NE EXEAT REGNO, the title of a writ issued by a superior court to prevent an individual leav- ing the country, unless he gives security to abide a decree of the court. NEFF, FELIX, a Protestant pastor, born at Gene- va, in 1798, died in 1829. In his twenty-sixth year he was Ordained,in England,to minister to the neg- lected inhabitants of the lofty Alpine valleys in the east of the department of Hautes Alpes. His parish was a most difficult one to minister to, ow- ing to its mountainous nature and great extent, and the uncivilized character of the people. But with unwearied devotion and simple piety Neff la- bored amongst them like his chosen model, Ober- lin, until his death. NEGAUNEE, a manufacturing and mining city, of Michigan, situated on a high ridge about twelve miles west of Marquette. The output of iron is sometimes 200,000 tons in one year. Nitro-glycer- ine, mining-powder and charcoal are manufactured, and the local trade is very large. Population in 1890, 6,061. NEGLIGENCE, the omission to take such pre- cautions as a careful and circumspect man would take. It implies civil or criminal liability, if by this omission damage or bodily harm is caused to a third party. Ifa person is killed in direct conse- quence of another’s negligence, this killing consti- tutes manslaughter. In suits for negligence the jury has usually to decide the point of fact, whether there has been negligence on the part of the de- fendant, or the mischief has been done by accident, that is, the concurrence of peculiar circumstances of which the defendant’s omission is not the prox- imate cause. In civil suits the burden of proof is upon the plaintiff. If he can establish a legal pre- sumption of negligence,he is entitled to recover, unless the defendant produces evidence sufficient to rebut that presumption. A master is liable for the negligence of his ser- vants, if they perform acts ordered by him and in the way he directs them to do such acts. But he is not responsiole for any of their doings outside of the general business in which they serve him. If one servant is placed in command of another ser- vant and the latter is injured by the negligence of the former, the courts in the United States hold that the master is liable for such injury. But he is not liable for injuries received by a servant from a fellow-servant if the latter is not placed over the former by his master. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII. pp. 315, 316. N EGRI SAMBILAN (“Nine States”), a confed- eracy of small states in the interior of the Malay Peninsula, the affairs of which were placed in 1886, under a British officer residing at Kwala Pilah. The confederacy comprises Sri Menanti, Rembau, J ohol, Tampin, and other small states, numbering, NECTARY—NELSON as its name implies, nine states in all,and compris- ing about 2,000 square miles. Its revenue in 1889 was $100,898. See Britannica, Vol. XV, p. 322. NEGRO, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 316-320, and also UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. NEGUNDO, a genus of trees of the natural order Aceracece, differing from the maples chiefly in the dioecious flowers being destitute of petals, and in the pinnated ash-like leaves. NEGUS, a compound of port or sherry and hot water, sweetened with sugar and flavored with lemon-peel and spices. It derives its name from Colonel Francis Negus. N EHLIG, VIOTOR, a French-American painter, born at Paris in 1830. After studying at Paris he settled in New York in 1856. Here he was elected an associate of the National Academy in 1863, and a full member in 1870. His paintings are charac- terized by admirable drawing of the figures, which he took mostly from American history. His prin- cipal works are The Cavalry Charge of St. Harry B. Hidden, in the New York Historical Society; Ger- trude of Wyoming; I-Iiawatha and Minnehaha; Battle of Antietam; Battle of Gettysburg, and The Princess Pocahontas (1872). He returned to Europe in 1872. NEILLSVILLE, a village, the county-seat of Clark county, VVis., situated on the Black River. It is principally engaged in milling and in manu- facturing lumber. N EJ IN , an ancient town of Russia. on the Oster, 80 miles northeast of Kiev. It fell into the hands of the Lithuanians in 1320, and of the Poles in 1386, but was annexed to Russia in 1654. It is an indus- trious town, many of whose inhabitants are Greek immigrants, who settled here during the reign of Catherine II. The principal branch of industry is the cultivation of tobacco. Great quantities of leaf-tobacco are sent hence to St. Petersburg, Riga and M ittau. Population, 21,203. NELATON, AUeUsTE (1807-1873), a French sur- geon, born at Paris in 1807, studied there, and after serving as surgeon in various hospitals and lectur- ing at the faculty of medicine, became in 1851 pro- fessor of clinical surgery, and in 1866 surgeon to the emperor. He became a member to the senate in 1868, and died in 1873. Besides his great Ele- ments de Pathologie Chirurgicale, he wrote on tumors of the breast and the operation for cataract. NELSON, A. HOMER, an American lawyer and statesman, born at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., in 1829, died in 1891. He studied and practiced law in his native town; became county judge in 1855; mem- ber of Congress in 1863; member of the convention for revising the State constitution in 1867 ; secre- tary of State in 1867, and State senator in 1882. NELSON, DAVID, an American clergyman, born near Jonesborough, Tenn., in 1793, died at Oakland, Ill., in 1844. He studied medicine at Danville, Ky., and at the Philadelphia Medical School. He was surgeon of a Kentucky regiment in the war of 1812. At that time he was an infidel. But he returned to the religious belief in which he had been trained, gave up a lucrative medical practice in his native place and became a Presbyterian minister in 1825. After preaching for three years in Tennessee, and for two years at Danville, Ky., he removed in 1830 to Missouri and established Marion College, 12 miles from Palmyra, Mo., of which school he be- came president. He was an ardent advocate of emancipation, and, on account of troubles arising from this cause, he removed in 1836 to Quincy, Ill., where he conducted an institute for the training of missionaries. Cause and Cure of Infidelity (1836), which has been re-published in London and elsewhere. Dr. Nelson was the author of TM. NELSON--NERVII NELSON, ROBERT, born in London in 1656, died at Kensington, Jan. 16, 1715. After a brief space at St. Paul’s school, he removed with his widowed mother to Dryfield, where he was brought up. In 1680, the year of his election to the Royal Society, he set out with Halley on a twenty months tour in France and Italy, returning from Italy with Lady Theophila Lucy, a widow, and daughter to the Earl of Berkeley, who in 1683 became his wife, and who soon after was converted to Catholicism by Cardi- nal Howard and Bossuet. Her ill-health had taken them again to Italy at the time of the revolution; but Nelson was from the first a Jacobite, and on his return to England in 1691 he joined the Nonjurors. He was received back into the Established Church in 1710, though he still would not join in the prayers for Queen Anne. His whole life was devoted to do- ing good. He was the author of five devotional works. one of which, the Festivals and Fasts, 10,000 copies were sold in four and a half years. NELSON, THOMAS, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in York county, Va., in 1738, died at Yorktown, Va., in 1789. He was a member of the provincial conventions in 1774-5, and was made colonel of a Virginia regiment, but resigned on being elected to the Continental Congress. Here he signed the Declaration of Independence. During the war he made large advances from his private property for the benefit of the State, for which he never received any compensation from the government. In 1781 he became governor of Virginia. At the siege of Yorktown he commanded the Virginia militia, and was praised for bravery by Gen. I/Vashington. After that he lived in retire- ment, his vast estate having been sold for his pub- lic debts. NELSON, VVILLIAM, an American general, born at Maysville, Ky., in 1825, died at Louisville, Ky.,in 1862. In 1840 he entered the United States navy, and commanded a battery at the siege of Vera Cruz in 1847. In 1858 he was on the Niagara which car- ried back to Africa the negroes taken from the captured slaver Echo. At the beginning of the war he was made brigadier-general of volunteers, and commanded the second division of Buell’s army at the battle of Shiloh. He was in command of Louis- ville, when that city was threatened by General B. Bragg. In 1862 he was made major-general of volunteers. He was shot dead by General J effer- -son C. Davis in an altercation with that otflcer on Sept. 29, 1862, at the Galt house, in Louisville. NELSONVILLE, a town of Ohio, on the Hocking River, fourteen miles southwest of Athens. It is extensively engaged in manufacturing and in the mining of coal. Population in 1890, 4,547. NELUMBO, a genus of aquatic plants included by some botanists in the natural order Nymphaea- ceze, but by others constituted into an order, N - lambiaceaz, a differing in the want of allumen in the seed, and in the distinct carpels, which are buried in the cavities of a large fleshy receptacle. The flowers and leaves are very similar to those of water-lilies. The species are few, and are found in the warm parts of Asia, and in North America. ‘They are all distinguished by the beauty of their flowers. NEMI, LAKE or, an extinct crater, 20 miles south of Rome, accounted for its beauty the gem of the Alban mountains. There was here a famous tem- ple of Diana, portions of which have been recently excavated. Renan’s Prétre de Nenzi gives the place additional interest. NEMOPHILA, a genus of herbaceous annuals be- longing to the natural order Hg/droplzyllaceae, with pinnatifid leaves and conspicuous flowers. Natives bf North America, they are cultivated in European - 1119 gardens, the N. insignis being prized as a border plant on account of its showy flowers, blue with a white centre. NEMOURS, Lorrs CHARLES PHILIPPE RAPHAEL I)’ORLEAxs, Duo DE. born at Paris in 1814, being the second son of King Louis Phillippe. In 1834, after he had served two campaigns in the field, he was made marshal. In 1836 he went to Algeria, where he rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1848, when the revolution broke out, he assisted with his troops the royal family to escape to Eng- land. After the downfall of the empire in 1870 he returned to France and was restored to the list of generals. In 1879 he w as placed on the retired list. Nemours was in 1840 married to the Duchess of Coburg-Gotha. He had two sons, Louis, Comte d’Eu, married to a daughter of Dom Pedro II., ex- Emperor of Brazil, and Ferdinand, Duc d’Alencon, married to a daughter of Duke Maximilian of Ba- varia. NEMOURS, an ancient town in the French de- partment of Seine-et-Marne, 40 miles southeast of Paris by rail. It gives a ducal title to the second son of Louis Philippe, born in 1814. Population, 4,268. NEOZOIC (Gr. “new life”) a term introduced by Edward Forbes to include all the strata from the Trias to the most recent deposits. Few geolo- gists have adopted the term; the systems in ques- tion being generally divided into the groups of Secondary or Mesozoic, Tertiary or Cainozoic, and Quaternary or Post-Tertiary. NEPOTISM, (Ital. nepote, “a nephew”), a word used to signify the custom-practiced by several popes subsequent to Innocent VIII. of granting high honors, dignities, offlces, pensions, and the like to their family relations, generally their neph- ews, altogether irrespective of merit. NEREITES, the name given to animals which have left their impress on the Silurian rocks, and which exhibit a form similar to the modern Nereis. They occur on the surface of the laminae of fine shales over which, when it was soft, the creature moved, leaving a long and tortuous trail. NERVAL, GERARD DE, the adopted name of Gérard Labrunie one of the most attractive but ill-starred figures among the French Romanticists, born at Paris, May 21, 1808, died Jan. 25, 1855. He was educated along with Gautier at the Lycée Charlemagne, and early took to letters, publishing at twenty a translation of Faust which pleased Gothe, and gave his choruses to Berlioz. Desul- tory work, a love affair cut short by death, fits of restless travel, of dissipation, and the gloom that at times deepened into mental darkness, and at last death, almost certainly by his own hand, sum up the wretched story of his life. He moved ina romantic dream-world all his days, squandered money, when he had it, prodigally upon bric-ti-brac, read deeply in Greek, Italian, German, English, and Arabic, and wandered carelessly over Italy, Ger- many, Greece, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. Gérard de Nerval wrote admirably alike in prose and verse, his style ever delicate, natural, and original, informed with a subtle personal charm of a quite remarkable character. His I-lurélie, on Ze Rére et la Vie, is an experience of his own madness. “This strange work,” says Andrew Lang, “does for insan- ity what the Dream of Ger0nz‘i"u.s has done for death.” Another book of singular interest is the mélange entitled La Bohéme Galante. Some of his most charming poems are graceful adaptations of French peasants’ folk-songs, the beauty of which he had ears to hear. NERVII, a powerful and warlike people of the ancient Gallia Belgica, whose territory stretched 1120 from the Sambre to the ocean, not subdued by Caesar without an obstinate resistance. NESLE, Toun DE. The ancient castle of the noble family Nesle stood, with its gate and tower, at an angle of the city wall of Paris, on the south bank of the Seine, where now stands the palace of the Institute. It came into the hands of the crown, was the scene of events recorded by Brantome, and was bought by Cardinal Mazarin as the site for his college. - NEDTHERLANDS. For general article on the Netherlands, see HOLLAND in Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 50—99. The ofiicially estimated area in 1889 was 12,648 English square miles; population, 4,548,596. Capital, Amsterdam, with a population in 1889, of 406,316. The following table gives the areas and thepopu- lations of the eleven different provinces of the kingdom as reported by the census of Dec. 31, 1889: Population. Area, Provinces. English - square m11eS- Dec. 31, 1889. Per. sq. mile. North Brabant.. 1,980 514,278 259.7 Guelders . . . . . . . . 1,965 515,026 ' 263.0 South Holland. . 1,166 957,834 821.4 North Holland. . 1,070 831,395 783.5 Zealand . . . . . . . . . 690 201,667 292.2 Utrecht .. . . . . . .. . 534 222,250 416.1 Friesland. .. . . . . . 1,282 337,507 263.2 Overyssel . . . . . . . . 1,291 297 ,545 230.4 Groningen . . . . . . 790 227,224 287.6 Drenthe. . . . . . 1,030 131,671 127.8 Limburg . . . . . . . . . 850 262,199 308.4 Total . . . . . . . . . 12,648 4,548,596 359.6 Of the total population in 1889, there were 2,252,- 742 males, and 2,295,854 females. CONSTITUTION AND GovENMERNT.——The first con- stitution was given in 1815. This was revised in 1848, and the last revision was completed in 1887. Under this revised constitution the “Netherlands form a constitutional and hereditary monarchy.” The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order of primogeniture; in default of male heirs,the female line ascends to the throne. In default of a legal heir, the successor to the thrones is designated by the king and a joint meeting of both the houses of parliament (each containing twice the usual number of members), and by this assembly alone if the case occurs after the king’s death. The age of majority of the king is 18 years. During his minority the royal power is vested in a regent—designated by law—or in some cases in the State council. The executive power of the state belongs exclu- sively to the sovereign, while the whole legislative authority rests conjointly in the king and parlia- ment, the latter—called the states-general-—consist- ing of two chambers. The upper or first chamber is composed of fifty members, elected by the pro-. vincial states from among the most highly assessed inhabitants of the eleven provinces, or from among some high and important functionaries, mentioned by bill. The second chamber of the states-general numbers 190 deputies, and is elected directly from among all the male citizens who are 30 years of age and are not deprived by judicial sentence of their eligibility or the administration and the dis- posal of their property. Voters are all male citi- zens, 23 years of age, who have paid either a ground- tax of at least 10 guilders, or a direct tax (per- NELSE-—NET~HERLANDS sonal) to an amount higher than the sum which gives partial exemption from taxation, and which varies according to population, or who are lodgers according to the precepts of the law. The total number of electors, according to the new constitu- tion is 290,000, which gives one voter in about 15 per- sons. The members of the second chamber receive an annual allowance of 2,000 guilders, besides traveling expenses. They are are elected for 4 years and retire in a body, whereas the first chamber is elected for 9 years, and every three years one-third retire by rotation. The king has the power to dissolve both chambers of parliament, or one of them, being bound only to order new elections within 40 days and to convoke the new meeting within two months. The government and the second chamber only have the right of introducing new bills; the func- tions of the upper chamber being restricted to ap- proving or rejecting them, without the right of inserting amendments. The meetings of both chambers are public, though each of them, by the decision of the majority, may form itself into a private committee. The ministers can attend at the meetings of both chambers, but they have only a deliberative voice, unless they are members. Alterations in the constitution can be made only by abill declaring that there is reason for intro- ducing those alterations, followed by a dissolution of the chambers and a second confirmation by the new states-general by two-thirds of the votes. Un- less it is explicitly declared, the laws concern only the realm in Europe, and not the colonies. The executive authority, belonging to the sover- eign is a responsible cabinet council of six ministers. Each minister receives an annual salary of 12,000 guilders, or about $5,000. There is a “State council” (Rad van State), ap- pointed by the sovereign, of which council he is president. This council is consulted on all legisla- tive, and many executive matters. PRESENT REIGNING SOVEREIGN AND ROYAL FAM- ILY.—Queen Wilhelmina Helena Pauline, born Aug. 31, 1880, daughter of the late King VVillem III.,"\" and of his second wife, Princess Emma, born Aug. 2, 1858, daughter of Prince George Victor of WValdeck. QUEEN REGENT.-—Emma, queen-dowager, mother of the queen, who took oath as queen-regent Nov. 20, 1890, after the late king had been declared un- able to reign by the states-general. AUNT on THE Q,UEEN.—PI‘lI1C6SS Sophie, sister of the late King lVillem, born April 8, 1824; married Oct. 8, 1842, to Grand-Duke Karl Alexander of Saxe- I/Veimar, born June 24, 1818. King Willem II. had a civil list of 1,000,000 guild- ers, but the amount was reduced to 600,000 guilders at the commencement of the reign of the present king. There is also a large revenue from domains, and in addition an allowance of 50,000 guilders for the maintenance of the royal palaces. The heir- apparent has 100,000 guilders, which sum is doubled in case of a marriage with the consent of the states- general. The queen-widow receives an annual allowance of 150,000 guilders. The family of Orange is, besides, in the possession of a very large *Willem 1II.,boru Feb. 19, 1817; the eldest son of King Willem 11., and of Princess Anna Paulowna, daughter of Em- peror Paul I. of Russia; educated by private tutors, and at the University of Leyden; succeede to the throne at the death of his father, March 17, 1849. Married June 18, 1839, to Princess Sophie, born June 17, 1818, the second daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Wiirttemberg; widower June 3, 1877. Mar- ried in second nuptials, Jan. 7, 1879, to Queen Emma, born slugIi 2, 1858, daughter of Prince George Victor of Wal- ec . NETHERLANDS private fortune, acquired in greater part by King Willem I. in the prosecution of vast enterprises tending to raise the commerce of the Nether- lands. CI-IRCNCLCCICAL HISTCRIC OUTLINE.-The present royal family of the Netherlands is known as be- longing to the House of Orange. This family is descended from a German Count )Valram, who lived in the 11th century. Through the marriage of Count Engelbrecht, of the branch of Otto, Count of Nassau, with Jane of Polanen, in 1404, the fami- ly acquired the barony of Breda, and thereby be- came settled in the Netherlands. The alliance with another heiress, the only sister of the child- less Prince of Orange, and Count of Chalons, brought to the house a rich province in the south of France; and a third matrimonial union, that of Prince \Villem III. of Orange with a daughter of King James II., led to the transfer of the crown of Great Britain to that prince. Previous to this period, the members of the family had acquired great influence in the “Republic of the Nether- lands” (q. v. in Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 50-99) un- der the name of “stadtholders,” or governors. The dignity was formally declared to be hereditary in 1747, in W'illem IV .; but his successor, \Villem V., had to fly to England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French republican army. The family did not return till November, 1813, when the fate of the Republic, released from French supremacy, was under discussion at the congress of Vienna. After various diplomatic ne- gotiations, the Belgian provinces, subject before the French revolution to the House of Austria, were ordered by the congress to be annexed to the territory of the Republic, and the whole to be erected into a kingdom, with the son of the last Stadtholder, VVillem V., as heriditary sovereign under the title of Willem I. In consequence, the latter was proclaimed king of the Netherlands at the Hague on the 16th of March, 1815, and recog- nized as sovereign by all the powers of Europe. The established union between the northern and southern provinces of the Netherlands was dis- solved by the Belgian revolution of 1830, and their political relations were not re-adjusted until the signing of the treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which constituted Belgium an independent king- dom. King Willem I. abdicated in 1840, bequeath- ing the crown to his son IVillem II., who, after a reign of nine years, died (March 17, 1849) leaving it to his heir, VVillem III. The later years of \Villem III. were characterized by illness causing at times serious apprehension as to his ability to continue his administration as sovereign, and Queen Emma was authorized to act as regent, if necessary; the first bill to that effect was passed Aug. 1, 1884; a second bill making the same provision was passed in April, 1889; and a like bill passed both chambers Nov. 14,1890. In the last case the queen accepted the regency and took the oath of office Nov. 20, 1890* King Willem III. died Nov. 23, 1890, leaving his daughter VVilhelmina, only ten years of age, sovereign in the order of succession, with Queen Emma as queen-regent during the minority of the queen. ~ LATER CENSUS RETURNS or CITIEs.—On Jan. 1, 1889, the towns of more than 15,000 inhabitants each reported populations as follows: * The queen regent on Nov. 24, 1890, issued an ofiicial proc- lamation in which she said: “Appointed as regent during the queen’s minority, I accept the task, confiding in God, and praying that its accomplishment may assure the welfare of the country and people, and the consolidation of the king- dom.” 1121 Bois-le-Duc . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 .743 Amsterdam . . . . . . . . . . . .399 ,424 Rotterdam, . . . . . . . . . . ..197,722 ( ’sHertogenbosch) _ The Hague . . . . . . . . . . . . .153,340 Zwolle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2g.9l4 ( ’sGravenhage ) Sch1edam . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..25.428 Utrecht..- . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83,304 Breda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..21,335 Groningen . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54,322 Deventer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..2-2.914 Haarlem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50,974 Helder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..22.716 Arnhem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49,005 Gouda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..19,808 Leiden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46,379 Kampen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..18.767 T1lburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33,177 Apeldoorn . . . . . . . . . . . . ..18,683 Ma-estricht . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32,034 Zutfen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..17,004 Nnneguen . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31,742 Middelburgh . . . . . . . . . ..16,743 Dordrecht . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31,729 Alkmaar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..15,-500 Leeuwarde . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29,717 Amersfoort . . . . . . . . . . . . ..15,24-4 Delft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27,997 Zaandam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..15,006 FINANCIAL SUMMARIES AND DEFENsE.—The Gov- ernment budget for 1891 estimated the revenues at 126,536,025 guilders, and the expenses at 135,930,839 guilders. The total debt of the Netherlands is 1,111,517,160 guilders (about $463,132,150). The southern and eastern frontiers are defended by few fortresses. The most effective means of de- fending the Netherlands consists in piercing the dykes and inundating a great stretch of land be- tween the sea and the river, the Lek. The few roads lying above the level of the water are guarded by fortresses connected with each other; the river can be defended by gun-vessels if neces- sary. A large part of the province of Utrecht, be- sides North and South Holland, with the principal towns, is thus secured. The army of the Netherlands, which was redr- ganized partly on the system of Germany in 1881, is formed partly by conscription and partly by en- listment, the volunteers forming the stock, but not the majority of the troops. The regular army on footing of war consists of 36,912 infantry, 2,610 cavalry, 1,526 engineers, 13,619 artillery, 375 mounted police (maréchaussée) ; in all, about 55,000 men, including officers and special services. In peace the total number of the army is only 26,818 men and 1,826 officers (in 1888). Included in the infantry are 1 regiment of guards and 8 regiments of the line; there are 3 regiments of cavalry, 1 battalion of sappers and miners, 3 regiments of field artillery, 4 of fortress artillery, 1 corps of light-horse artillery, 1 corps of pontooneers, and 1 corps of torpedoists. The colonial possessions of the Netherlands in the East and West Indies on Jan. 1,1891, were esti- mated to embrace an area of 766,137 square miles, with an aggregate population, according to the latest returns, of 29,550,000, or more than six times as large as that of the mother country. The sub- joined table formulates the estimated summaries ibié the several Dutch possessions in the East 11 ms. Java and Madura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50,848 22,430,043 Sumatra, west coast . . . . . . . . . .. 46,20 -1,190,791 Sumatra, east coast . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,282 277,801 Island of Benkulen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,576 152,898 Sumatra Lampongs . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,975 123.891 Palembang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,152 637,197 Atjeh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.370 542,673 Riau-Lingga Archipelago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,325 94.743 Banca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,977 76,351 Billiton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,500 36,635 Borneo, west coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58,926 413,694 Borneo, south and east districts . . . . . . 144.788 677,939 Islands of g Celebes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,150 402,211 Celebes M enado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,000 416,986 Molucca Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42.420 352,623 Timor Archipelago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2-1 ,8-10 ' ,331 Bali and Lombok . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.990 1,363,806 New Guinea to 1410 E. longitude . . . . .. 150,755 200.000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719,674 29,475,613 For a concise statement of the recent delimita- tion and division of New Guinea defining bound- . aries of the Netherlands in that great island, see 2-34 1122 €._rticle NEW GUINEA in these Revisions and Addi- ’ Ions. NETTLETON, AsAIIEL, an American evangel- ist, born at North Killingworth, Conn., in 1783, died at East WVindsor, Conn. in 1844. He studied theol- ogy at New Haven, and was ordained as an evan- gelist in 1817. in Massachusetts, New York, and Connecticut. ‘In 1827 he went to Virginia for his health and in 1831 to Great Britain. After his return he lectured oc- casionally to the students of the Theological Semi- nary at East vWindsor. He is best known by his collection of Village Hymns and his Sermons edited by Rev. Dr. B. Tyler. NE UHAUS, a town of Bohemia, on the Neschar- ka, about seventy miles south-southeast of Prague. Its palace, belonging to Count Czerny, is a splendid edifice. Cloth, paper, and chemical products are manufactured. Population, 8,620. N EUKOMM, Srersrruxn, a German composer, born at Salzburg in 1778, died at Paris in 1858. From 1804 till 1820 he taught music at St. Peters- burg, Vienna, Paris, and Rio de J aneiro. In 1821 he returned to Paris, living at the house of Prince Talleyrand, and went with him to England in 1830. He produced about 800 compositions, composing operas. cantatas, symphonies, songs, etc. Mount Sines’ (1831); and Dcwicl (1834) are his most noted Works. Towards the end of his life Neukomm be- came blind. NEURITIS, a term applied to inflammation of the nerves. The disease is not very common, and not very well defined. The symptoms are those of ' neuralgia, with impairment of sensation, or local- ized paralysis, according as sensory or motor nerves are affected. NEUTRALITY, see Britannica, Vol. XIII. p. 195 and ALABAMA CLAIMs in these Revisions and Addi- tions. _ NEUVILLE, ALPHONSE IVIARIE DE, the most pop- ular of the youngest of French painters of battle- scenes, born at St. Omer, May 31, 1836, died in Paris, May 20, 1885. After studying under Dela- croix, he painted a series of successful pictures illustrative of French exploits in the Crimean war, Italy, and Mexico. Then came the war with Ger- many. Neuville fought in the ranks and learned something of real warfare from actual experience. This knowledge imparted additional power to his next and last series of works, depicting incidents of that war. The attack at Rorke’s Drift and that at Tel-el-Kebir were also chosen by him as subjects for pictures. Neuville excelled moreover as an illustrator of books, his best work in this line being the designs for Guizot’s Hv.'storz'e de France. NEVADA CITY, a city, the county-seat of Ne- vada county, Cal. It contains a number of quartz- mills, and has excellent schools. NEVADA, STATE or. For general article on NE- VADA, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 367-69. The - census of 1890 reported area and population of the State as follows: Area, 110,700 ; population, 45,761, a decrease during the decade of 16,505, or 28.81 per cent. Capital, Carson city, of 4,080. Virginia City had a population in 1890 of 6,337 ; Gold Hill, 2,073. The complete list of governors of Nevada, is as follows: TERRITORY. James W. N ye, 1861-64. I STATE. Henry G. Blaisdell. . . . .1864-71 J ewett D. Adams . . . . . . .1883-87 Louis R. Bradley. . . . . . .1871-79 C. C. Stevenson . . . . . . . ..1887-91 John H. Kinkead . . . . . ..1879-83 R. K. Colcord . . . . . . . . . ..189l-95 Governor Colcord’s ofiicial term expires Jan. 3, 1895. The governor’s salary is $5,000. His preaching was very successful . NETTLr.T'oN)‘_-NEW BE-DFORDK The land area and the population‘of the State of Nevada, by counties, Was as follows: * Population. lounties. Area. 1890. 1880. Churchill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,852 703 479 Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892 1,551 1,581 Elko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,652 4,794 5,716 Esmeralda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,540 2,148 3,220 Eureka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,150 3,275 »‘ 7,086 Humboldt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,580 3,434 3,480 Lander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,296 2,266 3,624 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,688 2,466 2,637 Lyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,264 1,987 2,409 Nye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,908 1,290 1,875 Ormsby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 4,883 5,41 Roo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 26 Storey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 8,806 16,115 Washoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,620 6,089 5,664 White Pine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,892 1,721 2,682 Connmvsnn Hrsronro OUTLINE.—Nevada covers a part of the territory ceded by Mexico to the United States by the treaty of Gualpe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848. It was first a part of California, and was, later, included in Utah. It was made a ter- ritory March 2, 1862, and was admitted as a State Oct. 31, 1864. Congress made additions to the State domain in 1866. ' Progress of population by decades: 1860, 6,857; 1870, 42,491; 1880, 66,266 (including 53,556 whites, 8,710 colored, 5,416 Chinese, 8,203 Indians, and 3 Japanese) ; 1890, 45,761. For numerous other items of interest relating to Nevada, see article UNITED STATES, in these Revi- sions and Additions. NEW ALBANY, the county-seat of Floyd county, Ind., on the north bank of the Ohio River, nearly opposite Louisville. Population in 1890, 21,059. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 369. NEIVARK, a port of entry and the county-seat of Essex county, N. J ., on the Passaic River, nine miles west of New York. Population in 1890, 181,- 830. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 370. NEWARK, the county-seat of Licking county, Ohio, on the Licking River, 33 miles east of Colum- bus. Population in 1890, 14,270. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 371. NEVVARK, a village of New Castle county, Del., about 12 miles southwest of Wilmington, Del. It is the center of various manufacturing industries and the seat of Delaware College, of Delaware Agricultural College and of an academy. NEWARK, a village of New York, about 30 miles southeast of Rochester. It contains several mills, furnaces, foundries and factories and a num- ber of educational institutions. NEW BEDFORD, a city and port of entry of Massachusetts, on the Acushnet estuary, 56 miles south of Boston. Many of its private residences are very handsome, while the public buildings in- clude a city hall of granite, a custom-house, 30 _ churches, a public library and a fine high-school building which cost $126,000. There is a broad drive (four miles) round Clark’s Point, at the ex- tremity of which there is a strong granite fort. For a century (1755-1854) New Bedford was the chief center of the American whale-fisheries, send- ing out more than 400 whaling-vessels, and receiv- ing 60,000 barrels of sperm and 120,000 of whale oil in a year ; but this industry has since declined, till now only some 80 whaling-vessels belong to the NEW'BERNE—NE“lGUINEA port, and the people have turned their attention mainly to manufactures. Besides several great cotton-mills (nearly 500,000 spindles), the city con- tains foundries, oil-refineries and manufactories of drills, cordage, boots and shoes, flour, glass, plated ware, carriages, candles, etc. Population in 1890, 40,733. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 375. NEW BERNE, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of Craven county, N. C., situated at the junction of the navigable Neuse and the Trent, 107 miles southeast of Raleigh. Population in 1890, 7,832. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 372. NEWBERRY, Jonn STRONG, an American geol- ogist, born at _Windsor, Conn., in 1822. After studying medicine at the Cleveland Medical Col- lege and traveling in Europe, he settled as a physi- cian at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1851,where he remained till 1855. In the latter year he joined an expedi- tion for exploring the country between San Fran- cisco and the Columbia River. He also joined Lieut. Ives, in 1857, in the exploration and naviga- tion of the Colorado River, spending nearly a year in exploring the great cafion. The summer of 1859 he spent in traveling over southern Colorado, Utah, northern Arizona, and New Mexico, studying a large area of country that was before unknown. In 1861 Dr. N ewberry became a member of the United States Sanitary commission. He had charge of all the work of this commission in the Mississippi Valley, with headquarters at Louisville, Ky. Af- ter the war he was made professor of geology at the Columbia School of Mines, New York City, and in 1869 he was appointed State geologist of Ohio. In 1884 he was made paleontologist of the United States geological survey. and has had charge of the fossil fishes and plants. As a geologist and a paleontologist he occupies one of the foremost places. His publications include The Geology, Bota- ny, and Zodlogy of Northern Cal £j‘ornz'a and Oregon; Geology of the Colorado E.rpeditz'on; Geology of the San Juan E.rpeditz'on; Reports of the Geological Sur- rey of Ohio; Iron Resources of the United States, and several other works on geology and paleontology. NEWBERY, J OHN (1713-1767), aLondon book- seller, intimately associated with Dr. Johnson, Goldsmith, Christopher Smart. Smollott. and many other men of letters. He settled in London as a vender of books and medicines. He was the first to publish little books for children such as have ever since been popular, and he was himself part author of some of the best of the series. as the his- tories of Goody Two-Shoes, and Giles Gingerbread and the ‘travels of Tommy Trip. In 1758 he started the “Universal Chronicle, or \Veekly Gazette,” in the numbers of which the celebrated “Idler” was first printed. The “Public Ledger,” commenced in 1760, has continued to our own day—in its early numbers appeared Goldsmith’s “Chinese Letters,” later reprinted as The Cz'tz'zen of the World. It was to Francis Newbery, his nephew and ulti- mate successor, that Boswell tells us Dr. Johnson told him he sold for sixty pounds the manuscript of Goldsmith’s l'z'car of ll'alcefield, in which John N ewbery has been immortalized as “the philan- thropic bookseller in St. Paul’s Churchyard, who has written so many little books for children. He called himself their friend, but he was the friend of all mankind.” NEW BRITAIN, a manufacturing town of Con- necticut, nine miles southwest of Hartford. Popu- latgion in 1890, 19,007. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 72. NEW BRITAIN, an island in the Pacific Ocean. It new forms, with New Ireland and the north- eastern part of New Guinea or Papua, the German protectorate known as Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land. See ' scenery of the Highlands. l 1123 NEW Gunvsa,in these Revisions and Additions; also Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 372. NEW BRUNSXVICK, the county-seat of Middle- sex county, N. J., at the head of navigation on the Raritan River, thirty-one miles southwest of New York. Population in 1890, 18,603. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 375. NEWBURGH, a city, the county-seat of Orange county, N. Y., on the west bank of the Hudson,fifty- seven miles north of New York, amid the grand Population in 1890, 23-, 087, See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 37 . NEIVBURYPORT, a city and port of entry of l\Iassachusetts, on the south bank of the Merrimac, three miles from its mouth, and thirty-seven miles northeast of Boston. Population in 1890, 13,947. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 375. NE'\V CASTLE. a city, the former county-seat of New Castle county, Del., and a port of entry, on the Delaware River, about six miles below ‘Vil- mington. It contains numerous manufacturing and6 educational institutions. Population in 1890, 3,91 . NEIV CASTLE, a village, the county-seat of Henry county, Ind., on Blue River, fifteen miles south of Muncie. It contains a number of manu- factories and has a good local trade. NEIVCOHB, Snuox, astronomer, born at lVallace, Nova Scotia, March 12, 1835. He graduated at the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard, and in 1861 became a professor of mathematics in the United States Navy. He was appointed to the naval ob- servatory at Washington, and in 1877 was placed at the head of the ofiice of the ofiicial “American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.” He organized the Government expedition to observe the transit of Venus in 1874, and in 1882 observed the transit of the same planet at the Cape of Good Hope; he had already been sent to Saskatchewan and to Gibraltar to observe eclipses of the sun. In 1884 he undertook, in addition, the duties of the chair of Mathematics and Astronomy in the Johns Hop- kins University. His writings embrace over a hundred papers and memoirs, and include espe- cially most exact tables of the motions of the plan- ets. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 311; Vol. XV, p. 664. NEIVDIGATE, SIR RoeER (1719-1806), was born and died at Arbury in \Yarwickshire, having sat for many years in parliament as member for Mid- dlesex and the University of Oxford. He was a great antiquary, but is chiefly remembered as the endower of the N ewdigate prize poem at Oxford. NE\V ENGLAND, a collective name given to the six Eastern States of the United States——Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut——embracing an area of 65,000 square miles. The joint population in 1890 was 4,692.904; this is more than one-thirteenth of the entire population of the Republic, while the area of New England is less than one-fiftieth of the total area of the United States. NEIVENT, an old market-town ofEngland, eight miles northwest of Gloucester. Population of parish, 2,889. NEW GUINEA, or PAPUA. For general article embracing the early history of NEW Gnrxna, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 386—390. Next to Aus- tralia, New Guinea is the largest island in the world. It has an extreme length of 1,490 miles, a breadth of 410 miles, and a total area now esti- mated at 305.900 square miles. Since the close of the historic record in the Bri- tannica. above referred to, the proprietary jurisdic- tion of the island has been greatly changed. The half lying west of the 141st meridian has been 1124 assigned to the Netherlands. It comprises 150,755. square miles, and, includes a population of about" 200,000. The northern section of Southeast New Guinea, comprising 70,300 square miles, was named Kaiser 'Wilhelm’s Land, and was declared to be un- der a German protectorate in 1884. The present English territory in New Guinea starts from the northeast coast on the 8th parallel of south l.ati- tude and follows it to its intersection with the 147th meridian; thence northwest to the intersec- tion of the 6th degree of south latitude with the 144th degree of east longitude; thence west-north- west to the intersection of the 5th degree of south latitude, and 141st degree of east longitude. The adjacent islands north of 8 degrees south latitude are German ; those south of that latitude are En- glish. The English territory has an estimated area of 86,457 square miles, and a population of 135,000, with Port Moresby as the official center. The delimitation and division of New Guinea be- tween Great Britain, Germany, and the Nether- lands (or Holland) was finally settled in 1885. NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF. For general ar- ticle on NEW HAMPSHIRE, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 370-393. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as follows: Area, 9,305 square miles; population, 376,530, an increase of 29,539 during the ii?/ec(:)a2.e. Capital, Concord, with a population of , 0 . The populations of the chief cities and towns in New Hampshire in 1880 and 1890 are given in the subjoined table: Pop. Pop. In- Per 1890. 1880. crease. cent. Concord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,004 13,843 3,161 22. 83 Dover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,790 11,687 1,103 9.44 Manchester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44,126 32,630 11,496 35.23 Nashua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,311 13,397 5,914 44.14 Portsmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,827 9,690 137 1.41 Other cities and towns reporting each a popula- tion of over 3,000 were the following: Gilford, 3,585; Laconia, 6,143; lVolfeborough, 3,020; Berlin, 3,729; Lancaster, 3,373; Lebanon, 3,763; Lyttleton, 3,365; Milford, 3,014; Franklin, 4,085; Pembroke, 3,172; Exeter, 4,284; Farmington, 3,064 ; Rochester, 7,396 ; ‘Somersworth, 6,207, and Claremont, 5,565. The land area in square miles and the population, severally, of the counties of the State in 1890 were .as follows: Population. Counties. Area. 1890 1880. Belknap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 20,321 17,984 -Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 18,124 18,224 Cheshire ........................ . . 734 29,579 23,734 Coos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,771 23.211 1s,5s0 Grafton ......................... . . 1,766 37,217 38,788 Hillsborough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 93,247 75,634 Merrimack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909 49,435 46,300 Rockingham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 49,650 49,064 Strafford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 38,442 35,558 Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 17,304 18,161 CONDENSED HISTORIC RECORD. — New Hamp- shire was first visited in 1603 by whites under Mar- tin Pring. In 1614 Capt ‘John Smith visited the Piscataqua River and the adjacent coast. In 1622 NEW HAMPSHIRE—NEW IRELANDQ the territory between the Merrimack and Kenne- bec rivers, and from the coast sixty miles inland, was granted by the council for New England to Sir Ferdinand Gorges and Capt. John Mason, for a province to be called “Province of Maine” (q. v.). The first English settlement in this province west of Piscataqua River was made in the spring of 1623, near the present site of Rye. Later, Gorges and Mason divided their territory, the latter taking all west of the Piscataqua River. The council con- firmed this grant to Mason in 1629; the boundaries were the middle Of the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers, the sea coast and a line nearly parallel and 60 miles distant, the grants including also, all islands on the coast “within 5 leagues thereof.” Mason called the tract New Hampshire, after Hampshire, England. Mason died in 1635, and a large portion of the colony was annexed to Massa- chusetts. In 1679 a royal commission decided against the claims of Massachusetts and re-organ- ized the Province of New Hampshire. The present limits of New Hampshire were substantially fixed by royal declaration in 1740. A State constitution was adopted in 1784. Concord became the capital in 1805. The complete list of governors of the State of New Hampshire is as follows: GOVERNORS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. Josiah Bartlett . . . . . . . . ..1792-94 Samuel Dinsmore . . . . . .1849-52 John T. Gilman . . . . . . .1794-1805 Noah Martin . . . . . . . . . . . .1852-54 John Langdon . . . . . . . . . .1805-09 Nathaniel B. Baker. . . . .1854-55 Jeremiah Smith . . . . . . ..1809-10 Ralph Metcalf . . . . . . . . ..1855-57 John Langdon . . . . . . . . ..1810-12 William Haile . . . . . . . . ..1857-59 William Plumer . . . . . . ..1812-13 Ichabod Goodwin . . . . . .1859-61 John T. Gilman . . . . . . . . .1813-16 Nathaniel S. Berry. . . . .1861-63 William Plumer . . . . . . .1816-19 Joseph A. Gilmore . . . . . .1863-65 Samuel Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . .1819-23 Frederic Smyth . . . . . . . ..1865-67 Levi W oodbury . . . . . . . . .1823-24 Walter Harr1man . . . . . ..1867-69 David L. Mor,rill . . . . . . . .1824-27 Onslow Stearns . . . . . . . . .1869-71 Benjamin Pierce . . . . . . . .1827-29 James A. Weston . . . . . . .1871-72 John Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1829-30 Ezekiel Straw . . . . . . . . ..1872-74 Matthew Harvey . . . . . . . .1830-31 James A. Weston . . . . . ..1874-75 Joseph M. Harper . . . . .. 1831 Person C. Cheney . . . . . ..1875-77 Samuel Dinsmoor . . . . ..1831-34 Benjamin F. Prescott. .1877-79 William Badger . . . . . . ..1834-36 Nathaniel Head . . . . . . . ..1879-81 Isaac Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1836-39 Charles H. Bell . . . . . . . ..1881-82 John Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1839-42 Samuel W. Hale . . . . . . ..1883-85 Henry Hubbard . . . . . . . . .1842-44 Moody Currier. -. . . . . . . . .1885-87 John H. Steele . . . . . . . . . .1844-46 Charles H. Sawyer . . . . . .1887-89 Anthony Colby . . . . . . . ..1846-47 David H. Goodell . . . . . ..1889-91 Jared W. Williams . . . . . .1847-49 Hiram A. Tuttle . . . . . . . .1891-93 Governor Tuttle’s ofiicial term expires Jan. 3, 1893. The salary of the governor is $2,000. PROGRESS OF POPULATION BY DEOADEs.—-1790, 141,- 885; 1800, 183,858; 1810, 214,460; 1820, 244,022;l830, 259,328; 1.840, 284,574; 1850, 317,976; 1860, 326,073; 1870, 318,300; 1880, 346,991; 1890, 376,530. For numerous other items of interest relating to New Hampshire, see the article UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. NEW HAMPTON, a town, the county-seat of Chickasaw county, Iowa, and the trade-center of a rich farming region. , NEIV HANOVER, an island of the Bismark Archipelago, lying Off the northeast coast of New Guinea, and having an area of 570 square miles. Its physical characteristics resemble those of New Britain. NEW HAVEN, the chief city and seaport of Connecticut, and county-seat of New Haven county, at the head of New Haven Bay, four miles from Long Island Sound, and seventy-three miles north- east of New York. Population in 1890, 85,981. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 394. NEVV IRELAND, an island in the Pacific ocean. It now forms, with the Island of New Britain and the northeastern part of New Guinea or Papua, the German protectorate known as Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land. See NEW GUINEA, in these Revisions and Additions; also Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 372. NEW JERSEY—NEWMAN NEW JERSEY, CoLLEGE or, see PRINoEToN un- der the article CoLLEGEs AND UN1vERsITIEs - IN THE UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. NEW JERSEY, STATE or. For general article on NEW J ERSEY, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 396- 399. The census of 1890 reports the area and popu- laticn as follows: Area, 7,815; population, 1,444,- 933, a gain duri11g the decade of 313,817. Capital, Trenton, with a population of 57,458. The following table shows the population of the cities and towns which had each 8,000 inhabitants and over in 1890: Population. . . Per Cities and Towns. Increase. cent- 1890. 1880. Atlantic City . . . . . .. 13,055 5,477 7,578 138.66 Bayonne . . . . . . . . . . . . 19,033 9,372 9,661 103.08 Bridgeton . . . . . . . . . . . 11.422 8,722 2,700 30.98 Burlington . . . . . . . . . . 8,222 6,090 2,132 35.01 Camden . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58,313 41,659 16,654 39 .98 Elizabeth . . . . . . . . . . . 37,764 28,229 9,535 33.78 Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,338 6,898 1,440 20.88 Hoboken . . . . . . . . . . . . 43,648 30 ,999 12,649 40.80 Jersey City..... 163,003 120,722 42,281 25.02 Millville . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,002 7,660 2,342 30.57 Ne wark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181,830 136,508 45,322 33. 20 New Brunswick. . .. 18.603 17,163 1,440 8.37 Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,844 13,207 5 ,637 42 .68 Passaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,028 6,532 6,496 99.25 Paterson . . . . . . . . . . . . 78,347 51.021 27,326 53.53 Perth Amboy . . . . . . .. 9,512 4,808 4,704 97.84 Philli sburg . . . . . . .. 8,644 7,181 1,463 20.37 Plain eld . . . . . . . . . .. 11,267 8,125 3,142 38.67 Trenton . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57,458 29,910 27,548 92.10 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,643 5,849 4,794 81.96 Others of the thriving cities and towns of the State reported in 1890 populations as follows: Hammonton, 3,833; Bordentown, 5,090; Cinnami- son, 3,966; Northhampton, 5,376; Cape May City, 2,136; Milburn, 2,437; Montclair, 8,656; South Orange, 4,970; lVest Orange, 4,358; '\Voodbury City, 3,911 ; Ewing, 3,129; Princeton, 4,231 ; Monroe, 3,040; Piscataway; 3,286; South Amboy, 4,330; Wood- bridge, 4,665; Long Branch, 7,231; Raritan, 4,779; Upper Freehold, 4,145; Brick, 4,055; Salem City, 5,516; North Plainfield, 4,250; Summit, 3,502 ; Union, 2,846; \Vestfield, 2,216; Hackettown, 2,417; Wash- ington, 4,138. . - The following is a full New Jersey: list of the Governors of Charles C. Stratton... 1844-48 William Livingston... 1789-94 Daniel Haines . . . . . . . .. 1848-51 William Patterson... 1794 George F. Fort . . . . . . .. 1851-54 Richard Howell. . . .. 1794-1801 Rodman F. Price . . . . .. 1854-57 Joseph Bloomfield.... 1801-12 Wm. A. Newell . . . . . . .. 1857-60 Aaron Ogden . . . . . . . . .. 1812-13 Charles S. Olden . . . . .. 1860-63 Wm. S. Pennington... 1813-15 Joel Parker . . . . . . . . . . .. 1863-66 Mahlon Dickerson... 1815-17 Marcus L. Ward . . . . . .. 1866-69 Isaac I-1.Williamson. .. 1817-29 Theo. F. Randolph. . .. 1869-72 PeterD. Vroom. 1829-39 Joel Parl~:er . . . . . . . . . . .. 1872-75 Samuel L. Southard. .. 1832-33_ Joseph D. Bedle . . . . . .. 1875-78 Elias P. Seeley . . . . . . . .. 1833 George B.McC1e1lan. .. 1878-81 Peter D. Vroom . . . . . . .. 1833-36 George C. Ludlow..... 1831-84 Philemon Dickersonm 1836-37 Leon Abbett . . . . . . . 1884-87 William Pennington.. 1837-13 Robert S. Green . . . . . .. 1887-90 Daniel Haines . . . . . . . .. 1843-14 Leon Abbett . . . . . . . . . .. 1890-93 Governor Abbett’s ofiicial term closes Jan. 16, 1893. The governor’s salary is $5,000. HISTORIC OUTLINE-New Jersey was settled by the Dutch from New York in 1622, the first colony planting itself at Bergen. Was made on the Delaware in 1631. A similar settlement All the terri- tory from the Connecticut River to the Delaware River was granted i11 1664 to the Duke of York who conveyed the southern portion of it to Lord Berke- ley and Sir George Carteret. As the latter had 1125 been governor of the Isle of Jersey in the English Channel, the name of New Jersey was given to the new territory. The Dutch and English alternately controlled it until 1682, when a company of twelve Quakers headed by WVilliam Penn purchased 1t, and a season of peace ensued. A State constitution was adopted in 1776. The legislature adopted the new federal constitution in 1787. Trenton became the State capital in 1790. The land areas in square miles, and the popula- tions of the counties of New Jersey, furnished by the census of 1890, and 1880, are shown in the sub- joined table: Population. Counties. Areas. 1890. 1880. Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 28,836 18,704 Ber en . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 47,226 36,786 Bur ington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 58,528 55,402 Camden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 87 .687 62,942 Cape May . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255 11,268 9,765 Cumberland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 45 .438 37,687 Essex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 256,098 189,929 Gloucester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 28,649 25,886 Hudson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 275,126 187 ,94-4 Hunterdon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 35,355 38,570 Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 79,978 58,061 Middlesex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 61,754 52,286 Monmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 69,128 55,538 M orris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 54,101 50,861 Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 15,974 14,455 Passaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 105,046 68,860 Salem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 25,151 24,579 Somerset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 28,311 27,162 Sussex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 22,259 23,539 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 72,467 55,571 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 36,553 36,589 PRoeREss .011 THE POPULATION or THE STATE BY DECADES.—1790, 184,139; 1800, 211,149; 1810, 245,- 562; 1820, 277,426; 1830, 320,823; 1840, 373,306; 1850, 489,555; 1860, 672,035; 1870, 906,096; 1880, 1,131,116; 1890, 1,444,933. For numerous other items of interest relating to the State of New Jersey, see the article UNITED STATES in these Revisions and Additions. NEW LEXINGTON, a village of Ohio, about sixty miles east of Cincinnati. It contains a num- ber of mills and factories, and has a good local trade. NEW LISBON, a village, the county-seat of Columbiana county, Ohio, on the Little Beaver River, thirty-five miles east of Canton. It contains excellent schools and a number of manufac- tories. NEW LONDON, a city and port of entry of Con- necticut, on the right bank of the River Thames, three miles from Long Island Sound, and fifty-one miles east of New Haven. Population in 1890, 13,- 759. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 399. NEIVMAN, EDWARD, an English naturalist, born at Hampstead in 1801, died in 1876. -He was a printer in London, but devoted much of his time to the study of natural history. In 1833 he founded the “Entomological Magazine,” which was merged in the “Entomologist” in 1840. In 1843 he estab- lished the “Zoélogist.” Among his works are His- tory of British Ferns; Introdact-io-n to the H istory of Insects; Insect .Hunters; Bird-12esting,- D~z'ctionary of British Birds; British Moths; and British B'utterflie's (1871). NEWMAN, FRANoIs IVILLIAII, brother of the cardiiial, born in London in 1805. After a three years’ stay in the East, he was appointed classical 1126 tutor in Bristol College, 1834. In 1840 he accepted a similar professorship in Manchester New College, and in 1846 he was appointed to the chair .of Latin in University College, London, which he held till 1863. He has been an active contributor to numerous literary and scientific periodicals, and to various branches of ancient and modern literature. In con- troversies on religion he has taken part directly opposite to that chosen by his brother, being eager for a religion in his view more world-wide, and in- cluding whatever is best in the historic religions. Phases of Faith is by far the most widely diffused of his works. He has also written many philo- sophical and mathematical works. NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY CARDINAL, the leader of the Oxford Tractarian movement of 1833 in the church of England, born in London, Feb. 21,1801,died there Aug. 11,_1890. He took his degree at Oxford in 1820, when he was only nineteen. In 1821 he wrote jointly with a friend two cantos of a poem on St. Bartholomew’s Eve. In 1822 he was elected to a fellowship in Oriel College; and it was here that he formed his close intimacy with Dr. Pusey, and subsequently with Hurrell Froude, who had a great share in starting the Tractarian movement of 1833. Here also he formed cordial relations with Dr. Hawkins, afterwards the provost of the college, and Whately, afterwards archbishop of Dublin. Both of them exercised great influence over him by teaching him to define his thoughts clearly. New- man’s first book was that on the Arians of the Fourth Century. It was a very careful and scholarly production, intended to show that the Arian heresy was not of Alexandrian origin, but was one of the J udaising heresies which sprang up in Antioch. In the late autumn of 1832, Newman accompanied Hurrell Froude and his father in a Mediterranean tour undertaken in the hope of restoring the health of the former. It was on this tour that the fire kindled which was to bear fruit in the Anglican movement of 1833. Most of Newman’s smaller poems were written on this voyage, and were pub- lished in Lyra Apostolica, a volume of verse, the object of which was to re-assert for the church of England her spiritual authority and mission with something‘ of the ease and buoyancy of poetic license. It was on this tour that Newman first saw Monsignore (afterwards Cardinal) \Viseman in Rome, and told him gravely in reply to the expres- sion of a courteous wish that Hurrell Froude and he might visit Rome, “'We have a work to do in England.” At Rome Newman left his friends to go alone to Sicily where he fell ill of malarial fever. His mind was deeply possessed during his illness by the idea of the work he had to do in England, and the delay in finding passage to England was very trying to him. At last he got passage on an orange boat to Marseilles. Becalmed in the Straits of Bonifacio, he wrote the best known of all his poems, “Lead, kindly Light.” See Britannica, Vol. XII, p. 595. From Marseilles he traveled straight to England, reaching home in time to be present at Keble’s Oxford assize sermon on National Apos- tasy, which he always regarded as the date at which the Tractarian movement began. Into the series of Tracts for the Times, which now commenced, Newman threw himself with great energy. In the first page of the first tract, he told the bishops that he could not wish them a more blessed termination of their careers than the spoiling of their goods and martyrdom. The tracts which now began to pour forth were all intended to preserve the dogmatic purity of the church as well as tb guard her ritual. In 1837 he made an attempt to distinguish the An- gelican via media from the doctrines of the Church of Rome in a course of lectures. In 1838 NEWMAN he followed up his discussion of the via media :so far as it effects authority with a volume on the via media in its relation to the doctrine of justification by faith; maintaining that justi- fication by faith—or the imputation without the reality of righteousness—must‘precede sancti- fication. In tract 85, published in 1.838, he made an effort to apply the theology of via media to the interpretation of the Scripture; asserting that all revealed doctrine is to be found in Scripture, though it could not be found on the mere surface of Scripture, since it.needs the guidance of tradi- tion to help us find it. Tract 90, which gave rise to so much agitation in Oxford, was one of the least interesting of the tracts. The right .wing of the Tractarian party was urging Newman to reconcile his High Church doctrines with the Thirty-nine Articles. This Newman thought a comparatively easy matter: and contended that the intention of the Articles was Catholic in spirit, and that they were aimed at the supremacy .of- the pope and the popular abuses of the Catholic church in practice and not at the Catholic doctrine. Tract 90 pro- voked an explosion which was the end of the Tract- arian movement, and brought on the conversions to Rome of many of the Tractarians. Newman struggled for two years longer to think his position tenable, but in 1843 resigned the vicarage of St. Mary’s and retired to Littlemore. On the 8th of October, 1845, he invited the Passionist Father Dominic to his house at Littlemore in order that he might be received into the Roman Catholic church. He went to Oscott to be confirmed; then he went to Rome for a year and a half; and on his return in 1848 he published Loss and Gain, the story of an Ox- ford conversion very different from his own, but full of happy and delicate sketches of Oxford life and manners. Shortly afterwards he began Callista, the story ofa martyr in Africa of the third century. In 1849 he established a branch of the brother- hood of St. Philip Neri in England. Newman es- tablished himself at Edgbaston, a suburb of Birm- ingham; and here he did a great deal of hard work,‘ devoting himself to the sufferers from cholera in 1849 with the utmost zeal. The lectures on Anglican Difiiculties, intended to show that Tractarian prin- ciples could only issue in submission to Rome, was the first book which drew public attention to New- man’s great power of irony and the singular deli- cacy of his literary style. These lectures were followed by the lectures on “Catholicism in Eng- land,” which gave occasion to Dr. Achilli’s action for libel against him. In 1864 a casual remark by Canon Kingsley led to a correspondence which re- sulted in the publication of the remarkable Apolo- gia pro Vita Sua, the most fresh and effective relig- ious autobiography of the 19th century, and perhaps the most fascinating of his many works as it is the most personal. In 1865 he wrote The Dream of Gerontius, a poem of marvelous subtlety and pathosl In 1870 he published his Grammar of Assent, a book on the philosophy of faith. In the controversies which led to the Vatican Council, Newman sided with the Inopportunists. He was at this time in vehement opposition to the Ultramontanes, and nothing seemed less likely than that Newman should ever become a cardinal; but after the death of Pio Nono and the election of Leo XIII. the pol- icy of the church altered,.and the new pope was anxious to show his sympathy with the English Catholic moderates, of whom Dr. Newman was much the most distinguished. Accordingly in 1879 Newman was summoned to Rome to receive the cardinal’s hat. For the last eleven years of his life Cardinal Newman seldom broke silence, and his chief contribution to the religious controversy NEWMAN--NEW of the day was an essay intended to suggest that inspiration does not necessarily include mere mat- ters of detail in history, unless these are the nature of facts which lie at the basis of revealed truths, such as the supernatural birth of Christ. NEVVMAN, JOHN P., a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born in New York City, Sept, 1, 1826, and entered the ministry in 1849. He went to Europe in 1859, and on his return published From Dan to Beersheba. In 1869 he became pastor of the Metropolitan Church in Vllashington, and was chaplain of the Senate for three years. In 1873 he made a tour of the world under appointment of President Grant, and wrote Thrones and‘ Palaces of Babylon and Nineveh. He was elected bishop in 1888. ~ NEW MEXICO, TERRITORY OF. For general article on NEW Mnxroo, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 399-402. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as follows: Area, 122,580 square miles; population, 153,593, an increase during the decade of 34,028, or 28.45 per cent. Capital, Santa Fé, with a population of 5,982. Population of Albu- querque, 6,058. AREA AND POPULATION BY CoUNrIEs.—The follow- ing table shows the land area in square miles and the population of New Mexico by counties in 1890: Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. . Bernalillo ...................... .. 8,628 20,913 17,225 Chaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Colfax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,600 7,974 3,398 Dofia Ana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,992 9,191 7,612 Eddy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,300 9,657 4,539 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 ,452 7,081 2,513 Mora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,000 10,618 9,751 Rio Arriba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,150 11,534 11,023 San Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,008 1,890 . . . . . . . . . .. San Miguel ...................... .. 13,246 24,204 20.638 Santa Fe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,292 13,562 10,867 Sierra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,116 3,630 . . . . . . . . . .. Socorro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,476 9,595 7,875 Taos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,300 9,868 11,029 Valencia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,900 13,876 13,095 LIST OF GovERNoRs.—The following is. a com- plete list: ' James S. Calhoun... .. 1851-52 William A. Pile . . . . . .. 1869-71 William C. Lane . . . . . .. 1852-53 Marsh Giddings . . . . . .. 1871-76 Solon Borland ....... .. lsamiieln. Axt-ol.....-.. 1876-78 David Merriwether... 1853-57 Lewis Wallace . . . . . . . .. 1878-81 Abraham R-encher.. . .. 1857-61 Lionel A. Sheldon.. . .. 1881-85 Henry Conolly . . . . . . .. 1861-65 Edmund G. Ross . . . . .. 1885-89 Robert B. Mitchell... . 1865-67 L. Bradford Prince. 1889-93 William F. M. Arny. . . 1867-69 The ofiicial term of the governor is four years; salary, $2,600. CONDENSED HISTORIC OUTLINE: -— This territory was explored by the Spaniards in 1537, who opened mines, established missions, and made some progress in civilizing the natives. In 1846, Santa Fé, the capital, was taken by an American expedi- tion under General Kearney. In 1848 New Mexico was ceded to the. United States, and erected into a territory in 1850. The “Gadsdens Purchase” was added in 1853. Arizona was set off in 1863; and part of Colorado in 1865. ‘ Progress of population in New Mexico by dec- ades: In 1850, 61,547 ;1860, 93,516; 1870, 91,874; 1880 119,565; 1890, 153,593. RED SANDSTONE 1127 NEIV MILFORD, a beautiful village of Connect- icut, on the Housatonic River, fourteen miles north of Danbury. It contains various manufac- tories and an excellent high-school. NEIVNAN, a village, the county-seat of Coweta county, Ga. It is the seat of important manufac- tories, and of a seminary known as College Temple. Population in 1890, 2,859. NEWN HAM COLLEGE, at Cambridge, Eng- land, commenced in 1871, when the Newnham Hall Company opened a house for five resident women students Old Hall, Sidgwick Hall, and Clough Hall, now form Newnham College,,where, at the present time, 1891, 147 students, under the charge of a prin- cipal, two vice-prin cipals, and five lecturers, receive instruction, partly by lectures delivered at Newn— ham, partly by such lectures of the university and colleges of the university as are open to them. In 1881 the University of Cambridge opened to stu- dents of Newnham and Girton its tripos and pre- vious exams., and in 1889, out of thirty-five students of Newnham who entered for the tripos exam., six took a first-class, sixteen a second-class, and nine a third-class; while in 1890 Miss Fawcett was placed above the senior wrangler. NEW ORLEANS, a city of Louisiana, situated on both sides of the Mississippi River, 107 miles from its mouth. Population in 1890, 241,995. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 402. NEVV PHILADELPHIA, a village, the county- seat of Tuscarawas county, Ohio, on the Tuscara- was River, 24 miles south of Massillon. It contains important manufactories and produces abundance of coal and iron. NEWPORT, a town of England, on the Shrews- bury Canal, 11 miles southwest of Stafford. Char- tered by Henry I. and burned in 1665. It has a 15th century church, a grammar-school and manu- factories of machinery and agricultural imple- ments. Population, 3,044. NEIVPORT, a town of Fife, on the Firth of Tay, one mile southeast of Dundee. It has a small har- bor designed by Telford, and municipal buildings. Population, 2,311. NEWPORT, the county-seat of Campbell county, Ky., on the Ohio River, opposite Cincinnati. Pop- ulation in 1890, 24,918. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 406. NEIVPORT, a port of entry and one of the capi- tals of Rhode Island, on the west shore of the Island of Rhode Island, in Narragansett Bay, five miles from the ocean and 69 miles south of Boston. Population in 1890, 19,457. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 406. NEIV PORT NEIVS, a point of land near the mouth of James River, Va., north of Hampton Roads and about seven miles above Fortress Mon- roe. It is the terminus of the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad, and has a fine harbor for the largest sea- going vessels, and a grain elevator of 1,600,000 bushels capacity. NEW'PORT—PAGNELL, a town of England, at the influx of the Ousel to the Ouse, 56 miles north- west of London. Named from the Paganels. who owned the manor in the days of Rufus, it was taken by Essex in 1643, and held two years later by Sir Samuel Luke, the prototype of Butler’s “Hudibras.” The fine parish church, restored by Street in 1858 is the principal edifice; lace-making has declined Population of parish, 3,686. NEIV RED SANDSTONE, the name formerly given to the great series _of red sandstones which occur between the carboniferous and jurassic sys- tems. The sandstones are now divided into two groups, the lower of which is assigned to the palaeozoic and the upper to the mesozoic system. 1125 NEW REP‘UBLIC—NEWSPAPER, 5444154155 NEW REPUBLIC, formed in Zululand in 1886-87 by a party of Transvaal Boers, lies on the northern and western side of Zululand, adjacent to the Trans- vaal and Swaziland. Area 1,380 square miles ; pop- ulation very limited. Capital, Vryheid. On the death of Cetewayo his rule had been usurped by chief Usibequ. Dinizulu, son of Cetewayo, sought and obtained Boer assistance against the usurper, and, as the price of it, ceded territory to the Boers. This they were gradually increasing by various means, when they came into collision with the British authorities,which resulted in negotiation. The new Republic was then defined and delimited, and the remainder of Zululand annexed by Great Britain, including all the coast. See ZULULAND, in these Revisions and Additions. NEW RICHMOND, a thriving manufacturing village of Ohio, on the Ohio River, about twenty miles above Cincinnati. NEW RICHMOND, a village of VVisconsin, pleas- antly situated on Willow River, about seventeen miles northeast of Hudson. NEW ROCHELLE, a village of New York, on Long Island Sound, eighteen miles from New York City. It is the site of numerous handsome villas of metropolitan merchants. NEWSPAPER STATISTICS FOR THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA. For general article on Newspapers see BRITANNICA, Vol. XVII, pp. 412- 437. Also see articles on Advertising Journalism in these Revisions and Additions. The subjoined summaries of Newspaper Statist- ics are taken from the Ameriican Newspape-r Direc- tory by the kindness and special permission of its publishers, Geo. P. Rowell & Co., of New York City, and bear date April 1, 1891. The total number of periodical publications now issued in the United States and Canada is 19,373, a net increase during the year of 1,613. In fre- quency of issue they are divided as follows: Weekly........... 14,000 Quarterliy . . . . . . . . 180 Monthly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,622 Bi-Week y . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90 Daily . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 1,791 Bi-Monthly . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76 Semi-Monthly . . . . . . . . . . 327 Tri-Weekly. . . . . . . . . . . .. 46 Semi-Weekly . . . . . . . . . 238 - Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,373 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The geographical distribution of the 19,373 peri- odicals is as stated below: New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,958 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,714 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . 1,357 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,139 Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 175 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 878 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 849 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Dominion of Canada... 837 New Ham shire . . . . . . .. 152 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 765 West Virg nia . . . . . . . . . .. 152 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 146 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 690 South Carolina . . . . . . . .. 126 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . .. 655 North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 542 Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 529 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . .. 66 Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 476 District of Columbia. . . 65 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47 Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Delaware . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . . . . 39 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 262 Wyoming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5‘ South Dakota . . . . . . . . . .. 256 Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 North Carolina... . .. . 205 Indian Territory . . . . . . .. 18 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,373 9 The States which do not show an increase in the number of papers published are Kansas, Massachu- setts, Vermont and the District of Columbia. Wis- consin remains the same as last year. New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa and Missouri each publish more papers than are issued in all of British North America. The total issue of a single edition of all the pub- lications catalogued is 48,856,500 copies, and the average edition 2,522 copies. the average edition in 1890 was found to be 2,338 copies and 2,034 copies in 1889. THE SEPARATE GROUPS COUNTED. The number assigned to each group as follows: . . N b fP. Class. Description. Iillllnescrhoclagglgérs 1 . . . . . copies each issue has... .. publications. 3 .... .. 75,000 “ “ “ “ 51 “ 4 .... .. 50,000 “ “ “ “ 60 “ 8111131553888 5- -- -- -‘- 1:33: 181 $- “ “ “ 6‘ ‘‘ 8111311883888 -- -- -- -- :11‘: 8-8 -- r 6‘ 6‘ “ 6‘ “ 1811111188888’ -- -- -- -- 1:111 88 -- 11 . . . . .. 12’500 “ ‘ “ “ “ 117 “ 12 .... ..10’000 “ “ “ “ 165 “ 13 .... .. 7’500 “ “ “ “ 275 “ 14 . . . . .. 51000 1: “ 1‘ “ 402 I: ‘( ‘ “ 18:11:11 8888 -- -- -- -- ::::: 888 -- 17 .... .. 2,500 “ “ “ “ 595 “ 1s .... .. 2,000 “ 1‘ “ “ 729 2‘ 19 .... .. 1,500 “ ‘ “ “ 1417 ' 20 .... .. 1,000 “ “ “ “ 21420 2* 21 .... .. 750 ‘ “ “ “ 2,501 1 22 .... .. 500 “ “ “ “ 2.910 “ 23 .... .. 250 “ “ “ “ 2,554 “ 24 .... .. 250 “ “ “ “ 511 “ 25 .... .. 500 “ “ “ “ 9,229 “ 6‘ Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,373 THE SEPARATE GROUPS ARRANGED. Or, if arranged in accordance with a plan of put- ting the largest Class first, it is found that— 6,139 publigations are issging copies regularly. 2,865 H 66 ‘G H 6‘ £4 H H H H H “ 4‘ 6‘ 6‘ H U H L‘ “ 6‘ 6‘ (6 H 6‘ H 6‘ $6 H “ 481 “ “ “ 4,000 “ “ H H £6 6‘ 4‘ H 6‘ H G‘ 6‘ “ “ H H 6‘ H 66 G‘ “ “ (6 (G H 6‘ 6‘ 84 H l‘ H 66 66 83 “ “ H (6 u 74 66 H ‘G H H 63 4‘ H 6‘ H K 61 6‘ H ‘\ it 6‘ 60 . H 6 6 4‘ H H 38 H “ H 6‘ “ 32 it 6‘ H H G‘ 31 H (6 6‘ H (‘ 19,373—Total. It will be observed that out of a total number of 19,373 publications 11,505, or nearly two-thirds of the whole, are rated as having an average issue of less than 1,000 copies. Of this multitude of small newspapers, nearly one-half are issued on what is known as the co-operative plan: a sheet already printed on one side being furnished from a central office, and upon the blank-side of this the publisher prints the local matter which is expected and re- quired of the home paper. Some ‘.of these papers have weekly issues running up into thousands, and it is an undisputed fact that the plan makes pos- sible a local newspaper of considerable excellence, NEWTON-—NEW YORK BAY TUNNEL‘ in communities which would not otherwise be able ' to supply sufficient patronage to support a publi- cation wholly manufactured at home. EXCEEDING ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND. The number of periodicals rated as issuing regu- larly more than one hundred thousand copies is larger by fifteen than in the last previous issue of the Directory. The following is a complete cata- logue of them: Household Pilot. National Tribune. Home Magazine. . _ Constitution (Weekly edition). Inter-Ocean (Weekly edition). NewséDaié eidition). “ S tur ay ~ a e. “ Wilorld Wide Mi_ssion_s._ Augusta, Me., giokteryés Fireside Visitor. “ om or . “ ' ’ Dau hters of America. “ Gol 1eln Moments. “ Suns ine. _ Portland, Me., Pract_i(<5iza.l(_Jl-l([)d days from Feb. 28, 1890, at a cost of $1,277,- During the year 1890, there were laid 86,500 feet of water-mains, and 32,000 feet of sewers. More than 700,000 square yards of new asphalt pavement were laid; 331/2 miles of streets were paved, and the Mayor reported that there were then in the city 320,000 more square yards of such pavement than there were either in Paris or London. The City Department had, during the last year greatly extended the system of free baths, so that during the year 2,794,934 males and 1,239,645 * Quoted from the Mayor’s Message. NEW YORK hum-r females had enjoyed the use of . _ Pommo 2”“ ‘-'\--'''''’..5 ~_ ‘l.[‘ml"'ewo0d udelll -3 Q such baths. During 1890 plans 3fo,l:,'.“‘-°’° Ha:'l'°’":(’ -‘li:l.'-’~ru;i°§'ll’Il“"’(%/‘duriglrlf.’lap“: had been approved for the con- ii€,f.f¢%(:;°r;. §.°‘;’;f;,_ Ri visage i‘-3" 'aj[1j=?=}:\ _ _ struction of new buildings cost- °_,§?°’/‘ "e1’<""',,*‘;1“'-"“"-"'\,.. $25‘???/‘Zie3Y3§rD=g;e1eL°%.' ing an aggregate of $81,597,000. F»!->s,:J:':1‘R"\3~5iL'&.,;}@\’§ "c§'J;““%'"Zr1,E’l’":’;l‘§M rk The police force embraces a ” W-s ,u5it._;v=m;'i~,_m,,r,nZ-'%;\,rX§"~eq‘? ‘6"‘ii?fi/£7 L-' total of 3,546 men. £12-)i3,‘;§,’d I; see ,,f°)fs,;°a<5 tffgiifs The appropriations had been fem“-D fJ%§]§Q§@§£§'e°°1“t’§;§tR,,i “'i‘t‘i;‘3‘, .*.‘‘‘’‘;Z''' s “ “ ‘ %ade for educationalh purposes. e11€‘§,fi3=*é'§;§;é§; it n( "°é ‘gen 1;, . ' K» 11i mere were then in t e city 228 ii,1,;"R-em 1'e7Z’,,“’e,€,_,~e y, ‘,,.,-,,¢>, public schools, with 153,357 pupils, 'L,,, g,wn91if:";f3”§;;v.=gfs,,, '\'-11“ ‘“,§"'“ ""'“6“ A '1~\?’1,2‘1-.:f_,-I$°’2I:»¥3;§,'i and 8,509 teachers. The manual , E3}-{s~b=i'-‘"Ge ' {H R" _' ‘=1 1;/4§e.<:-"‘ °§‘°Q training schools numbered 37, “§{ fi<\i,?;d\._4:l3l“’g‘i:':1§;‘a|),,c’2"/ \§r,\;<§_,, 9,.-"--""-"-'1"‘°E’9_“E" ‘ Q’ with430 teachers and20,000pupils =1‘ “*‘;,-‘T7,,-c~;§"2:i;L;‘.e<,j\e°\,,’;§* ' ‘$3 N,\A\CA:N"_a Megpstead of whom 900 were taking les- 7' ‘¢e;“/‘F 1)-" a; M ‘Q ~ "w W. “»fi;i;°(‘§‘§°1\=s$:§~§$;;\\Qg sons in special-courses in cook- 7%‘?-53??-i’-°£.‘,;IT H ‘; L ‘ b“‘%“°§‘z‘°c"°“ ing, and 5,700 in sewing. There - é:f1;ci§:“g1ieJ'l\?\lZI§¢\3\r _ were in the evening schools 31,075 E-L‘z"BET"* “E”? "Ora ‘ pupils. The Board of Electrical Con- trol during the past year had constructed, for the reception of telegraph and telephone conduc- tors, 178 miles of single duct in 9 miles of street trench, making a total construction of telephone and telegraph subways of 697 miles of duct in 38 miles of street trench. There had been con- structed 132 miles of duct in 89 miles of street trench for electric- light conductors, making for electric-light service constructed up to date 647 miles of duct in 85 miles of street trench. There had been placed in the subways 10,150 -.3 Ave elf Green Ridge 3 0 0 ekaway Beach 1.0 ea» 1- %‘ Q U Riuhrgond Q‘ Ga L-»:uson'§ Q _.'e Dorp . '26 ~ §'M‘l‘rdnllr.: 1:. $\ 9° 09 Q‘ ‘ W * er ‘*4 s NEW’ YORK ‘ $32.49 EA) & é Sandy Hook é aScotlm-id v ,y Lzg7¢t..Boat . ( 0)] ' ort Monmouth \ 3 ' K‘~‘5P°" Leo1:a\‘.l\il1e' 2 _ v \ .\'cw BIODR\O‘QI-h“}_Lq:),1 ' , NV-p'-1:-Y-ii-\ L§lfl:nB1 3' - igniands 8 Seabrlght C) 84>?» _s L0\\‘ll10€§e b 2 1 olmaeklforrisrille {(2 onmout -_ ne Iccdsiill€ _ hl1AIJt1C\ 1116 E Q ‘E Long ‘Branch miles of telephone and telegraph \ /, mflborougk m,n,,ugg£,£,,:,,,_g,QJ, SONG BRANC8 vropnry wire and 840 miles of wire for g P4. - H . “A°.“ 25- l°“eBm{*,.1 V~'es‘E“a Q5, NEW YORK 1 . -1. T. 1 . . . Ingxs town ‘ _o_‘§€Jl)C)'\'ln€ A kc-hanicsl 1. iberon e ectric 1g 1 seri ice, ma nng in a T,,,,,,,,,, K on - ccs 5- Dme,_ D ameach was all now in the subways, tele- M, ”- FREEHOLD P‘“°B‘°f-" C§‘Z§§t‘{;:; pmfo mu Grove 0 ' 2 4 5 8 it phone, telegraph and electric- light wires, 23,707 miles. There had been removed Aft? ’°11del>af*tt111e 9; I/t°.n§ Island the cit?’ fen ilito tglfie l__6 ' an so - e r1'1s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. us. 11 2~;~é';I111%al'ah:Vi§l"Z:r 1:361 Poles and 18,9"i9,645 feet of Adestructive fire consumed an eighth of its bui1l)din'1~‘1<' a<~.i'S'<'>'1-'a'1i‘s'e' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .. " It contained about 1,000 inhabitants . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 1648 The l\Ia.nha,t1i:[e;t1n Co. airs Lehzlrtered to supply the city I It was surrendered to the British, when the name New with water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799 Ainsterdam was changed to that of New York. in The City Hall was erected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1SO3-l2 . honor of James, Duke of York.brother of Charles II. 1664 Hackney coaches were first licensed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ' The _c1ty contained about 38-ihouses . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1648 The New York Free School was incorporated, and also Trinity church was rounded. . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1696 the Tammany Society . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . 1805 The population had increased to about 6.000 . . . . . . . . . . . 1700 Steam navigation was first successfully inaugurated on A slawe-market was opened 1n W all street . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1711 the Hudson River by Robert Fulton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1806 "l‘\hc‘eitSl\1(;:?3v'1g1o1'l§rtxaéellzltlei gvas founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Ehe arty; wirs sltirveyefd and laid rgujt. . . .t.].3. ...t. ._. . . . . .1. . . .. 1807 ‘ ‘j zs_ e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .. 7‘-. n t- e ec ara ion 0 war agmns ‘rea r1 a1n_.a arge 'l;hte\ilgIaet\g1§i§)€1;l'b:: }%1%l‘&l1‘)’ was organized . . . . . . . . . .. 17,458 nu1nbe1'fofhpr§3yateefstlefg thetclilty. and beei-inile thg 1812 1 ‘ Y s a. s e _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1" t., ~ ~ t -\ "to 1 rar ers 1 ieace was L ec are King’s (now Columbia) College was chartered . . . . . . . . . . The i(;1‘l‘1s(t)1stFez1nib1‘e1'11‘1v1w';1s established to Jersey City. . . . 1812 The Sandy Hook light-house.was first lighted . . . . . . . . .. 763 The first news of the treaty of peace was receiveld at The famous Congress, known as the Stamp Act Con- New York with enthusiasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Feb.1‘3, 1815 g‘£e‘s:se,rgs(s1eé121Il1;li<7aedC11n the city, and the Sons of Liber- 1 65 The Hopsfi ofiliefuge was (~)SlZ§i-bllSl1t(ild .t . . . . . .6 . . . . . . . . . . 1824 _ Y ‘~ J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. " Generi antte arrive in e ci y an wa: re- The el-Iigies of Governor Colden and the devil holding I delved 1\]l"lt~ll)_9.‘Ll‘Gétl) rejoicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 15, 1821 ~ the Stamp Act were. burned on the Bowling Green, Gas was first introduced and mains laid in Broadway. . 1825 . rl‘ll(/l\(3ol;rs;111,1E .e.r. b.f..C.O.I.n.1.1i . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . _ .d. . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 1725 Thetllimie Canal was completed, uniting the lakes with qzb > _ . ) erce was O1'°‘&l11Zl3 . . . . . . . . . . . . H " 8 e At antic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .. 10 ‘ The Colonial Assemblyadjourned,band delegates were I The Asiatic cholera ravaged the cit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1832 elected to _tl_1e Cont1nenta1_ Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1775 First horse railroad in the worl opened on Fourth A body of militia took ossession of the city in January, Avenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832 ;anldm\vasf followed y the American army in the 177 The6(&i)t%T wlads visiteddby a te};5ig%)le0fi1'e, which destroyed D5 ‘ 0 o_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . .. 6 ui ings an overt; O 00 of property . . . . . . . .. 18“ The ecl§rat1on of Independence was read to the army Business panic and suspension of specie payments by Juy8, . . . . . . . . ., ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1776 banks , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1837 1132 The great Croton Aqueduct was completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The great influx of immigrants commericed . . . . . . . . . . . .. Another dreadful fire destroyed millions’ worth of property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An International exhibition was opened in the Crystal Palace, an edifice of great beauty, but soon destroyed by fire.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..July,1853 The site of Central Park was selected by commissioners - appointed by the Supreme Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July, 1855 The great business panic which affected both hemis- pheres was severely felt 1n the city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1856 The successful laying of the Atlantic cable was cele- brated by a great public demonstration . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1858 1860 - . - - . . - - - - . | . - - I . . - , . . The Japanese Embassy and the Prince of Wales visit the city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theattack on Fort Sumpter aroused the American spir- It, and led to an immense meeting on Union Square In support of the N orth, the effects of which were Instantly felt throughout the country at large, New York throwmg herself heart and soul in the work of suppressing the revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Draft riots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . During the war the city furnished 116,382 troops to the government . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 The body of President Lincoln, on its way to the West, lay 1n state In the City Hall where it was visited by the populace. . .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865 “Black Friday” panic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Sept. 24, 1869 Exposure of the Tweed Ring frauds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1871 A disastrous business panic paralyzes the city, and forces several great corporations into bankruptcy. . 1873 Tweed sentenced to imprisonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Nov. 19, 1873 Hell Gate reefs blown up (Hallett’s Point) . . . . . ..Sept. 24, 1876 Elevated railroads in operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1877-78 The erection in Central Park of the famous Cleop'atra’S Needle, presented to the United States by the Khe- dive of Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1883 The New York Produce Exchange was opened . . . . . . . . . .. 1884 The New Cotton Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1885 General and ex-President Grant having died at the sum- mer cottage of Mr. Drexel, on Mt. M’Greg0r, July 23, 1885, the obsequies were held in New York, and the body was deposited in Riverside Park, New York. The funeral procession and the memorial display were the greatest ever witnessed in America. .Aug. 8, 1885 The Washington Centennial celebration was held, in Wl1lCh President Harrison and a multitude of the leading ofiiclals of the National and State govern- ments partmipated, with the greatest military dis- play, wlth the largest attendance of spectators ever witnessed in the city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..April 29-May 1, 1889 The great work of building the New Croton Aqueduct begun In 1883 and constructed at acost of $24,767,- 477.25, was announced as completed . . . . . . . . . ..July 15,1890 NEVV YORK CITY, UNIVERSITY OF. See COL- LEGES in these Revisions and Additions. This uni- versity has three departments or faculties: 1. The faculty of arts and science, whose work is carried on in a large building on Washington square, east, extending from Washington Place to Waverly Place. 2. The department of medicine, commonly known as the “University Medical College.” Its work is car- ried on in a building on East Twenty-Sixth street, fronting the Bellevue Hospital square. ~ 3. The department of law in the university, com- monly called the “University Law School.” The lecture and library rooms of this school are in the main university building. NEW YORK, STATE OF. For general article on the State of NEW YORK, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 450-466. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as follows: Area, 49,170 square miles; population, 5,997,853, a gain during the dec- ade of 914,982. Capital, Albany, with a population of 93,523. GOVERNORS OF NEW YORK.-The following is a complete list of the governors of New York with the dates of their official service: UNDER THE DUTCH. Peter Minuet ......... ..1624-33 William Kieft ........ ..1637—4’7 Wouter van Twiller. . . .1633-37 Petrus Stuyvesant. ....1647-64 UNDER THE ENGLISH. . Richard Nicolle . . . . . . .1664-67 I Francis_Lovelace . . . . . ..1667-73 DUTOH ADMINISTRATION RESUMED. Anthony Colve. 1673-74 NEW YORK CITY--NEW YORK ENGLISH ADMINISTRATION RESUMED. Edmond Andros . . . . . ..1674-83 Thomas Dongan . . . . . . ..1683-88 Edmond An ros . . . . . ..1688-89 Jacob Leisler . . . . . . . . . . .1689—91 Henry Sloughter . . . . . . . . ..1691 Richard Ingolsby . . . . . ..1691-92 Benjamin Fletcher. . . . .1692—98 Richard, Earl Belle- mont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1698—1701 John Nanfan . . . . . . . . . . . . .1701-2 Lord Cornbury . . . . . . . . . .1702-8 John, Lord Lovelace. . . . 1708-9 Richard Ingoldsby. . . . .1709-10 Gerardus Beekman . . . . . . ..1710 Robert Hunter . . . . . . . . ..1710-19 Peter Schuyler. . . . . .1719-20 ‘I William Burnet. .' . . . . . ..1720-28 John Montgomene. . . . .1728-31 Rip van Dam . . . . . . . . . ..173l-32 W1 liam Cosby . . . . . . . ..1732-36 George Clarke . . . . . . . . ..1736-43 George Clinton . . . . . . . ..1743-53 Sir Danvers Osborne. . .1753 James de Lancy . . . . . . ..1753—55 Sir Charles Hardy. . . . .1755—57 James de Laney . . . . . . . .1757- 60 Cadwallader Colden. . .1760—61 Robert Markton . . . . . . . . . . .1761 Cadwallader Colden. . .1761-65 Sir Henry Moore . . . . . ..1765-69 Cadwallader Colden. . .1769-70 John, Lord Dummore. .1770-71 ’i1liam Tryon, 1771-77 GOVERNORS OF THE STATE. George Clinton . . . . . . . . .1777-95 John J a . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1795-1801 George linton . . . . . . . . . .1801-4 Morgan Lewis‘ . . . . . . . . . ..1804-7 Daniel D. Tompkins. . ..1807—17 De Witt Clinton . . . . . . ..1817-22 Jose h C. Yates . . . . . . ..1822—24 De itt Clinton . . . . . . ..1824—28 Nathaniel Pitcher . . . . ..1828—29 Martin Van Buren . . . . . . . ..1829 Enos T. Throop . . . . . . . ..1829—33 William L. Marcy . . . . . .1833—38 William H. Seward. . . . .1838-42 William C. Bouck . . . . ..1842-44 Silas Wright, Jr . . . . . . ..1844-46 John Young . . . . . . . . . . . .1846-49 Hamilton Fish . . . . . . . . .1849-51 Washington Hunt . . . . ..1851-53 Horatio Se mour . . . . . ..1833-55 Myron H. ‘lark . . . . . . ..1855-57 John A. King . . . . . . . . . . .1857—59 Edwin D. Morgan . . . . ..1859-63 Horatio Seymour . . . . . ..1863—65 Reuben E. Fenton . . . . ..1865-69 John T. Hoffman . . . . . . .1869-73 John Adams Dix . . . . . ..1873-75 Samuel J . Tilden . . . . . ..1875-77 Lucius B. Robinson. . . .1877-80 Alonzo B. Cornell . . . . ..1880-83 Grover Cleveland . . . . . .1883-85 David B. Hill,_1885—92 Governor Hill's Ofificial term expires J an. 1, 1892. Salary of the governor, $10,000. The following table gives the population of the cities and towns which in 1890 had each more than 8,000 inhabitants; also the population of each in 1880, and the increase during the decade. Population. Towns and Cities. Increase. Per cent. 1890. 1880. Albany . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94,923 90,758 4,165 4. 59 Amsterdam . . . . . . . . 17,336 9,446 7,890 83.14 Auburn . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,858 21,942 3,916 17. 94 Binghampton 35,005 17,317 17,688 102.14 Brooklyn . . . . . . . . . . . 806,343 566,663 239,680 42. 30 Buffalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255,664 155,134 100,530 64.80 Cohoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22,509 19,416 3,093 15.93 Cornin . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,550 4,802 3,748 78.05 Dunkir . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,116 7,248 1,868 29.91 Elmira . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29,708 20,541 9,167 44.63 Flushing . . . . . . . . . . . 10,868 6 ,683 4,185 62 .62 Gloversville . . . . . . . 13,864 7 ,133 6,731 94. 36‘ Hornellsville . .. 10,996 8,195 2,801 34.18 Hudson . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,970 8,670 1,300 14.99 Ithaca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ,079 9,105 1,974 21.68 Jamestown . . . . . . . . 16,038 9,357 6,681 71. 40 Kingston . . . . . . . . . . . 21,261 18,344 2,917 15 . 90 Lan singburg . . . . . . . 10,550 7,432 3,118 41. 95 Little Falls . . . . . . .. 8,783 6,910 1,873 27.11 Lockport . . . . . . . . .-. . 13,522 2,516 18. 61 16,038 Lon Island City.. 30,506 17,129 13,377 78.10 Mid letown.. . . . . .. 11,977 8,494 3.483 41.01 Mt. Vernon . . . . . . .. 10,677 4,586 6,091 132.82 New Brighton..... 16,423 12,679 3,744 29.53 Neuburg . . . . . . . . . . . 23,087 18,049 5,038 27 .91 New Rochelle... . . . 8,318 5,276 3,042 57.66 New York . . . . . . . . . . 1,515,301 1,206,299 309,002 25.62 Ogdensburg . . . . . . . . 11,66 10,341 1,321 12. 77 Oswe o . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21,842 21,116 726 3.44 Peeks ‘ll . . . . . . . . . .. 9,676 6,893 2,783 40.37 Port Jarvis . . . . . . .. 9,327 8,678 649 7.48 Poughkeepsie . . . . . . 22,206 20,207 1,999 9.89 Rochester . . . . . . . . . . 133,896 89,366 45,530 49.83 ome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,991 12,194 2,797 22.94 Saratoga Springs.. 11,976 8,421 3,554 42.20 Scehnectady . . . . . . . 19,902 13,655 6,247 45 .75 Sing Sing . . . . . . . . . . 9,352 6,578 2,774 42.17 Syracuse . . . . . . . . . . . 88,143 51,792 36,351 70.19 roy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60,956 56,747 4,209 7 .42 Utica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44,007 33,914 10,093 29.76 Watertown . . . . . . . . . 14,725 10,697 4,028 37 .66 NEW'ZEALAND AREA AND POPULATION BY COUNTIES.-——The land ' area in square miles and the population of the State by counties in 1890 were as follows: Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Albany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 164,555 154.890 Allegany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,060 43,240 41,810 Broome, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .‘ . . . . . .. 685 62,973 49,483 Cattaraugus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,356 60,866 55,806 Cayuga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 65,302 65,081 Chautauqua . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . 1,020 75,202 65,342 Chemung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 48,265 43,065 - Chenango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854 37,776 39,891‘ Clinton. . . . .- .................... . . 995 46,437 50,897 Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 46,172 47,928 Cortland . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 28,657 25,825 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,557 45,496 42,721 Dutchess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853 77,879 79,184 Erie. ............................ . . 996 322 .981 219,884 Essex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,667 33,052 34,515 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,783 38,110 32,390 Fulton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . 567 37,650 30,985 Genesee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 33,265 32,806 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 31,598 32,695 Hamilton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,767 4,762 3,923 Herkimer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '1,459 45,608 42 669 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,147 68,806 66,103 Kin s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..\ . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 838,547 599.495 Lew s . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,294 29,806 31,416 Livingston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 37,801 39,562 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 42,892 44,1 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721 189,586 144,903 Montgomery. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 45,69 38,315 New ork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40 1,515,301 1,206,299 Niagara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 62,491 54,173 Oneida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,196 122,922 115,475 Onondaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824 446,247 117 .893 Ontario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 48,453 49 .541 Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 97,859 88,220 Orleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 30,803 30,128 Oswego. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962 71,883 77 .911 Otsego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 50 ,861 51,397 Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 14.849 15,181 Queens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 128,059 90.574 Rensselaer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 124,511 115,328 Richmond. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61 51, 3 38.991 Rockl and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 55,162 27 .690 Saint Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,926 85,048 85,997 Saratoga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 57,663 55.156 Schenectady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 29,797 23,53 Schoharie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 29,164 32,910 Schuyler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 16,711 18,842 Seneca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 28,227 29,278 Steuben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,490 81,473 77,586 Suffolk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 62,491 53,888 Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 911 31,031 3 ,491 Tloga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 29,935 32,673 Tompkins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 32,923 34,445 Ulster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,157 87,062 85,838 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 27 ,866 25,179 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861 45,690 47.871 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 49,729 51,700 Westchester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 146,772 108,988 Wyommg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 31.193 30,907 Yates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 21,001 21,087 Connnnsnn HISTORIC OUTL_INE.—NCW York was first discovered by Verrazano, a Florentine in the French service about 1524. It was re-discovered by Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the Dutch service, in 1609. The Dutch made settlements on Manhattan Island in 1614-21. The first agricul- tural settlement was made by the Dutch at Albany in 1623. The whole of Manhattan Island was pur- chased by Peter Minuet (Dutchman) for $24 in 1626. . The English, under Nichols, dispossessed the Dutch . 1133 and Swedes in 1664. Charles II. granted the lands be- tween the Hudson and Delaware rivers to the Duke of York, in 1664. French-Indian wars be- gan in 1687. Sir Wm. Johnston’s victory at Lake George took placeflin 1687. Oswego was taken by the French in 1755. Oswego was taken by the French in 1756. Fort Henry (Lake George) was taken by the French in 1757. Abercrombie was defeated by the French at Ticonderoga in 1858. After several defeats at Niagara, Ticonderoga and other points, the French were driven from the country in 1750. The first State constitution was adopted in 1777. Albany was made the capital in 1797. The articles of Confederation for the States were adopted by the legislature of New York in 1778, and the constitu- tion was approved July 26, 1788. The Erie and Champlain canals were commenced in 1817, the lat- ter was completed in 1823, and the former in 1825. Pnoennss OF POPULATION BY DECADES.—II1 1790, 340,120; 1800, 589,051; 1810, 959,049; 1820, 1,372,111; 1.830,1,918,608; 1840, 2,428,921; 1850, 3,097,394; 1860, 3,880,735; 1870, 4,382,759; 1880, 5,082,871; 1890, 5,997,853. For numerous other items of interest relating to the State of New York, see the article UNITED Smrns, in these R-evision's and Additions. ‘ NEW ZEALAND. For the general article on NEW ZEALAND, see Britannica,Vol. XVII, pp. 466-71. The latest reports make the area 10,447 square miles. The North Island -is estimated to embrace an area of 44,467 square miles, the Middle Island 58,525, while Stewart’s Island has an area of 665 square -miles, New Zealand was officially estab- lished as a colony in 1840. The total acreage of the colony is 66,861,440, and up to the end of 1888, 19,244,- 344 acres had been alienated from the crown. The total population, exclusive of aborigines, in 1886, the date of the census returns, was 578,482, an in crease since 1858 of 518,068, and an increase during the last five years of 88,549. The areas and popula- tions of the provincial districts severally in 1888, were as follows: ' Provincial District. Square Miles. Population. Auckland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,746 130.379 Taranaki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,308 17,999 Wellington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,003 77,556 Hawke’s Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4,410 24,568 Marlborough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.753 11.113 Nelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,269 30,203 Westland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,641 15,931 Canterbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,040 121,400 Otago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,487 149,154 A The population of the North Island was 250,482; of the South Island, including Stewart’s Island, 327,801. In 1876, New Zealand, previously divided into ten provinces, was divided into counties and boroughs. The census of 1886 gave the total pop- ulation as 620,451, including 41,969 Maoris. The total included 4,542 Chinese, of whom only 15 were females. Of the Maoris, 22,840 were males, and 19,129 fe- males. The total number includes 2,254 half-casts, living as members of Maori tribes, and 201 Maori wives of European husbands. At the census of 1886 there were four towns with over 10,000 inhabitants in New Zealand—namely, Auckland, 33,161, or with suburbs, 57,048; VVel.ling- ton (the seat of government), 25,945, or with suburbs, 27,833; Christchurch, 15,265, or with sub- urbs, 44,688; and Dunedin, 23,243, or with suburbs, 45,518 inhabitants. All the towns showed a large -electors are as follows: £9,339,265. gated £3,991,919; the expenditures, £3,962,912. 1134 increase in population between the enumerations of 1874 and 1886. GovERNMENT.-The provincial system was'abol-' ished in 1875, and the powers previously exercised by superintendents and provincial ofiicers have since been exercised by the governor or by local boards. By the terms of later amending statutes, the legislative power is now vested in the governor and a “general assembly” consisting of two cham- bers—the first called the legislative council, and the second the house of representatives. The gov- ernor has the power of assenting to or withholding consent from bills, or can reserve them for her majesty’s pleasure. He summons, prorogues, and dissolves the parliament. He can send drafts of bills to either house for consideration, but in case of appropriations of public money must first recom- mend the house of representatives to make provi- sion accordingly before any appropriations can become law. He can return bills for amendment '-to either house. The legislative council consists of forty-five mem- bers, nominated by the crown for life. By an act passed in 1887, the number of members to be elect- ed to the house of representatives was reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris, elected by the people for three years. The qualifications of (a) Residence in the col- ony and electoral district for six months immedi- ately preceding registration, in case of European males 21 years of age and upwards; (b) possessors of a freehold estate of the value of 25l.; (c) every male Maori 21 years of age or over, whose name is on a ratepayers’ roll, or who has a freehold estate -of the value of 25l. The general administration rests with a responsi- ble ministry of seven members. The governor, appointed by Great Britain, receives a,salary of $25,000. FINANCE AND DEFENsE.—The value of the imports in 1889 was estimated at £6,297,097 ; the exports at The total revenues in that year aggre- During the last few years the first consideration has been to provide sufficient means of protection for the principal ports of the colony. The ap- proaches thereto are now defended by batteries of heavy ordnance, supplemented by torpedo-boats and submarine mines. The volunteer force has a strength of 10,063 of all ranks. There is besides a permanent militia, con- sisting' of an artillery branch of 137 oflicers and men. Torpedo branch 54. The police force num- bers 498. All males from 17 to 55 years of age are liable to serve in the militia. It has been estimated that in 1887 there would have been 153,386 persons at ages liable to be called upon for this service. Only a small part of the imports are admitted free of duty. Luxuries, as spirits, wine, and tobacco .are highly rated. Clothing and most articles of general merchandise pay from 25 to 15 per cent. ad valorem. In 1890 there were open 1,912 miles of railway. The telephone system was in general use. NEZ PERCES, a tribe of Indians, see INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN, in these Revisions and Additions. The name of Nez Percés means “pierced noses.” ‘There is no custom among these Indians to justify such a name. They flatten the heads of their children. NIAGARA, a river and waterfall, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 472. NIAGARA, a town of Ontario, popular as a sum- mer-resort, situated on Lake Ontario, at the mouth of the river Niagara, fifteen miles from the falls. Niagara (then Newark) was burned down in De- NEZ PERCES-NICARAGUA CANAL“ cember, 1813, by the American General M’Clure on his retreat. Population, 1,441. ‘ NIAGARA FALLS, a village of New York, the principal place in the neighborhood of the falls. Population, 3,320. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 473. - NIAGARA FALLS RESERVATION. For some years prior to 1885 efforts were made by public spirited persons to have the approaches to Niagara Falls on the American side made the prop_erty of the State and free of access to all. Private inter- ests of various kinds stood in the way of this pro- ject, and numberless petty extortions were prac- ticed on the public. The legislature of 1.884 passed a measure constituting a State commission for the appraisal and condemnation of the structures ob- structing the bank of the river, which commission was also empowered to police the reservation when control should be obtained. July 15, 1885; was the day set for the final abolishment of the fee-sys- tem and of the various hotels and shanties; and on that date the Niagara Falls Reservation, sometimes called the Niagara State Park, measuring 107 acres, at a cost to the State of $1,433,430, passed into the keeping of the representatives of the people for- ever. A similar reservation, known as the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park, embracing about 150 acres, was authorized by thelegislature of Ontario, and was opened to the public June 22, 1887. NIAGARA IVATER POWER. The water power of Niagara Falls has long claimed the attention of engineers and capitalists. ln 1890 an American as- sociation broke sod in pursuance of a scheme to erect machinery for collecting and distributing the power, and to transmit it to distant places. The plan, as detailed, includes the building of a main tunnel of 24 feet diameter and 2% miles long, tak- ing the water from above the falls, and discharg- ing into the river below the rapids, a number of turbines being driven in lateral tunnels with ver- tical shafts and operating manufacturing plants in works to be built on land acquired near the falls. Part of the scheme includes the disposal of the sewage of Niagara village; but the main idea is to erect a central electric plant, and it is calculated that there is power enough to drive 235 mills of A 500-horse-power each, whereas 30 such mills would yield 5 per cent. on the calculated capital of $3,000,- 000; besides, electric lighting power could be con- veyed to a distance, including Buffalo, 20 miles away. The estimated obtainable horse-power is 120,000. NICARAGUA CANAL. A treaty between the United States and the Republic of Nicaragua was signed Dec. 1, 1884, by the provisions of which the United States was to construct an inter-oceanic ship canal across the Nicaraguan territory. The treaty was sent to the United States Senate Dec. 10, 1884, by President Arthur, with an earnest rec- ommendation that it should be approved. Owing to the pressure of legislative questions the treaty was not acted upon previous to the inauguration of President Cleveland, March 4, 1885. A few days later Mr. Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate, declaring his non-approval of a “policy of acquisition of new_ and distant territory, or the in- corporation of remote interests with our own.” Later, on April 25, 1887, the Republic of Nicaragua granted to a company of United States citizens the right to build the canal across its territory, and a like grant was made to the same company by the adjoining Republic of Costa Rica. Subsequently the company was duly incorporated by act of Con- gress (approved Feb. 29, 1889) under the name of ‘The Maratime Canal Company of Nicaragua.” . This company, under the provisions of its grants NICARAGUA CANAL and its charter, is authorized to issue stock, make ‘ thorough surveys, to be approved by the naval en- gineers and the oflicers of the army and navy of the United States,_and to construct the canal. Careful estimates place the probable cost at $73,- 176,308, with possible contingent additional ex- penses, increasing total cost to about $100,000,000. At this writing (June 1, 1891) the company, under the presidency of the Hon. ‘Warner Miller, of New York, ex-Senator of the United States, is now en- gaged in completing its surveys, preliminary to the commencement of the work of construction proper. The plan is to make Greytown on the Atlantic coast, and Brito on the Pacific coast, the termini of the canal, the latter and the two harbors to be made deep enough to float the largest steamers. The extreme length of the canal route between the two oceans is 169.4 miles, and of this distance 142.6 miles is to be traversed by “slack-water” naviga- tion in basins, lake and river, leaving only 26.8 miles of excavation to be made for the whole canal. The highest part of the waterway is only 110 feet above the two oceans, and the greatest altitude of the “divide” between the waters of Lake Nicara- gua and the Pacific Ocean does not at any point exceed 42 feet. The ascent and descent is to be made by a system of locks near each end of the canal, and a singled dam across the San Juan River 1,250 feet long and averaging 61 feet high be- tween two steep hills will furnish an ample navi- gable ship-channel 120 miles long between two series of locks for the commerce of the world. Lake Nicaragua is a remarkable body of water, filling a cavity between the mountains. Is is most healthfully located, and with the San Juan River presents a water-shed suflicient to furnish not only a safe and great internal harbor, but also an inex- haustible water supply for the lockage systems of the canal. VALUE OF THIS RoUTE.—The great value of this 1135 “Here, with such a vast water-supply at the sum- mit, with the lake itself as a summit level, nature seems indeed to have offered assistance in connect- ing the oceans. No great engineering difliculties in utilizing the lake are claimed, even by opponents of this route. There are no startling propositions connected with the plan. “The lake and San Juan River must be the great part of the canal, no matter how the openings to the sea are made.” ROUTE DISTANCES IN DETAIL.—-AS stated above, the route extends from Greytown on the Atlantic to Brito on the Pacific, a distance of 169.67 miles, di- vided as follows: Free Canal Naviga- in Exca- tion vation. Greytown to Deseado basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.37 Deseado basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . .. 4.00 From Deseado basin to San Francisco basin. . . . . . . . . . 3.07 San Francisco and Machado basins . . . . . . . .. 11.0 1.73 River San Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64.00 Lake Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56.50 From Lake Nicaragua to Tola basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.22 Tola basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.28 From Tola basin to Brito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.50 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140.78 28.89 The Deseado and Tola basins are new features, brought out by the last location, as well as an in- crease of 2,312 miles in thelength of free navigation in the San Francisco and Machado basins, or in other words, the last location has reduced the length of canal in excavation by that same distance, while the summit level has been extended from 144.8 miles to 153.8 miles. The accompanying diagram will explain itself. t 2 '4 ‘E S \ ~ \ s <> is D 0, § - E 2 ‘* k z "- 5, Q Q Q i 4 3 B 5 Q \ e '5 ‘ 3 § Q S \ Q Q Q" 2 3 2 Q Q s o 8 ‘I 5; 8A3 § 3 ‘ Q ~ 3 S 8 '5 5 5 o o m 3 Q‘ - 3 E s 2 2 , 8 2- - s S 8 ‘:58 s a . 3 ‘I .Q :5’; - - Q g to h 1/vn IV/CHI’/C0I.('!’ 66.2! M/1.24 E K #10 sum J!/In a»; mug K \ Q E g E 5 “N "C-'“!Y'7°‘;';v'7°"‘“~ " ~- {-3 "-‘st.-" -‘$“£28—?-"-"'*‘-“"“"‘*""‘~“""“""="""“"""='1"$-"'-'-t~Y\\'H=~\~I‘E'~'QK\X \)A:'\\Q’-LQ!EII§SS-.-:~ .o'-w.’=.~""‘l-.'.Li‘I P 7; /-, /////////// g__ )Z’<;'fl;1;':;,,!{-.-QZ¢”W- ' r/I ,gy(@//5/////m~//,fy _‘/"Z///-/>_/,(/r-7'/(/1,"!/my-{pa/\fi"///‘/I“/.////II//II , ‘.’., '. , /0 1171/ ,/ / ////W . .. d__i . _ i '-',' ///‘I -1. 1 I -’ ‘ ’ . 3 I ‘£2 / ._.\..u.A£u_“_\;'.°‘ ' ‘"7 *9 -‘O 00 I0 5:0 90 -no -<1 co A 140 -74> ,yo 2” I /no '/// / I FCPLE or MIL€' new route has long been known. “Here in Nicara- gua,” said Commander H. C. Taylor, of the United States Navy,3 “the backbone of the continents and isthmus, running parallel and close to the Pacific shore, sinks to its lowest point, while its eastern slope is washed by that great inland sea known as Lake Nicaragua. At this low point the divide is less than 50 feet above the level of the lake, and about 150 feet above the mean level of the Pacific. Though the western shore of the lake is but 15 miles from the beach of the Pacific, the lake drains through the River San Juan into the Caribbean Sea. The lake is deep and unobstructed, and the river, already navigable for light draught steamers throughout most of its length, requires but a little labor to deepen it. *We quote largely in the remainder of this article from a aper read recently by Commander Taylor, before the t‘rg.nklin Institute, and published in the Journal of the insti- u e. The principal dimensions of the canal in excava- tion are as follows: Width. Material. Depth. Bottom. Top. Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 80 30 Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 180 30 Sand and loose material . . . . . . . . . .. 120 360 30 The minimum radius of curvature is 2,500. The leading engineering features, in greater de- tail, are: The construction of two harbors at the termini of the canal, Greytown on the Caribbean Sea, and Brito on the Pacific Ocean; the damming of the waters of the San Juan River, for the pur- pose of raising and maintaining the level of Lake Nicaragua an the river at about 110 feet above 1136 mean tide; the formation of artificial basins at dif- ferent levels by means of dams and embankments; and the use of locks, to pass from one level to another. . THE INTER OCEANIC HARBoRs.—-The harbors are, at present, not in good condition, but, by a com- paratively small expenditure of money, can be made to offer protection to vessels of the largest class. The harbor of Greytown is now closed to ves- sels of more than six feet draught, but the facility for re-construction is such that in three months from the commencement of the work, at the out- side, a temporary opening can be made, and ma- terial safely lauded by vessels of fifteen feet draught. The further improvement of Greytown harbor is only a question of the continuation of the temporary opening. It is proposed to make this opening through the sand bar which now closes the once flourishing port of Greytown. by means of a temporary jetty of brush and pile, to furnish pro- tection to a dredge working to cut through the bar. This jetty will also give the necessary protec- tion for the maintenance of the cut so made. The extension and strengthening, by stone, of the jetty, and the continuation of the dredging, to form a permanent harbor, is simply a question of time. The construction of a wharf at Greytown, and of a railroad from it along the line of the canal, are the connecting links in the chain of supplies. The projected final depth of the harbor is thirty feet. ‘ The harbor of Brito will be formed by two break- waters, giving protection from the long swell of the Pacific, and the excavation of the harbor itself from the lowlands forming the banks at the mouth of the Rio Grande. TI-IE L11-yrs or THE CANAL ROUTE. —— From Grey- town, the sea level is carried to the site of the first lock, which is located at the eastern end of the val- ley of the Deseado. Here is a lift of thirty-one feet, into the first basin formed by damming the lower waters of the Deseado River. Through this basin we approach rapidly locks Nos. 2 and 3, which, with their respective lifts of thirty and forty-five feet, bring us to the summit level, and clear sail- ing through the basins of the Deseado and San - Francisco, with the divide out between, and thence into the San Juan River, across the lake and finally through the La Flor basin. Here, by means of a double lock, with a total fall of 85 feet, and again by the sixth, and last look, we descend to the sea level. This last look has a variable lift, depending on the state of the tide, which on the Pacific side has a mean rise and fall of about six feet at pres- ent. The mean lift of the tidal lock is twenty-five feet. The locks are 650><70><30 feet. TI-IE LARGE BAsINs AND THEIR SUP1>LY.—One of the principal features of the canal is the formation of large basins, by means of which the greater part of the canal is made a navigable body of water, in- stead of a narrow cut through the earth. As now projected, the first basin begins at the site of look No. 1. This basin is formed by an embankment 1,100 feet long and 20 feet high, which maintains the level of the water at 31 feet above the sea level. A second embankment, 1,400 feet long and 86 feet high, near lock No. 2 (with a lift of 30 feet), main- tains the level in a small basin at 61 feet. A third but smaller embankment, at lock No. 3 keeps the level at 106 feet. This is the summit level already referred to as extending from lock N o. 3 to lock No.4, a distance of 152 miles. The dam across the San Juan River at Ochoa, just east of the San Car- los, is 1,500 feet long by 65 feet high. Its purpose is to bank up the waters of the San Juan River, to a level of 106 feet, or 58 feet higher than at this NICARAUGUA point now. By this means a lock and a large amount of dredging is saved, and the San Juan is thus made practically navigable to Castillo, while the amount of river dredging above this point is reduced to a minimum. It will be noticed that at the dam the level is given at 106 feet. At the lake ‘it is 110 feet, and it is proposed to give the river a fall of four feet from the lake to Ochoa, a distance of about 64 miles. Again, on the Pacific side, an embankment 2,100 feet by 80 is made across the Rio Grande. This floods the valley of the Upper Rio Grande and its tributary, the Tola. Then by cutting through the low continental divide to the lake, the summit level of 110 feet is maintained to within three miles of the Pacific Ocean. The sur- plus flowage is provided for in all cases by numer- ous wasteweirs of ample capacity. Lake N icara- gua has a watershed of 8,000 square miles. The Rio San Juan, its only outlet, discharges at its lowest stage, near the close of the dry season, 11,390 cubic feet per second, or 984,096,000 cubic feet per day. " The amount of water required for thirty-two double lockages is 129,479,968 cubic feet, or a little more than one-eighth the total supply of the lake alone, to which must be added the flow of the several tributaries of the San Juan, between the lake and the sea, and the San Francisco and its tributaries. NICARAUGUA,REPUBLIO or. For general arti- cle on NICARAUGUA, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 477—80. The area, according to the latest author- ized reports, is about 49,500 square miles, with a population of about 375,000. The great mass of the population consists of aboriginal Indians, mulattoes, negroes and mixed races, and the number of Euro- peans and their descendants is very small and on the decrease. There are few towns, and the chief occupation of the inhabitants is the rearing of cat- tle, carried on in a rude fashion. The old capital of the Republic is the city of Leon, ten miles from the -Pacific, surrounded by five active volcanoes, and partly in ruins; its population is 25,000. At present the seat of government is the town of Man- agua, situated on the southern border of the great lake of the same name, with about 18,000 inhabit- ants. According to the oficial statement of 1887, there were in that year 251 schools, with 11,914 pupils; and besides these two higher schools for boys and one for girls. ~ ' CONSTITUTION AND GovERNMEN'r.——The constitu- tion proclaimed in 1858 is still in force without material change. It vests the legislative power in a congress of two houses-, the -upper called the senate, comprising 18 members, and the lower, called the house of representatives, 21 members. Both branches of the legislature are elected by universal suffrage, the members of the house of representatives for the term of four, and those of the senate for six years. The executive power is with a president elected for four years. The president exercises his functions through a counsil of responsible ministers, composed of the four departments, of foreign affairs and public in- struction; finance; interior, justice, war, and ma- rine; public works. . ARMY, FINANCE, AND CoMMERoE.—The active ar-my consists of 1,200 men, with a reserve of 10,000 men, and a militia or national guard of 5,000. The latest official statement (that of Jan. 1, 1887) reports the aggregate public debt at $1,592,000. At about that date a government loan was obtained in London for £285,000 in 6 per cent bonds secured by a mortgage on 93 miles of railway owned by the state. ' NICOLINL—NICOLL The imports in 1888 amounted to $2,146,000, and the exports to $1,522,000. The culture of bananas has rapidly grown in recent years. The exports from San Juan del Norte in 1889 were valued at $994,736, and the imports at $231,229. The leading exports are coffee and india-rubber. Of the exports in 1888, $665,000 went to Great Britain, $253,000 to Germany, $246,000 to France, $334,000 to the United States. Of the imports in 1888, $252,000 came from England, $395,000 from the United States, $351,000 from France, $766,000 from Germany. NICCOLINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, an Italian poet, born at the Bagni di S. Giuliano in 1782, died at Florence in 1861. In 1804, on the occasion of the plague at Leghorn, he wrote a beautiful poem en- titled La Pieta; then followed his tragedies Polisse- na, Medea, Eclipo, Ino e Temisto, Matilda and the translations of the Seven from Thebes and of the A gamemnon. For some time he was professor of his- tory and mythology. His most successful works are Nabncco, an allegorical tragedy; Antonio Foscarini, and his revolutionary drama, Gioeanni cli Procida (1830) ; Filippo Strozzi (1847), contained a represen- tation of the fallen, yet not hopeless state of Italy. NICHOL, JOHN PRINGLE, a Scotch astronomer, born at Brechin in 1804, died at Rothesay in 1859. He studied for the ministry, but after being licensed to preach became a popular lecturer on astron- omy. He was professor of practical astronomy in the University of Glasgow. Among his published writings are The Architecture of the lilearens; Con- templation of the Solar System; The Stellar Universe; The Planetary System, and his Cycloperdict of the Phys- ical Sciences (1867). His son JOHN N ICHOL was born at Montrose in 1833. He was professor of English literature in the University of Glasgow in 1861, and has contributed to the leading British reviews and to the Encyclo- paeclia Britannica. His article on American Litera- ture in this Encyclopaedia has been published sepa- rately. He has also published Hannibal, a drama; Byron, in the English “Men of Letters” series and Robert Burns (1882). NICHOLASVILLE, a village, the county-seat of Jessamine county, Ky., about fourteen miles south- west of Lexington. It contains a number of mills and is the seat of two academies. NICHOLS, a family of printers and antiquarians, associated with the “Gentlemen’s Magazine” from 1778 to 1856. To it belonged John Nichols; his son John Bowyer Nichols, and his son, John Gough Nichols. NICHOLSON, ALFRED Osnonx POPE, United States Senator, born in VVilliamson county. Tenn., in 1808, died at Columbia, Tenn., in 1876. After studying medicine he turned to law and was ad- mitted to the bar at Columbia, Tenn., in 1831. From 1832 to 1856 he edited successively “The IVestern Mercury” at Columbia, “The Nashville Union”, and “The Washington Union.” In 1857 he was elected to the United States Senate, but retired on the secession of Tennessee in June in 1861. During the war he was twice arrested at Columbia and im- prisoned. In 1870 he was a member of the State constitutional convention, and was also elected chief justice of the supreme court of the State of Tennessee. NICHOLSON, J orm, a distinguished Indian sol- dier, born at Dublin in 1822, died Sept. 23, 1857. In 1838 he joined the East Indian Company’s service, and in 1840 was ordered to Ghazni in Afganistan. On the breaking out of the Sikh war he served in the campaign on the Sutlej, and was present at the battle of Ferozeshah. During the Sikh rebellion he greatly distinguished himself by his daring and promptitude. At the battles of Chillianwalla and 1137 Gujrat he earned the approval of Lord Gough, to whom he was immediately attached. The Punjab having finally become a British province, captain Nicholson was appointed a deputy-commissioner under the Lahore board. In the mutiny in 1857 Nicholson did more than any other man to hold firm the British grasp of the Punjab. He suggest- ed the formation of the famous movable column, and presided over its organization. In his deal- ings with the sepoys he exhibited a brilliant com- bination of boldness, sublety, discretion, and as- tuteness. At Trimmoo Ghaut he nearly annihil- ated a force of rebels, and at Najafgarh he dispersed another body of mutineers. As brigadier- general he led the first column of attack at the siege of Delhi, and after the troops had forced their way into the city he still exposed himself in the most fearless manner, and fell, shot through the o y. NICKEL, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 487--8. NICKER, a malignant kind of water-sprite in Teutonic mythology. He often presents himself on the shore in the shape of a horse, and has thus close afiinities with the Scotch kelpie; while indeed the old Norse nikr is thought by some to mean the hippopotamus only. In English demonology we find both a male nix and a female nixie. The modern Dutch nikker is merely an ordinary evil spirit or devil, recalling our own familiar Old lVz'clc. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 483. NICKERSON, a city of Kansas, about forty miles west of Newton, in the midst of a rich agricultural re ion. %ICOBAR ISLANDS. The Nicobars formerly belonged to Denmark, but were first occupied by the British in 1869, since when they have been afiiliated to the chief commissionership of the An- damans. The primary objects with which the gov- ernment station had been established, namely of suppressing piracy, having been attained, the es- tablishment was removed December, 1888, since which the islands have been periodically visited by the station steamer from Port Blair, South An- daman. The annual yield of cocoanuts is about 15,- 000,000; one-third of this quantity is exported. Some of the streams are navigable by boats for some miles. The country is generally covered with thick tropical jungle, even to the summits of the mountains, which rise to an extreme height of 2,105 feet. Population, including aborigines, about 7,300. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 489. NICOL, ERSKINE, a British painter, born at Leith, Scotland, in 1825. He studied at the Trustees’ Academy, and became a teacher of drawing. In 1862 he removed from Dublin to London, and was made an associate of the Royal Academy in 1866. His pictures exhibit great power of expression, both pathetic and comic. His best-known pictures are Notice to Quit (1862); llvaiting for the Train; Both Puzzled; A Disputed Boundary; Steady.’ John- ny, Steady! Paying the Rent; Storm at Sea; His Legal Adviser; Unwilh'ng to School, and The Miss- ing Boat (1878). NICOLAI, Orro, a musical composer, born at Ktinigsberg, in 1810, died in 1849. His early life was astruggle with poverty and difficulties. He studied in Berlin and in Rome, and in 1847 became Kapellmeister at Berlin. His best known work is the opera The Merry lllires of lVindsor. NICOLL, ROBERT, a Scotch poet, born at Little Tulleybeltane, Jan. 7, 1814. died near Edinburgh, Dec. 7, 1837. He was four years a grocer’s appren- tice at Perth; he next openeda circulating library at Dundee, and here took to writing for the news- papers, and published a volume of Songs and Lyrics. In 1836 he became editor of the “Leeds Times," but 2-35 1138 worked too zealously for his health, and gave him- self his death-blow by his exertions in the victor- ious contest of Sir William Molesworth with Sir John Beckett in the summer of 1837. N icoll was a genuine poet; it is from their intrinsic value that his countrymen remember such poems as We are Brethren. .4’; Thoughts of Heaven, and The Dew is on the Summer's Greenest Grass. NICOLLET, JEAN NICOLAS, a French explorer, born at Cluses, Savoy, in 1786, died at Washington, D. C., in 1843. He studied astronomy under La- place, and became secretary and librarian of the observatory at Paris in 1817. In 1832 he came to the United States. Here he explored the Southern States, the Mississippi River, and its western afflu- ents. He collected at the same time many speci- mens of natural history. After this the United States I/Var Department sent him on a second ex- ploring tour to the far \Vest, with Lieut. John C. Fremont as his assistant. He published Cours de mathématiques cl Z’usage dé la onarine (1830) ; and Re- port Intended to Illustrate a M cap of the II;/drographical Bas?:'n of the Upper 1l1tsstssippt River (Washington, 184 ). NIDDERDALE, the valley of the River Nidd, which rises at the foot of Wernside, England, and joins the Ouse a few miles above York. The upper portion flows through picturesque scenery, and past Ramsgill, the birthplace of Eugene Aram. Above Loifthouse it disappears underground for about two mi es. NIEDERIVALD, the eastern termination of the Taunus range, that abuts upon the Rhine over against Bingen. On a commanding site near its summit was erected in 1883, the German memorial commemorative of the successful war of 1870-71. An extensive pedestal, ornamented with allegorical figures, is surmounted by a bronze figure of Ger- mania. 34% feet in height. Toothed railways carry visitors up to the monument from the villages of Riidesheim and Assmannshausen at the foot. NIEDRINGHAUS, FREDERICK G., an American manufacturer and inventor, born in Germany in 1837. He came to the United States in 1855. He organized in St. Louis, with his brother William, the St. Louis Stamping Company, for the manufac- ture of tin-ware; invented what is known as granite iron-ware, and in 1881 established extensive rolling- mills, which, with the factory, employ about 1,200 hands. He was elected to Congress from Missouri in 1888. NIEL, ADOLPHE, a French marshal, born at Muret Oct. 4, 1802, died Aug. 14, 1869. He entered the army as an engineer oflicer; took partin the storm- ing of Constantine in Algeria, the siege of Rome, the bombardment of Bomarsund in Finland, the fall of Sebastopol, and in the battles of Magenta and Solferino. His share in these battles won him the marshal’s baton. He was made minister of war in 1867, and was employed reorganizing the French arm when he died. NIERSTEIN, a village of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Rhine, ten miles southeast of Mainz, famous for its Rhine wine. Population, 3,283. NIFLHEIM (“the abode of clouds”), in Scandi- navian mythology, the kingdom of cold and dark- ness, separated from Muspelheim, the kingdom of light and heat, by a huge chasm (Ginnungagap). §iflheim was also the abode of Hel, the goddess of eath. N IGELLA, a genus of plants of the natural order Ranunculaceze. They are annuals, natives chiefly of the countries near the Mediterranean and the warmer temperate parts of Asia. Some of them, occasionally seen in gardens, are vulgarly known as Devil-t'n-a-mist. The seeds of N. sattva, a species J NICOLLET-—-NIGER DISTRICT common in corn-fields in the south of Europe, are supposed to be the Black Cummins of the ancients, and perhaps the Cummin of the Bible. NIGER DISTRICT PROTECTORATE, a new protectorate of the British Empire in Africa, em- bracing an eastern boundary along the entire coast from the western line of Laos, near the river Binué, to the German boundary on the Rio del Rey, north of Cameroons, a distance of 380 miles, and vast in- land regions not yet accurately defined. The pro- tectorate is divided into two separate systems, namely the Niger Territories and the “Oil Rivers District.” NIGER TERRIToRIEs.—These are governed by the “Royal Niger Company,” under a charter issued on July 10,1886. Its nominal capital of £1,000,000 is fully subscribed, and it has powers to increase in- definitely. Its foundation dates from 1882, when it was formed under the name of The National Afri- can Company, Limited, with the object of obtaining these regions for Great Britain. This was effected by means of about 300 treaties with native States and tribes, including the territories of Sokoto and Gando. Soxoro.—At present the empire of Sokoto (at- tached by treaty to the Royal Niger Company) is the largest, the most populous, and extensive in the whole of the Sudan. Since the overthrow of the Haussa power early in the present century, the conquering Fulahs have gradually reduced all the former Haussa States between Lake'Tsad and the Niger,and have also extended their sway southwards to Adamavva and westwards to the riverain tracts along the right bank of the Niger. The king of Gando, in the middle Niger valley, as well as all the other Fulah chiefs, recognize the suzerainiy of the emperor of Sokoto, who is a direct descend- ant of Sheikh Dam-Fodié Othman, founder of the Fulah dynasty in 1802. On the other hand, the reigning sovereign, whose special title is Seriki n’Musu1mya, “Lord of the Musselmans,” has virtually accepted the British protectorate, or, at least, acknowledged the political .status of the Royal Niger Company, which exer- cises sovereign power throughout alarge part of his dominions. These dominions comprise all the former Haussa States in west central Sudan, with an area of about 160,000 square miles, and a popu- lation scarcely exceeding 4,000,000; also the feuda- tory states of Gando (which some regard as inde- pendent of Sokoto), N upé, Adamawa, and other out- lying territory beyond the Binué-Niger con- fluence, with a total area of over 300,000 square miles, and a population vaguely estimated at 10,000,000. The empire, which is conterminous on the east with Bornu, on the west with the Yoruba and Mossi countries, and stretches from the Sahara southward to the unexplored regions beyond Ada- mawa, is especially rich in agricultural re- sources. exporting considerable quantities of rice (the chief cereal), and other grains, besides onions of excellent flavor, with the fruit of the butter tree, the parched seeds of the doria, dates, and honey. Cotton is largely grown, and manufactured into a durable material, colored with indigo and other\ native dyes. Much leather ware (shoes, sandals, pouches, harness) is also exported in exchange for salt from the Sahara and European goods. The emperor exercises direct jurisdiction over only a comparatively small portion of his dominions, most of which are ruled by vassal kings and chiefs enjoying royal prerogatives, and attached to the central government only by payment of the annual tribute. There is a ministry, or council of state officials, comprising in their order of precedence the ghaladima, or prime minister, the commander .. NIGHT~——NIGHTINGALE of the infantry, the cadi, or chief judge, the heir to the throne, the chief of the slaves, and the treasurer. A considerable revenue is levied by di- rect taxation and tribute from the vassal states. The army comprises in time of war about 90,000 infantry and 30,000 cavalry. Warno is the present capital on the river Candi, population, 15,000. Besides these places there are a great many other large centers of population and busy market towns, such as Gando, capital of the kingdom of Gando; Yola, capital of Adamawa, population, 12,000; Kano, 35,000; Bida, 90,000; Gerki, 15.000; Kebbi, 22,000; Yakoba, 50,000; Tessawa, 12,000; Katsena, 7,500; Gurin, 12,000; Duku, 15,000. Fulah is the official language, but Haussa is the chief medium of inter- course throughout the empire, and in many places beyond its limits. Islam is the religion of the dominant class, but paganism still prevails largely throughout the empire. The present capital of the Niger Territories is at Asaba, where the chief justice of the supreme court resides, and where are also the headquarters of the military force, the central prison, civil and military hospitals, and other public buildings. The other principal settlements are at Akassa (port of entry), Abo, Abutshi, Atani, Bakundi, Donga, Egga, Ibi, Idah, Leaba, Loko, Odeni, and Ribago, the latter being only about 200 miles from Lake Tsad. The trade in these inland territories is yet in its infancy, the exports having been 225,000l. in 1887, 230,000Z. in 1888, and 260,000Z. in 1889. The principal exports are gums, hides, india-rubber, ivory, kernels, palm oil, and vegetable butter, but a great variety of minor products are also exported. Considerable plantations of coffee and cocoa have been started, and a botanic garden created under the supervision of gardeners from Kew. The imports are very varied, the principal items being cotton, silks, wool- ens, earthenware, hardware, beads, tobacco, and salt. Heavy duties have been imposed by the com- pany on spirits and gunpowder. Tobacco and salt are also taxed. All other imports are free. The revenue is principally raised by export duties. N o trustworthy estimate can be formed of the popula- tion of the Territories. The government is conducted by the Council in London, of which the president is Lord Aberdare. OIL RIVERS Dis'rRIo'r.—This important region in- cludes the whole of the coast line between Lagos and Camaroons, excepting that falling within the Niger Territories. Fully nineteen-twentieths of the extensive trade are in the hands of British merchants, who have been established there for a great number of years. The total value of this trade is not so great as in former days, owing to the heavy fall that has occurred of late years in the value of the principal export, palm oil. The aver- age of the exports for the last three years has been 1,032,800]. per annum, and the import trade 7S6,500l., much of both amounts being with Hamburg, Bot- terdam, and other Continental ports. The chief products exported are palm oil, palm kernels, india- rubber, T701‘) , ebony, camwood, indigo, gums, bar- wood, hides, and a little cacao; and theimports con- sist of cloth, calico, hardware, spirits, tobacco, gunpowder, guns, rice, bread, salt, pickeled meat, matches. soap, pottery, and fancy articles. The leading trade stations in the Oil Rivers district are Old Calabar (Duke Town and Creek Town), Qua Eboe, Opobo (town) and Azumeri, Ohumbela. Ogo- go, Esséne, etc. (interior Opobo) ; New Calabar—- including Degama, Dakana, Buguma, Okrika, etc.— Bonny, Brass Warri, Benni. No trustworthy estimate can be formed of the population of this district. The majority of the merchants trading in the Oil Rivers amalgamated last year into the African As- 1139’ sociation, Limited. of Liverpool, with a nominal capital of 2.000,000l., with power to increase as far as 5,000,000Z. The subscribed capital is stated as 500,000Z. In 1890 a plan was formulated for the future gov- ernment of the Oil Rivers district under the super- vision of a British consul general. It is claimed that the protectorate is based upon treaties made in 1881. NIGHT, among the ancient Greeks, a goddess who by means of sleep exercised power over men and gods. According to Hesiod, she was the daugh- ter of Chaos, wife of Erebus, and mother of Aether and Hemera (Day), of the Fates, Sleep, Death, Dreams, Hunger, Fear, Nemesis, and Strife. By day she dwelt in Tartarus, enveloped in thick clouds. N IGHT—HAWK, the usual name in the United. States or the Ohordeiles popetue, a goatsucker be- longing to a different genus and species of the Capri/nulgiclae from the European goatsucker. It is found over nearly the whole of North America, has long, thin, pointed wings, a forked tail, a very small beak, and wide gaping mouth, furnished with bristles. N IGHT-HERON. 760-62. NIGHTINGALE, FLORENCE, the daughter of lVilliam Nightingale of Embly Park, England, born at Florence in May 1820. She was highly edu- cated and brilliantly accomplished. She early ex- hibited an intense devotion to the alleviation of suffering, which in 18-L-l led her to give attention to the condition of hospitals. She visited and inspected civil and military hospitals all over Europe; and in 1851 went into training as a nurse. In 185-i war was declared with Russia ; Alma was fought and the hos- pitals on the Bosporus were soon crowded with sick and wounded, their unhealthy condition becoming apparent in a rate of mortality to which the casu- alties of the fiercest battles were as nothing. In this crisis Miss Nightingale offered to go out and organize a nursing department at Scutari. Lord Herbert gladly accepted her services and she de- parted with thirty-four nurses. She arrived at Constantinople on the eve of Tukerman in time to receive the wounded into wards already filled with 2,300 patients. Her devotion to the sufferers can never be forgotten. She would stand twenty hours at a stretch, in order to see them provided with accommodation and all the requisites of their condition, and a few months after her arrival she had 10,000 sick men under her care. But she saw clearly in the bad sanitary arrangements of the hospitals the causes of their frightful mortality, and her incessant labor was devoted to the removal of these causes, as well as to the mitigation of their effects. In 1855, while in the Crimea, she was prostrated with fever; she refused to leave her post, and on her recovery remained at Scutari till Turkey was evacuated by the British, July 28, 1856. She, to whom many a soldier owed life and health, had expended her own health in the physical and mental strain to which she had subjected herself. At the close of the Crimean war a fund of $250,000 was subscribed for the pur- pose of enabling her to form an institution for the training of nurses; this is spent in training a su- perior order of nurses in connection with St. Thomas’s (the Nightingale Home) and at King’s College Hospital. From the queen she received an autograph letter of thanks, and a cross set with diamonds; also a bracelet set with brilliants from the sultan of Turkey. In 1858 she published valuable Notes on Nursing. The Notes on Hospitals (1859). from the clearness of arrangement and minuteness of detail, are most valuable to the arch- See Britannica, "Vol. XI. p. 1140 itect, the engineer, and the medical officer. In 1871 she published Notes on Lg/z'ng-z'n-Institutions ; in 1873, Life or Death in India and (in “Fraser’s Magazine”) A “Note” of Interrogation, which attracted a good deal of attention on account of the way she hand- les religious beliefs and life. N IGHTINGALE ISLANDS. Vol. XXIII. pp. 576-577. NIHILISTS, NIHILISM, two words that have come into prominence in late years, in connection with Russian politics. Primarily the word Nihil- ism (Fr. Nz'hz'lisme, from the Lat. nthtl, m'hz'lum, noth- ing) signifies “the doctrine that nothing can be known; skepticism carried to the denial of all knowledge and reality.” The Nihilists of Russia have been justly described as those “who disbe- lieve in any permanent improvement in the social condition or progress of man; particularly a mem- ber of a secret association which is devoted to the destruction of the present form of [Russian] gov- ernment without any hope or definite theory of sub- stituting another.” The nihilist spirit appears to have permeated every stratum of Russian society. Its recruits are gathered from every social grade, alike from the nobles and the peasants. A series of political crimes of exceptional atrocity has marked the existence of a clique of assassins which for some years has baffled the utmost vigilance of the state police. Previous to the year 1878 the Nihilists contented themselves with the propagation of dem- ocratic ideas among the masses, urging the over- throw of the existing despotic government, but keeping pretty strictly within the ordinary line of socialistic agitation. In the year named, however, a new sect arose from the midst of the society re- ferred to, calling themselves “Terrorists,” and urg- ing the most violent and sanguinary measures, and this group of men and women soon signalized them- selves by a series of crimes of the gravest charac- ter. Assassination of those in power in Russia was their remedy for all social evils. Their first crime was the fatal shooting of Prince Krapotkine, gov- ernor of Kharkov, on Feb. 9, 1879, while he was re- turning home in a closed carriage. On the morning of April 2, 1879. as the Czar Alexander II. was walk- ing near the Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, he was fired upon by Alexander Solovieff, who was soon after tried and executed. The pistol having failed, another weapon, dynamite, was called into requisi- tion. No less than three attempts were made in 1879 to blow up the imperial train by undermining the roads over which it was expected to pass. A fourth attempt of a like character was made in the IVinter Palace on Feb. 5, 1880. All of these were unsuccessful, though in three of them several per- sons were killed or injured. The diabolical schemes of the Nihilists were, however, at length successful, so far as the unfortunate czar was concerned. On Sunday, March 13, 1881, as the emperor was return- ing in a sleigh from a review, two nitro-glycerine bombs were thrown from among the crowd. The first missile, thrown by a man named Roussakoff, shattered the sleigh without injuring the czar, but the second, thrown by an accomplice after the czar had alighted, wounded him so terribly that he died within two hours. The two principal criminals, with three or four accessaries, were hung April 15. The preceding facts require no comments; they speak for themselves; and in perusing them the dullest apprehension must be impressed with the wide gulf that separates patriots from political assassins. NIJNI-TAGILSK, a town in the Russian govern- ment of Perm, amid the Ural mountains, 150 miles east of Perm, with great platinum, copper, and iron works. Population, 30,000. See Britannica, NIGHTINGALE ISLANDS-NILSSON. NILE BARRAGE, completed in 1890, a practical reconstruction of the Rosetta and Damietta bar- rage works begun by Mougel Bey, a French engi- neer, in 1843, and completed in 1861. Briefly, the task was to render the floor above and below the obstruction or barrage impermeable to leakage, so that the gates, when closed, would be able to hold up the water during its deviation into the irrigation channels. The Rosetta barrage had a length of 465 metres and 61 arches, and the Damietta 71 arches and a length of 585 metres. It was estimated that during the five years in which the Nile Bar- rage was in progress of construction, the average annual value of the cotton crop alone was increased by $4,000,000. NILES, HEZEKIAI-1, journalist, born in Chester county, Pa., i11 1777; died at WVilmington, Del., in 1839. He learned the printing trade, and became partner in an unsuccessful publishing firm at Wil- mington in 1800. He afterwards removed to Balti- more. There be edited a daily paper for six years. In 1811 he founded the weekly journal, “ Niles’ Register,” which he edited and printed till 1836. The historical information contained in it was con- sidered so valuable that the first 32 volumes, ex- tending from 1812 till 1827, were re-published. The “Register” was continued by his son, William Og- den Niles, until June, 1849, making altogether 76 volumes. Niles advocated the protection of Ameri- can industry. He also published Prtnciples and Acts of the Revolution (1822), and a series of humor- ous essays entitled Qm'ZZ—DrtmJng. The towns of Niles, Mich., and Niles, Ohio, were named in his honor. N ILES, a city of Michigan, at the head of navi- gation of St. Joseph river, about 90 miles east of Chicago. It contains numerous manufactories and is an important shipping point for flour,grain,lum- ber, and fruit. Population in 1890, 4,197. NILES, a village of Ohio, on thetMahoning River, about ten miles southwest of Youngstown. It is an important railroad center and mining and man- ufacturing town. NILOMETER, an arrangement for measuring the height of the Nile in Egypt. On the Island of Rhoda, opposite to Cairo, is a square well, connected with the river by a canal and containing a gradu- ated marble pillar, divided into 24 cubits, each measuring 21.886 inches. A rise of 18 cubits is tra- ditionally regarded as the height of the lowest in- undation; 19 cubits is considered tolerable, 20 excellent, 21 adequate, and 22 complete, but 24 is ruinous. The ordinary maximum of the rise at Cairo is stated at from 24 to 26 feet. NILSSON, Cnnrsrrnn, an operatic singer, born at Wexio, in Sweden, in 1843. Singing at a fair in 1857. she so impressed a magistrate of Ljungby that he sent her for a musical education to Stockholm and Paris. She made her début at Paris in La Tram'ata in 1864; and in London,where she appeared in 1867, she soon took rank as one of the foremost soprano singers. Marguerite is one of her best-known parts. She has repeatedly visited the United States. She was married in 1872 to M. Rouzand, who died in 1882; and subsequently she married at Paris the Count A. de Miranda. She retired from the stage in June, 1888. NILSSON, SVEN, a Swedish naturalist and arch- aeologist, born near Landscrona in 1787, died at Lund in 1883. In 1812 he became instructor in natural history and afterwards overseer of the Zoological Museum. From 1881 till 1856 he was professor of zoology at Lund. His chief publica- tions are Orm'thologv'a Suecica (2 vols.), and SLcmdz'- no/Ms]: Faunil (4 vols ). His most important arch- ecological work is Slcandz'nam'ska Nordens U?"i)Z7t6- NIMACH—NIVERNAIS vanare (4 vols. 1838-43). He also wrote works on the mollusks, fishes, and fossils of Sweden. NIMACH, a town of India, in the territory of Gwalior, on the northwestern border of Malwa, 370 miles southwest of Delhi, 1613 feet above sea-level, with an agreeable and healthy climate. There has been a British cantonment here since 1817. Popu- lation of town, 5,161 ; of cantonment, 13,069. NINA, LoRENzo, an Italian cardinal, born at Re- canati in 1812, died at Rome in 1885. In 1835 he was ordained priest and held various oifices in the congregation of the council. Pope Pius IX. em- ployed him on several delicate missions. In 1877 he was made cardinal deacon; and in August, 1878, Pope Leo XIII. appointed him under-secretary of state. At the same time he became prefect of the palace, and administrator of the property of the Holy See. He conducted some important negoti- ations with Russia, Germany, and Belgium. NINE EYES, a popular name for the young lampreys found in rivers. NIPIGON, a lake of Ontario, thirty miles north- west of Lake Superior, with which it is connected by the N ipigon River. It is about seventy miles long, but its deeply indented coast-line measures 580 miles. Its greatest depth is 540 feet. The lake is studded with hundreds of islands. NIPISSING, a lake of Ontario, northeast of Lake Huron, into which it drains through the French River. It is about fifty miles long and twenty-eight miles wide. NISARD, J EAN l\/IARIE NAPOLEON DESIRE, a French author, born at Ch-atillon-Tur-Seine in 1806, died at Paris, in 1888. In 1830 he was employed in the ministry of public instruction, and held various positions until 1842, when he was elected to the chamber of deputies. In 1843 he became professor of Latin eloquence in the College de France, and in 1852 he was appointed general inspector of superior instruction. He also succeeded Villemain as pro- fessor of French eloquence at the Sarbonne. In 1857 he was made director of the higher normal school, which was then re-organized. He had been admitted to the French Academy in 1850, and was made senator in 1867, at the same time continuing to be a member of the imperial council of instruc- tion. His principal works are,Hz'stoire de la Zittéra- ture fmncaise (4 vols. 1861); Etudes sur la Renais- sance; Mélanges d’h/istoire et de Zittérature; and Les Quatre grands H'£st0r'iens romains ( 1874). NITRIFICATION, the changing of nitrogenous organic matter or ammonia compounds into ni- trates. Under certain conditions nitrification goes on in every fertile soil, the atmospheric nitrogen, nitrogenous organic matter, or ammonia compounds being converted, in the presence of lime or potash, into the corresponding n2'z‘r(ttes of lime or potash ; and from these nz'tric compounds plants derive the most of all of their nitrogen, although some experi- mentalists maintain that some plants obtain part at least of their nitrogen from ammonia. NITROGLYCERINE, a high explosive. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 520-1, and EXPLOSIVES, in these Revisions and Additions. In the manufacture of nitroglycerine the utmost care must be exercised, and any abnormal rise of temperature during the mixing of the materials must be strictly guarded against, as accidents would arise. For similar reasons the materials employed must be the best and purest attainable. Colorless when pure, but having as an article of commerce a pale brown color, nitroglycerine is a dense, oily liquid, having a specific gravity of 1.6. It is in- odorous, but has a sweet, pungent, aromatic taste; a single drop, however, if placed on the back of the tongue, will produce headache and pain in the 1141 back lasting for hours. By those accustomed to handling this substance, no inconvenience what- ever is experienced. Nitroglycerine enters into medical prescriptions for certain diseases of the heart. If ignited in the open air nitroglycerine burns rapidly and with a brisk flame without any explo- sion; and if poured out in a thin sheet it ignites with difliculty and burns incompletely; but it explodes at once if it is exposed to a moderately strong blow or concussion, to the concussion due to the explosion of gunpowder, to contact with red- hot iron, and especially to the action of detonating mixtures and fulminates. It likewise explodes on exposure to a high temperature, the exploding point for nitroglycerine compounds being about 420° F.; but 150° to 180° F. is suiiicient to set up decomposition in the cartridge, and this will quickly raise the temperature to the exploding point. According to Dr. Rudolf lVagner, nitro- glycerine, if chemically pure, may be cooled down to 4° without becoming solid; that of commerce, however, becomes solid if exposed for a considera- ble time to a temperature of about 40° to 45° F., crystallising in long needles, which are most dan- gerous to handle, since they explode, even if gently broken, with much violence. In such condition the nitroglycerine compounds should not be used for blasting, but can be readily thawed in a simple form of pan heated by hot water. At 320° nitro- glycerine begins to decompose, giving off red vapors, and if the heat be suddenly applied, or slightly raised above this point, a violent explosion will occur. For equal bulks nitroglycerine is calcu- lated to be thirteen times as strong as gunpowder, while for equal weights it is eight times as pow- erful. VVe may add here, that nitroglycerine dissolved in two or three times its bulk of methylated spirits is quite explosive. When it is required for use, after it is thus dissolved, the addition of water will precipitate the nitroglycerine, the layer of water and spirit merely requiring decanting off. The nitroglycerine separated in this way possesses ex- plosive properties fully as active as the original oil. In the state of solution it can be transported with safety to any distance. The compounds of nitroglycerine have been em- ployed in the largest blasts that have ever been made, notably those at Hell Gate near New York (see HELL GATE IMPROVEMENTS in these Revisions and Additions). In the United States large quantities of nitro- glycerine and its compounds are manufactured at the establishment of Mr. Mowbray, in North Adams, Mass. The blasting required for the Hoosac tunnel was done with explosives made at this factory. N ITROUS ETHER, or NITRITE OF ETHYL, a very volatile ether with an agreeable apple odor, and highly inflammable. In itself it is of little impor- tance, but on account of its relation to the sweet spirits of niz‘re or spirit of nitrous ether, is one of the most important drugs. The sweet spirits of nitre contains in addition aldehyde and paraldehyde, and it is believed that to these we must ascribe much of its virtue. It is used, in conjunction with other medicines, as a diuretic, especially in the dropsy which follows scarlatina; and it is employed, in combination with acetate of ammonia and tartar- ized antimony, in febrile affections. NIVERNAIS, formerly a province in the middle of France, nearly corresponding to the present de- partment of Nievre. Its towns enjoyed municipal privileges at a very early period. The principal landowners were the counts, afterwards dukes, of 1142 Nevers, who held under their vassalage more than 1,800 fiefs. NIX, or Nrxv, a class, mostly malignant, of northern water-spirits. NIX, or NIxY (Ger. nichts, nothing), a term as used by the employés of the railway mail service, denoting any piece of mail matter of domestic ori- gin, chiefly of the first and second class, which is unmailable because addressed to a place in which there is no post-oflice, or to a state in which there is no such post-office as that indicated in the address. NOAH, MORDECAI MANUEL, a journalist, born at Philadelphia of Jewish parentage in 1785, died at New York in 1851. Practicing law at Charleston, S. C., he turned his attention to politics, and was in 1813 made United States consul-general at Tunis. His consulship was made memorable by his rescue of several Americans that were held as slaves in the Barbary States. On his return to America he settled in New York City, where he founded and edited several newspapers, one of them being the “Sunday Times,” the first Sunday newspaper pub- lished there (1834). He was elected sheriff of New York, and was appointed surveyor of the port and judge of the court of sessions. His most important published works are Travels in England, France, Spain and the Barbary States (1819) ; Gleanings from -a Gathered Harvest; Translation of the Book of Jasher, and the successful dramas Fortress of Sorrente; Paul and Alexander; She Would be a Soldier; Marion, or the Hero of Lake George; The Grecian Captive, and The Siege of Tripoli. NOBILE OFFICIUM, the term used in the law of Scotland to denote the high prerogative right of the court of sessions to exercise jurisdiction in cer- tain cases—as, for example, to appoint a judicial factor to young children or to lunatics. NOBLE, a gold coin first minted by Edward III., and so called from its being of noble metal; on one side was a ship, in allusion to Edward’s victory at Sluys. The original value was half a mark. A later issue bore a rose on the same side as the ship, ‘and were called rose-nobles and ryals. Silver having depreciated the value of the noble rose, a new coin of the old value was issued, called the angel. NOBLESVILLE, a village, the county-seat of Hamilton county, Ind., situated on White River about twenty miles northeast of Indianapolis. It is an important center of local trade. - NOCTURN (“night-piece”), a dreamy musical piece, generally for the piano, especially associated with the names of Field, its inventor, and Chopin. NODES: in astronomy, the two points in which the orbit of a planet intersects the plane of the eclip- tic, the one through which the planet passes from the south to the north side of the ecliptic being called the ascending node, and the other the descend- ing node. NOE. See CHAM, in these Revisions and Addi- tions. NOEL, BAPTIST WRIoTHEsLEY, an English clergy- man, born at Leightmont, Scotland, in 1799, died at London in 1873. He graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1826, became one of the queen’s chaplains and preached at St. J ohn’s, London. In 1849 he became a Baptist. Noel was a successful preacher. He was also very active in benevolent work among the poor in London. He published several volumes of sermons, some treatises on bap- tism and on the union of church and state. NOGENT-LE-ROTROU, a town in the French department of Eure-et-Loir, prettily situated on the Huisne, ninety-three miles southwest of Paris. It is a long, well-built place, with the ruined chateau of the great Sully, his violated sepulcher, and a NIX——NOMENCLATURE statue of General Saint-Pol, who fell before Sebas- topol. The Germans here won two fights, in 1870 andp 1871. Population, 7,346. NOGGING, brickwork built in the panels of a timber-framed house. Nogging-pieces are horizontal timbers, introduced to strengthen the brickwork. N OILS, a technical term for short and broken hairs which are removed from wool in the process of combing it and preparing it for worsted manu- factures. The noils are used for making inferior yarns, and are valuable for felting purposes, for which they are largely employed. NOISSEVILLE, a village of France, five miles east of Metz, where Bazaine attacked the German besiegers of Metz with 120,000 men and 600 guns. He had some success on the first day, against the 41,000 men and 138 uns commanded by Manteuffel; but on the secon§l day gave up the attempt to break through the German line, which had been re- enforced during the night by 30,000 men and 162 guna NOLDEKE, THEODORE, a German Orientalist born at Harburg in 1836, died in 1875. He studied at Gbttingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin. In 1864 he was made professor extraordinary at Kiel, and in 1868 professor ordinary. In 1872 he accepted a professorship at the newly established University of Strasburg. His published writings are Ge- schichte des Korans (1860); Das Leben Mohammed’s; Ueber die Amelekiter; Die Alttestamentliche Literatur; Kritik des Alten Testaments, and Die Inschrift des Kiinigs Mesa von Moab (1870). He also contributed to the Encyclopeedia Britannica. NOM DE PLUM, somewhat doubtful French for nom de guerre or Pseudonym. NOMENCLATURE, GEOGRAPHICAL. Geograph- ical names are spelled differently by different writers, and it is often diflicult to know whether two unlike words belong to the same place or to different places. Otaheiti and Tahiti are not easily recognizable as variants of the same name. Hawaii and Owhyhee would naturally be taken as names of different places. It is clearly necessary that some uniform method of spelling the names of foreign places should be adopted. Feeling this need, t e Royal Geographical Society of England adopted in 1886 the following rules, which were the same that were previously in use in the orthography of the admiralty charts. These rules apply only to the geographical names of the countries which do not write in Roman characters. In Spanish, Portuguese and Italian names, and in the names of all other countries that use Roman characters, the native spelling will be preserved. Nor will in any case a change be made in the spelling of names which long usage has rendered familiar to English readers. The true native sound of the word, as it is locally pronounced by educated people, is to be taken as the basis of the spelling,without regard to the finer inflections of the accent,a reasonable approxima- tion to the sound being all that is deemed neces- sary. Vowels are to receive their Italian sound, and consonants have their English pronunciation. No accent is to be used but the acute, and this only where it is demanded by a particular stress upon a syllable. Every letter is to be sounded. When two vowels come together, each should be sounded, though their pronunciation in the combinations ai, au, ei, eu, etc., is often so rapid that they appear as one sound only. Hindu names will be accepted as they are spelled in Hunter’s Gazetteer. The sounds of the several letters of the alphabet are as follows: A as in father. E as in benefit or eh. I as in belt or English e. Thus, Fiji, not Feejee, is the correct spelling. NON E$FINVENTUS—NORMJliSGHOOLS O as in mote. U as in flate. All vowels are shortened in sound by doubling the following consonant. The vowel is to be doubled only when there is a distinct repetition of the sound, as in Nuulua. Ai corresponds to English i, as in ice. Au corresponds to English ow, as in how. A0 is slightly different from au, as in Macao. Ei has the sound of the two Italian vowels, but is frequently slurred and resembles ey in they. Ex- ample, Reirut. The consonant sounds are as follows: B, D, L, M, N, P, R, S, T, V, W, and Z as in Eng- lish. C is to be always soft, but usually should be re- placed by S, which it so closely resembles. Ch always soft, as in church. F as English f. Ph should not be used for f. Write Haifong, not Haiphong. G is always hard. Soft g is given by j. H is to be always pronounced when given. J as English j. Dj should never be used for j. K as English is. This letter should always be used for hard 0. Example: Korea, not Corea. Kh is the Oriental guttural, as in Khan. Gh is another guttural, as in Turkish dagh, or hazi. g Ng has two sounds—one as in English finger, the other as in English singer. Q should never be used. Qu is given as Kw. Example: Kwangtung. Y is always a consonant, as in yard. It should never be used as a terminal, but be replaced by i or e. How much of these useful rules will be adopted by geographers is a matter to be settled by time. They may come into general use or may serve as a basis for more fully considered rules, to be chosen by some future congress of societies. At all events they mark an important step toward a highly de- sirable reform, and may arouse those who have suffered from the annoyance of indiscriminate spell- ing to some decided measures of improvement in this direction. NON EST INVENTUS, a technical term used in that part of the law where, after judgment, the sheriff endeavors to arrest a party. If after a reasonable search he cannot find the debtor, he makes a return to the court that he has not been able to find the debtor, which is shortly called a re- turn of non est inventus, and his duty is then dis- charged until a fresh writ is issued to him. NON POSSUMUS (Lat. “ we cannot”), a papal formula taken from Acts, iv. 20 (Vulgate), and said to have been used by Pope Clement VII. on reply to Henry VIII.’s demand for the dissolution of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon; used in gen- eral expression for the refusal of the Roman curia to yield to the demands of the‘temporal power. NOOTKA DOG, a large kind of dog, common in a domesticated state among the natives of the vicin- ity of Nootka Sound. It has erect, pointed ears, and is chiefly remarkable for the extreme abund- ance of its long woolly hair, which, when shorn off, holds together as a fleece, and is spun and woven into garments. N ORDENSKJ OLD, BARON NILS Anonr ERIK, an Arctic navigator, born at Helsingfors in Finland, in 1832. He acquired a taste for mineralogy, geology, chemistry and similar sciences from his father, the head of the mining department of Finland, and studied them further at the university of his native town and at Berlin. In 1857 he naturalized himself in Sweden, and in the following year was appointed head of the mineralogical department of the Royal 1143 Museum at Stockholm. During the next twenty years he frequently visited Spitzbergen ; in 1864 he completed the measurement of an arc of the me- ridian there, and mapped the south of the island. After two preliminary trips to the mouth of the Yenisei, by which he proved the navigability of the Kara Sea, he successfully accomplished (June 1878 —September 1879), in the celebrated Vega, the nav- igation of the Northeast Passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific along the north coast of Asia. On his return he was made a baron of Sweden, and during the next five years published the results of the journey in Voyage of the Vega round Asia and Europe; Scientific Results of the Vega Expedition and Studies and Investigations. He has also made two ex- peditions to Greenland; members of his party on the second occasion reached a point 140 miles dis- tant from the east coast, but without finding the ice-free interior Baron Nordenskjold believed to exist. In 1880 he published a book on the icy in- terior of Greenland. In 1891 he proposed to lead an expedition to the Antarctic polar regions, the expense being borne in part by the Australian co]- omes. NORDHOFF, CHARLES, a journalist, born at Erwith, Westphalia, Prussia, in 1830. "When five years old his parents brought him to this country, and schooled him at Cincinnati. In 1844 Nordhoff entered the United States navy. He served three years, making a voyage around the world. He re- mained at sea in the merchant, whaling, and mackerel fishery service until 1853, when he be- came employed in newspaper offioes, first at Phila- delphia, and afterwards in Indianapolis, Ind. From 1861 till 1871 he was on the editorial staff of the “New York Evening Post.” Then he traveled in California and the Hawaiian Islands from 1871-73. After that he removed to Washington, D. C., where he has since been a special correspondent for the “New York Herald.” llIan-of- VVar Life; T’l’haZing and Fishing; Cape Cod and All Along Shore; Politics for Youny Americans; The Communistic Societies of the United States; The Cotton States in 1875, and God and the Future Life (1881). NORFOLK, a city and port of entry of Virginia, on the right bank of the Elizabeth River, eight miles from Hampton Roads, and thirty-three miles from the ocean. Population in 1890, 84,871. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 537. NORHAM CASTLE, the border fortress of the Bishops of Durham, on the right bank of the Tweed, eight miles southwest of Berwick. Founded in 1121, and deemed impregnable in 1522, it has mem- oirs of Kings John, Edward L, and James IV., but is known best through Marmion. The pictur- 1gsque ruins comprise a great square keep, 70 feet igh. NORMAL, a village of Illinois, about two miles north of Bloomington. It contains manufactories of brick, paper and woolens, and is the seat of the Illinois State Normal University. NORMAL SCHOOLS, institutions in which the pupils are trained to become teachers. The pupils are young men or women, generally between sev- enteen and twenty years of age, who have passed through a grammar school, or even a superior school, and who have passed an examination in reading, writing, grammar, arithmetic, and in the geography of their own country. Most normal schools in this country were modeled after those of the State of Massachusetts, and most of the Euro- pean normal schools took those of the kingdom of Prussia as their patterns. According to the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for the year 1886-7 the His published works include ‘ 1144 numbers of normal schools in foreign countries are as follows: Austria-Hungary, 139; Belgium, 51; Germany, 164; England and I/Vales, 43; Scotland, 7 ; Ireland, 4; Italy, 134; Japan, 80; Netherlands, 7; Russia in Europe, including Finland, 61 ; British India, 108; Bombay Presidency, 11; New Bruns- wick, 1; Nova Scotia, 1; Ontario, 2; Prince Ed- wards Island, 1; Quebec, 1; Argentine Republic, 20; Chili, 3; Venezuela, 4; New South VVales, 2; South Australia, 1; Victoria, 1; New Zealand, 4; Switzer- land has one normal school for each canton ; France, had 90 in 1888, with 1,193 students. The public normal schools in the United States numbered 119 in the year 1886. They had 1,115 teachers and 31,800 students. Ninety-six of these schools are supported by the States and twenty-one by cities. There were also thirty-six private normal schools, with 279 instructors and 8,524 students. éflilese schools are distributed among the States as o ows: States. 3; 5; States. 23 E 94 5,‘ 94 5',‘ Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 2 |Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 1 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 {New Hampshire . . . . .. 2 0 California . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 2 ‘New Jersey . . . . . . . . . .. 3 1 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 1 [New York . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 0 Connecticut . . . . . . . .. 1 0 [North Carolina . . . . . .. 5 1 Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 0 ‘South Carolina . . . . . .. 1 3 Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 2 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 0 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 5 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . .. 11 2 Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 2 Rhode Island . . . . . . . .. 1 0 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 4 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 2 Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 0 Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 4 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 0 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 0 .West Virginia . . . . . . . .. 6 0 Massachusetts . . . . . .. 10 0 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 2 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 Minnesota . . . . . . . . . .. 3 0 District of Columbia. 2 0 Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0 0 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 0 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 In the American normal schools the studies first attended to are those which the law of the ‘respec- tive State requires to be taught in the district schools, namely: orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, United States geography and- arithmetic. When these are mastered, studies of a higher order are progressively taken up. Those pupils who take the full course of three years, are in addition instructed in composition, rhetoric, logic, penmanship and drawing, higher arithmetic, algebra, geometry, book-keeping, surveying, ancient and modern geography, chronology, general his- tory, human physiology and hygiene, mental and natural philosophy, history of the United States, natural history, astronomy, music,—and above all the science and art of teaching with reference to all the above-named studies. A portion of the Scriptures is required to be read daily in every State normal school. NORHANBY, a town of England, three and a half miles southeast of Middlesborough. Popula- tion, 7,714. It gave the title of marquis in 1694 to John Sheflield, Earl of Mulgrave and afterwards Duke of Buckinghamshire, as also in 1838 to Con- stantine Henry Phipps, previously Earl of Mul- grave and a distinguished statesman. See Britan- nica, Vol. XVII, p. 538. - NORNS, the Parcce of Scandinavian mythology, three maidens, by name Urd, Verdandi and Skuld, that is, Past, Present and Future. They sit by the well of Urd, under the world-tree Ygdrasil in As- gard, and there determine the fate of gods and men. Besides these there are inferior norns, good NORMANBY-_-NORTH CAROLINA and bad, answering to the genii of classical my- thology; to such are attributable the unequal des- tinies of men in the world. Women who possessed the power of prediction or magic also bore this name. N ORONHA, FERNANDo DE, a group of small islands belonging to Brazil, in the South Atlantic, about 200 miles northeast of Cape San Roque. The group is of volcanic character, phonolite and other rocks of late formation resting on a foundation of basalt. A curious calcareous sandstone is also common, consisting of sand and fragments of shells, rendered firm by the action of water. The climate is healthy, and the trade-winds keep the tempera- ture moderate. The islands are fertile, and maize, sugar, sweet potatoes, casavas, melons and bananas are raised. The low hills and valleys of the main island are thickly wooded; a sort of fig (Ficus Nor- onhw), like the Banyan, drops aerial roots from its branches. The group was visited in 1775 by Cap- tain Cook, and in 1832 by Darwin, who investigated its geology. The main island has been made a penal settlement, where about 1,500 convicts are kept, guarded by 200 soldiers. See FERNANDO DE NORONHA, Britannica, Vol. IX, p. 99. N ORRISTOWN , a handsome borough, the county- seat of Montgomery county, Pa., on the left bank of the Schuylkill, sixteen miles northwest of Philadel- phia. Population in 1890, 19,791. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 553. - NORTHFIELD, a village of Massachusetts, pleas- antly situated on the east bank of the Connecticut River, just south of New Hampshire. It is the birthplace of Dwight L. Moody, the evangelist, and the headquarters of the Christian educational insti- tution founded by him, including Northfield Semin- ary for young ladies, located at Northfield, and Mount Hermon School for young men,in the town of Gill, four miles distant. Population, 1,705. NORTH ADAMS, a manufacturing village of Massachusetts, picturesquely situated on the Hoosac River, near the west ‘end of the Hoosac Tunnel, 143 miles west of Boston. Population in 1890, 16,074. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 255. NORTHAMPTON, a city, the county-seat of Hampshire county, Mass., near the west bank of the Connecticut River, 103 miles west of Boston. Population in 1890, 14,990. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 558. NORTH BERWICK, a fashionable watering- place of England, at the entrance to the Firth of Forth, twenty-three miles northeast of Edinburgh. Behind it rises conical North Berwick Law (612 feet), and westward stretch splendid golf-links. -Tantallon Castle, three miles east, fronting the Bass Rock, is a magnificent ruin, finely described in Scott’s Marmion. A stronghold of the Douglases, it resist- ed James V. in 1528, but in 1639 was “dung down” by the Covenanters. Robert III. made North Ber- wick a royal burg. Population, 1,711. NORTH CAPE, the northernmost point in Eu- rope, in 710 10’ north latitude. It is not, however, on the continent, but on the island of Magero. The northernmost point on the continent is Cape Nordkyn (710 6’ N. Lat.), six miles farther south than the North Cape, and some forty-five miles to the east of it.- NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF. For general article on NORTI-I CARoLINA, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 558-562. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as ,follows: Area, 52,250 square miles; population, 1,617,947, an increase during the decade of 218,197. Capital, Raleigh, with a population of 12,678. The following table gives the population of the cities and towns which in 1890 had each over 8,000 inhabitants; also their NORTH CAROLINA population in 1880 and their increase during the decade : Cities and towns. 1890. 1880. cI_g;'Se_ 0232 Asheville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,235 2,616 7,619 291.25 Charlote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,557 7,094 4,463 62.91 Raleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,678 9,265 3,413 36 .84 Wilmington . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,056 17,350 2 ,706 15 .60 Winston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,018 2, ' 5,164 180.94 The census returns of several other cities and towns in the State were as follows: Fayetteville, 4,223; Goldsborough, 4,325; Greensborough, 3,317; Newburne, 7,817 ; Salisbury, 4,417 ; Washington, 3,574; Elizabeth City, 3,249. AREA AND POPULATION BY CoUNTIEs.—The land area in square miles, and the population, severally, of the counties of the State were as follows in 1890: ,. 1145 Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Lenoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 14,879 15,344 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 12,586 11,061 McDowell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 10,939 9,836 Macon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 10,102 8,064 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 17,805 12,810 Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 15 ,221 13,140 Mecklenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 42,673 34,175 Mitchell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 12,807 9,435 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 11,239 9,374 Moore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 20,479 16,821 Nash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 20,707 17,731 New Hanover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 24,026 21,376 Northampton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 21,242 20,032 Onslow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 10,303 9,829 Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380- 14,948 23,698 Pamlico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 7,146 6,323 Pas uotank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200 10,748 10,369 Pen er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 800 12,514 12,468 Perquimans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 9,293 9 ,466 Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 15,151 13,719 Pitt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 25,519 21,794 Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 5 ,902 5,062 Randolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 756 25,195 20.836 Richmond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 23,948 18,245 Robeson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,040 31,483 23,880 Rockingham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 25,363 21,744 Rowan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 24,123 19,965 Rutherford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 18,770 15,198 Sam son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 996 25,096 22,894 Stan y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39 12,136 10,505 Stokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 17,199 15,353 Surry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 19,281 15,302 Swain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 425 6,587 3,784 Transylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 5,881 5,340 Tyrrell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 4,225 4,545 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 21,259 18,056 Vance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 342 17,581 . . . . . . . . . Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 49,207 47,939 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 19,360 22,619 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 10,200 8,928 Watauga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 10,611 8,160 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 26,100 24,951 Wilkes . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 22,675 19 .181 Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 18,644 16,064 Yadkin . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 13,790 12,420 Yancey.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 9,490 7,694 GovERNoRs or NORTH CARoLINA.—The following is a complete list of the governors of the State, with the periods and dates of service: UNDER THE Lonns PROPRIETORS. Population. Counties. Area» 1890. 1880. Alamance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 18,271 14,613 Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 9,430 8,355 Allegheny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 6,523 5,486 Anson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 20,027 17,994 Ashe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 15,628 14,437 B aufort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 748 21,072 17,474 Bgrtie . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 19,176 16,399 Bladen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 16,763 16,158 Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 10,900 9,389 Buncombe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 35,266 21,909 Burke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 14,939 12,809 Cabarrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 18,142 14,964 Caldwell ........................ . . 460 12,298 10,291 Camden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 5,667 6,274 Carteret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . 510 10,825 9,784 Caswell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 1 6,028 17,825 Catawba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 18,689 14,946 Chatham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 25,413 23,453 Cherokee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 9,976 8,182 Chowan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 9,167 7,900 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 4,197 3,316 Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 420 20,394 15,571 Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 17,856 14,439 Cravan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792 20,533 19,729 Cumberland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . 794 27,321 23,836 Currituck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 6,747 6 ,476 Dare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 3,768 3,243 Davidson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 21,702 20,333 Davie ........................... . . 296 11,621 11,096 Duplin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828 18,690 18,773 Durham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 292 18,041 . . . . . . . . . . . Edgecombe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 24 ,113 26,181 Fors th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 372 28,434 18,070 Fran lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 480 21,090 20,829 Gaston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 17,764 14,254 Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 10,252 8,897 Gr'aham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 3,313 2,335 Granville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 24,484 31,286 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 10,030 10,037 Guilford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 28,052 23,585 Halifax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 28,908 30,300 Harnett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 13.700 10,862 Haywood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 13,346 10,271 Henderson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 12,589 10,281 Hertford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 13,851 11,843 Hyde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 8,903 7,765 Irodcll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 25,462 22,675 Jackson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 9,512 7 ,343 ' Johnston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 680 27,239 23,461 Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 7 ,403 7,491 George Drummond . . . .1663-67 Alex. Livingstone .... . .1693—95 Samuel Stevens . . . . . . ..1667—74 Thomas Harvey . . . . ..1695-1705 — artwright . . . . . . . ..1674—77 Henderson Walker . . . . . .1705—9 —— ' iller . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1677—78 William Grover . . . . . . . .1709—10 John Culpepper . . . . . . ..1678—80 Edward Hvde . . . . . . . . ..1710—22 John Harvey . . . . . . . . . . .1680-81 Thomas Pollock . . . . . . . . . . .1722 John Jenkins . . . . . . . . . . ..1681—83 William Reed . . . . . . . . ..1722-24 Seth Sothel . . . . . . . . . . . ..1683—89 Georgell_Burrington .. . 1723-25 Philip Ludwell . . . . . . . ..1689—93 Sir Richard Everhard.1725—30 UNDER THE CROWN. George Burrington.. . . .1730-34 Matthew Rowan . . . . . . . . . . .1754 Gabriel Johnston . . . . ..1734—53 Arthur Dobbs . . . . . . . . ..1754-65 Nathaniel Rice . . . . . . . ..1653-54 William Tryon . . . . . . . ..1765—71 Josiah Martin, 1771-75. A STATE GOVERNMENT. Richard Caswell . . . . .. 1777-79 John Owen . . . . . . . . . . . ..1828-30 Abner Nast . . . . . . . . . . . . .1779-81 Mont-fort Stokes . . . . . . . .1830-32 Alexander Martin . . . . ..1781—84 David L. Swain . . . . . . . . .1832—35 Richard Caswell . . . . . ..1784—87 Richard D. Spaight. . ..1835—37 Samuel Johnston . . . . . . .1787—89 Edward B. Dudley. . . . .183‘7—41 Alexander Martin . . . . . 1789-92 John M. 1\iorehead. . . . .1841—45 Richard D. Spaight. . . 1792-95 William A. Graham. ...1845—49 Samuel Ashe . . . . . . . . . ..1795—98 Charles Manly . . . . . . . . ..1849—51 William R. Davie . . . . . . .1798—99 David S. Reid . . . . . . . . ..1851—55 0 1146 NORTH CAROLINA—NORTH MAGNETIC POLE STATE GOVERNMENT. Benjamin Williams. .1799-1802 James Turner . . . . . . . . . .1802-5 Nathaniel Alexander. . .1805-7 Benjamin Williams. . . . .1807-8 David Stone . . . . . . . . . . . .1808-10 Benjamin Smith . . . . . ..1810-11 William Hawkins . . . . ..1811—14 William Miller . . . . . . . ..1S14—17 John Branch . . . . . . . . . ..1817—20 Jesse Franklin . . . . . . . . .1820-21 Gabriel Holmes . . . . . . .1821—24 Hutchings G. Burton. .1824-27 James Iredell . . . . . . . . ..1827-28 The governor’s official Thomas Bragg . . . . . . . . ..1855-59 John W. Ellis . . . . . . . . . ..1859-61 H. T. Clark . . . . . . . . . . . .1861—62 Zebulon B. Vance . . . . ..1862-65 William W. Holden . . . . . ..1865 Jonathan Worth ....... ..1865-68 William W. Holden. . . .1868—81 Tod R. Caldwell . . . . . . ..1871-74 Curtis H. Brogden. . . . .1874-77 Zebulon B. Vance . . . . ..1877-79 Thomas J . Jarvis . . . . . . .1879—85 Alfred M. Scales . . . . . ..1885—89 Daniel G. Fowle . . . . . . . .1889-93 term closes Jan. 1, 1893. The governor’s salary is $3,000. CONDENSED HISTORIO OUTLINE.—North Carolina was first permanently colonized from Virginia in 1653. Down to 1693 in continued to form one prov- ince along with South Carolina, the two being fre- quently classed as the Carolinas. In a local decla- ration of independence of May, 1775, 14 months be- fore the 4th of July, 17 76, North Carolina first form- ally demanded a separation from Great Britain. The important battle of Guilford Court House was fought March 15, 1781. Progress of population in North Carolina by de- cades: In 1790, 3937,51; 1800, 478,103; 1810, 555,500; 1820, 638,829; 1830, 735,987 ; 1840, 735,419 ; 1850, 869,- 039; 1860, 992,622; 1870, 1,071,361; 1880, 1,399,750; 1890, 1,617,947. _ NORTH CAROLINA, UNIVERSITY OF. See COL- LEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. NORTHCOTE, SIR STAFFORD. in these Revisions and Additions. NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OF. For general arti- cle, see Britannica, Vol. VI, pp. 773-774. The cen- sus of 1890 reports the area and population as fol- lows: Area , 70,795 square miles; population 182,- 719, an increase during the decade of 145,810. Cap- ital, Bismarck, with a population of 2,260. The cen- sus returns of several other towns in the State were as follows: Fargo, 5,613; Grand Forks, 4,963. AREAS AND POPULATION BY COUNTIES. — The land areas in square miles, and the population, severally, of the counties of the State were as fol- lows in 1890: See IDDESLEIGH Counties. ATea- j?8(g))8: 1Pg%8: Alred (Ob) - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - -- 450 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Barnes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,512 7,045 1,585 Benson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,363 2,460 , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ,, Billings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,360 170 1,323 Bottineau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,130 2,893 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , , _, Bowman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,224 6 _ _ _ _ _ , , , _ _, Buford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,620 803 _ _ , _ _ , , _ , _ _ Burleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,692 4,252 3,246 Cass. ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,764 19,613 3,998 Cavalier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,512 6,471 _ , _ , , _ , , , , _ Church (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Dickey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,152 5,573 _ _ , _ , _ _ , _ _ , Dunn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,152 1.59 , _ _ , , , . _ . , , Eddy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 1,377 . . . . . . . . . . . Emmons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,534 1,971 38 Flannery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,800 72 _ _ _ , , _ . . _ _ _ Foster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (548 1,210 .-37 Garfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 33 . . . . . . . . . . . Grand Forks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,404 18,35 6,248 Gmggs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 2,817 _ , , . , . , _ , , , Hettinger . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.160 81 . . . . . . . . . . . Howard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 Kidder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,440 1,211 89 La Moure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,152 3,187 20 Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,008 597 . . . . . . . . . .. McHenry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,476 1,558 . . . . . . . . . . . McIntosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . .. 1,008 3,248 . . . . . . . . . .. Counties. Areas‘ McKenzie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,080 3 . . . . . ... . . . McLean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 860 . . . . . . . . . . . Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 428 . . . . . . . . . . . Morton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,168 4,728 200 Mountraille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,895 122 13 Nelson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,008 4,293 . . . . . . . . . . . Oliver.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 464 . . . . . . . . . . . Pemb1na . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,120 14,334 4,862 Pierce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 864 . 905 Ramsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 4,418 281 Ransom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 864 5,393 537 Renville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,332 99 Richland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,440 10,751 3,597 Rolette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 2,427 Sargent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 5,076 . . . . . . . . . . . Sheridan ((1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Stark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,310 2,304 . . . . . . . . . . . Steele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 3,777 . . . . . . . . . .. Stevens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,116 16 247 Stutsman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,304 5,266 1,007 Towner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,044 1 50 . . . . . . . . . .. Traill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 10,270 4,123 Wallace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,323 24 . . . . . . . . . . . Wallette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 Walsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,584 16,587 . . . . . . . . . . . Ward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,512 1,681 . . . . . . . . . . . el . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,296 1,212 . . . . . . . . . . . Williams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,260 109 14 GOVERNORS OF DAKOTA TERRITORY AND OF NORTH DAxoTA.—The following is a complete list of the governors with the periods and dates of ser- vice: GOVERNORS OF DAKOTA TERRITORY. William Jayne . . . . . . . . .1861—63 Wm. A. Howard . . . . . . ..1878-80 Newton Edmonds . . . . ..1863-66 Nehemiah G. Crdway. .1880-84 Andrew J . Faulk . . . . . ..1866-69 Gilbert A. Pierce . . . . ..1884-86 John A. Burbank . . . . . ..1869—73 Louis K. Church . . . . ..1886—89 John L. Pennington. . . . 1873-78 GOVERNORS OF NORTH DAKOTA. John Miller . . . . . . . . . . ..1889-91 | A. H.Burke . . . . . . . . . . ..1891—93 Governor Burke’s official term closes Jan. 3, 1893. The governor’s salary is $3,000. CONDENSED HISTORIO OUTLINE.—The territory of Dakota was embraced in the Louisiana tract ceded to the United States in 1803. Dakota Territory was organized in 1861. An Indian' war with Little Crow’s band took place in 1862. Another Indian war prevailed in 1863. The capital of the territory was removed from Yankton to Bismarck in 1883. The bill dividing the Territory into North and South Dakota passed the United States Senate April 19, 1888. John Miller was elected governor Oct. 1, 1889. The President proclaimed North Da- kota admitted into the Union as a State, Nov. 2, 1889. Gilbert A. Pierce and Lyman R. Casey were elected United States Senators Dec. 1889. Henry C. Hansbrough was elected United States Senator to succeed Gilbert A. Pierce, Jan. 1891. NORTHFIELD, a village of Minnesota on Can- non River, forty miles south of St. Paul. It is the seat of Carleton and St. Olaf colleges and has var- ious manufacturing industries. Population in 1890, 2,657. NORTHFIELD, a village of Vermont, about ten miles southwest of Montpelier. It is extensively engaged in manufacturing and slate-quarrying, and is the seat of Norwich University. NORTH MAGNETIC POLE. See Britannica, Vol. XVI, p. 163; also Vol. XV, p. 221. See also NORTH PLNPNL—NORWAY ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS (Proposed Expeditions), in these Revisions and Additions. NORTH PLATTE, a village of Nebraska, at the confluence of the Forks of the Platte River. It con- tains a United States land-office, railroad shops, and is largely engaged in stock-raising. NORTHPORT, a village of New York, on Long Island, forty miles east of Brooklyn. It is engaged in fishing and ship-building. NORTH SEA AND BALTIC CANAL, a canal be- gun in 1887, and described as aportion of a scheme of German coast defense. It is intended to unite the Gulf of Kiel with the mouth of the Elbe, run- ning from Holtenau by way of Rendsburg to a point midway between Brunsbiittel and St. Mar- garethen, a few miles below Hamburg. Its meas- urements are thus given: 61 miles long, 196 feet broadat water level, 85 feet at bottom, and 28 feet deep, there being a lock at each end. The largest German warship will be able to enter at all states of the tide, and pass through in eight hours. It is intended to supplement this strategical waterway by means of another canal traversing Hanover from Neuhaus, opposite Brunsbiittel to Bremer- haven, at the mouth of the Weser; and it will then be possible to pass between Kiel and Wilhelms- haven on what are practically inland waters. NORTHUMBERLAND, a borough of Pennsyl- vania, beautifully situated in the midst of wild mountain scenery, at the confluence of the two branches of the Susquehanna, about twelve miles southwest of Danville. NORTH VERNON, a village of Indiana, and an important manufacturing center, about twenty miles southeast of Columbus. NORTH WALSHAM, a small market-town of England, in the county of Norfolk, on an acclivity on the right bank of the Ant, fourteen miles north- east of Norwich. Its market-cross, repaired after the great fire in 1600, by which the town was al- most entirely burned down, dates from the reign of Edward III. Population, about 3,000. NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at Evanston, Ill. See COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. NORTH YAKIMA, a city, the county-seat of Ya- kima county, WVash., situated at the confluence of the Yakima and Natchess rivers. It contains a United States land-office, a young ladies’ academy, and numerous manufactories. NORTON, ANDREWS, an American theologian, born at Hingham, Mass., Dec. 31, 1786, died at Newport, R. I., Sept. 18, 1853. He graduated at Harvard in 1804, was appointed mathematical tutor there in 1811, and in 1813 librarian of the university and lecturer on biblical criticism and interpretation. In 1819-30 he was Dexter professor of sacred literature. He was among the most dis- tinguished exponents of Unitarianism, equally de- termined in his protest against Calvinism and in his opposition to the school of Theodore Parker and the naturalistic theology. His chief writings are Reasons for not beZz'em'-ng the Doet-rines of Tr/intta.r- tans, and two works on The Ge'n'u’ineness of the Gos- pels. He made also a translation of the Gospels, which after his death was edited by Dr. Ezra Abbot and his son, Charles Eliot Norton, who was born at Cambridge, Mass, Nov. 16, 1827, and graduated at Harvard in 1846. He traveled in India and Europe in 1849-51, and again in Europe in 1855-57 and 1868-73, and in 1864-68 was joint editor with Lowell of the “North American Review.” He has published a number of works relating to Italy, and edited Carlyle’s letters. NORTON, JOHN, a Puritan clergyman, born at Hartford, England, in 1606, died at Boston, Mass, ll4T in 1663. He was a curate in his native town. Hav- ing embraced the tenets of the Puritans, he re- moved in 1635 to Plymouth, Mass. Next year he became minister of the church at Ipswich, and in 1652 associate minister of the First Church at Bos- ton. accompanied Gov. Bradstreet as agent of the col- ony to London to assure the king of the loyalty of Massachusetts. The king assured them that he would confirm the charter of the colony, but he re- quired that justice should be administered in his name, and attached other conditions which the colonists considered arbitrary. Upon the return of the agents, the report was circulated that they had sold the liberties of the country. This hastened Norton’s death. His most noted publication was The Heart of New England Rent by the Blasphemtes of the Present Generation (1660), a treatise directed against the Quakers, whom he wanted to be driven out of New England. NORTON, RICHARD H., born at Troy, Mo., Nov. 6, 1849. He was educated at the St. Louis University; graduated in the law department of Washington University; practiced law in his native town ; was elected to Congress from Missouri in 1888, and re- elected in 1890. NORTON, WILLIAM EDWARD, painter, born at Boston, Mass., in 1843. At the age of eighteen he went to sea, and, after making several voyages, be- gan painting marine views in 1865. In 1877 he re- moved to London, where he opened a studio. Among his best known works are: W7zalesln'ps Trying Out; Fog on the Grand Banks; Tnn'l*ight on the Banks of Newfoundland, and Nantasket Beach in November. NORWALK, a borough and township of Connect- icut, on Long Island Sound, at the mouth of the Norwalk River, 41 miles northeast of New York. Population in 1890, 17,739. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 574. NORVVALK, the county-seat of Huron county, Ohio, 55 miles southwest of Cleveland. Population 5,704. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 574. NORVVAY. For general article on the KINGDOM on NORWAY, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 575-592. Norway has an area of 123,205 square miles. The official census of 1875 (the latest published) placed the population at 1,818,853. The following table gives the population by provinces: After the restoration of Charles II., Norton- ‘ - Population, Counties. Area. 18:75 Kristiania (town) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76,054 Akershus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,002 116,365 Smaalenem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,591 107,804 Hedemarken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,056 120,618 Kristians.- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,670 115,814 Buskerud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,617 102,186 J arlsberg og Larvik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 872 87,506 Bratsberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,707 83,171 Neden es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,871 73,415 Lister og Mandel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.803 75,121 Stavanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,468 110,965 Sdndre Bergenhus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,853 119,303 Bergen (town) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 33,830 Nordre Bergenhus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,044 86,208 Romsdal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,650 117,220 Siindre T1-ondhjem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,081 116,804 Nordre T1‘OI1dl1]6II1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,793 32,271 Nordland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.660 104,151 Tromsd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,156 54,019 Finmarken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,302 24,075 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123,205 1,806,900 POPULATION or PRINCIPAL TowNs.——At a census taken Dec. 31, 1885, of the population of the towns, the number of towns with a population of above 1148 1001000 was one, above 20,000 three, above 10,000 five, above 5,000 nine. The population of the prin- cipal towns, J an. 1, 1886, was : Kristiania . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..130,027 Fredrikshald. . . . . . . . . .. 11,246 Bergen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47,075 Fredrikstad . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,212 Trondhjem . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,979 Larvik . . . . . . . . . . .." . . . . . .. 11,196 Stavanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,911 Aalesund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,889 Drammen. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,601 Tromsii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,734 Kristiansana . . . . . . . . . . .. 18,022 CENTRAL Exnoorrvn GovERNMENr.—By the Treaty of Kiel, J an. 14, 1814, Norway ceded by the king of Denmark to the king of Sweden; but the people of Norway did not recognize this cession until May 17 of the same year, when after failing in their ef- forts to secure independent sovereignty, they yielded to terms of agreement with Sweden, under the provision that the “independence of Norway in union with Sweden” was ofiicially pro- claimed. At an extraordinary meeting of the “ storthing ” King Carl XIII. of Sweden was elected king of Norway. The following year a charter (the riksakt) was promulgated establish- ing new fundamental laws on terms of perpetual union with Sweden, declaring such union insoluble and irrevocable, yet without prejudice to the sepa- rate local government of each. The law of succes- sion to the throne is the same in both countries. In case of absolute vacancy of the throne, the two diets assemble for the election of the future sover- eign, and should they not be able to agree upon one person, an equal number of Swedish and Norwegian deputies have to meet at the city of Karlstadt, in Sweden, for the appointment of the king, this nom- ination to be absolute. The common affairs are de- cided upon in a council of state composed of Swedes and Norwegians. In case of minority of the king, the council of state exercises the sover- eign power until a regent or council of regency is appointed by the united action of the diets of Swe- den and Norway. The last revision of the constitution of Norway was made in 1889. The legislative power of the realm continues to be investedin the “storthing,” or Great Court, which is declared to be the “represen- tative of the sovereign people.” The king of Sweden and Norway, however, possesses the right of veto over laws passed by the storthing, but only for a limited period. The royal veto may be exer- cised twice; but if the same bill pass three storth- ings formed by separate and subsequent elections, it becomes the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign. The king has the command of the land and sea forces, and makes all appoint- ments, but, except in few cases, is not allowed to nominate any but Norwegians to public offices under the crown. The storthing assembles every year. New elec- tions take place every three years. The meetings take place sou jure, and not by any writ from the king or the executive. They begin in February each year, and must receive the sanction of the king to sit longer than two months. Every Norwegian citizen of twenty-five years of age who in the year before the election has paid income tax on an an- nual income of at least 500 kronen in the country districts or 800 kronen in the towns (provided that he has resided one year in the electoral district at the time when the election takes place, and that he does not belong to the household of another as a servant), or who is or has been a public ‘function- ary, or possesses property in land, or has been ten- ant of such property for five years at least, or is a burgess of any town, or possesses real property in altown to the value of 600 kronen, is entitled to e ect. . I daughter of the Grand Duke of Baden. "NORWAY Under the same conditions citizens thirty years of age, and settled in Norway for at least ten years, are entitled to be elected. The mode of election is indirect. Towards the end of every third year the people choose their deputies, at the rate of one to fifty voters in towns, where the election is admin- istered by the magistrate, and one to a hundred in rural sub-districts, where they meet in the parish church under the presidency of the parish minis- ter. The deputies afterwards assemble and elect among themselves, or from among the other quali- fied voters of the district, the storthing representa- tives. No election takes place for vacancies,which are filled by the persons-who received the second largest number of votes. The number of electors in 1888 was 128,368, or 6.55 per cent. of total popula- tion, while 90,416 votes, or 70.4 per cent. of the whole number, were recorded. Of the total male popula- tion, 45 per cent. are 25 years of age and above. The storthing has 114 members—38 from towns, 76 from rural districts. The storthing, when assembled, divides itself in- to two houses, the “Lagthing” and the “Odels- thing.” The former is composed of one-fourth of the members of the storthing, and the other of the remaining three-fourths The thing nominates its own presidents. If the odelsthing and lagthing do not agree, the two houses assemble in common‘ sitting to deliberate, and the final decision is given by amajority of two-thirds of the voters. The same majority is required for alterations of the constitu- tion. The storthing can also form itself into a high court of justice, for the impeachment and trial of ministers, members of the chief court of justice, and members of the storthing. lVhile in session, every member of the storthing has an allowance of twelve “kronen” a day, besides traveling expenses. The executive is represented by the king, who exercises his authority through a council of state, composed of two ministers of state and at least seven councillors. Two of the councillors, who change every year, together with one of the minis- ters, form a delegation of the council of state, re- siding at Stockholm, near the king. Ministers and councillors of state are entitled to be present in the storthing and to take part in the discussions, when public, but without a vote. There are now (1891) eight council ministers at Kristiana, Norway, and a delegation of three locat- ed near the king at Stockholm, Sweden. All were appointed July 12, 1889. REIGNING KING AND ROYAL FAMILY 1891.-—Oscar II., born Jan. 21, 1829; the third son of King Oscar I. and of Queen Josephine, daughter of Prince Eugene of Leuchtenberg. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his brother Kin Carl XV., Sept. 18, 1872. Married June 6, 1857, to gueen Sophia, born July 9, 1886, daughter of the late Duke Wilhelm of Nas- sau. - CHILDREN OF THE KING.—1. Prince Gustaf, Duke of Wermland, born June 16, 1858. Married Sept. 20, 1881, to Princess Victoria, born Aug. 7, 1862, Issue, Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Scania, born Nov. 11, 1882; Prince Carl Wilhelm, Duke of Sddermanland, born June 17, 1884; and Prince Erik Ludvig Al- bert, Duke of Vestmanland, born April 20, 1889. 2. Prince Carl, Duke of Westergétland, born Feb. 27, 1861. 3. Prince Eugene, Duke of Nerike, born Aug. 1, 1865. 4. Prince Oscar Bernadette, born Nov. 15, 1859. Married March 15, 1888, to Ebba Munck of Fulkila, born Oct. 24, 1858. King Oscar II. is the fourth sovereign of the House of Ponte Carvo, and grandson of Marshal Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte Corvo, who was elect- , ed heir-apparent of the crown of Sweden by the NORWICH—NOTT 1 parliament of the kingdom, Aug. 21, 1810, and as- cended the throne Feb. 5, 1818, under the name of Carl XIV. Johan. He was succeeded at his death, March 8, 1844, by his only son, Oscar. The latter died J uljr 8,1859, and was succeeded by his eldest son Carl XV., at whose premature death, without male children, the crown fell to his next surviving brother, the present king. The royal family of Sweden and Norway has a civil list of 1,338,000 kronen, or $331,665, from Swed- en, and 433,922 kronen, or $120,430, from Norway. The sovereign, besides, has an annuity of 300,000 kronen, or $83,330, voted to King Carl XIV. and his successors on the throne of Sweden. FINANCE AND DEFENSE.—-The government bud- gets for 1890 and 1891 fixed the revenue and ex- penditure of the two years respectively at 45,070,- 000 kroncn and 48,350 kronen. The army on J an. 1, 1891, numbered 40,000 men with 850 officers. The number of troops of the line actually under arms can never exceed, even in war, without permission of the storthing,18,000 men. The king has permission to transfer from Norway to Sweden annually for “common military exer- cises” only. The naval force of Norway in 1891 consisted of 48 steamers and two sailing vessels. One firstclass gunboat was in process of construction, to be com- pleted at a cost of 1,240,000 kronen; also one pro- tective steel-deck vessel of 6 guns, and 6 revolving guns. All the seafaring men in the sea-ports be- tween the ages of 21 and 35 are enrolled in either the active fleet or naval militia. They numbered in 1890 nearly 27,000 men. NORWICH, the county-seat of New London county, Conn., at the head of the Thames River, thirteen miles north of New London. Popula- tion in 1890, 16,156. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pi%6 NOSING, the projecting edge of a moulding, such as the bead or bottle used on the edge of steps, to which the term is most frequently ap- phed. NOSOLOGY (Gr. nosos, “disease”), that branch .of -medicine which treats of the distribution and arrangement of diseases into classes. NOSSI DAMBO, one of the native names of Madagascar. N OSTALGIA (Gr. nostos, “the return home ;” algos, “ pain”), a technical term for home-sickness which, when as sometimes it takes the form of acute melancholia, becomes ruinous to health, and even fatal. It is said that inhabitants of mountainous countries suffer more keenly than others; but it seems to have less to do with affection for the phys- ical features of home than with inability to break with old habits and modes of life. In armies it has been found necessary to adopt measures to prevent desertion on this ground. In Canada, the playing of Lochaber no More by the pipers of Highland regi- ments had to be interdicted; and so in France it was forbidden, under pain of death, to sing or play the Ranz des Vaches in the hearing of the Swiss mercenaries. N OSTOC, a genus of plants of the natural order Algae, sub-order Confervaz, found upon moist ground, rocks near streams, etc., and consisting of a some- what gelatinous hollow tumid frond, filled with simple filaments resembling strings of beads. N. commune springs up suddenly on gravel walks and pasture grounds after rain. It is a trembling, gela- tinous mass, often called Star Jelly, and vulgarly regarded, owing to the suddenness with which it makes its appearance, as having fallen from the :kies, and as possessed of important medicinal vir- ues. 1149 NOT GUILTY, the form of a verdict in a crimi- nal prosecution, and also in some civil actions, when the jury find in favor of the defendant or ac- cused party. The verdict is conclusive, and the accused cannot, in criminal cases, be tried asecond time. NOT PROVEN, a form of verdict in Scotch crim- inal trials, which implies that, although the pris- oner has not been proved to be guilty yet neither has he been proved to be innocent. It practical effect is the same as that of a verdict of “ not guilty.” NOTT, ABRAHAM, jurist,born at Saybrook, Conn., in 1768, died at Fairfield, S. C., in 1830. He studied law at Camden, S. C., and was admitted to the bar of Columbia, S. C., in 1791. From 1800-1801, he served one term in Congress. After that he prac- ticed his profession at Columbia with much suc- cess until 1810, when he was appointed law judge. On the organization of the court of appeals in 1824, Nott became its president, and held his ofiice until his death. His son, HENRY J UNIUS NOTT (1797-1837), essayist, was born on the Pacolet River in South Carolina, in 1797, and admitted to the Columbia, S. C., bar in 1818. In 1821 he went abroad, and en- gaged in literary pursuits in Holland and France. During his absence he was elected professor of belles-lettres in the college of South Carolina, and on his return he filled that chair until 1834. He visited New York City in 1827. On his return voy- age the vessel on which he was a passenger was wrecked off the coast of North Carolina, and he and his wife were drowned. He published Nord- ettes of a Traveler (2 vol. 1834). He was a popular and finished essayist, and a successful lecturer. ‘Another son, J osmn CLARK Norr, ethnologist, was born at Columbia, S. C., in 1804, and died at Mobile, Ala., in 1873. He obtained the degree of M. D. at Philadelphia in 1827, and acted thereafter as dem- onstrator of anatomy under Dr. Philip S. Physic, for 2 years. For some years he practiced his pro- fession at Columbia, S. C., and at Mobile, Ala. In 1857 he was made professor of anatomy in the Uni- versity of Louisiana; and in 1858 he established a medical college at Mobile. Nott published Biblical and Physical History of Man; Physicalffistory of the Jewish Race; Types of Manlriozd, and Indigenous Races of the Earth. He held the theory of the diverse origin of the several races of mankind. Another son, Gusravns AEOLPHUS Norr (1810-1875), became professor of anatomy in the University of Louisiana in 1839, and of materia medica and therapeutics in 1848. He was a surgeon in the Con- federate army. He died at Montgomery, Ala., in 1875. N OTT, ELIPHALET, a clergyman,born at Ashford, Conn., in 1773, died at Schenectady, N. Y., in 1866. He studied theology, and was licensed to preach by the New London Congregational Association, which sent him as a missionary into the then half-settled part of New York State bordering on Otsego Lake. In 1798-1804, he was pastor of the first Presbyterian church at Albany, and in 1804 he was elected presi- dent of Union College, Schenectady, N. Y. Through his efforts the legislature passed a law in 1814, by which financial aid was afforded this then much in- debted and poorly equipped college by means of a lottery, the management of which was confided to himself, and conducted by him for many years. As an educator Dr. Nott was very practical and greatly beloved by his students. A short time be- fore his death he endowed the college with prop- erty worth $500,000. As a preacher he was original, scholarly, and impressive. He paid much atten- tion to physical science, especially to the laws of heat, and obtained about 30 patents for inventions 1150 in that department. The most notable of these was for the first stove for burning anthracite coal,which bore his name, and was much used. Among his published writings are Counsels to Young Men, and Lectures on Temperance, and Resurrection of Christ (1872). His speech on the death of Alexander Hamilton has a national reputation. His brother, SAMUEL NOTT, D. D., was born at Saybrook, Conn., in 1754. He graduated at Yale in 1780, studied theology under Jonathan Edwards, and in 1781 be- came pastor of the Congregational church at Franklin, Conn., where he continued to labor until his death in 1852, a period of 71 years. At the same time he taught a boys’ school. SAMUEL N OTT, the son of the preceding, born at Franklin, Conn., in 1788. He studied at Ando- ver Theological Seminary, and was in 1812 sent as missionary to India. Failing health compelled him to return in 1816. He afterwards held pastor- ates at Galway, N. Y., and Wareham, Mass., where he founded an academy in 1849. He conducted this school successfully for 16 years. He died at Hartford, Conn., in 1869. His publications include Sixteen Years’ Preaching and Procedure at Wareham; and Slavery and the Remedy (1856). NOUKHA, a town of Russia, in Trans-Caucasia, built on the southern slope of the Caucasus moun- tains, eighty miles southwest of Derbend. It con- sists of native Tartars belonging to the Mohamme- dan creed of Armenians, and a few Russians, chiefly officials. Breeding the silk-worm is the staple branch of industry. The native breed of silk-worms is somewhat coarse, and is now being supplanted by the Italian breed. NOVA SCOTIA SHIP RAILWAY, a railway which is new (1891), in course of construction, and which will extendin a straight line between Chig- necto Bay and Northumberland Strait, seventeen miles. It will raise and transfer a vessel and cargo of 2,000 tons dead weight in two hours, and save a distance of 500 miles. NOVOROSSISK, a fortified port on the Black Sea, southeast of Anapa in Russian Caucasia ; the completion of a projectedrailway to Tzaritzin on the Volga would make it command the Volga trade. A breakwater and quay were begun in 1890. Population, 2,988. NOYES, GEORGE RAPALL, Biblical scholar, born at Newburyport, Mass., in 1798, died at Cambridge, Mass., in 1868. He studied theology at Harvard College, and became Unitarian pastor at Peters- ham, Mass., in 1827. From 1840 until his death he was professor of Hebrew literature and other Oriental languages, and Dexter lecturer on Bibli- cal literature at Harvard, where he received the degree of D. D., in 1839. Dr. Noyes was an eminent Greek and Hebrew scholar, and proficient in sacred literature. He devoted many years to the transla- tion of the Old and New Testaments, to which he added copious notes. His chief works are: An Amended Version of Book of Job; The Psalms; The Prophets; Theologigal Essays, Selected from Various Authors, and New Translation of the Old Testament, published after his death (1869). NOYES, JOHN HUMPHREY, communist, born at Brattleborough, Vt., in 1811, died at Niagara Falls, Canada, in 1886. He studied theology at Andover and Yale Seminaries, and was licensed to preach in 1833. ‘While a theological student he fell under the influence of revivalist preachers, and in 1834 he experienced what he called “a second conver- sion.” He then announced himself a “perfection- ist,” and his license to preach was annulled. In 1838 he established a communistic society at Put- ney, Vt., calling the members “perfectionists.” But the force of public opinion drove him out in 1848, NOUKHA-—NUISANCE when he removed with his followers to Oneida, in Madison county, N. Y., and established there what has since been known,as the “Oneida Community.” (See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 772). He established a second community at VVallingford, Conn., which obtained 40 members, whereas that of Oneida con- sisted of 235 members. They adopted what they called “complex marriage,” lived in a “unity house,” and engaged in farming and manufactur- ing, owning about $500,000 worth of property. In 1882 the people of Madison county became aroused by their immoral practices, and forced the mem- bers to give up the practice of complex marriage and other obnoxious customs. After that they formed simply a business corporation. Noyes ed- ited the “Oneida Circular ” in 1834-40, in which he promulgated his views, and published The Second Coming of Christ; Salvation from Sin; History of American Socialism (1870), and several expositions of the practices in his community. NUBAR PASHA, an Egyptian statesman, born at Smyrna in 1825 of an Armenian Christian family. He was educated in Switzerland and in France. In 1842 he became secretary of Bogos-Bey, who was then minister of foreign affairs in Egypt. Two years later he was made secretary-interpreter to Mehemet Ali, and afterwards to Ibrahim Pasha. In 1866 Ismail Pasha made him minister of foreign affairs, and sent him to Constantinople to obtain from the sultan the title of khedive for himself. Nubar Pasha’s efforts were directed to introducing European customs into the administration of Egyptian affairs. But he was several times driven from oflice. In 1878 he became president of the Egyptian cabinet. But he had to resign after six months. In 1884 he was again called to the head of affairs, and his administration has since been more acceptable to the Egyptians than before. NUISANCE : in law, any act, employment, struc- ture or accumulation of matter that is prejudicial to health, offensive to the senses or obstructive to the exercise of personal or public rights or the en- joyment of property. It is public or private. A “public nuisance” annoys citizens in general, whole communities or neighborhoods, as ofiensive odors produced by certain manufactures, powder-mills and magazines of explosives in the midst of dwell- ings, houses of prostitution, noisy trades, unli- censed exhibitions of showmen and mountebanks, the bathing in a river in sight of the neighboring houses, riotous sports involving a breach of the peace, letting dangerous animals run at large, per- mitting persons infected with contagious diseases to mingle with the public, bringing horses having the glanders into populous towns, etc. The locality has much to do with the question what constitutes a nuisance. A manufactory which might be a nui- sance if situated among residences, may not be a nuisance if it is situated in the midst of many sim- ilar manufactories, or outside of a town. A “pri- vate nuisance” is one which causes special injury to one or more individuals, and therefore will sus- tain a private action. If a house is being built in such a way as to throw the rain-water on an ad- joining house or lot, or into a passage-way, this constitutes a private nuisance. The same is the case if the right of way is being obstructed; if a franchise or personal privilege is interfered with, etc. Any nuisance injurious to property is of a private character. aged by noxious vapors issuing from neighboring gas-works. On bringing suit the gardener was awarded a perpetual injunction to restrain the fur- ther manufacture of gas in a manner injurious to his crops. Most unlawful annoyances from noxious I odors. smoke. unhealthy exhalations, ear-piercing A market-gardener was dam- 1 NULLA BONA-NUMISMATICS noises, etc., are of the nature of private nuisances, and will be restrained by injunction at the instance of the person or persons injured by them. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 612, 613. NULLA BONA, a legal phrase in England, de- scriptive of the return made to a sheriff, who in exeguting process against a debtor finds he has no 00 s. N ULLIFICATION: in the history of the United States, the action of the legislature of South Caro- lina in 1832, declaring certain acts of Congress un-, constitutional and therefore null and void. See Britannica, Vol. IV, p. 683; Vol. XXIV, p. 472. NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals. Among the North American Indians strings of beads made from shells were used as currency. They were called wampum. The general court of Massachusetts soon recognized this money and fixed an arbitrary rate of exchange. Six white beads made from the sea-conch, or three purple beads made from the muscle-shell were taken as equivalent to an English penny. Later four white and two purple ones were declared to have the same value. Musket balls were made legal tender for small amounts, and furs and peltry for large sums. The coins brought from England and H01- land tended to flow back to Europe, and the re- maining ones were insufficient for the needs of the colonists. In 1652, therefore, the general court of Massa- chusetts established a mint in Boston, and John Hull, mint-master, struck silver shillings, six-pences and three-pences. All of these coins bore the device of the pine-tree. They were of the same fineness as the English coins of like denomination, but of less weight. This mint continued in operation for thirty-six years. After a while the “royal oak” was substituted for the pine-tree in order to conciliate King Charles II. who disliked this minting by a colony. All the above named coins bore the date of 1652. But two-penny pieces were added with the date of 1662. No other colony had a mint until 1659, when Lord Baltimore caused shillings, six- pences, and groats to be coined for use in Maryland. James II. issued ten coins for circulation in Amer- ica, though few of these have found their way hith- er. In 1722, 1723, and 1733 copper coins were minted in England with the legend “Rosa Americana.” There were also copper half-pence issued in 1773 for circulation in Virginia, and in 1774 silver shil- \ings were added. Florida and Louisiana had colo- nial coins of their own, before they became parts of the United States. After the Revolutionary war the Continental Congress passed an act in 1786 which established a mint and regulated the value and alloy of the na- tional coin. The government prescribed the device for copper coin the next year. Under this author- ity the so-called “Franklin Penny,” with the legend “Mind Your Business,” was made by contract. By the Federal Constitution, ratified in 1789, the right of coining money was transferred from the States to the United States. Under this constitution the United States mint was established at Philadel- phia in 1792, and the regular coinage began in the following year. The following table gives the weight and fineness of all the denominations used in the United States. It also shows the dates of the various acts of Con- gress which authorized their issue. By the act of Congress establishing the United States Mint the following coins were authorized: Gold, eagle, half- eagle, quarter-eagle ; silver, dollar, half—dollar, quar- ter-dollar, dime, half-dime; copper, cent, half-cent. Changes have been made at various times,not only in weight and fineness, but also in the metals used 1 1151 for the minor coins. At present the following coins are struck: Gold, double-eagle, eagle, half-eagle. three-dollar, quarter-eagle, dollar; silver, dollar, half-dollar, quarter-dollar, dime; minor coins, of nickel and bronze, 5-cent, 3-cent, and cent. By the act of Feb. 12,1873, the metric system was to a certain extent used in determining the weight of the silver coins. Thus, the half-dollar was to weigh 12% grams, the quarter-dollar 61/4 grams, the dime 2% grams. In the following table these weights have been given in grains: Coins. Date of Law. grealfgstj Fineness. Gold: Double eagle . March 3,1849 516 900 Eagle ........ .. April 2,1792 270 9102/8 June 28,1834 258 899.225 Jan. 18, 1837 . 900 Half-eagle.. . .. April 2, 1792 135 91623 June 28, 1834 129 899.225 Jan 18, 1837 900 Quarter-eagle. April 2,1792 67 5 916% June 28, 1834 64 5 899.925 Jan. 18, 1837 . . 900 3-Dollarpiece. Feb. 21, 1853 77 4 900 Dollar . . . . . . . .. March 3, 1849 25 8 900 Silver: Dollar . . . . . . . .. April 2, 1792 416 892.4 Jan. 18.1837 4121/2 900 Discontinued. Feb. 12, 1873 'Reauth0rized Feb. 28, 1878 Trade-dollar Feb. 12, 1873 420 900 Demonetized. July 22, 1876 Half-dollar April 2, 1792 208 892.4 Jan. 18, 1837 20614 900 Feb. 21. 1853 92 Feb. 12, 1873 192 9 Quarter-dollar April 12, 1792 104 892.4 Jan 18, 1837 1031/8 900 Feb. 21, 1853 96 , Feb. 12,1876 96 45 20-Cent . . . . . .. March 3. 1875 77.16 900 Discontinued May 2, 1878 Dime . . . . . . . . .. April 2.1792 41 6 892.4 Jan. 18, 1837 41 25 900 Feb. 21, 1853 38 4 Feb, 12, 1873 38 58 Half-dime.. . .. April 2,1792 20 s 892.4 Jan. 18, 1837 20% 900 Feb. 21, 1853 19 2 Discontinued Feb. 12,1873 3-Cent . . . . . . . .. March3,l85l 12% 750 March 3, 1853 11.52 900 Discontinued Feb. 12, 1873 Minor Coins: 5-Cent(nickel) May 16,1866 77 16 75 per cent. copper, 25 per cent. mc ‘e1. 3-Cent(nickel) March 3, 1865 30 75 per cent. copper, 25 per cent. nickel. 2-Ct. (bronze) April 22,1792 96 95 per cent.cogper,5 per ct. tin an zinc. Discontinued Feb. 12,1873 . Cent (copper). April 2,1792 264 Jan. 14, 1793 208 March 3. 1795 168 Discontinued Feb. 21,1857 Cent (nickel) Feb. 21,1857 72 88 per cent. copper, 12 per cent. nic 'el. Discontinued April 22. 1864 Cent (bronze). April 22, 1864 48 95 percent. cogper,5 Ha1f-cent(cop- perct. t1n an zinc. per) . . . . . . .. April 2, 1792 132 Jan. 14, 1793 104 March 3, 1795 84 Discontinued Feb. 21,1757 i Till 1837 the obverse had generally a female head, either with a liberty-cap, or with a fillet bearing the word “Liberty.” Afterwards it was re- placed by a full-length seated figure with a liberty- cap on a pole and a shield with a band inscribed “Liberty.” The reverse of the principal coins has the eagle, often with a shield, arrows and olive 1152 branch. But in the minor coins the denomination of the piece is encircled by a wreath. Up to 1849 eagles or ten-dollar gold pieces were the highest denomination authorized. But the dis- covery of gold in large quantity in California caused a demand for a larger coin, and the double- eagle was authorized by act of March 3, 1849, and issued in 1850. By the same act gold dollars were also authorized. Beside the governmental issues there were octagonal and ring dollars and even gold half-dollars and quarters issued in California. The Mormons in Utah also had gold coins of their own. These had peculiar devices and their favorite inscription, “Holiness to the Lord.” Although the United States Constitution prohibits coining by the States, it has been held that individuals may issue coins which are not similar to the national coinage. Such coins had been issued by Reed in Georgia in 1830, and by the Bechtlers in North Carolina in 1831, and for several years after this date. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 628-661. N UNC DIMITTIS, the name given to the Can- ticle of Simeon (Luke ii. 29-32), which forms part of the compline oflflce of the Roman Breviary, and is retained in the evening service of the Anglican Church when it follows the second lesson. NUNDA, a village of New York on the Genessee Valley Canal, about 45 miles southwest of Roches- ter. It is the seat of an academy and of important manufacturing industries. NUNDYDROOG(Nand71d7ug), a fortified hill in Mysore, 31 miles north of Bangalore, 4,810 feet above the sea. The extensive fortifications on the plateau-summit were erected by Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib, and were stormed by a British force in 1791. The place is now used as a health resort by Europeans from Bangalore. NURSERY RHYMES, metrical jingles trans- mitted in folklore and mechanically repeated by children at their play, without knowledge of their significance or origin. Many of them are survivals of May games, ring-songs and dances, rounds and kissing games which in old England were played by grown-up people, and some of these are still current in America, which are now forgotten in the mother-country, although they not infrequently have equivalents on the continent of Europe. Un- der the same general head we include nursery rhymes proper, counting-out rhymes, cumulative rhymes, courting and love games, playing at work, flower oracles and riddle and guessing games. The verses usually consist of a rhyming couplet, or of four lines in which the second and fourth rhyme; they are often accompanied by a refrain, which may be a single added line, or may be made up of two lines inserted into the stanza; and in place of exact consonance, any assonance or similarity of sound, will answer for the rhyme. NURSING. See Britannica, Vol. XII., p. 305. Fifty years ago a well-trained and qualified nurse , was almost unknown, and consequently, the care of the sick often devolved upon persons totally un- fit for, and ignorant of, the duties required of them. That time is fortunately past. VVell edu- cated women are now to be obtained from various institutions at moderate rates; women who are re- garded by medical attendants as most valuable assistants. One of the earliest, if not the very first of the training institutions for nurses of a superior class, was the St. J ohn’s Sisterhood, founded in 1848 in London. It is now, with its afiiliated institution, the Nursing Sisters of St. John the Divine, under the patronage of the archbishop of Canterbury, and has a very influential council or committee, anda large staff of nurses, some of whom are gra- NUNC DIMITTIS—+NUTTALL tuitously laboring amongst the poor. Much care is taken in their selection, and they are carefully trained. After the Crimean war a great impulse was given to the movement in commemoration of the heroic self-denying labor of Miss Nightingale, and a fund was raised for the purpose of training hospital nurses. See NIGHTINGALE, FLoRENoE, in these Re- visions and Additions. In 1887 Queen Victoria de- voted the surplus of the Women’s Jubilee Offering, amounting to $350,000, to the foundation of a scheme for the training of nurses. The interest of this sum, about $10,000, is employed in the maintenance of central institutions, where nurses are trained for this special work. There are at present four of these centres, in London, Edinburgh,Dublin and Cardiff. Nurses who have gone through the re- quired training at any of these Homes are eligible to be entered on the roll of the Queen’s Institute, and are entitled to wear the badge as Queen’s nurse. The army and navy nurses of Great Britain must all be ladies of good social position, and require to undergo three years’ training in a general hos- pital. They are called Her Majesty’s Nursing Sis- ters, and may be ordered on active service in any war. As a reward for special service they receive the order of the Royal RedCross. The Royal National Pension Fund, an insurance company for nurses, was founded in 1887. In 1889 four English gentle- men placed $100,000 at the permanent disposal of the Fund, to afford nurses a safe means of provid- ing an allowance during sickness, and a certain in- come when their strength is declining. On the continent of Europe the employment of male nurses to attend male patients is common, and in the Roman Catholic countries the nursing of the hospitals is for the most part in the hands of Sisters of Mercy. In Germany a great impetus was given to improvements in nursing by the interest shown in the matter by the late Empress Augusta, the Empress Frederick. and the late Princess Alice of Hesse. The training of nurses on the lines adopt- ed in Great Britain was instituted in Paris during 1877, by the establishment of l’Ecole de Garde- malades et d’Ambulancit‘-.res. In America the practice of nursing is very thoroughly taught in many of the hospitals, particularly those in the north-eastern States, such as the Bellevue Hos- pital in New York, the Long Island Hospital in Brooklyn, the Philadelphia and Pennsylvania hos- pitals in Philadelphia, and the Massachusetts Gen- eral Hospital in Boston. NUTE, ALoNzo, an American manufacturer, born in Milto, N. 11., Feb. 12, 1826. He received a com- mon school education; and became an extensive manufacturer of boots and shoes at Farmington. He served with credit in the civil war; was a mem- ber of the New Hampshire house of representa- tives in 1866, and of the State senate 1867-68; was a delegate to the Cincinnati Convention in 1866; was elected to Congress from New Hampshire in 1888. NUTTALL, THoMAs, naturalist, born at Settle, Yorkshire, England, in 1786, died at St. Helens, Lancashire, in 1859. He came to the United States in 1808 and explored both the Missouri and Arkansas rivers, the Everglades of Florida and the Great Lakes. In 1822 he became professor of natural history in Harvard University and curator of the botanical gardens there. He returned to England in 1842, and spent the rest of his life chiefly on the estate of Natgrove, near Liverpool, which had been bequeathed to him on the condi- tion that he should reside on it. He published The Genera of North A merican Plants, and a Catalogue of NYACK—NYKERK the Species; A Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory in 1819; Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada, and The North American Sylaa, or Forest Trees of the United States, Canada and Nova Scotia (3 vols. 1849). NYACK, a village of New York, on the west bank of the Hudson, at the upper end of the Pali- sades, about thirty miles from New York. It is the headquarters of numerous manufacturing ii}- dustries, is an important shipping point for fruit and milk, and is the seat of the Rockland Female Institute. * NYANGWE, an Arab trading station on the Upper Congo or Lualaba, at the edge of the Man- yema country, in 40 20’ south latitude. From that point Stanley commenced the descent of the Lua- laba in 1876. NYCTAGINACEJE, a natural order of plants, consisting partly of herbaceous plants, both annual and perennial, and partly of shrubs and trees. 2-36 1153 Some species have flowers of considerable beauty, as those of the genus Mirabilis, known as Marvel of Peru. M. Jalapa was at one time erroneously sup- posed to produce jalap. NYCTALO PIA (Gr. nya:, “ night; ” dps, “ the eye ”), the defective vision of persons who can see in a faint light but not in bright daylight; some- times applied to the opposite defect, inability to see save in a strong daylight NYE, EDGAR WILsoN, better known by his pen- name of BILL NYE, an American humorist, born in Shirley, Me., in 1850. He was educated in VViscon- sin, and admitted to the bar in VVyoming in 1876. He early became connected with Western journal- ism, and subsequently settled, as a writer, in New York City. NYKERK, or NIEUWKERK, a small town in the Dutch province of Gelderland, twenty-eight miles southeast of Amsterdam, and one and a half miles from the Zuyder Zee. Population, 7,599. 1154 O 02-lK.— OBESITY OAK, any tree or shrub of the genus Quercns, of the natural order Cupuliferee. About forty species are indigenous to the United States. The bark is of great value as furnishing tan for the use of the tanner. It yields a bitter extract named querctn, which is employed in medicine as a tonic and as- tringent. Coloring matter is also obtained from it, which is used in dying wool. The acorns are ex- cellent food for swine. The dwarf chestnut oak, and several other North American species, produce edible acorns. The bark of the black oak of the United States yields the quercttron dye of com- merce. The timber of most of the American oaks is valuable. The following are the most esteemed as timber trees: the white oak or Quebec oak (Q. alba), spread from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada; the over-cup oak (Q. Zyrata), native of the south- ern States, occupying situations liable to inunda- tion; the chestnut-leaved white oak (Q. prinus), also a native of the Southern States; the live oak (Q. m'rens), extending from the Gulf of Mexico as far north as Virginia, regarded as the most valua- ble of American oaks for shipbuilding; the red oak (Q. rubm), pretty generally distributed in the United States and in Canada, furnishing the red gale stoves so much in demand in the West In- Ies. Many other trees, not of the genus Qnercus, bear the name oak popularly applied. Thus the poison oak (Rhns Toxtcodendron), a shrub or small tree of North America, Indian oak (Tectona grandis), Afri- can oak (Oldfieldta Afrtcana), and stone oak (l'/ithoearpus jaoanensis), which belongs to the same natural order as Quercus, are examples of the popu- lar but erroneous use of the name oak. See Bri- tannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 689-94. OAK CREEK, a village of Wisconsin, on Lake Michigan, about nine miles south of Milwaukee. It contains an excellentschool and manufactories of flour and baskets. OAKDALE, a village of Massachusetts, about ten miles north of Worcester. It produces a varie- ty Odlj manufactures, including cotton and woolen oo S. OAKES, URIAN, D. D., born in England in 1631, died July 25, 1681. He graduated at Harvard Col- lege in 1649, and became a clergyman at Fitch- field, England, but in 1662 was silenced for non- conformity. Returning to Massachusetts, he became pastor of a church at Cambridge in 1671, took charge of Harvard College in 1675, and five years later was formally installed president of that college. OAKHAM, a town of England, in the vale of Cat- mose, twenty-five miles northwest of Peterborough. The castle, every peer of which must forfeit either a horseshoe or a fine, is in ruins except the hall, used for county business. The town has manu- factories of beer, boots, and hosiery. Population, 3,204. OAKLAND, a beautiful city, the county-seat of Alameda county, Cal. Population in 1890, 48,590. See Britannica, Vol. XVII., p. 694. OAKLEY, THOMAS J ACKSON, LL. D., born in Dutchess county, N. Y., in 1783, died May 12, 1857. After graduating at Yale College he became a lawyer at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and in1810 surro- gate of Dutchess county. He was a member of Con- gress in 1813-15 and in 1827-29; a member of the New York assembly in 1815-16, and attorney-gen- eral of the State in 1819. He was appointed judge of the superior court of New York City in 1828, and became chief justice in 1846, OAK PARK, a village of Illinois, on Des Plaines River, about nine miles west of Chicago. It con- tains numerous handsome suburban residences. OATES, WILLIAM C., born in Pike (now Bullock) county,Ala., Nov.30, 1835. He was self-educated; studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1858, and became a successful lawyer and business man ; en- tered the Confederate army as captain of Com- pany G, 15th Alabama infantry, in July, 1861; was appointed colonel in the provisional army of the Confederate States May 1, 1863, and was assigned to the command of his old regiment; the 48th Ala- bama regiment was also subsequently placed under his command; was wounded four times slightly and twice severely, losing his right arm in front of Richmond, August 16, 1864, in the twenty- seventh battle he was engaged in; was a delegate to the National Democratic Convention held in New York in 1868 which nominated Seymour for the Presidency; was a member of the Alabama house of representatives and chairman of the committee on ways and means at the sessions of 1870-’71 and 1871-’72; was candidate for the Demo- cratic nomination for governor in 1872; was in the same year nominated for Congress; was a member of the constitutional convention 1875 and chair- man of its judiciary committee; and was elected to Congress in 1881. . OAT, See Britannica, Vol. XVII., p. 696. OBERLIN, a village of Ohio, about thirty-five miles west of Cleveland. It is the seat of Oberlin College, and contains a number of manufactories and many handsome public buildings. Popula- tion in 1890, 4,330. OBESITY, PHYSIOLOGICAL TREATMEMT OF. There are three sources from which the body derives its fat: first, from the splittingfup of the albumen of the food; second, from the transfer of that fat ingested as food; and third, probably from fat formed from starches and sugars when these are taken in large quantities. Up to quite recent times it was the general belief that the oxygen taken into the blood from the in- haled air was the direct factor concerned in the many chemical decompositions going on in the body. And, in consonance with this view, it was held that fat accumulated from more of it being formed than the oxygen could consume; either ex- cess of food supply or deficiency of oxidation being ascribed as the causes of obesity. But, simple as this hypothesis appeared, and sat- isfactorily as it seemed to account for many of the conditions whose existence it was called upon to ex- plain, it has had-—like so many plausible explana- tions—to be relegated to the limbo of errors. It is but another example of the observation to which all of us must have been often led, namely, that the most obvious and plausible explanations of natural phenomena are also almost invariably incorrect. OBESITY Indirection seem-s to be a basic principal in the operation of natural law—evolution furnishing its most magnificent example. Following on the lines first laid down by Rudolph Virchow, that the cell is the somatic unit, we now know that all the metabolic phenomena of the economy have their seat in the cells; that all cells have inherent in them the power of splitting up relatively complex chemical compounds into bod- ies of simpler composition. And while we are as yet unaware of the processes by which the cell effects these decompositions, we do know that the oxygen in the tissues is but indirectly concerned in them. The body being but an aggregation of . cells, other things being equal, the more cells an organism con- tains, the greater will be the amount of chemical change performed. . Certain external agencies have the power of mod- ifying the chemical powers of- the cells. Among those that diminish may be instanced quinine, alco- hol, morphine, low temperature, and deficient food supply (including oxygen), while excess of food supply, the changes consequent to fever, high tem- perature, and muscular activity increase them. Now, the disintegrability of the different classes of foods brought to the cells varies widely, and the causes of obesity, and its treatment on physiolog- ical grounds, can only be fully understood when these differences are known and given their due value. Experiments have shown that of the three great classes of food the proteids, the carbohydrates and the hydrocarbons-—-the one most easily split up is that of the proteids. The carbohydrates are next in ease of decomposition, while the fats are most resistant. If proteid food alone be ingested, the soluble al- bumen carried to the cells is there, in part, con- verted into the tissue albumen of the organ formed of the cells, and in part changed into fat and other products. All of which will tend to be split up into still simpler bodies till the power of the cells becomes exhausted. If. now, in addition to proteids, fat be ingested, the decomposition of the proteids will go on as be- fore, but the food fat, being more readily oxidiz- able than the tissue fat formed from the proteids, will shield the tissue fat from destruction, and, at the same time, preserve the tissue albumen from destruction as well. Thus indirectly, and in a double way, the food fat leads to a storing up of fat. First, by afford- ing a more easily oxidizable substance for the lib- eration of energy than tissue fat; and, secondly, by preserving the tissue albumen from destruction there results greater chemical activity of the cells, more active elaboration of the food albumen, and, as a result, both increased growth of the cells and increased manufacture and storage of the fat made from the albumen brought to them.* _ An analogous process obtains when the carbohy- drates, in their soluble form of glucose, are fed to the cells together with albumen. The sugar is more easily decomposed than the fat, and may, if present in sufiicient quantities, so absorb the ener- gies of the cells as to shield the cells and the fat from destruction, and thus give rise to an ac- cumulation of the latter. Rubner, working in Voit’s laboratory, has de- termined that the following quantites of the food classes are equivalents—are z'sodynamw'c, as Voit terms it-—that is, that in their decomposition into 1155 carbonic acid and water each yields an equal quan- tity of energy measured by heat: Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100 grammes. Albumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 211 “ Starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 232 “ Cane Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 234 “ Glucose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256 “ Now it will be apparent, from an examination of this table, that an accumulation of fat will most readily occur when the diet contains an overplus of fat, because, while least in quantity, fat has the highest equivalent; next, when containing an over- plus of albumen, and next of carbohydrates. Suppose an individual required per day, to keep his fat and flesh unchanged,* 118 grammes of al- bumen and 259 grammes of fat, 118 grammes of al- bumen being equal to 18 ounces of meat. \Vere he to take albumen alone, he would require per day 664 grammes of albumen to retain a con- stant weight. This amount represents six pounds of meat per day, a quantity impossible to consume, the intestinal canal being unequal to the task of digesting and absorbing so large an amount. Were he still to take the original 118 grammes of albumen, and exclude all fat, 600 grammes—or 11/1 pound—of starch would have to be taken at the same time. On a mixed diet of all three classes of food, he would take: 118 grammes of albumen, 100 grammes of fat, and 368 grammes of starch. Any excess in any one of these three classes- supposing, of course, that the mode of life remains unchanged—must lead to an accumulation of fat in the body. Now, ordinarily, of course, no man habitually eats meals composed either of any one, or even of any two of these food classes. But his diet will consist of the usual combination of all three. And while, therefore, it could hardly happen that an overplus of fat would form even were an individual confined to any two of these classes—for lack of appetite from too monotonous a diet would prevent it, if nothing else did—it can very well happen that on a mixed diet containing plenty of fat and starches,a little more albumen than is needed to maintain the equilibrium of flesh and fat may be ingested. And it is the fat formed in the cells from this surplus albumen which—since it is protected from oxidation by the food fat and starches—accumu- lates little by little in the tissues, and gradually leads to obesity. A man need not necessarily be a glutton to grow stout. It is the slight excess that may daily be taken in the food, which by a gradual increment stores up the fat in the tissues. Nor would even this be sufiicient in all individuals. Certain con- tributory causes often exert a powerful influence in the genesis of obesity, and when these, from any reason, come into play, an individual may grow fat, though, as he will tell you, he eats even less than formerly. - Anything which lowers the oxidizing powers of the cells will have this effect, such as free use of alcohol, lack of exercise, living in close, hot rooms a diet whose insufficiency in albumen lowers the vital powers of the cells, various pathological con- ditions, such as heart disease and other causes of impaired circulation, chlorosis, etc. And then—and to this cause the most marked cases of obesity are certainly chiefly due—we must not forget that some individuals have a predispo- sition, seemingly inborn and often inherited, to grow fat. *This article is condensed from an able paper read by Walter Mendel, M. D., before the Section Theory and Prac- tice of Medicine of the New York Academy, Jan 1, 1890. *V0it: Ursachen der Fettablagerung. Miinchen, 1884. 1156 It is a fault of the cells, analogous to those aber- rations which in some persons produce more uric acid than in normal, which in others lead to glycosuria and diabetes, and in others, again, to the production of cystin. Other individuals, no matter how much they may eat, and how little they may exercise, never grow fat. These same peculiarities show themselves in animals as well as in man. Whoever saw a fat greyhound or a lean pug dog‘? Hence, in treating obesity the individuality of the patient must be kept well in mind. In general, we are inclined to associate with fatness a certain in dolence of mind as well as of body, an inclina- tion to be unenergetic and phlegmatic—as Prince Henry says to Falstaff: “Thou art so fat-witted with drinking of old sack, and unbuttoning thee after supper, and sleeping upon benches after noon.” And yet it may well be questioned whether these qualities are not the effect rather than the cause of obesity. Many instances might be cited of stout men being the contrary in disposition. Two of the most shining examples of intellectual industry and acumen that now occur to me were very stout men, Gibbon and Buckle. Nevertheless, we are inclined to associate lean- ness with a nervous, keen and intellectual tem- perament, activity of mind seemingly going most often with a condition allowing of activity of body. Shakespeare illustrates this popular feeling when he lets Caesar say to Antony: “ Let me have men about me that are fat; , Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep 0’ nights; Yond’ Cassius has a lean and hungr look; He thinks too much; such men are angerous.” Having now reviewed the chief factors concerned in the manufacture and disposition of fat in the body, the means to be adopted for preventing an accumulation will have become evident. Our aim must be to make the production not exceed the consumption, and where a surplus ex- ists, consumption must for a time exceed produc- tion. In the great majority of cases (in spite of the pro- testations of fat people to the contrary), ingestion of too great a quantity, or of an improper quality, of food, often combined with too little exercise, is the cause of obesity. It remains therefore, for us to suitably regulate the diet and exercise, bearing in mind that the change we wish to bring about, to be beneficial, must be gradual; that the cells must be educated by degrees to the new duties we wish them to per- form; that anything approaching starvation——like the Banting cure—is to be condemned. WVith regard to diet, it must be our general plan to give much albumen and relatively little non- nitrogenous food. And we do this in order, first, that the cells from the abundance of nourishment brought to them shall be capable of great chemi- cal activity; and, secondly, that the tissue fat thus necessarily formed shall not be preserved from oxidation by the presence of the more readily oxi- dizable food fat and starches. But we must always keep in mind that, as the fat of the body becomes by this process gradually re- duced, the diet must undergo a corresponding change, more and more of the non-nitrogenous foods being allowed as the body grows relatively richer in albumen and poorer in fat. For, unless this be done, a point will be reached where not only the fat of the body, but the albumen as well, will be consumed, and the patient, after feeding thus on his own muscular and glandular tissues, will begin to complain of weakness and lassitude. OBESITY This is the error of the Banting cure, prescribed to Banting by Dr. Harvey, of London. Banting himself says he had to discontinue treatment every little while in order to regain strength. The Bant- ing diet prescribes enormous quantities of albu- men, with an almost total exclusion of fats and carbohydrates. As before stated, it is impossible forahuman being to take sufiicient meat, eggs, . etc-., to cover the destruction of fat necessarily oc- curring, hence the muscular tissues soon begin to waste as well. Voit gives the following quantities as required for nourishment without the accumulation of fat: 2 2 fi 2 5 Q as £2 |--4 O P” 5 -1 -s ,3 For ahearty workman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118 56 500 678 For a well-to-do doctor, . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127 89. 362 576 And Oertel,* who has given the subject the closest of study, gives the following minimum and maximum amounts per day for reducing fat: . - -4-‘; q . 3'’, :1 2;’ p‘ 31% p3 at :- at C3 5 ta 8% 4 [fl Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156 22 72 127 Maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170 44 114 173 In accordance with these figures he has prepared two diet lists, and the following diet list that I have made up, as an average of his two, and aiso somewhat modified for American habits. But I must beg of you to bear in mind that such a list is only to serve as ageneral guide to the patient to whom it is to be given. No absolutely hard and fast rules can be laid down, and patients under treatment should be seen—and weighed—from time to time, increasing one kind of food and di- minishing another as soon as occasion demands. DIET Lrsr ron REDUCING Fnr.—Breakfast.—One cup (6 oz.) tea or coffee, with milk and sugar. Bread, 2% oz. (2 or3 slices). Butter, % oz. One egg or 1% oz. meat. Dtnner.——Meat or fish, 7 oz. Green vegetables, 2 oz. (spinach, cabbage, string beans, asparagus, tomatoes, beet tops, etc). Far- inaceous dishes, 3% oz., potatoes, rice, hominy, macaroni, etc.), or these may be omitted and a corresponding amount of green vegetables substi- tuted. Salad, with plain dressing, 1 oz. Fruit, 3% oz. Water, sparingly. Supper or Lunch. — Two eggs, or lean meat, 5 oz. Salad (radishes, pickles, etc.), 3/4 oz. Bread, 3/; oz. (1 slice). Fruit, 3% oz. Or fruit may be omitted and bread, 2 oz., substi- tuted. Fluids (tea, coffee, etc.),8 oz. No beer, ale, cider, champagne, sweet wines, and spirits. Claret and hook in great moderation. Milk, except as an addition to tea or coffee, only occasionally. Eat no rich gravies, and nothing fried. Remember that your patients should always feel better—never worse—under treatment. That lassi- * M. J . Oertel: Kreislaufs-St6rungen, Leipzig, 1885 OBL—OBSTETRICS tude and fatigue are signs that the muscular tissue, as well as the fat, is being reduced, and that {__,more non-nitrogenous food must then be allowedfi’ Above all, never yield to the wishes of the patient to grow thin quickly. All reforms to be lasting and beneficial must be slow in action, they must be the result of education, they must be a growth from within, not an impress from without. And the cells of the body, in their infinite diversity of occu- pation resembling the citizens of a State, can by slow degrees be habituated to better things, to change their vicious mode of action to one harmon- ious with the welfare of the commonwealth, and when this education has once been established, continuance becomes a mere habit. In all that has been said, no allusion has been made to that form of obesity connected with heart disease. I have preferred to confine myself in this paper to the pure, uncomplicated type, hoping, per- aps, that in the discussion that may follow, this phase of the subject may be dealt with. In conclusion, let me say that the ideas underly- ing this sketch of the physiological basis of the treatment of obesity have been taken from the writings of Voit, of Oertel, of Munk and Uffelmann, of Ebstein, and of others. See Britannica, Vol. VI., pp. 435, 436; Vol. VII., pp. 204,205; Vol. XVIII., .389. P OBI, or OBEAH, a form of sorcery practiced by the negroes in Africa and the West Indies, and to some extent in the southern United States. Rags, feath- ers, bones, etc., are-used as charms for the cure of diseases and the telling of fortunes, and poisons are made use of for the gratification of revenge. Obi men and women have great influence over the degraded of their race. ' OBITER DICTUM, an incidental remark or sug- gestion made by a judge in disposing of a question. It does not form a part of his judicial decision of- the essential point; but it is not unusual for report- ers of decisions to refer to dicta in their abstracts of judicial opinions, and they frequently have much influence when emanating from a tribunal of high reputation. OBLATES, the name of a class of religious bod- ies in the Roman Catholic church, which differ from the religious orders strictly so called in not being bound by the solemn vows of the religious profession. The institute of oblates was one of the many reforms introduced in the diocese of Milan by St. Charles Borromeo, towards the close of the 16th century. The members consisted of secular priests who lived in community, and were merely bound by a promise to the bishop to devote themselves to any service which he should consider desirable for the interests of religion. St. Charles made use of their services chiefly in the wild and inaccessible Alpine districts of his diocese. The oblates in the United States are numerous. OBLIGATION, DAYS or, holidays on which faith- ful Catholics are bound to abstain from servile work and hear mass. These are, for England and Wales, Circumcision, Epiphany, Ascension Day, Corpus Christi, SS. Peter and Paul, Assumption, All Saints, and Christmas Day. Scotland adds to these St. Andrews, and Ireland St. Patrick and the An- nunciation. . OBOCK, a French possession on the African coast of the Red. Sea, inside of Bab-el-Mandeb, and opposite Perim. Area, 2,300 square miles; popula- tion in 1886, 22,370. OBGLUS, in zoiilogy, a genus of Brachipods of the family Lingulidzs, so named from the resem- blance of the form of the shell to that of the small Greek coin. Several species occur in both upper and lower Silurian rocks. - 1157 O’BRIEN, Lucrus Rrcnxxn, born in the province of Ontario, Canada, in 1832. He was educated in Upper Canada College, Toronto, studied art and became a frequent contributor to exhibitions. He was instrumental in the founding of the art-school of the Ontario Society of Artists in 1872, and in 1880 was elected president of the newly-founded Royal Canadian academy of art, and became art editor of Picturesque Canada. His pictures have been of landscape or marine subjects exclusively, and his later work has been altogether in water colors. O’BRIEN, WILLIAM, an Irish patriot and politi- cal leader, son of John O’Brien, of Mallow; born in 1852. He became a journalist, wrote for the “Free- man’s Journal,” and was prominently connected with “United Ireland.” He entered parliament in 1883; represented successively Mallow, Tyrone and Cork; supported Mr. Parnell, and propounded the “plan of campaign.” He was imprisoned under the Crimes’ Act, escaped with Mr. Dillon to France and thence to the United States, whence, upon the rupture of the Irish parliamentary party, he re- turned to Great Britain and tojail. - OB SCURANTISTS, the name given to those who are supposed to look with dislike and apprehension on the progress of knowledge, especially to such as defend theological prejudices against what is be- lieved to be scientific truth. OBSERVATORY, a place for making observa- tions upon any great class of natural phenomena. Of modern observatories, that at Cassel dates from 1561; Tycho Brahé’s at Uranienburg from 1576; that of Greenwich was founded in 1675. The oldest in the United States is the Hopkins Observatory, Williams College, erected in 1836; now there are upwards of sixty, of which those of \Vashington and Harvard and the Lick Observatory are the chief. The highest in the world is that on Mont Blanc, at an elevation of 24,470 feet. Many pub- lie and private observatories are now existing in this and other countries. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 708-717. OBSTETRICS, that branch of medical science and practice which is concerned with the study and care of women during the processes of preg- nancy, parturition, and the puerperium, or lying- in. As a department of medical study it embraces the anatomy and physiology of the female organs of generation, the phenomena of conception and pregnancy, of labor, normal and abnormal, and of the puerperium and the return of the organs to their non-pregnant condition. Strictly speaking, these processes are normal and physiological, and in perfectly natural conditions require little or no skilled help or assistance. But, while theoretically this may be so, it is still the case that these pro- cesses each produce an effect on the female organ- ism which results in great modifications of the or- dinary vital functions, so that the condition is one of continued physiological tension, which at any moment may pass into a pathological or abnormal condition in which skilled assistance is of the ut- most importance. There can further be no doubt that many influences at work in states of civiliza- tion tend greatly to increase the dangers of the re- productive process, so that the members of highly civilized communities are peculiarly liable to dis- aster; but at the same time the rudest savages are by no means free from these risks, and the care which most of them take of their women during pregnancy and parturition amply proves how con- scious they are of this fact. The dangers with which the reproductive process is associated may be in some measure realized, when it is understood that during pregnancy women are liable to be af- 1158 fected by many of the ordinary diseases in an ag- gravated form, which may give rise to premature expulsion of the ovum—abortion—a process in it- self attended by grave dangers; that during.partu- rition the child may present some part of the body other than the head, causing increased difficulty, often impossibility of spontaneous delivery; that there may be some disproportion between the size of the child’s head and the pelvis, due to disease or deformity; that from disease or exhaustion the uterus may be incapable of expelling its contents, that after the birth of the child the natural pro- cesses for checking hemorrhage from the site of the placenta may be at fault, or again the retention of a blood-clot or fragments of placenta may expose the patient to the risks of septicaemia or“~ blood- poisoning. These are but a tithe of the dangers which surround the reproductive process, but they give an ample explanation of the existence of a science and art of -obstetrics by Which these and similar dangers may be obviated. With regard to parturition itself it may be noted that the great majority of labors (95 per cent.) are natural—that is the head presents, and they are spontaneously accomplished within twenty-four hours. But in civilized countries and under the best practice, it is estimated that one in 120 women dies within a fort- night after labor. See HISTORY on MEDICINE in Britannica, Vol. XV, pp. 700-817. Since the revival of the study of anatomy and physiology the pro- gress of scientific obstetrics has been steady and sure. Some of the great advances and discoveries on which the art rests are the re-discovery of por- dalic versions or turning; the invention of the forceps; the employment of anaesthetics, and the use of antiseptics and the prevention of puerperal fever. O’CALLAGrHAN, EDMUND BAILEY, antiquarian and historian, born at Mallow, county Cork, Ire- land, in 1797, died at New York City,in 1880. After completing his collegiate course he spent two ears at Paris, and went to Quebec, Canada, in 1823. In 1834 he became editor of the “Vindica- tor” at Montreal, and in 1836 he was elected a member of the assembly of Lower Canada. After the insurrection of 1837 he removed to New York. In 1848 he was appointed keeper of the historical manuscripts in the office of the secretary of State at Albany, N. Y. In 1.870 he removed to the city of New York, where he continued his historical work till his death. He has edited for the State the Documentary History of New Y orlc (4 vols.) ; Doc- uments Relating to the Colonial History of New York (11 vols.) ; Journals of the Legislative Councils of New York (2 vols. 1861) ; A Calendar of the Land Papers; The Register of New Netherland, and A Calendar of Ifistorical Manuscripts in the Ofiice of the secretary of State (1865). OCARINA, the recent Italian toy-instrument of flute-like sound, made of pottery, and shaped like the body of a bird (without head or neck). OCCLUSION, a term applied to the solution of a gas by a melted solid——as of oxygen by melted sil- ver——which gas is given up by the melted material when it solidifies, so that in the case of silver the metal sometimes “spits” or gives off the gas in bubbles, thereby roughening its otherwise smooth surface. Sometimes the gas is absorbed or “oc- cluded ” (in a wider sense) even though the metal be not fused—for example, hydrogen gas by cold palladium, carbonic oxide by red-hot cast-iron. OCOOH, SAMSON, an Indian preacher, born near New London, Conn., about 1723, died at New Stock- bridge, N. Y., in 1792. He was converted to Chris- tianity about 1740, and expressed the desire to become the religious teacher of his tribe. Rev. (TCALLAGHAN—- _as yet few in number. OCEAN DEPTHS Eleazar Wheelock educated him at his school at I Lebanon, Conn. In 1748 Occom taught school at New London, but he soon went to Montauk, on Long Island, where he was first a teacher, then be- came a preacher among the Indians. In 1766 he . accompanied Rev. N. Whitaker to England to pro- cure funds for an Indian charity-school. He ob- tained over ,£10,000. These funds became the en- dowment of Dartmouth College. Occom preached afterwards to the Indians on Long Island; but in 1786 he removed to the Brotherton tract in Oneida county, N. Y. Later on he resided among the Stockbridge Indians, where he received a tract of land. He was the author of several hymns, and wrote also an account of the manners of the Mon- tauk Indians. OCCULTATION: in astronomy, the eclipse of a planet or of a fixed star by it passing behind some other of the heavenly bodies. In most cases the moon is the eclipsing body, but very rarelya planet occults a star. I OCCUPANCY, a legal term denoting one method of obtaining title to real and personal’ property, a notion derived from Roman law, and supposed to originate in laws of nature, especially in those things which are open to, and therefore presumably the property of, all. Such titles to land can only rise in special cases, one of which is the accretion of land from the ocean shore, a navigable stream, or a lake; another where a defect in law provides no legal owner for a given time. Several cases oc- cur o possession by occupancy of personal prop- erty: one, that of capture in time of war, another that of finding, athird that of confusion through fraud, by mixing up goods with those of an inno- cent party, making the latter, where the goods cannot be separated one from the other, become sole possessor. OCEAN CURRENTS, in the Atlantic, see Britan- nica, Vol. III, pp. 18-20; in the Pacific, see Britan- nica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 117-18; see also INDIAN OCEAN, NORTH SEA, etc. OCEAN DEPTHS. Only within recent years, and chiefly in connection with the laying of tele- graph cables from one continent to another, has at- tention been turned to the question of the depth of the sea and the form of its bed beyond the mere margin of its shores. The North Atlantic has now been sounded in many directions, so that a gen- eral plan of its trough can be made with some ac- curacy; elsewhere, as in the South Atlantic, the Indian Ocean and Pacific, accurate soundings are The greatest depth yet found by trustworthy sounding does not exceed 27,930 feet (4,655 fathoms),a depth which was found by the scientific expedition sent by the United States in 1873, near the Kurile Islands, north of Japan in the Pacific. Greater depths than this may remain to be found in the still unsounded regions of the sea bed. Although no depth has yet been sounded that exceeds the greatest height known on the land, the average depth of the sea proves to be very much greater than the mean elevation of the land. The average depth of the North Atlantic amounts to about 12,000 feet, and there is every reason to believe that the Pacific and the other great oceans are not shallower than this. Some other great ocean depths have recently been sounded. One of 4,475 fathoms was measured south of the Ladrone Islands; one of 4,561 fathoms north of Porto Rico; and two of 4,295 fathoms and 4,430 fathoms, respectively, to the south of the Friendly Islands, in lat. 240 37’ S., long. 1750 8' VV. The average depth of the sea is at least eight times the mean height of the contin ental land; and the oceanic water on the earth occupies fully eigh- OCEAN enovn-ocEAN LIFE teen times as much space as the land which rises above its surface level. This contrast will be made more striking if we suppose that all the cofitinents could be pared off from the globe at the line of the sea level and gathered up. If then this mass was thrown into the trough of the North Atlantic it would not half fill it up. OCEAN GROVE, a Christian seaside summer re- sort 6 miles south of Long Branch, on the Atlantic coast, N. J ., under the supervision of an association of 13 ministers and 13 laymen of the M. E. church, organized Dec. 22, 1869. The grove, embracing 350 acres, was purchased and laid out in lots and ave- nues, and has been made an attractive seaside summer home and resort for many thousands of people annually. Resident population, 1,500. Ad- joining is Asbury Park, specially laid out for simi- lar purposes, and also occupied by a large summer population. OCEAN LIFE. See MARINE FAUNA AND FLORA, Britannica,Vol, XXI, p. 579. It was once generally believed that no animal life could exist in the deep parts of the ocean on account of the lack of food and light, and also on account of the immense pressure of the water there. Recent research, however, has disproved all this. The “Challenger,” a vessel sent out by the British government in 1872, traversed the Atlantic ocean five times, and sailed over the Pacific in various directions. She dredged the depths of these two oceans over a total length of voyage of 69,000 miles, and returned in May, 1876, bringing an exceedingly rich zoological collec- tion, which has been carefully worked up by noted specialists. On three occasions the “ Challenger’s” dredge reached a depth of over 3,000 fathoms (about three-and-a-half miles), and in every case living forms were brought up from this extreme depth. The deepest sounding made was 4,575 fath- oms. Since then three Norwegian expeditions were sent into the northern seas, and explored the latter with dredges, in 1876—78. The French ship " Talis- man” explored in 1883 the Atlantic from Morocco to the Azores, and yielded highly valuable results. The Americans have been equally active. From 1877 to 1880 the American steamer “Blake” made many deep-sea explorations in the West Indies and parts of the Gulf of Mexico. These re- searches were under the direction of Alexander Agassiz. Their results were published in two highly interesting volumes. Since that time the “Alba- tross” was equipped as a deep-sea dredger, and has been engaged in exploration work in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. ANIMAL LIFE Exrsrs AT GREAT DEPTHS.——-These ex- plorations have established the fact that animal life exists in abundance at the greatest depths hitherto examined, and that every order of marine animals below the air-breathers is represented in the abysses of the ocean, the variety of species being possibly as great there as near the surface. Among the specimens brought up by the dredge or trawl are corals, sponges, annelids, echinoderms(sea-urchins), crustecea, mollusks, and fishes. Fishes have been caught at a depth of 2,900 fathoms. They probably reach as low as the other marine animals. There is some reason to believe that life is confined to the surface and the bottom regions, and that the inter- mediate zone is barren. The most abundant or- ganic deposits on the ocean bottom are made by very minute creatures. the Radiolaria and Foram- inifera. Their remains form a thick layer of cal- careous ooze, which is inhabited abundantly by shell animals. In the regions of the bottom which are without this ooze, the animal forms are chiefly those without shells, such as the Annelida and H01- othuroidea. 1159 The deep sea does not yield many relatives of the animals of past geological ages, as it was expected it would, but animals approaching the surface forms in character, with many indications that they are descended from the surface forms. The range and variety of deep-sea fishes are, indeed, very great. Yet, certain forms which live in shal- low water in some regions, have been dredged from the greatest depths in others. Most deep-sea fishes are of a dark color, very few are pink, and fewer yet are silvery. But many deep-sea crusta- ceans are of brilliant red hues; and the mollusks show a considerable variety of hues. Some of these animals display features of protective mimic- ry, and others have habits of burrowing themselves in the bottom ooze. Foon on THE DEEP-SEA ANIMALS.-—Tl1€ food-sup- ply of deep-sea animals has long been a mystery. The active carnivorous forms, which include all the fishes, find an abundant supply in the more slug- gish creatures which exist in large numbers. But the basis of all animal life must be a vegetable diet, and their are no plants growing on the bottom of the ocean. Plants need sunlight for their growth. Now, it was found that the animals liv- ing on the surface, and the minute algae which ex- ist abundantly in the surface waters, commence to sink to the bottom as soon as they die, and that there is a continuous rain of dead sea-animals and sea-plants descending to the ocean floor. The nu- trient material which they contain, does not readi- ly decompose in the sea-water, but remains long fit for food. It furnishes the food-supply for the sluggish animals at the bottom of the sea, and the latter, in their turn. yield food for the more active carnivora there. The plant-life of the surface is therefore, the basis of the food of the deep-sea animals. The absence of sunlight does not seem to hinder the growth of the deep-sea animals. Neither does the enormous pressure of the water. At 1,000 fath- oms this pressure is about one ton per square inch, and at the lowest depths yet explored it is from three to four tons. This enormous pressure can only be sustained because the animals’ tissues are permeated with fluids under the same pressure, whereby an equilibrium between the inward and outward pressure is produced, so that the great pressure of the water is not felt. The tissues of these animals are very fragile and their bones light and soft, being nearly destitute of calcareous material. IVhen deep-sea fishes are brought up to the surface, they are very often in a dilapidated condition. As to the structure of the deep-sea fishes, many are found which have the head or the jaw enor- mously developed, while the body is reduced to the form of a ribbon. Yet, they are not new orders of fishes, but simply modified varieties of surface types. As a rule, deep-sea animals have unusually large eyes, and many of the animals are phosphor- escent, so as to diffuse afeeble illumination around themselves. The luminous organs are most proba- bly used to aid them in the search for their food. As there are many of these self-luminous animals at the bottom of the sea,the ocean abysses are proba- bly not so very dreary abodes as might be supposed. NORTH A'l‘LA.\'TIC LANES or NAvIeA'rIoI\*.—1. From New York to the English C'oast.—The quickest route from New York to London or Liverpool would be to follow the course of the gulf stream; but by tak- ing this route very heavy weather is likely to be encountered about the time of the equinoxes, and from July to October. For small and weak vessels it is best to keep outside of the gulf stream at the times mentioned. 1160 Lieut.Maury’s tables strongly indicate a pref- erence for the following lanes of travel during the months placed opposite. The figures give the North latitude: January . . . . . . ..40° 28' to 50° 38’ July . . . . . . . . . . ..40° 27’ to 50° 30’ February... . . . .40° 27’ to 50° 50' August . . . . . . . . .40° 27’ to 49° 22’ March . . . . . . . . . .40° 27’ to 50° 44’ September.. . . .40° 27’ to 50° 33’ April . . . . . . . . . ..40° 27' to 49° 30’ October, No- 4 May . . . . . . . . . . ..40° 27’ to 50° 16’ vember and June . . . . . . . . . ..40° 8’ to 50° 40’ December. . . .40° 27’ to 50° — The distance to be run to reach the English chan- nel by the above route is about 3,200 miles. From New York to Queenstown it is 2,795 miles, and from New York to Liverpool 3,078 miles. During the months of January, February and March icebergs may sometimes be met with in the above latitudes. 2. From the English Coast to New York.—The pas- sage from England to New York is difficult and dangerous, especially in winter. The route most favorable to vessels bound eastward is the most unfavorable to vessels going west. The difficul- ties are increased by the fogs and storms, to which vessels are exposed when they come near New- foundland and the coast of America. The more northern route should be taken, principally from October till March; and the more southern route in the fine weather season, that is, from April till October. The route from Europe to Newfoundland should be as nearly as possible on the arc of agreat circle drawn between the point of departure and Cape Race, lying as far north as 50 degrees. OCHTERLONY-OCTOPODIDZE Napalese capital. Peace was again made; and the treaty has remained in force down to the present time. Ochterlony was made a baronet for his suc- cess. He rendered excellent service in the Pindari and Mahratta wars of 1817 and 1818. -~ O’CONOR, or O’CoNNoR, CnARLEs, born in New York City, Jan. 22, 1804, died in Nantucket, Mass., May 12, 1884. Commencing the practice of law at an early age, his life was devoted to the pursuit of his profession, in which he became eminent. Among his celebrated private cases were the Slave Jack case in 1835, the Lispenard will ease in 1843, the Lemon slave case in 1856, the Parrish will ease in 1862, and the J umel suit in 1871. Throughout the civil war he sympathized with the Southern States, and he became counsel for Jefferson Davis when he was indicted for treason. - The suits against William M. Tweed were largely his work. In 1868 he was nominated for the presidency by the extreme Democrats. He became president of the Law Institute of New York in 1869. _ O’CONNOR, THOMAS PowER, an Irish author and a statesman, born at Athlone in 1848. He graduated at Queen’s University, and early engaged in liter- ary work in Dublin and London. He entered par- liament in 1880, representing Galway to 1885, and Liverpool to the present. He took a prominent part in defense of Home Rule; and in 1881 visited the United States in behalf of the Land League. He became president of the National League in Scotland and England. In 1888 he founded in OCEAN RoUTEs AND REooRDs.—The fastest At- London “The Star,” an enterprising radical evening lantw Ocean Passages on Record are: paper. His writings include Lorol Beaconsfield; (5 Route. Steamer. Line. Date. D H. M Queenstown to New York* . . . . . . .. Teutonic. White Star. Aug. 13-18, 1891. 5 16 31 Queenstown to New York . . . . . . . .. Majestic. White Star. Aug. 5, 1891. 5 18 8 Queenstown to New York . . . . . . . . .. City of Paris. Inman. Aug. 21-28, 1889. 5 19 18 New York to Queenstown . . . . . . . . .. City of Paris. Inman. Dec. 25-31, 1889. 5 22 50 Southampton to N ewYork . . . . . . . .. Columbia. Hamburg. June 6-12, 1890. 6 15 51 New York to Southampton... . . . .. Columbia. Hamburg. Oct. 9-15, 1890. 6 15 23 Havre to New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. La Champagne. French. July 31- , 1886. 7 1 — New York to Havre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . La Bourgogne. French. Sept. 21- , 1889. 7 7 30 *On one day during her voyage the Teutonic made 517 miles from noon to noon,which is the highest performance ever made by an Atlantic steamer. For the route from Queenstown to New York the time is calculated from Roche’s Point, near Queenstown, Ireland, to Sandy Hook Lightship, N. Y. BEST RECORDS OF OTHER LINES. Route. Steamer. Line. Date. _ D. H. M. New York to Southampton . . . . . .. Lahn. North Ger. Lloyd. Oct. 2-9, 1889, 6 23 18 Southampton to New York . . . . . . .. Lahn. North Ger. Lloyd. Aug. 22-29, 1189. 6 22 42 New York to Queenstown . . . . . . . .. Alaska. Guion. Sept. 12-19, 1882. 6 18 37 Queenstown to New York . . . . . . . .. Etrur1a. Cunard. Sept. 1-7, 1889. 6 ~ 1 50 New York to Queenstown . . . . . . . .. Umbria. Nov. 12-18, 1889. 6 3 4 Approximate distances: Sandy Hook (Light Ship), New York, to Queenstown (Roche’s Point), 2,800 miles; to Southampton, 3,100 miles; Havre 3,170 miles. OCHTERLONY, SIR DAVID, a British general, born of Scottish descent, at Boston, Mass., Feb. 12, 1758, died at Meerut, July 15, 1825. He went to India as a cadet at eighteen, and was made lieu- tenant-colonel in 1803. In the following year he defended Delhi against Holcar; but his greatest services were rendered against the Goorkhas. In 1814 he stormed their hill-forts one after the other, and compelled them to sue for peace; on the re- newal of the war in 1815 he shut up their principal chief in the hill-fort of Malaun, forced it to surren- der, and penetrated to within a few miles of the Biography; Gladstone’s House of Conunons; The Par- nell Movement; Dead Man’s Island, and many tales and essays. OCONOMOWOC, a city of Wisconsin, and anoted summer resort, about 30 miles west of Milwaukee. It is the seat of a young ladies’ seminary, and has a thriving local trade. It is beautifully situated on Oconomowoc Creek, and is surrounded by many charming lakes. Population in 1890, 2,660. OCONTO, the county-seat of Oconto county,Wis., on Green Bay, at the mouth of the Oconto River, 149 miles north of Milwaukee. It has large steam sawmills, and exports pine lumber. Population in 1890, 5,221. _ OCTOPODIDJE, a family of cephalopods, of which Octopus is the typical genus. The body is oval and OCTROL—OERSTED finless, and the mantle is separated by fleshy bands. Some of the species attain a very large size,.-rt OCTROI, a term which originally meant any or- dinance authorized by the sovereign, and thence came to be restrictively applied to a toll or tax levied at the gates of cities, particularly in France and some other countries of northern Europe, on articles brought in. The octroi was abolished in France at the Revolution, but in 1798 it was re- established. OD, the name given by Baron Reichenbach to a peculiar physical force which he thought he had discovered, intermediate between electricity, mag- netism, warmth, and light. This force, according to him, pervades all nature, and manifests itself as a flickering flame or luminous appearance at the poles of magnets, at the poles of crystals, and wherever chemical action is going on. All motion generates od; and all the phenomena of mesmer- ism are ascribed to the workings of this od-force. ODELL, a village of Illinois, about ten miles northeast of Pontiac. It is the trade-center of a thriving agricultural district. ODEN WALD, a mountainous system partly in Baden and Bavaria, but mainly in Hesse. ODIN, a village of Illinois, about eight miles north of Centralia. It is the seat of an academy and contains a variety of important manufactories. O’DONN ELL, J AMES, born at N orwalk, Conn., March 25,1840. He removed with his parents to Michigan in 1848; enjoyed no educational advant- ages, but after commencing to learn the printer’s trade in 1856 made up this dificiency by study after working hours. At the breaking out of the war he enlisted as a private in the 1st Michigan Infantry, and served out his time, participating in the first battle of Bull Run. He was elected recorder of the city of Jackson for four terms, 1863-66; estab- lished the “Jackson Daily Citizen” in 1865, and has . owned and edited the same since; was Presidential elector in 1872, and was designated by the State Electoral College as messenger to convey the vote of Michigan to Washington; was elected Mayor of Jackson in 1876, and was reelected in 1877; was ap- pointed in 1878 as aid-de-camp on the staff of Gov- ernor Croswell, with the rank of colonel; and was elected to Congress in 1885. O’DONOVAN, J OHN, an Irish archaeologist, born at Atateemore, county Kilkenny, July 9, 1808, died at Dublin Dec. 9, 1861. He was for some time em- ployed in the historical department of the ordnance survey of Ireland ; was called to the bar in 1847, but never practiced; and became professor of the Irish language, history, and archaeology at Queen’s Col- lege, Belfast, in 1849. He published a Grammar of the Irish Language, edited The Book of Rights, and The Annals of Ireland, and aided Professor O’Curry in editing the Brehon laws. ODONTOPTERIS, a genus of fossil ferns occur- ring in the Carboniferous rocks of various parts of Europe and many localities in the United States. Both Odontopteris and the closely allied Neuropteris had fronds of great size. ODONTORNITHES, extinct toothed birds from the Cretaceous strata of North America. There are two distinct types—Ichthyornis and Hesper- ornis. The former and its relative Apatornis were small tern-like flying birds, with teeth in sockets, and with biconcave vertebrm. But Hes- perornis was a large bird, about six feet long, with utterly degenerate wings and obviously in- capable of flight. According to Marsh, to whom our knowledge of these forms is chiefly due, it was a consummate diver, even more aquatic than the penguin. The teeth were set in grooves, the vertebrae saddle-shaped. “A bird indeed,” Stejneg- . 1161 er says, “but a kind of swimming, loon-like rap- torial ostrich, without fore-limbs, with the gape armed with formidable rows of strong teeth like a gigantic lizard, and with a large, broad, and flat- tened tail like a beaver.” CEDEMA is the term applied in medicine to the swelling occasioned by the effusion or infil- tration of Cerum into Cellular or areolar struct- ures. The subcutaneous cellular tissue is the most common seat of this affection. CEdema is not a disease, but a symptom, and often a symptom in- dicating great danger to life. (EHLER, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH, one of the great- est Old Testament scholars of the nineteenth cen- tury, born at Ebingen, June 10, 1812, died at Tiibin- gen, Feb. 19, 1872. He studied at Tiibingen, labored as a teacher at Basel and Tiibingen, became in 1840 professor in the theological seminary in Sch6n- thal, and in 1845 ordinary professor of theology at Breslau. In 1852 he was called to Tubingen to be head of the theological seminary. The chief books of this learned and reverend scholar were Protege- mena zur Theologie des Alten Testaments; Die Grund- zilge der Alt-testamentlichen Weisheit; Uber das Ver- hdltniss der A. T. Prophetic zur heidnischen Mantilc (1861); Theologie des Alten Testaments, and Lehrbuch der Symbolik. (ENOTHERA, a genus of ornamental plants of the natural order Onagracea related to the Fuchsia though strikingly dissimilar in general appearance. The Evening Primrose (GE. biennis), a native of Vir- ginia, is naturalized in many parts of Europe. The flowers are fragrant in the evening. The root somewhat resembles a carrot in shape,but is short; it is usually red, fleshy, and tender. and is eaten in salads, or in soups, and as a boiled vegetable. This and numerous other species of (Enothera, chiefly of North America, are very generally cultivated in English flower gardens. (ERBRO, a town of Sweden, at the entrance of the Svarta into the Hjelmar Lake, 170 miles west of Stockholm. It has an ancient castle, in which many diets have been held; and there is a trade in minerals and matches. Population, 13,618. OERSTED, ANDERS SANDOE, a Danish naturalist, born in Rudkjeobing, June 21, 1816, died in Copen- hagen, Sept. 3, 1872. He was reared by his uncle, Hans Christian Oersted, the famous chemist, and in 1837 became professor of natural history in Copenhagen. In 1845 he began to study the geog- raphy of Central America, and in pursuit of his investigations visited the lVest Indies and Central America in 1845-48. He was the author of Plant- erigets natur historic; Groenlandiae annulata dorsibran- chiata, and L’amerigue Centrale, recherches sur sa flore et sa géographie physique. OERSTED, HANS CHRIsTIAN, a Danish physicist, born at Rudkjbbing, on the Island of Sangeland, in 1777, died at Copenhagen in 1851. He was the son of an apothecary, and at an early age began to make chemical experiments. He studied medicine at Copenhagen. In 1799 he received the degree of Ph. D., after writing a dissertation on the thesis, “Architectonics of Natural Metaphysics,” which was a philosophical consideration of the laws of the natural world. In 1801, Oersted traveled in Germany, Holland, and France, and on his return in 1803 he lectured at Copenhagen on galvanic elec- tricity and kindred subjects. In 1806 he was ap- pointed extra-ordinary professor of physics. His lectures attracted a great deal of attention. He had long held the idea that electricity and magnet- ism are connected together, and in 1819 he succeeded in proving that every electric current is accompa- nied by magnetism surrounding the current-bean ing conductor. This discovery gave him a foremost 1162 place among the physicists of his time, and made him the father of the science of “electro-magnet- ism.” Oersted held numerous scientific appoint- ments and honorary oflices and distinctions. His labors to popularize science in Denmark resulted in the establishment of a polytechnic school at Copenhagen, of which he was director from 1829. He also founded the Magnetic Observatory of Copenhagen. The fiftieth anniversary of his doc- torate was celebrated in 1850 with a national jubi- lee. His most important works are Naturlcirens Mechaniske Deel (1815), and Aanden vi Naturen (the Soul in Nature). His brother, Annnns SANDZ5E OERSTED (1778-1860), was a celebrated jurist,\and became prime minister of Denmark in 1853. He was the author of some philosophical works. OETINGER, Cnnrsrorn FRIEDRICH, atheosophic theologian, born at Goppingen in 1702, died at Murrhardt, Feb. 10, 1782, after holding various cures. His sermons were published in 1857 and his collected works in 1858-67. His system has been described as lying between Jacob Boehme and Shelling. OFFICE: in law, the right and duty of a person to exercise the duties of a position of public or pri- vate trust and to receive the compensation belong- ing to it. Public ofiices are judicial or ministerial. or partly judicial and partly ministerial. Judicial offices are those which relate to the administration of justice. ]l[im'sterial offices involve obedience to the mandates of a superior. The incumbent of a ministerial office, as for instance, a sheriff or the clerk of a county, may discharge his duties by a deputy; but a judicial officer, as the judge of a court, cannot act by deputy. The public, in elect- ing him, rely on his personal skill and judgment. Political offices, as that of a president, congress- man, governor, etc., are not directly connected with the administration of justice, nor with the execu- tion of the mandates of a superior. The incum- bents are indirectly responsible to the voters who elect them. fllilitary oflices are such as are held by soldiers or sailors for military purposes. In some instances an office is held by a num- ber of persons. In this case it is a common rule that, though all should meet to discharge the com- mon duty, a majority may act in the name of all. In private business all must both meet and concur in a conclusion, if the concern is not incorporated. But in a public board the statutes provide that if a imajority of the members be present, they con- stitute a legal quorum. The same person may hold an office under the State government, and also one under the United States Government, or he may hold two or more offices under the same government. But one man cannot be both judge and sheriff at the same time. The legislature in the one case, and the Congress in the other has the power to declare what office is inconsistent with the enjoyment of another, or that a person holding a United States oflice shall not hold a State office, or vice versa. According to the Constitution of the United States, Article VI, § 2, no Senator or Representative can hold another oflice under the United States Government. By ac- cepting any other office during his term he forfeits his seat. By an act of Congress passed during the administration of President Monroe and still in force, the term of many United States ofiicers, in- cluding collectors, certain grades of postmasters, etc., is fixed for four years; yet they may be re- moved sooner by the President. An act passed March 2, 1857, during the administration of Presi- dent Johnson, provided that every person holding a civil office to which he had been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall be OETINGER—%VHARA entitled to hold such office until a successor shall have been appointed in like manner and duly qual-* ified. This act was repealed by one passed in 1886, which gives the President full authority to over ap- pointments and removals of United States officers, as he always had from the formation of our govern- ment until 1867. OFFERTORY, that portion of the public liturgy of the Roman Catholic church with which the eucharistic service, strictly so called, commences. This offering of the bread and wine in the public service became, from a very early period, the oc- casion of a voluntary offering, on the part of the faithful; originally, it would seem, of the bread and wine designed for the eucharistic celebration and for the communion of the priest and congrega- tion. By degrees other gifts were superadded to those of bread and wine——as of corn, oil, wax, honey, eggs, butter, fruits, lambs, fowl, and other animals; and eventually of equivalents in money or other objects of value. The last-named class of offerings, however, was not so commonly made upon the altar and during the public liturgy as in the form of free gifts presented on the occasion of other ministerial services, as of baptism, marriages, funerals, etc. ; and from this has arisen the practice in the Roman Catholic church of the mass-offering, or lz.onorarz”um, which is given to a priest with the understanding that he shall offer the mass for the intention of the offerent. OFFICINAL PLANTS, those medicinal plants which have a place in the pharmacopoeias of differ- ent countries, and which are therefore sold—or some of their products or preparations of them——by apothecaries and druggists. The medicinal plants cultivated to any considerable extent are all offic- inal, but many are also officinal which are not cul- tivated. OGDEN, a city, the county-seat of Weber county, Utah. Population in 1890, 14,919. See Britannica, Vol. XVII. p. 732-33. OGDENSBURG, a city of New York. Popu- lation in 189,0,11,667. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. /33. OGLESBY, RICHARD J AMES, born in Oldham county, July 25, 1824. Left an orphan at eight years of age, he removed to Decatur, Ill., in 1836, learned the carpenters trade and while employed at that and rope-making studied law, and in 1845 was ad- mitted to the bar. Commissioned first lieutenant in the 4th Illinois regiment in 1846, he participated at Vera Cruz and Cerro Gordo. In 1847 he resumed practice at Decatur, and pursued a course of study at Louisville Law School, graduating in 1848. He subsequently spent three years in California, re- turned to Decatur, was elected to the State senate in 1860, but resigned to accept the colonelcy of the 8th Illinois volunteers. He commanded a brigade at the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, was made brigadier-general in March, 1862, was severe- ly wounded at Corinth, and in November, 1862, was promoted major-general. He resigned in May, 1864, and in the following November was elected governor of the State; was reélected in 1872, but chosen United States Senator in 1873, and served through the term ending in 1879; and was again elected governor of Illinois in 1884. OGYGIA, a genus of Trilobites, peculiar to the lower Silurian system. O’HAB.A, Tnnononn, the author of The Bivouac of the Dead, born at Danville, Kentucky, in 1820, died in 1867. He was a lawyer and journalist, but served as captain and major in the Mexican war, afterwards, for a year, in the United States cavalry, and 115 the civil war as a colonel on the Confeder- ate si e. OHIO, STATE or. OHIO For general article on Orrro, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 734-738. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as fetlowsz Area, 41,060 square miles increase during the decade of 474,254. ; population, 3,672,316, an Capital, Columbus, with a population of 90,398. The follow- ing table gives the population of the cities and towns which in 1890 had each over 8,000 inhabit- ants; also the population of each in 1880, and the increase during the decade. Population. . . I - P Cities and Towns. crelise ceilrt 1890. 1880. Akron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27,601 16,512 11,089 67.16 Ashtabula . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,338 4,445 3,893 87.58 Bellaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,934 8,025 1,909 23.76 Canton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,189 12,258 13,931 113. 65 Chillicothe . . . . . . . . . . . 11,286 10,938 348 3. 20 Cincinnati . . . . . . . . . . . . 296,908 255,139 41 ,769 16.37 Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261,353 160 ,146 101,207 63. 20 Columbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,390 51 ,647 38,743 71. 68 Dayton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,220 38,678 22.542 58.28 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,224 6,849 1 ,375 .20 East Liverpool . . . . . . . . 10,565 5,568 5,388 96.77 Findlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,553 4,633 13,920 300. 45 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,565 12,422 5,443 49.90 Ironton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,939 8,857 2,082 23.51 Lima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,987 7 ,567 8,420 111 . 27 Mansfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,473 9,859 3,614 36. 66 Marietta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,273 5,444 2,829 51.97 Marion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 3,899 4 ,428 113.57 Massill0n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,092 6,836 3,256 47 .63 Newark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,270 9 ,600 4,670 45.68 Piqua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,090 6,031 3,059 50. 72 P0rtsmOuth.. . . . . . . . 12,394 11,321 1,073 9.48 Sandusky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,471 15,838 2,633 16.62 Springfield .......... .. 31,s95 20,730 11,165 I 53.86 Steubenville . . . . . . . . . . 13,394 12,093 1,301 10.76 Tiiiin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,801 7 .879 2,922 37 .09 Toledo ............... . . 81,434 50 ,1-57 31,297 62.42 Youngstown . . . . . . . . . . . 33,220 15 ,435 17,785 115.23 Zanesville . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,009 18,113 2,896 15. 99 The census returns of several other cities and towns were as follows: Alliance, 7,598; Bellefon- taine, 4,238; Bucyrus, 4,951; Cambridge, 4,345, Coshocton, 3,725; Circleville, 6,675; Defiance, 7,681; Fremont, 7,140 ; Middletown, 7, 673; N orwalk, 7,268 ; Urbana, 6,499; Warren, 6,086; Wooster. 6,050. GovERNoRs or OI-IIo.——The following is a complete list of the governors of the State, with the periods and dates of services: TERRITORIAL. Arthur St. Clair. . . . .1788-1802. Charles H. Byrd . . . . . . . ..1802-3. STATE. Edward Tiffi-n . . . . . . . . . ..1803-7 Seabury Ford . . . . . . . . ..1849—5O Thomas Kirker..........1807—8 Reuben Hood . . . . . . . . ..1850-53 Samuel Huntington. ...1808-10 William Medill . . . . . . . ..1853-56 Return J. Meigs . . . . . . ..1810-14 Salmon P. Chase . . . . . . .1856-60 Othniel Looker . . . . . . . ..1814 William Denison . . . . . ..1860—62 Thos. Worthington. . . . .1814-18 David Tod . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1862-64 Ethan A. Brown . . . . . ..l818-22 John Brough . . . . . . . . . ..1864-65 Allen Trimble . . . . . . . . . . . . .1822 Charles Anderson -. . .. .1865—66 J erem1ah Morrow . . . . . .1822-26 Jacob Dolson Cox . . . . ..1866-68 Allen Trimble . . . . . . . . . .1826-30 Rutherford B. Hayes. . 1868-72 Duncan McArthur. ....1830-32 Edward F. Noyes. .'....1872-74 Robert Lucas . . . . . . . . . .1832-36 William Allen. . . . . . . . . .1874-76 Joseph Vance . . . . . . . . ..1836-38 Rutherford B. Hayes. .1876-77 Wilson Shannon . . . . . . .1838-40 Thomas L. Young . . . . . .1877-78 Thomas Corwin . . . . . . ..1840-42 R. M. Bishop . . . . . . . . . .. 878-80 Wilson Shannon . . . . . ..1842-44 Charles Foster . . . . . . . . 1880-84 Thos. W. Bartley . . . . . . . . . .1844 George Hoadley . . . . . . ..1884-86 Mordecai Bartley . . . . ..1844-46 J os. B. Foraker . . . . . . ..1886-90 William Bebb. . .. .. .. .1846-49 James E. Campbell. . .. 890-92 The governor’s official term closes Jan. 4, 1892. The governor’s salary is $8,000. 1163 AREAS AND POPULATION BY CoUNTIEs._-—The land areas in square miles, and the population, several- ly, of the counties of the State were as follows In 1890: 1 Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 26,093 24,005 Allen. . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 40.644 31,314 Ashland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 22,223 23,883 Ashtabula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 43,655 37,139 Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 35,194 28,411 Auglaize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 28,100 25 .444 Belmont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 57.413 49,638 Bro wn.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 29,899 32,911 Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 48,597 42.579 Carroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 17 .566 16,416 Champaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 26.980 27,817 Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 52,277 41.948 Clermout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 33,553 36,713 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 24,240 24,756 Columbiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 59,029 48,602 Coshocton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 26.703 26,642 Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 31,927 30,583 Cuyah oga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 309,970 196,943 Darke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 42.961 40,496 Defiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 25,769 22,515 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 27,189 27 .381 rie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 35,462 32,640 Fairfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 33.939 34.284 Fayette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 22,309 20,364 Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 124,087 86,797 Fulton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 22,023 21,053 Gallia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 27 .005 27 ,124 Geauga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 13,489 ' 14,251 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 29.820 31,349 Guernsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 28 ,645 27,197 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 374,573 313.374 Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 42,563 27,784 Hardin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 28,939 27 ,023 Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 20,830 20,456 Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 25,080 20 ,585 Highland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 29,048 30 ,281 Hocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 22,658 21,126 Holmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 21,139 20 .776 Huron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . 480 31,949 31,609 Jackson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 28,408 23,686 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 39,415 33,018 Knox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 27,600 27,431 Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 18.235 16,326 Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 39.556 39,068 Licking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 43,279 40,450 Logan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 27,386 26,267 Lorain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 40,295 35526 Lucas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 102.296 67,377 Madison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 20,057 20,129 Mahoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 55,979 42,871 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 24,727 20,565 Medina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 21,742 21,453 Meigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . 415 29,813 32,325 Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 27.220 21,808 Miama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 396 39,754 36,158 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 25,175 26,496 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 100,852 78,550 Morgan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 19,143 20.074 Morrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43‘ 18,120 19,072 Muskingum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 51,210 49,77 4 Noble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 20,753 21,138 Ottawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 21,974 19,762 Paulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 25,932 15,485 Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 31,151 28,218 Picka-way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 26,959 27,415 Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 17,482 17,927 Portage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 480 27,868 27 ,500 Preble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 23,421 24,533 Putnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 30,188 23,713 Richland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ 487 38,072 36,306 11 64 Populations. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. i R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 39,454 40,307 Sa(.)i:l land in any State or Territory, shall hereafter be entitled to enter land in said Territory of Oklahoma. The provisions of sections 2304 and 2305 of the Revised Statutes of the United States shall, except so far as modified by this act, apply to all homestead settlements in said Territory. Sec. 21. That any person, entitled by law to take a home- stead in said Territor of Oklahoma. who has already located and filed upon, or sha lhereafter locate and file upon, a home- stead within the limits described in the President’s procla- mation or April 1st, 1889, and under and in ursuance of the laws applicable to the settlement of the lan s opened for set- tlement by such proclamation, and who has complied with all the laws relating to such homestead settlement, may re- ceive a patent therefor at the expiration of twelve months from date of locatin upon said homestead, upon payment to the United States o one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre for land embraced in such homestead. LAND SITES. Sec. 22. That the provisions of title 32. chapter 8 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, relating to “reservation and sale of town sites on the public lands,” s all apply to the lands open, or to be opened to settlement, in the Territory of Oklahoma, except those opened to settlement by the proclamation of the President on the 22nd day of April, 1889: Provided. That hereafter all surveys for town sites in said Territory shall contain reservations for parks (of substantial- ly equal area if more than one park and for schools and other public purposes, embracing in t e aggregate not less than ten nor more than twent acres; and patents for such reservations, to be maintaine for such purposes, shall be issued to the towns respectively when organized as munici- palities; Po-orvzded furtlzer, That in case any lands in said Ter- ritory of Oklahoma, which may be occupied and filed upon as a homestead, under the provisions of law applicable to said Territory, by a person who is entitled to perfect his title thereto under such laws, are required for town site purposes, it shall be lawful for such person to apply to the Secretary of the Interior to purchase the lands embraced in said home- stead or any part thereof for town-site purposes. He shall file with the a plication aplat of such proposed town site, and if such p at shall be approved by the Secretary of the Interior, he shall issue a patent to such person for land em- braced in said town site, upon the payment of the sum of $10 per acre for all the lands embraced in such town site, except the lands to be donated and maintained for public purposes, as provided in this section. And the sums so received by the Secretary of the Interior shall be Eaid over to the proper authorities of the municipalities w en organized, to be used by them for school purposes only. See. 23 That there shall be reserved public highways four rods wide between each section of land in said Territory, the section lines being the center of said highways; but no de- duction shall be made,where cash payments are provided for, in the amount to be paid for each quarter section of land by reason of such reservation. But if the said highway shall be vacated by any competent authority, the title to the respec- tive strigs shall inure to the then owner of the tract of which it forms a part by the original survey. Sec. 24. That it shall be unlawful for any person, for himself or any company, association, or corporation, to directly or indirectly procure any person to settle upon any lands open to settlement in the Territory of Oklahoma, with intent there- after of acquiring title thereto; and any title thus acquired shall be void; and the parties to such fraudulent settlement shall severally be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be un- ished, upon indictment, by imprisonment not excee ing twelve months, or by a fine not exceeding $1,000, or by both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. LAND IN GREER COUNTY. Sec. 25. That inasmuch as there is a controversy between the United States and the State of Tex- as as to the ownership of what is known as Greer County, it is hereby expressly provided that this act shall not be con- strued to ap ly to said Greer County until the title to the same has been a judicated and determined to be in the United States; and in order to provide fora speedy and final judicial determination of the controversy aforesaid the Attorney-Gem eral of the United States is hereby authorized and directed to commence in the name and on behalf of the United States, and prosecute to a final determination, a proper suit in equity in the Supreme Court of the United States, against the State of Texas, setting forth the title and claim of the United States to the tract of land lying between the North and South forks of the Red River where the Indian Territory and the State of Texas adjoin, east of the one hundredth de- ree of longitude, and claimed by the State of Texas as with- n its boundary and a part of its land, and designated on its map as Greer County, in order that the rightful title to said land may be finally determined, and the court, on the trial of the case may, in its discretion, so far as the ends of justice will warrant, consider any evidence heretofore taken and re- ceived by the Joint Boun ary Commission under the act of Congress a proved January thirty-first, eighteen hundred and eighty- ve; and said case shall be advanced on the dock- et of said court, and groceeded with to its conclusion as rap— idly as the nature an circumstances of the case permit. APPROPRIATIONS. Sec. 26. That the following sums, or so much thereof as may be necessary, are hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appro riated, to be disbursed under the direction of the Secretary o?the Interior, 1n the same manner that similar appro riations are dlSbl111‘S6d. in the other Territories of the nited States, name y: OKLAHOMA GHUF—OLDENBURG To pay the expenses of the first legislative assembly of said Territory, including the printing of the session laws thereof, the sum of $40,000. To pay the salaries of the governor, the judges of the su- preme court, the secretary of the territory, the marshal, the attorne , and other officers whose a pointment is provided for in t is act, for the remainder O the fiscal year ending gune thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety, the sum of 20,000. To paéfor the rent of buildings for the legislative and exec- utive O ces, and for the supreme and district courts; to pro- vide jails, and support prisoners; to pay mileage and per diem of jurors and witnesses; to provide books, records, and stationery for the executive and judicial offices for the re- mainder of the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety, the sum of $15,000. To enable the governor to take a census of the inhabitants of said Territory, as required by law, the sum of $5,000. To be expended by the governor in temporary support and aid of common school education in said Territor as soon as a system of public schools shall have been established by the le islative assembly, the sum of $50,000. ‘ONSTRUOTION OF AOT. Sec. 27. That the provisions of this act shall not be so construed as to invalidate or impair any le al claims or rights of persons occupying any portion of said Territory, under the laws of the United States, but such claims shall be adjudicated by the Land Department, or the courts, in accordance with their respective jurisdic- tlons. Sec. 28. That the Constitution and all the laws of the United States not locally applicable shall, except so faras modified by this act, have the same force and effect as else- where within the Unitcd States; and all acts and parts of acts in conflict with the provisions of this act are as to their effect in said Territory of Oklahoma hereby re ealed: Pro- vided, That section eighteen hundred and fifty o the Revised Statutes of the Unite States shall not apply to the Territory of Oklahoma. [The remaining sections 31 to 44 of the Congres- sional act relates to the boundaries and new pro- visions for the government of the Indian Territory which see.] AREA AND PoPULATIoN.——The area of Oklahoma is officially reported in the census of 1890 as 39,030 square miles, with a population of 61,834. The fol- lowing is a list of the eight counties referred to in the above quoted Congressional act, with the fig- ures showing the population severally of said coun- ties: COUNTIES. POP. 1890. Beaver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2.674 Canadian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7.158 Cleveland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,605 Kingsfisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,332 Lo an . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..12.770 Ok ahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1l,742 Payne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,215 Greer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,338 The names of the county-seats are given above. The population of Guthrie. the State capital, in 1890, was 5,311 ;* of Oklahoma City 4,138. BRIEF HISTORIC OUTLINE.——The early history of Oklahoma was merged in that of the Indian Terri- tory, for which, as well as for its topography and productions, see INDIAN TERRITORY, Britannica, Vol. XII, pp. 833-35. The history of Oklahoma proper dates from 1866, when the Indian tribes to whom the lands of that portion of territory had been appropriated by the United States Govern- ment, ceded to the Government the western por- tion of their domain. In the sale of the lands it was stipulated that the lands should be used only for the use of other Indian settlers. Later, how- ever, numerous speculators, under energetic and persistent leaders, claimed that as these lands be- longed to the Government they were really open for settlement under the homestead laws, and vig- orous efforts were put forth to seize and occupy _* GUTHRIE, a city of Oklahoma, ca ital of the Territor situated on the right bank of the Ciigarron River, 90 milgs south of Arkansas City. It was founded in April, 1889. upon the opemng of Oklahoma for settlement. Within one month nearly a thousand houses had been built; and in 1890, accord- ing to the United States census report, the resident popula- tion numbered 5,311. 1169 them. These pretensions were effectively resisted by the Government until, under Congressional pro- vision, the territory was formally opened to set- tlers on April 22, 1889. As stated above, the act organizing the new Territory, defining its bounda- ries and habilitating its government, was passed by the United States Congress. To the area opened for settlement in 1889, was soon added the neighboring tract popularly known as “No Man’s Land” (from its political territorial status having been left uncertain by the public surveys), this addition increasing the territory by about 5,700 square miles. During the year of 1891 agree- ments were made with the Indian tribes living on its eastern border by which a tract about half as large as the original purchase from the Creeks and Seminoles was opened for settlements, in an- other about 3,000,000 have been acquired by purchase from the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. Smaller areas were later purchased from the Wichitas and Nez Perces, and still later the Cherokees agreed to sell the “Outlet,” thus adding about 6,000,000 acres to the northern borders of Oklahoma. The area now virtually open to settlement is about 28,300 square miles, and the population which by cenus of 1890 was reported at 61,834 is now (January 1892) reported at 80,000. The citizens are now seeking admission as a State. OKLAHOMA CITY, a city of Oklahoma, on the North Fork of the Canadian River, thirty miles south of Guthrie. It was founded upon the open- ing of Oklahoma Territory for settlement in April, 1889. ‘Within one month eight hundred houses had been built; and in 1890, according to the United States census report, the resident popu- lation was 4,138. OKOLONA, a village of Mississippi, about seventy miles south of Corinth. It contains a number of prosperous educational institutions and business houses. OKRA (Hibiscus esculentus), a species of the Mal- low family of plants. It yields long, green pods, with pointed ends. The pods contain numerous kidney—shaped seeds, which are rich in nutritious mucilage, when they are gathered while young. They are used as a thickening material for the pecu- liar Southern soup called “gumbo.” Sometimes the pods are boiled and dressed like asparagus. OLATHE, a city, the county-seat of Johnson’ county, Kans., about twenty miles southwest of Kansas City. It is the seat of several educational institutions. the site of an asylum for the deaf and dumb, and the center of a thriving trade. Popu- lation in 1890, 3,290. OLDENBURG, a grand duchy of the German Empire. For general article on OLDENBURG, see Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 756. Oldenburg embraces an area of 2,508 English square miles. The popu- lation in 1885 was reported as follows by divisions: Duchy of Oldenburg, 267,111; principality of Lii- beck, 34,721; Principality of Birkenfeld, 39,693. Total 341,525 (males, 169,048; females, 172,477—i.e. 102 per 100 males). The growth of the population since 1867, when the duchy attained its present limits, is as fol- lows :——1867, 315,995; 1871, 315,728; 1875, 319,314; 1880, 337,478; 1885, 341,525. In 1885 only 21.5 per cent. of the population lived in towns with 2,000 inhabitants or upwards. Olden- burg, the capital, had 21,428 inhabitants in 1885. PRESENT REIGNING FAMILY.—Peter 1., Grand—duke of Oldenburg, born July 8, 1857; the son of Grand- duke August and of Princess Ida of Anhalt-Bern- berg; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, February 27, 1853; married, Feb. 10, 1852, to Elisabeth, born March 26, 1826, daughter of 2-37 1170 Prince Joseph of Saxen-Altenburg. Offspring: 1. Prince August, heir-apparent, born Nov. 16, 1852; married, February 18, 1878, to Princess Elizabeth, born February 8, 1857, second daughter of Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia ; issue a daughter, Sophia, born February 2, 1879. 2. Prince Georg, born June 27, 1855. The Grand-duke has a civil list of 255,000 marks, or 12,750l. He draws also a revenue of 8,0001. from private estates of the family in Hol- stein, besides about 7,5001. in interest. Fmnncr-3 AND EDUCATION.—Th6 budget estimated the revenue in 1890, at 7,660,310 marks, and the ex- penditures at 8,177,850 marks. In 1890 there were 187 school teachers, and 3,- 155 pupils in the public schools. There were also several higher institutions of learning. OLD TOWN, avillage of Maine, near the Penob- scot River, about 12 miles northeast of Bangor. It has a fine water-power and an immense trade in lumber. OLD POINT COMFORT, a village, the site of Fortress Monroe, and a watering-place of Virginia, at the mouth of James River, on Hampton Roads. OLDHAMIA, a genus of fossils of unknown af- finities met with in the Cambrian system. Old- hamia assumes various forms, sometimes consisting of short radiating branches or umbels, which spring at regular intervals from a central thread-like axis; at other times the branches radiate in all directions from a central point. Some palseontologists have supposed the fossil to be a Sertularian zotiphyte; others have referred it to the polyzoa; while yet others think it may be a sea-weed. OLEAM CHENOCETI, an oil derived from a whale (Balaena rostrata) and refined for medicinal purposes. Dr. Gustav Guldberg states that it is an oil whose specific gravity is lower than of any other animal oil, that it flows easily, and that it possesses marked penetrative properties. It follows from this that it is indicated in those cases in which it is desirable rapidly to render the skin fatty, flexible, and extensible. It is also indicated in those cases in which it is desired to promote a rapid absorption of medicaments. The combination of this oil with chloroform is said to surpass every other combina- tion of that anaesthetic with oils. A mixture of equal parts is said to penetrate the skin rapidly and to act upon the nerve terminations very effi- ciently, thus offering a good application in all forms of pruritus, neuralgia, etc. A good ointment basis may be made by adding one-fourth as much Wax. The oil is 40 per cent. cheaper than olive oil, and is su erior to many more expensive oils. OLEA , a village of New York, on the Alleghany River, at the mouth of Olean Creek, about seventy miles south of Buffalo. It containsa number of educational institutions and is an important center of local trade. OLEFIANT GAS, or ETHYLENE, the most abund- ant illuminating constituent in coal-gas. It may be obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, but more readily by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol. It is a colorless gas with a faint odor, but little soluble in water or alcohol. It may be liqui- fied by cold and pressure. ‘With air it forms a powerfully explosive mixture, which, on being burned, yields water and carbonic acid gas. When mixed with an equal volume of chlorine, and kept cool and in the dark, the two gases unite, with the produéztion of drops of an oily liquid called Dutch Jlqul . OLEIC ACID, one of the acids present in olive, almond, and other oils, in which it is united to gly- cerine. At temperatures above 57° it exists as a colorless liquid fluid, of an oily consistence, devoid of smell and taste, and (if it has not been exposed OLD TOWN—OLEOMARGARINE to air) exerts no action on vegetable colors. At 40° it solidifies into a firm, white, chrystalline mass, and in this state it undergoes no change in the air; but when fluid it readily absorbs oxygen, becomes yellow and rancid, and exhibits a strong acid reaction with litmus paper. Oleate of potash forms a soft soap, which is the chief ingredient in Naples soap; while oleate of soda is a hard soap, which enters largely into the composition of Mar- seilles soap. Of recent years a large number of oleates have come into use in medicine, which de- pend for their activity on the remarkable ease with which they are absorbed by the skin. Such are the oleates of zinc, mercury, lead, tin, morphia, etc., which, in this form, produce more rapid results than when applied as ointments. OLENUS, a genus of Cambrian trilobites highly characteristic of the upper members of the sys- tem. OLEOMARGARINE. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 760. The making of artificial butter from tallow be- came an important industry soon after the French chemist Mege-Mouries had shown how to make it. His experiments taught him that by extracting a portion of the stearine and palmatine contained in beef-suet the proportion of oliene in the suet could be brought up to that in butter, and that by proper manipulation he could produce a substance not easily distinguishable from butter, and yet much cheaper. This substance he named oleomargarine. As butter does not contain any margarine, this name was not proper. “Butterine,” which is fre- quently used to designate the artificial article, is a more correct name. In American factories, which turn out large quantities of oleomargarine, an improved method is now employed. The beef-suet is washed repeatedly in lukewarm water to remove all impurities; then it is minced in a cutting machine and melted by the use of steam, the temperature of the fat being kept between 114° and 122° F. About 5 per cent. of salt is now added. The membranous part sinks to the bottom of the kettles, and the pure fat floats on top and is drawn off. After some purifying pro- cesses the fat is allowed to solidify very slowly. Then it is pressed in a hydraulic press, in order to separate the butter-oil from the stearine. This butter-oil is oleomargarine proper. When it ceases to flow, the stearine remains behind as a hard, white, dry mass. The butter-oil is of a light yellow color and an agreeable taste. When cool, it is solid, but it melts in the mouth like butter. \Vhen churned it is mixed in the proportion of 442 parts of the oil, 120 parts of fresh milk, 37% parts of fresh butter, 13/4 oz. of carbonate of soda. This mixture is churned from 5 to 10 minutes, some yel- low coloring matter (see ANNATTO) is then added, and after that it is churned from 30 to 40 minutes longer. The substance thus produced resembles butter in taste and appearance, and contains every element that enters into cream butter. It is now very largely manufactured in the United States, partly for home use, but more particularly for shipment to Europe. Three factories in the State of New York produce about 4,500 tons yearly. Other factories are in Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illi- nois and other States. The value of the production is between 7,000,000 and 8,000,000 of dollars yearly. Since a great deal of oleomargarine has been passed off as cream butter, Congress has re- cently enacted a stringent law, by which the sale of this article is taxed and every package of it must be conspicuously marked “oleomargarine.” The law lays on the manufacturers a tax of $600, on wholesale dealers one of $480, and on retail dealers ODEOMETER—OLIVER one of $48——with an additional tax of 2 cents on every pound of oleomargarine sold. This law re- stricted fraudulent sales considerably. Sold for what it is, oleomargarine does not materially interfere with the dairy business, because it is here mostly used for cooking purposes. Its use as table butter is confined to the poorer classes of Europe. OLEOMETER, an areometer or balance for as- certaining the densities of fixed oils. It consists of a very delicate thermometer-tube, the bulb being large in proportion to the stem, so weighted and graduated as to adapt it to the densities of the leading fixed oils. On the scale is marked the prin- cipal oils of commerce, with their specific gravity opposite. The standard temperature of the oleo- meter is 590 F. OLIFANT RIVER, a forked stream of Cape Col- ony, which rises in the mountains northeast of Cape-town, and, after a northwesterly course of 150 miles, enters the Atlantic. Area of drainage basin, 13,000 square miles. Another stream bear- ing the same name rises in the Transvaal, and goes east to join the Oori. OLIN, STEPHEN, D. D., born in Leicester, Vt., March 2,1797, died in Middleton, Conn., Aug. 16, 1851. He graduated at Middlebury in 1820, and after teaching for several years became a Methodist preacher, and was stationed at Charlestown. S. C. In January, 1827, he became professor of belles- lettres in the University of Georgia, and in 1834 president of Randolph Macon College. Three years later he was forced by failing health to leave the college, and spent several years in travel. In 1839 he was elected president of “’esleyan Univers- ity, but resigned in favor of Rev. Dr. Nathan Bangs, who in 1842 retired in his favor. He published Travels in Egypt, Arabia Petrma. and the Holy Land, and a'book of travel entitled Greece and the Golden Horn was issued posthumously. His collected ser- mons, sketches, lectures, and addresses were print- ed in 1853 under the title of The Works of Stephen Olin. OLIPHANT, LAURENCE, traveler. novelist, and mystic, born in 1829, died at Twickenham, Dec. 23, 1888. He was the only son of Sir Anthony Oli- phant, chief-justice of Ceylon. In early youth he traveled with Jung Bahadur to Nepal, and after his return was admitted a member of the Scottish bar, and later of the English bar at Lincoln’s Inn. His first work, .-1 Journey to Khatmanda was fol- lowed by The Russian Shores of the Black Sea, the fruit of his travels in Russia in 1852. He next be- came private secretary to the Earl of Elgi11, gover- nor-general of Canada, whom later he accompan- ied on his special embassy to China, thus finding material for his books llfinnesota and the Far l’Vest, and A Narrative of the Earl ofElgz'n’s Mz'ssz'on to China and Japan in 1857-59. In 1861, while acting as Chargé d’Afifairs in Japan, he was severely wounded by assassins, and consequently resigned his post. From 1865 to 1868 he sat in parliament. Having become profoundly influenced by certain peculiar religious opinions, he renounced London society, joined for a time the community of T. L. Harris in the United States, and finally settled at Haifa, in Palestine. The religious opinions of his later years he gave to the world in Sympneamata and Scientljic Religion, as well as in his novel Mas- sollam, while they already formed the background of his earlier novel, Alttora Peto. Oliphant, when he subjected his intellect to occultism, brought a bright career to an abrupt conclusion, and flung away a rare literary endowment. His Piccadilly was a book of altogether exceptional promise, bright with wit, delicate irony, and, above all, individuality; but its promise was never fulfilled. 1171 OLIPHANT, h/IRs. MARGARET (née \Vilson), one of the most distinguished of modern female novelists, born at Wallyford, Scotland, in 1820. In 1849 she published her first work Passages in the Life of Mrs. Margaret Maitlancl, which instantly won attention and approval. Its most distinctive charm is the tender humor and insight which regulate its ex- quisite delineation of Scottish life and character at once in their higher and lower levels. This work was followed by CalebField; fllerklan d; A clam Graeme ; Harry .tl[ ui r; Magdalen Hepburn; Lilliesleezf, and Katie Stewart; The Quiet Heart, and Zaiclee. Though these are of somewhat various merit, in all of them the peculiar talent of the writer is marked. They are rich in the minute detail which is dear to the wom- anly mind; have nice and subtle insights into character, a flavor of quiet humor, and frequent traits of delicacy and pathos in the treatment of the gentler emotions. It was, however, by the Chronz'cles of Carllngford that her reputation as a novelist was first secured. In the first of them, The Doctor’s Family, the character of little Netty, the heroine, vivifies the whole work, and may rank as an original creation. The next in the series, Salem Chapel, perhaps indicates a wider and more vigorous grasp than is to be found in any other work of the authoress. Certain of the unlovelier features of English dissent, as exhibited in a small provincial community, are here graphically sketched, and adapted with admigable skill to the purposes of fic'tion. Mrs. Oliphant has been resi- dent at lVindsor for many years. A civil list pen- sion of $500 was conferred upon her in 1868. OLIVE, PRINcEss (1772-1834), the title assumed in 1820 by Mrs. Elivia Serres, who claimed to have been born at lVarwick, England, in 1772, the grand- daughter of the Rev. Dr. VVilmot, her mother being his only daughter, and her father Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland, being the youngest brother of George III. In 1791 she married John Thomas Serres, painter, but separated from him in 1803; and between 1805 and 1819 she had published ten volumes of poetry and fiction. She resembled the royal family, and found some people ready to be- lieve her to be really Princess of Cumberland and Duchess of Lancaster. She died in poverty in November, 1834. Lavinia, the elder of two daugh- ters by her husband, married Anthony Thomas Ryves, the adopted son of IVilliam Combe (“ Dr. Syntax”), only, however, also to separate. She died in 1871. OLIVENZA, a fortified town of Spain, near the Portuguese frontier, twenty miles southwest of Badajoz. Population, 7,759. OLIVER, ANDREW, lieutenant-governor of Mass- achusetts, born in Boston, Mass, March 28, 1706, died March 3, 1774. He graduated at Harvard College in 1724; was a member of the council 1746- 65; secretary of the province 1756-70; and in 1765 rendered himself odious to the patriotic party by accepting the ofiice of collector of stamps, which post he was compelled to resign at the “Liberty Tree.” He was appointed lieutenant-governor in 1770. OLIVER, PETER, an American jurist, born in Boston, Mass, March 26, 1713, died in Birmingham, England, Oct. 13, 1791. He graduated at Harvard in 1730; filled various offices in Plymouth county; and although not a lawyer by profession, was made a justice of the supreme court in 1756, and in 1771 became chief justice. He was impeached by the house of representatives in 1774 for refusing to ac- cept the pay voted by the assembly in lieu of a fixed salary from the crown. Siding openly with the royalists, he accompanied the British troops on their retirement from Boston in 1776. and after- 1172 wards went to England, where he received a pen- sion from the crown. He was a writer of consid- erable talent, both in prose and verse. OLLA PODRIDA (lit., “putrid pot”), a Spamsh national dish, consisting of flesh, fresh and salted, poultry, vegetables, etc., well seasoned with pepper and garlic, and stewed together in a closed pot. The term is applied figuratively to literary produc- tions of very miscellaneous contents. The French equivalent is pot-pourri, and the Scotch hotch-potch, both of which, but especially the former, are also employed in a figurative sense. OLLENDORF’S SYSTEM, a method of learning languages, invented by H. G. Ollendorf, and de- signed for those who teach themselves. The gram- mars are meant to give the student a mastery of the conversational forms of the language, gram- matical rules being few., OLLIVIER, OLIVIER EMILE, a French statesman, born at Marseilles July 2, 1825. Having studied law at Paris, he began to practice as an advocate in that city, and by clever pleading established a reputation at the bar, and after 1864 acquired in- fluence as a member of the legislative assembly. In 1865 the viceroy of Egypt appointed him to a high juridicial office in that country. But he still took an active interest in French politics, and in J anuary, 1870, Napoleon III. charged him to form a constitutional ministry. But the real authority of the ministers was practically nil. Ollivier was an unsuspecting tool in the hands of the Imperial- ists. “With a light heart” he rushed his country into the war with Germany, himself to be over- thrown after the first battles. He withdrew to Italy. Ollivier has written books on Lamartine and Thiers, and L’Eglise et l’lttat au Concile du Vatican; Principes et Conduite; Nouoeau Manuel de Droit Ec- cléslastigue Frangais, and others. OLNEY, J ESSE, an American ge ographer, born at Union, Tolland county, Conn., Oct. 12, 1798, died at Stratford, July 31, 1872. He was educated at White’s borough, N. Y., and was for twelve years principal of the Hartford Grammar school. His school Geography and Atlas, first issued in 1828, was at once accepted as a standard work, and caused a complete revolution in the methods of teaching geography. In 1831 appeared the National Precep- tor, a superior reading manuel, which was followed by a series of readers and outline maps, an arith- metic, and a School History of the United States. He was for many years a member of the legislature and afterwards comptroller of the State for two terms, and was an active worker in behalf of edu- cational interests. OLMSTEAD, FREDERICK LAW, landscape- arden- er, born at Hartford, Conn., April 26, 1822, stu ied ag- ricultural science and engineering at Yale in 1845— 46, and became a farmer in central New York and afterwards on Staten Island. Becoming interested in landscape-gardening and architecture, he made an extensive pedestrian tour through England and portions of the continent for the purpose of observ- ing the ornamental grounds of the countries, and on his return published some account of his journey in Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England. He afterwards traveled through the Southern and Southwestern States of the Union for the purpose of investigating the influence of slavery on agriculture, and publishedA Journey in the Sea- board Slaoe States (1856); A Journey Through Texas ( 1857), and A Journey in the Back Country (1860). Mr. Olmstead was appointed with Mr. Calvert Vaux, to superintend the construction of Central Park, New York, superintended the reconstruction of the grounds about the Capitol, Washington, and has been identified with the designing of the parks of OLLA PODRlDA——OMAR PASHA Brooklyn, Chicago, Boston, San Francisco. and other cities. OLNEY, a pleasant little town of England, on the Ouse, eleven miles west by north of Bed- ford and ten miles southeast of Northampton. At the corner,of the market-place still stands the house where Cowper lived from 1767 to 1786, and where he wrote with John Newton the Olney Hymns. The place besides has memories of Scott the commenta- tor, William Carey, and many more missionaries. Brewing and bootmaking are industries. Popula- tion, 2,347. OLNEY, a city, the county-seat of Richland county, Ill., about thirty miles west of Vincennes, Ind. It contains fine schools and a number of mills and factories. Population in 1890, 3,728. OLSHAUSEN, HERMANN, theologian, born at O1- deslohe, in Holstein, Aug. 21,1796, died Sept. 4,1839. He studied at Kiel and at Berlin under N eander, and became professor at Berlin, Kdnigsberg, and Erlangen. His younger brother, J USTUS (1800-82), was a distinguished Orientalist; and Tnnononn (1802-69) took a prominent part in the Sleswick- Holstein rising, 1848. OLYMPIA, a town, the capital of Washington, and the county-seat of Thurston county, finely sit- uated on a peninsula at the southern extremity of Puget Sound, one hundred miles north of Portland, Oregon. The harbor is safe and commodious, and is especially adapted for the lumber trade and for shipbuilding. An abundant water-power is afforded by the Des Chutes River, and magnificent forests supply immense quantities of lumber. Commerce and general trade are in a thriving condition; and the facilities for education are excellent. OLYPHANT, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the Lackawanna River, eight miles north of Scranton. It is an important mining town, and enjoys a large trade connected with the coal business. Popula- tion in 1890, 4,075. OM, a Sanskrit word which, on account of the mystical notions that even at an early date of Hindu civilization were connected with it, acquired much importance in the development of Hindu re- ligion. Its original sense is that of emphatic or solemn afiirmation or assent. Later it became the auspicious word with which the spiritual teacher had to begin, and the pupil had to end, each lesson of his reading of the Veda. And ultimately (as equal to Aum) it came to be regarded as an abbre- viated method of naming the Hindu trinity. In the Lamaist form of Buddhism the “formula of six syllables,” Om mani padme hum, which is variously interpreted, is the most solemn and sacred of in- vocations; is the first thing taught to Tibetan and Mongolian children, and the last prayer breathed by the dying man. It is found engraved on rocks, flags, and praying-wheels, and is looked on as the essence of religion and wisdom, and the means of attaining eternal bliss. OMAHA, a city, the county-seat of Douglas county, Neb., beautifully situated on an elevated plateau on the west bank of the Missouri River. Population in 1890, 139,562. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 771. OMAR PASHA, a Turkish general, born at Plaski, in Croatia, in 1806 (according to some au- thorities, in 1811), died at Constantinople, April 18, 1871. His real name was Michael Lattas; he was educated for the Austrian army at the military school of Thurn, near Carlstadt. Having by a breach of discipline rendered himself liable to punishment, he fled to Bosnia, and, embracing Mohammedanism, gained through his beautiful caligraphy the post of writing-master to Ab‘dul- Medjid, the heir to the Ottoman throne. On his OMBRE—ONEONTA pupi1’s accession in 1839 Omar Pasha was raised to the rank of colonel, and in 1842, appointed military governor of the Lebanon. In 1843 he displayed considerable skill and energy in suppressing an in- surrection in Albania, and in the following years others in Bosnia and Kurdistan. On the invasion of the Danubian Principalities by the Russians in 1853, Omar Pasha collected an army of 60,000 men, and, crossing the Danube in presence of the enemy, intrenched himself at Kalafat, where he success- fully withstood the Russians; after they withdrew from the Principalities, Omar Pasha entered Buch- arest in triumph in August, 1854. February 9, 1855 he embarked for the Crimea, and on the 17th of the same month repulsed with great loss 40,000 Russians who attacked him at Eupatoria. He was soon afterwards sent to relieve Kars, but arrived too late. In September, 1861, he was charged to pacify Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were again in insurrection. This being accomplished, he at- tacked the Montenegrins, captured Cetinje, and overran the country in 1862. OMBRE (through the Fr. from Span. hombre, “man”), a game of cards borrowed from the Span- iards, and usually played by three persons, though sometimes by two and by five. The game is played with forty cards (the eights, nines, and tens having been removed), and each player receives nine cards, three by three. The game is often referred to in English 18th-century literature. O’MEARA, BARRY EDWARD, physician to Napo- leon on St. Helena, born in Ireland in 1786, died in London, June 3, 1836. He first served as surgeon in the army, but was dismissed from the service in 1808 for a discreditable share in a duel at Mlessina. Later he entered the naval department, and was on board the “Bellerophon” when Napoleon sur- rendered to Captain Maitland. He pleased the great exile, and accompanied him as his private physician to St. Helena. He took part with Napo- leon in his squabbles with the governor, Sir Hud- son Lowe, and was imprisoned and compelled to resign his post in 1818. On his return to England he asserted in a letter to the Admiralty that Sir Hudson Lowe had dark designs against his cap- tive’s life, and had attempted insidiously to corrupt himself. For this monstrous charge he was dis- missed from the service. His Napoleon in Exile made a great sensation, and is still valuable if read with caution. OMPHACITE (Gr. omphaka, “unripe grape”), a grass-green granular variety of Pyroxene, one of the constituents of Eclogite. OMRO, a village of \Visconsin, on Fox River, ten miles west of Oshkosh, contains an excellent high-school and a large number of mills and manu- factories. ONAGRACEZE, a natural order of exogenous plants, chiefly herbaceous; with simple leaves and axillary or terminal flowers. There are about 450 known species, natives chiefly of temperate cli- mates, among which are some much cultivated for the beauty of their flowers, particularly those of the genera Fuchsia, Glnothera (Evening Primrose). Claw-kia, and Godetia. A few species produce edible berries, and the roots of one or two are eatable; but none are of economic importance. The root of Isnaroha alternifolz'a, found in the marshes of Caro- lina. and called Bowman’s Root, is emetic. Some species of Jussiaea are used in dyeing in Brazil. ONARGA, a village of Illinois, about eighty miles south of Chicago. It is the seat of several educa- tional institutions, and contains a variety of man- ufactories. ONCIDAS, a tribe of North American Indians, formerly belonging to the “Five Nations,” collect- 1173 ively the Iroquois, which occupied the greater part of the State of New York. ONCKEN, J OHANN Gnnnxnn, a German evangel- ist, born at Varel, in Oldenburg, in 1800, died in 1884. In 1834 he adopted Baptist views and be- came the pastor of the first Baptist church in Ger- many. Soon after he was appointed a missionary of the American Baptist Convention. His religious work was conducted throughout Germany, Switz- erland, and Denmark, by preaching, distributing the Scriptures, and organizing congregations. His labors were so successful, that he became widely known as the “German Apostle.” In the prosecu- tion of his work he also visited the United States in 1852 and again in 1865. Oncken published many religious tracts and some journals. O’NEALL, J om: H., born near Newberry, S. C., Oct. 30, 1838. He was left an orphan at the age of eight years, and became an inmate of his grand- father O’Neall’s family, who resided in Daviess County; worked on a farm till he was twenty-one years of age, attending the country school two and three months during the winter; entered the Indi- ana State University in 1859, graduating therefrom in 1862; read law under the directions of Judge William Mack, of Terre Haute, and was admitted to the bar; graduated from the Law Department of the Michigan University in 1864; located in Washington the same year, and has practiced his profession since; represented Daviess County in the State Legislature in 1866; was appointed Prose- cuting Attorney for the Eleventh Judicial Circuit in 1873; was elected to the same office in 1874, but. resigned before his term was out; and was elected to Congress in 1887. ONEIDA, a village of New York, on Oneida Creek, midway between Utica and Syracuse. It is the center of trade of a rich hop and dairy district, and the seat of numerous important manufactories. ONEIDA COMMUNITY, a village of New York, four miles south of Oneida. It has an excellent water-power, and is the headquarters of the num- erous manufactories of the community formerly presided over by John Humphrey Noyes. O’NEIL, J osnrn H., born in Fall River, Mass., March 23, 1853. He received a common-school edu- cation; was a member of the Boston school com- mittee in 1875; a member of the Massachusetts house of representatives in 1878, ’79, ’80, ’81, ’82, and ’84; a member of the board of directors for Public Institutions for five years, the last eighteen months being chairman of the board; was city clerk of Boston in 1887 and ’88; and was elected to Congress in 1889. O’NEILL, CHARLES, born in Philadelphia, March 21, 1821. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1840; studied and practiced law; was a member of the house of representatives of Pennsylvania in 1850, ’51, ’52 and ’60 ; was a member of the State senate of Pennsylvania in 1853; and was elected to Congress in 1868. ' O’NEILL, J OHN J ., a manufacturer, born June 25, 1846, of Irish parents. He received a common School education; was in the Government Civil ‘Service during the war of the Rebellion; was elected a member of the Missouri State legisla- ture from St. Louis in 1872, 1874 and 1876, and a member of the municipal assembly of St. Louis in 1878 and 1881. In politics he is a Democrat, and was elected a representative from the eighth Con- gressional district of Missouri to the 48th,49th and 50th Congresses. In 1890 he was elected from the same district to the 52nd Congress. ONEONTA, a village of New York on the Sus- quehanna River, sixtyr miles east of Binghampton. It contains the shops of the Albany and Susque- 1174 hanna Railroad, and a number of mills and factor- ies. Population of township in 1890, 6268. ONION, some species of the genus Allium, the most important of which is A. cepa. It is a well- known biennial plant. The root bears a truncated bulb, round, and often compressed. The scape ap- pears in the second year and grows about three feet high, straight, smooth, bearing at top a large round umbel of greenish white flowers. It is universally cultivated for the kitchen, and the pe- culiar merits of its bulb, and the young stem as a potherb and a condiment are well known. ONONDAGAS, a tribe of North American In- dians, formerly belonging to the “Five Nations,” which occupied the greater part of the present State of New York. ONTARIO, the easternmost and smallest (7,240 square miles) of the five great lakes of North America. It receives at its southwest corner the water of the upper lakes by the Niagara River, and at its northeast corner it issues into the St. Law- rence. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 451; Vol. XXI, pp. 180, 182. ON US PROBANDI, that is, the burden of proof, often a difiicult question in litigation. As a rule the plaintiff who institutes the suit is bound to give proof of the allegations on which he relies. OOGONTZ, the name of an Indian chief formerly residing at Sandusky, Ohio. Later the name was given by Jay Cook (who in early life resided at Sandusky, and whose father’s residence occupies the site of the home of the Indian chief), to his mansion near Philadelphia, Pa. Still later, Mr. Cook’s residence and grounds were dedicated un- der the same Indian name to the uses of the public as a Ladies’ Seminary of high grade. Since the date of the famous Indian chief, h_ere mentioned, Sandusky has become a beautiful city, and the vis- itors thereto could walk on “Ogontz Street,” eat bread made of flour from “Ogontz Mills,” look out upon a procession of masons belonging to “Ogontz Lodge,’ and listen to the hurrying tramp of the “Ogontz Fire Company.” OORI, a river of southeastern Africa,which has its source in the heart of the Transvaal, between Pre- toria and Potchefstrom, describes a huge curve to the north, and joins the Indian Ocean a little north of Delagoa Bay. Its course exceeds 800 miles, and it has numerous tributaries, the most important being the Olifant from the right. It has been as- cended 50 miles by steamboat; but its upper reaches are obstructed by rapids and falls. OOSTERHOUT, a Dutch town in North Brabant, six miles northeast of Breda, with sugar-factories, tan-yards, breweries, otteries. Population, 10,911. OOSTERZEE,-JAN AKOB VAN, theologian,born at Rotterdam in 1817, died July 29, 1882. He studied at Utrecht, was a pastor in Rotterdam, and in 1862 became a theological professor at Utrecht, bein the leader of the Evangelical school in Hollan . He wrote many works, amongst them aLife of Christ, a Christology, a work on John’s Gospel, commentaries on Luke and the Pastoral Epistles in Lange’s Commentary; also a Theology of the New Testament; Christian Dogmatics; Moses, and Practi- cal Theology. OPACITE, a name given by petrologists to mi- nute black, opaque, amorphous aggregates, grains, and patches of indeterminate mineral matter. which are seen in many igneous rocks when these are viewed in thin slices under the microscope. Opacite is probably in most cases hematite, limonite, magnetite, or other iron oxide, and is a product of the chemical alteration of one or other of the orig- inal mineral constituents of the rock in which it occurs. ONION—OPERA-GLASS OPELIKA, a city, the county seat of Lee county, Ala., thirty miles northwest of Columbus. It con- tains a number of educational institutions and manufacturing establishments. Population in 1890, 3,686. OPELOUSAS, a village, the capital of St. Landry parish, La., sixty miles west of Baton Rouge. It contains a convent and an academy, and is an im- portant shipping point for cotton. OPERA, a musical drama, an extended dramatic composition in which music forms an essential and predominant factor, and not a mere accessory ac- companiment. The words are called libretto. They are the peg on which to hang the music, the latter being the principal part. The component parts of an opera are recitations, arias, duets, trios, quar- tettes, choruses, and finales, accompanied throughont by an orchestra. The whole is preceded by an in- strumental overture. “Recitative” is declamation which strives to assimilate itself to the accents of speech, and for this purpose sacrifices portions of the musical rhythm. It is speaking in successive musical tones. “Arias, duets, or trios” are melo- dies for one, two, or three voices, usually with elab- orate accompaniments. In the “choruses” the dra- matic element usually predominates. They are often wrought into noteworthy climaxes of great musical and dramatic interest. The “instrumental elements” include both accompaniments and in- dependent passages. The latter comprise, beside the overtures, intermezzi, marches, dances, etc., . which connect, supply, or embellish the links of the chain of dramatic incident. The “ballet” is often added either as an incidental diversion or as a component part of the dramatic action itself. The oldest opera is the Italian. It had an un- broken course of development since 1600. In Ger- many and France it began to be diligently culti- vated about 1650, and in England somewhat later. Italian operas have tended toward a lyrical ex- treme, to the ne lect of the dramatic truth; while German operas ave strongly emphasized the ro- mantic and strictly dramatic elements. French operas have often sought very much for comic and spectacular effects. The Wagnerian operas elabo- rate the orchestral effects very considerably, and unify the poetic, musical, dramatic, and scenic ele- ments more than others. The maintenance of expensive opera-houses, with regular seasons of performances, is in most Euro- pean countries a matter of governmental appropri- ation. There the opera has become a powerful fac- tor in the social and artistic life of all large cities. Among the different varieties of operas we have the grand or serious, dramatic, comic, the opera boufe, the ballad opera, etc. “Grand or serious op- eras” have an elaborate plot and dignified charac- ter; the entire work if set to music. “Comic op- eras” (operas boufies) contain frequently spoken dialogues. The farce plays here an important part. A “ballad opera” is a light dramatic work into which ballads and popular songs are inter- woven. OPERA—GLASS, a double telescope, used for looking at objects that require to be clearly seen rather than reatly magnified, such as the per- formers at a t eatre or opera. The opera glass is short and light, and can be easily managed with one hand. Its small magnifying power, and the large amount of light admitted by the am le ob- ject-glass, enable it to present a bright an pleas- ant picture, so that the eye is not strained to make out details, as in telescopes of greater power, which generally show a highly magnified but faint picture. It allows the use of both eyes, Which gives to the spectator the double advantage, not OPHIOGLOSSEEh—ORANGE possessed by single telescopes, of not requirin to keep one eye shut, and of seeing things stan ing out stereoscopically as in ordinary vision. OPHIOGLOSSEJE, a sub-order of filices or ferns, consisting of rather elegant little plants with an erect or pendulous stem, which has a cavity instead of pith, leaves with netted yeins, and the spore-cases collected into a spike formed at the edges of an altered leaf, two-valved, and without any trace of an elastic ring. They are found in warm and tem- perate countries, but abound most of all in the is- lands of tropical Asia. OPHITES, a class of Gnostics. who, while they shared the general belief in dualism, the conflict of matter and spirit, the emanations, and the Demi- urgos, were distinguished by giving a prominent place in their systems to the serpent. OPHITIC STRUCTURE, a name given by petrol- ogists to a structure seen in various crystalline igneous rocks. in which large plates of a pyroxene are penetrated and divided, as it were, into small portions, by crystals of felspar. The serarated portions of the pyroxene, however, are in crystal- line continuity, since they all possess the same op- tic orientation. OPIUM. See Britannica,Vol. XVII, pp. 787-794. In the United States there are some places called “ opium-joints,” where opium is smoked. They are in most large cities, but especially in New York and San Francisco. The State of New York has a law which makes it an offense to keep an opium- joint. This law keeps white people out of the joint, but it seems that the Chinese smoke opium at the joints as much as they please. It is evident that the use of opium as a stimu- ' lant is increasing in the United States. Some medi- cal men think that this is caused by the fact that whisky is less commonly used than 20 years ago, ‘ especially among American women. Opium-eat ing is very disastrous to the morals of those who indulge in it. All opium prepared for smoking comes from China, where the right to prepare it is . sold by the government to the highest bidder. The crude opium comes mostly from Smyrna, it being a product of Turkey in Asia. The importation of smoking opium had increased from 49,375 pounds in 1872 to 66,232 pounds in 1887. This in- crease took place in spite of the fact that the United States government increased the duty in 1883 from $6 a pound to $10 a pound. The quan- tity of crude opium imported into this country rose from 189,354 pounds in 1872 to 568,263 pounds in 1887. Its price rose from $2.50 in 1886 to $4.75 in 1887, and still higher in 1888. OPOSSUM, a name which has been applied to , certain Australian forms, but is better restricted to the American opossums, the only marsupials found in America. They range from the United States to ' the Argentine Republic. There are altogether 23 distinct species, with a considerable range in size, varying from that of a large cat to that of a mouse. The best known is the Virginia opossum. Although there are now no opossums found anywhere but in ' America, they existed formerly in Europe, as is shown by their fossil remains. The opossums are all carnivorous; one species, the crab-eating opos- sum, is a native of tropical America. Many species carry the young on the back; this is due in many cases to the fact that there is no pouch. The Vir- ginian opossum is a foe to poultry-yards. Hunting the opossum is a favorite sport in the Southern States. The expression, “ playing ’possum,” refers to the opossum’s habit of feigning death when can ht. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 796-97. O OTECA, a sleepy town of 1,000 inhabitants, in Honduras, about 15 miles northwest of Coma- . 1175 ya_gua. It was formerly famous for its great silver mmes. OPPERT, JULES, a French Orientalist, born at Hamburg in 1825, of Jewish parentage. He studied at Heidelberg, Bonn, and Berlin, and took the de- gree of Rh. D. at the University of Kiel, in 1847. After that he studied chiefly the Zend language and literature. In 1854 he laid before the French Institute his method of deciphering the cuneiform inscriptions, and received for his achievement the grand prize of 20,000 francs. In 1857 Oppert was made professor of Sanskrit in the school at- tached to the Imperial library. In 1869 he also began to teach in the College de France, and in 1874. he was made full professor there. Among his published works are Etudes assyriennes; Gramrnaire sanscrite ; Histoire des empires de Chaldie et d’Assyrie; Babylon et les Babyloniens; Mélanges perses; Le pea- ple et la Zangue des Medea; Fragments mg/thologique (1882). His brother, Ennsr J ACOB OPPERT, born at Hamburg in 1832, went to China in 1851 as a mer- chant,'and made several visits to Chorea, the results of which he published in A Forbidden Land (/1879). Another brother, GUSTAV SOLOMON OPPERT, born in 1836, became professor of Sanscrit in the University of Madras in 1872. He has published treatises On the Classification of Languages; On the Weapons of the Ancient Hindoos; and Contributions to the _History of Southern India (1882). OPPORTUNISTS: in French politics those who, like Gambetta, Ferry, and others like-minded, op- pose doctrinaire as well as extreme views, accom- modate themselves in great measure to the cir- cumstances of the hour, and aim only at what can obviously be carried through. OPUS OPERATUM, the phrase employed in the Catholic theological schools to describe the manner of operation of the sacramental rites in the pro- duction of grace. It is intended to imply that the ministration of the rite is in itself, through the in- stitution of Christ, an efiicient cause of grace, and that, althou h its operation is not infallible, but requires an pre-supposes certain dispositions on the part of the recipient, yet these dispositions are but conditiones sine qua non, and do not of them- selves produce the grace. Hence, when the sacra- ments are administered to dying persons in a state of apparent insensibility, this is done in the hope and on the presumption that the dying person may, though seemingly unconscious, be neverthe- less really disposed to receive the sacrament; but it is by no means held that if these dispositions be wanting the sacrament will itself justify him. ORANGE, the fruit of a tree of the genus (Citrus Aurantium), now raised in large quantities in Florida. The Florida orange is of acknowledged excellence, and this makes it a formidable rival to the oranges of Southern Europe and the VVest Ind- ies, our former sources of supply. The superior ripe fruit which we receive cheap from Florida, is fast superceding the half-ripe fruit hitherto shipped to the United States from Italy and Spain. It is sweet, of the finest flavor, and has no superior in juiciness. A single acre planted with orange trees in Florida, has been known to produce ten tons of oranges. Another locality of the American orange is Lou- isiana, especially the district extending along the west bank of the Mississippi from a point about forty miles below New Orleans to the vicinity of Fort Jackson. For thirty miles in length there is here an almost continuous orange-grove, some of the orchards being very extensive. The Louisiana oranges resemble those of Florida, though the ilelddper tree is said to be much larger than in on a. 1176 The third important region of oran e culture in the United States is Southern Cali ornia. Here large crops of oranges are raised, which, like Cali- fornia fruits generally, are of much larger size than others, but are somewhat deficient in flavor as com- pared with the Florida fruit. But for this the orange culture would spread rapidly over the Sac- ramento valley, for the yield of the bearing trees there is abundant. At present Florida supplies the market along the Atlantic coast; Louisiana supplies the people of the Mississippi valley; and Southern California supplies the Pacific coast and VVestern States. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 810—812. ORANGE, or GARIEP, the largest river of South Africa. It rises in the Kathlamba Mountains, in the east of Basutoland, and flows west, with an in- clination to the north, to the Atlantic Ocean. It describes numerous wide curves in its course of 1,000 miles, and separates Cape Colony, on the south, from the Orange Free State, Griqualand VVest, Bechuanaland, and Great Namaqualand, on the north. Area of basin, 325,000 square miles. Its volume varies greatly betweeen the dry season, when it is not navigable, and the rainy season, when it overflows its banks in the upper parts of its course. Its mouth is, moreover, obstructed by abar. ORANGE, a village in Orange township, Frank- lin county,Mass., on Miller’s River, twenty miles . east of Greenfield. It is the seat of a variety of manufactories. Population of township in 1890, 4,563. ORANGE, a handsome city of New Jersey, thir- teen miles west of New York. Population in 1890, 18,774. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 813. ORANGEBURG COURTHOUSE, a village, the county-seat of Orangebury county, S. C., fifty miles south of Columbia. It is an important market for lumber, turpentine, rice and cotton, contains a va- riety of manufactures, and is the seat of several ed- ucational institutions, including Clafiin University and the South Carolina Agricultural College. Pop- ulation in 1890, 2,953. ORANGE, FREE STATE OF. For general article on this republic, see Britannica, Vol. I p. 270; Vol. V, p. 45; Vol. XVII, p. 813. The latest accredited authorities report the estimated area at 41,500 square miles. The territory is now divided into 18 districts. At a census taken in 1880, the white popu- lation was found to be 61,022——31,906 males and 28,- 116 females. Of this population 42,439 were born in the Free State and 14,149 in the Cape Colony, There were besides 72,496 natives in the state——38,244 males and 34,252 females-—making a total popula- tion of 133,518. The capital, Bloemfontein, had 2567 inhabitants in 1880. Of the white population 11,111 were returned in 1880 as directly engaged in agriculture, while there were 68,881 “colored serv- ants.” Immigration is on the increase, mainly from Germany and England. CoNsTITUTIoN AND GovERNMENT.—The le islative authority is vested in a popular assem ly, the “ Volksraad ” of 57 members, elected by suffrage of the burghers (adult white males) for four years from every district, town, and ward, or field- cornetcy in the country districts. Every two years one-half of the members vacate their seats and an election takes place. The members of the Volks- raad receive pay at the rate of 21. per day. Eligible are burghers 25 years of age, owners of real prop- erty to the value of 5001. Voters must be white burghers by birth or naturalization, be owners of real property of not less than 1501., or lessees of real property of an annual rental of 361. a yearly income of not less than 2001.,or be owners of per- \ ORANGE—OROHIDS sonal property of the value of 3001., and have been in the state for not less than three years. The executive administration is lodged with a president chosen for five years by universal suf- frage, who is assisted by an executive council. The executive council consists of the government secretary, the landrost of the capital, and three unofiiicial members appointed by the volksraad, one every year for three years. Judge Reitz, president of the republic, was sworn into office Jan. 11, 1889. EDUCATION, FINANCE AND DEFENSE.—-The system of education is national. Small grants are also made to the Episcopal and Roman Catholic churches. The government schools are managed by elected local boards, which choose the teachers, who are appointed by the president, if he is satis- fied with their qualifications. Education is not compulsory nor free except for very poor children. In 1889 15,0001. was alotted to education, being a. portion of interest on a capital of 200,0001. set apart by the volksraad for this purpose. There are no foundations, properly so-called, for education. In 1889 there were 49 government schools, inclusive of the two higher schools and the infant school at Bloemfontein, with 2,139 pupils and 74 teachers. Grants are made to private schools on certain con- ditions. In 1889 there were 14 such schools with 211 pupils. The Gray College, the highest school for boys, prepares candidates for the matriculation examination of the Cape University; there is a similar school for girls. At the census of 1880 only 1,080, or 2.6, of the white population above seven years of age could not read nor write, while 3,864 could only read. There is a good public library in Bloemfontein, the capital, and small libraries in several villages. Every able-bodied man in the republic between 16 and 60 years of age is subject to military service. The number of burghers available for such service in 1890 was 13,490. The revenue in 1890 aggregated £272,322; the ex- penditure to £205,100; the imports were valued at about £900,000, and the exports at nearly £1,000,- 000. ORBIGNY, ALCIDE DESSALINES D’, a French nat- uralist, born at Coneron in 1802, died at Pierrefitte in 1857. In 1826 he went to South America, where he spent eight years in scientific exploration from Brazil and Peru to Patagonia. In 1852 he was made professor of palaeontology at the museum of Natural History at Paris. His best known works are Voyage dans 1’ Amérique du Sud (9 vols.) and Paélontologie frangaise (14 vols.). He also contribut- ed to the Dictionnaire Umloersel 01’ histoire naturelle (24 vols.), edited by his brother Charles Dessalines d’ Orbigny, conservator of the Museum of Natural History of Paris. ORCHARDSON, WILLIAM QUILLER, a genre- painter, who is considered to bear the palm in this branch of art, surpassing all other English physiog- nomists in accuracy, expression, and dexterous ex- ecution. He was born in 1835 in Edinburgh, where subsequently he studied under Scott Lauder at the Trustees’ Academy; he became A. R. A. in 1868, R. A. in 1877, and received a medal of honor at the Exposition Universelle, 1878. ORCHIDS. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 816- 818. The Orchid family (Orchidaceae) includes in all 394 genera and about 3,000 species. They are found all over the world, but the United States have only few native species of orchids. The trop- ical species are epiphytes, that is, they grow on trees and stones, and derive their chief nourish- ment from the air. Florists have lately cultivated some tropical epiphytes in greenhouses, they being ORCLN—OREGON greatly admired for their beauty or singularity. Orchids growing native in the temperate zones are terrestrial. These forms are propagated by division -of the tubes or of the pseudo-bulbs, each piece hav- ing one or more. Those in aerial roots are similarly propagated by division, the seeds being rarely used for this purpose. They grow best if attached to blocks of wood or placed in baskets, and hung from the roof of the greenhouse. They seldom need water at the roots, but require much water upon their leaves. ORCIN, a substance found in thefree state in the lichens from which Archil and Litmus are prepared. It is formed when the acids which occur in these plants are boiled with baryta water or submitted to dry distillation. It is also prepared artificially from the nitro-derivates of the hydrocarbon tolu- ene. It is a di-acid phenol, and appears in large colorless crystals which turn a reddish-brown color when exposed to the air. By the action of ammonia and the oxygen of the air it is converted into or- cein, which is the coloring matter of archil. ORD, EDWARD OTHO CRESAP, born in Cumberland, Md., Oct. 18, 1818, died in Havana, Cuba, July 22, 1883. He graduated at the United States military academy in 1839, served in Florida against the Seminole Indians until 1842, and from that date until the beginning of the civil war was chiefly em- ployed on frontier duty. In Sept., 1861, he was ap- pointed brigadier-general of volunteers, and soon afterwards assigned to command a brigade of Penn- sylvania reserves. On the 2nd day of May, 1862, he was made major-general of volunteers and trans- ferred to a command in the Department of the Mississippi, participating in the battle of Iuka and the action on the Hatchie, commanded the 13th army corps during the siege and capture of Vicks- burg and capture of Jackson; and in July, 1864, was given command of the 8th army corps and the troops in the Middle department. After confidence had been restored, he was placed in command of the 18th army corps near Petersburg, Va., and took part in the movements before that city, and in the capture of Fort Harrison. In J an., 1865, he was given command of the Army of the James and the Department of Virginia, and took part in the oper- ations resulting in the evacuation of Richmond and the surrender of General Lee. He was then given the Department of the Ohio. In Sept. 1866, he was mustered out of the volunteer service, having, however, been previously appointed a brigadier- general in the regular army. He commanded var- ious military departments (1866-80) ; retiring in 1881 with the rank of major-general. ORD, GEORGE, an American naturalist, born in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1781; died there Jan. 24, 1866. He was an enthusiastic student of natural history, and, though of a retiring disposition, was highly esteemed by his associates in scientific investiga- tions, especially in the department of Ornithology. He was a fellow of the Linnaean Society of London, vice-president of the American Philosophical So- ciety, and president of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in 1851-1858. He was an intimate friend of Alexander Wilson, the ornithol- ogist. Mr. Ord, after Wilson’s death in 1813, com- pleted the eighth volume of the latter’s American Ornithology (Philadelphia, 1814), and wrote the entire letter-press of the concluding volume. See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 590. ORDER, in natural history, a group inferior to class and sub-class, but superior to family, genus, etc. The term natural order is used in botany to ex- press genuine relationship in contrast to purely artificial grouping, but all orders now recognized are supposed to be more or less “natural.” 1177 ORDNANCE. See GUN-MAKING and GUNNERY in Britannica, Vol. XI, pp. 278-315; and also GUNS and GUNROATS in these Revisions and Additions. ORDOVICIAN, a name sometimes given to a geological formation intermediate between Cam- brian and Silurian ; otherwise accounted the Lower Silurian strata. It is so called from the Ordovices, an ancient British tribe. OREGON, a village, the county-seat of Ogle county, on Rock River, Oregon, twenty-five miles south of Rockford. It is beautifully situated, and contains a high-school and numerous manufac- tones. OREGON, STATE OF, for general article on ORE- GON, see Britannica, Vol. XVII. pp. 822-825. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as follows: Area, 96,030 square miles; population, 313,767, an increase during the decade of 138,899. Capital, Salam, with a population of 4,515. The fol- lowing shows the population of the cities which in 1890 had each over 8,000 inhabitants; also their population in 1880 and their increase during the decade: Cities. 1890. 1880. Increase. Per cent. East Portland... .- . . . . . . .. 10,532 2,934 7,598 258 96 Portland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46,385 17,577 28,808 163 90 The census returns of several other cities and towns are as follows: Astoria, 7,071; Eugene, 3,958; Salam, 4,515; The Dalles. 3,015; Albina, 5,104. AREAS AND POPULATION BY CoUNTIEs.—The land areas in square miles, and the population, severally, of the counties of the State were as follows in 1890'. Population. Counties. Area. 1890. 1880. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,970 6.764 4,616 Benton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,370 8,650 6,403 Clackamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L684 15,233 9,260 Clatsop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815 10.016 7,222 Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 5,191 2,042 Coos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.750 8,874 4,834 Crook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,150 3.244 . . . . . . . . . . . Curry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,590 1,709 1,208 Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,875 11,864 9,596 Gilliam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,700 3,600 . . . . . . . . . . Grant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,472 5,080 4,303 Harney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,600 2,559 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,880 11,455 8,154 Josephine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.305 4,878 2,485 Klamath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.520 2,444 . . . . . . . . . . . Lake ............................. . . 8.040 2,604 2,804 Lane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,860 15,198 9,411 Linn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ."00 16,265 12,676 Malheur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,936 2,601 . . . . . . . . . . . Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 22,934 14,576 Morrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,020 4.205 . Multnomah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 74,884 25,203 Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 615 7,858 6,601 Sherman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 510 1.792 Tillamook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,525 2,932 970 Umatilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,885 13,381 9,607 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,135 12,044 6,650 Wallowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,890 3.661 .. . Wasco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.315 9,183 11.120 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 645 11,972 7,082 Yamhill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 10,692 7,945 Progress of population in Oregon by decades: 1850, 13,294; 1860, 52,465; 1870, 90,923; 1880, 174,768; . 1890, 313,767. 1178 GOVERNORS or OREGON.—-The following is a com- plete list of the governors of the State, with the periods and dates of services: PROVISIONAL George Abernethy, 1845-49. TERRITORIAL. Joseph Lane . . . . . . . . . .. 1849 George L. Curry . . . . . . ..1853-54 John P. Gaines. . . . . . . ..1849-53 John W. Davis . . . . . . . .. 1854 Joseph Lane . . . . . . . . . .. 1853 George L. Curry . . . . . . ..1854-59 STATE. John Whittaker . . . . . . ..1859-62 S. F. Chadwick . . . . . . . ..1877-78 Addison C. Gibbs . .. .1862-66 Wm. W. Thayer . . . . . . . ..1878-82 George L. Woods 1866-'70 Z. F. Moody . . . . . . . . . ..1882-87 Lafayette S. Grover ...1870-77 Sylvester Pennoyer....1887-95 The governor’s official term closes Jan. 14, 1895. The governor’s salary is $1,500. CONDENSED Hrsromo OUTLINE.—Oregon was the name formerly given to the whole territory north of the Rocky Mountains, claimed by the United States, as far north as lat. 54° 40’ north. This claim was resisted by the British government, Which asserted a right to the entire territory, and in 1818 a treaty was made, and renewed in 1827, giv- ing joint occupation, which was terminated in 1846 by notice from the United States Government, and the question seemed likely to involve the two countries in war, when a compromise was ofiered by Lord Aberdeen, on the part of the British gov- ernment, and accepted by the United States, by which the boundary was settled on the 49th par- allel. The northern portion is now Washington, and the eastern, Idaho. The coast was discovered, and Columbia River entered in 1792, by Captain Gray, of Boston. It was explored in 1804 and 1805 by Captains Lewis and Clark, United States Army. In 1811, John Jacob Astor founded Astoria as a trading-dépot of the American Fur Com any, but sold out afterwards to the Northwest ur Com- pany. The Territorial government was organized in 1848, and in 18.3 it was admitted as a State. Since the completion of the Pacific railroads its growth has been very rapid. OREGON CITY, a town, the county-seat of Clarkamas county, Oregon, situated in a cation on the Willamette River, about fifteen miles south of Portland. It has an excellent water-power and a number of mills and factories. O’REILLY, J OHN Bovnn, author, born at Dowth Castle, County Meath, Ireland, June 28, 1844, learned type-setting, and afterwards became a re- porter for English journals. He joined the Fenian society, and returning to Ireland in 1863 enlisted in the 10th Hussars for the purpose of propagating revolutionary principles. His connection with Fenianism was discovered and he was tried for treason and sentenced to be shot, but the sentence ' was commuted to imprisonment. Sent to Austra- lia in 1867, he escaped, and in 1869 came to the United States. He lectured and wrote for the jour- nals for a time, and afterwards became editor and principal owner of the Boston “Pilot.” He has published Songs of the Southern Seas; Songs, Le- gends, and Ballads; Moondyne, a novel; Statues in the Block; In Bohemia; The Evolution of Straight Weapons, and a work on the material resources of Ireland. He died in 1890. ORELLANA, FRANCISCO, a Spanish adventurer, born in Trujillo about 1500, died in 1545. He par- ticipated in the conquest of Peru, and commanded under Gonzalo Pizarro in the exploration of regions east of the Andes. Pizarro’s expedition left Quito in December 1539, and on arriving at the Coca, Orellana, with sixty men, was sent out in a boat to explore the river and search for provisions; but he OREGON CITY--ORGAN REED did not return. After many days he reached the mouth of the Napo; passed into the Amazon ; and in the latter part of August, 1540, reached the At- lantic. Orellana was thus the first European to navigate the Amazon for the greater part of its course. He went immediately to Spain, gave an account of his discoveries, and having obtained a grant of the territory along the river, embarked with four ships and 400 men, The expedition met with many misfortunes, and, after entering the Amazon, Orellana died of a fever. ORELLI, KASPAR von, scholar, born at Ziirich, Feb. 13, 1787, died there Jan. 6, 1849. Ordained in 1806, he next year became a Reformed preacher at Bergamo; in 1813 a teacher in the cantonal school at Coire; in 1819,professor at Ziirich, and in 1833 professor of classical philology in the newly-founded university. Orelli edited many classical authors with great learning, taste, and with acute discrimi- nation, in particular Horace, Tacitus and Cicero. LLI, KONRAD VON, theologian, born at Ziirich, Jan. 25, 1846, and studied at Lausanne, Ziirich, Er- langen, and especially theology at Tiibingen, and Oriental languages at Leipzig. In 1869 he became orphan-house preacher at Ziirich, privat—docent in 1871, professor extra-ordinary of theology at Basel in 1873, and ordinary professor there in 1881. Among his writings are Die A lttestamentliche Weissa- gung uon der Vollendung des Gottesreichs, and admir- able commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets. OREODAPHNE, a genus of trees of the natural order Lauraceae, sometimes called Mountain Laurel. O. opifera is a native of the countries on the lower part of the Amazon. A volatile oil obtained from the bark is used as a liniment, and when kept for a short time deposits a reat quantity of cam- phor. O. cupularis is a very arge tree with strong- scented wood, the bark of which yields the cinna- mon of Mauritius. It grows also in Bourbon and Madagascar. 0. fatens, a native of the Canaries, has wood (Til-wood) of a most disa reeable odor. O. bullata, found at the Cape of Goo Ho e, is also remarkable for the disagreeable odor 0 its wood, the Stink-wood of the colonists; but it is hard, dur- able, beautiful, takes an excellent polish, and is used in shipbuilding. OREODONTS, an extinct family of un ulates, the remains of which occur in the tertiary eposits of North America. ORGAN. (See Britannica, Vol. XVII, pp. 828- 39.) Until the middle of the 19th century little in- terest was taken in organ-building in America. The erection of the great organ in the Music Hall, Boston, by a German builder,Walcker, of Wiir- temberg, gave the first impetus to public interest in the matter. Roosevelt, of New York, and Jar- dine, likewise of New York, are two of the best- known organ-builders in America at the present time. Roosevelt has invented“ the automatic ad- justable combination,” which enables the player to place any required combination of stops under im- mediate control, and to alter such combinations as frequently as desired. By his construction of the wind-chest, also, each pipe has its own valve, actu- ated by compressed air. Among the largest organs in America is the organ of the Roman Catholic cathedral, Montreal, of the cathedral of the Holy Cross, Boston, which possesses 83 stops; the Music Hall, Cincinnati, with 96 stops and 4 manuals, and the Tremont Temple, Boston, with 65 stops. ORGAN REED. The earliest forms of organs in which “free reeds” are used. but no pipes, were the “seraphine” and the “melodeon.” The latter was introduced by Carhart and Needham, and G. A. Prince & Co., both of Buffalo, N. Y. The melo- ORIENTATHHL—OROBUS deon became very popular in this country. Its bel- lows are worked by the foot. Jeremiah Carhart made several im rovements, notably the plan of acting on the rec s by suction, instead of by blow- ing. This is a characteristic feature of the Ameri- can organ, the foreign instruments being still worked by forcebellows. The most important improvement, and the one which has contributed greatly to the present per- fection of reed organs, was the discovery made by Emmons Hamlin, then a workman in the factory of Prince & Co., that by twisting and bending the reeds in various ways the quality of the tone was greatly modified and improved. In 1854 he and Henry Mason associated themselves together for the purpose of building reed-organs. In 1868 the firm was re-organized and the firm took the name of the “Mason & Hamlin Organ Company.” Their instruments were first introduced in 1861 under the name of American cabinet or parlor organ. The factories of the firm are located at Cambridgeport, Mass, and the home oifice is in Boston, with branch oifices in New York and other cities. They have agents all over the world. The organs produced by Mason and Hamlin have placed this firm in the foremost rank of American reed-organ man- ufacturers. In 1882 the name of the firm was changed to the Mason & Hamlin Piano and Or- gan Company. Another favorably known firm of reed-organ builders is that of Jacob Estey & Co., Brattleboro, Vt. The instruments of this firm rank also among the best both in this country and abroad. Their business was begun as early as 1846. Wilcox & White, of Meriden, Conn., are also building reed- organs. Their business was started in 1876. It grew rapidly, and their organs are now favorably known the world over. Beside the manufacturers named numerous other organ builders supply the demand of these instruments in the United States. The American reed-organs are now made in all styles and sizes, some of them even with two or three manuals, which makes them almost equal to small pipe organs in power and resource. These organs have become very popular. It is estimated that there are over 80,000 cabinet or parlor organs sold yearly in the United States, and that they are made by about 250 manufacturers. ORIENTATION, in architecture, the position of a church so that its chancel shall point towards the east. This was a fashion invariably adopted in northern countries, but not adhered to in Italy and the South. St. Peter’s at Rome,for example,has the choir to the west, and the principal entrances towards the east. The orientation of churches is notusually very exactly to the east, and it is sup- posed that the east end in some cases has been set so as to point towards the place where the sun rises on the morning of the patron saint’s day. In other cases the choir and nave are not built ex- actly in a straight line, the choir thus having a slight inclination to one side, which in the symbol- ism of the middle ages was supposed to indicate the bowing of our Saviour’s head upon the cross. ORIGINAL PACKAGE LEGISLATION. The important le islation under this name, enacted in 1890 by the ongress of the United States, resulted from the following decision of the United States Supreme Court. On April 28, 1890, the Sn reme Court of the United States, by Chief Justice Fuller( ustices Gray, Harlan and Brewer dissenting), held, in the Gus. Leis case, that brewers in Illi- nois had the right to import into owa beer and to sell it in original packages, without regard to the law of Iowa. The g;-(;11§n<1G is t£1us stated 1n the closing paragraph of the Opinion 0 e our . 1179 “The plaintiffs in error are citizens of Illinois, are not pharmacists, and have no permit, but import mto Iowa beer which they sell in original packages, as described. Under our decision in Bowman vs. Chicago, etc., Railway Company (supra) , they had the right to import th1s beer into that State, an in the view which we have expressed they had _the right to sell it, by which act alone it would become rmngled 1n the common mass of roperty within the State. Up to_that point of time, we holg that in the absence of Congressional permission to do so, the State has no power to 1nterfere_by seizure, or any other action, in prohibition of im rtation and sale by the foreign or non-resident importer. hatever our individual views may be as to the deletenous or danger- ous ualities of particular articles, we cannot hold that any artic e which Congress recognizes as subjects of 1nters_tate commerce are not such, or that whatever are thus recogmzed can be controlled by State laws amounting to regulations, while they retain that character; although. at the same time. if directly dangerous in themselves, the State may_ take ap- propriate measures to guard against injury before 1t obtains complete jurisdiction over them. To concede to a State the power to exclude, directly or indirectly, articles so situated, without Congressional permission, is to concede to a ma- jority of the people of a State, represented in the State legis- ature. the power to regulate commercial intercourse be- tween the States, by determining what shall be its subjects when that power was distinctly gran ted to be exercised by the people of the United States, represented 111 Congress, and its possession by the latter was considered essential to that more perfect Union which the Constitution was adopted to create. Undoubtedly there is difliculty in drawmg the line between the municipal powers of the one Government and the commercial powers of the other; but when that hne is determined, in the particular instance, accomodation to it, without serious inconvenience, may readily be found, to use the language of Mr. Justice Johnson in Gibbons v. Ogden, 8 Wheat, 238. in ‘ a frank and candid co-operation for the gen- eral good.’ ” The above decision of the Supreme Court having been brought to the attention of Congress, that body promptly passed the act quoted below, and it was approved by President Harrison, Aug. 8, 1890. CHAPTER 728. All fermented, distilled, or other intoxicat- ing liquors or liquids transported into any State or Territory remaining therein for use, consumption, sale, or store e therein, shall upon arrival in such State or Territory, be su - ject to the operation and effect of the laws of such State or Territory enacted in the exercise of its police owers, _to the same extent and in the same manner as thong such liquids or liquors had been produced in such State or‘Ter_r1tory, and shall not be exem t therefrom by reason of being mtroduced therein in origina packages or otherwise.” ORIOLE. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 844; Vol. XII, pp. 696-97. ORMEROD, ELEANOR A.,an English entomologist, the daughter of George Ormerod (1785-1773), the historian. She commenced her contributions to the science of entomology in 1868 in connection with the Bethnal Green Museum. In 1880 she ed- ited the Gotham Journals, being the meteorologi- cal and other observations made during forty years by Miss C. Molesworth, and involving enor- mous labor in the consultation of 75,000 observa- tions. In 1882 Miss Ormerod was appointed con- sulting entomologist of the Royal Agricultural Society, and shortly afterwards became special lecturer on economic entomology at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Her Manual of Injuriozzs Insects and her Guide to Methods of Insect Life are the most generally interesting of her works. ORMOLU, a name sometimes given to brass of a golden-yellow color. OROBUS, a genus of plants of the natural order Leguminos:-e, sub - order Papilionaceae, allied to Vetches, and sometimes called Bitter Vetch. The species are perennial herbaceous plants, chiefly natives of Europe. They afford good food for cat- tle. The tubers have a sweet taste, resembling that of liquorice, and are sought after by children; they are also bruised and steeped in water in some parts of the Highlands of Scotland to make a fer- mented liquor, and a kind of liquor is made also by . steeping them in whiskey; they are well flavored 1189 and nutritious when boiled or roasted, and are used in this way in the Highlands of Scotland, in Holland, Belgium, and other countries. ORONO, a village of Maine, on the Penobscot River, eight miles northeast of Bangor. It is chief- ly engaged in the lumber business, has numerous manufactories, and is the seat of the State College of’ Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts. ORR, JAMES LAWRENCE, born at Craytonville, S. C., May 12, 1822, died at St. Petersburg, Russia, May 5, 1873. He graduated at the University of Virginia in 1842, was admitted to the bar, and practiced at Anderson, S. C. He was a member of the legislature in 1844-45; member of Congress in 1848-59, and was Speaker of the House (35th Con- gress). He maintained the right of secession in the several States, and was one of the three commis- sioners sent to Washington in 1860 to treat with the Government for partition of property in South Carolina, and to transact other business. He was Confederate State senator in 1862-65; was chosen governor of South Carolina under the plan of re- construction, and served until 1868; was elected circuit-judge in 1870; and in 1873 was appointed United States Minister to Russia. ORSOVA, the name of two towns on the Danube over against the Iron Gates. OLD ORsovA, a Hun- garian place, is 478 miles southeast of Vienna, and is a station for the Danube steamers. Population, 3381.—NEw ORSOVA, on the Servian side, is situated on an island three miles above the former, and thirty-six miles east of Moldova. ORTEGAL, CAPE, the northwest extremity of Spain in Galicia. ORTHODOXY (Gr. orthos,“right,” and dozra, “an opinion”),a name given by theologians to religious opinions in agreement with Scripture and histori- cal tradition, or with the interpretation of these entertained by the particular church to which they themselves belong. The antithesis of orthodoxy is heterodoxy (heteros, “other”—i. e. “wrong,” and doxa, “opinion”). ORTHOEPY (Gr. orthos, “right ;” epos,“a word”) a branch of grammar that treats of the correct pro- nunciation of the words of a language. ORTON, J AMES, an American naturalist, born at Seneca Falls, N. Y., April 21, 1830, died in Peru, Sept. 25, 1877. He graduated at Williams College in 1855, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1858; spent some time in travel in Europe and the East; becamea Congregational minister in 1860; was appointed instructor in natural science in the University of Rochester in 1866, and in 1869 was called to the chair of natural history at Vassar College, which he held until his death. During several visits to South America Professor Orton made a careful study of the physical geography of the west coast and the Amazon valley, contribut- ing much to the exact knowledge of that country. His publications include The Andes and the Amazon; Underground Treasures; Liberal Education of Women, and Comparative Zoology. ORTONA, a town of Italy, on the Adriatic, 104 miles southeast of Ancona. It has a cathedral and a recently improved harbor. Population, 6,366. OSAGE, a village, the county-seat of Mitchell county, Iowa, near Red Cedar River, eighteen miles north of Charles City. It contains an acad- emy and numerous important manufactories. OSAGE CITY, a village of Kansas, thirty-five miles south of Topeka, extensively engaged in coal- mining and flag stone-quarrying. It has rich beds of yellow ochre, and contains several mills. Popu- lation in 1890, 3,322. OSAGE MISSION, a village of Kansas, on the Neo- ,sho River, thirty-five miles southwest of Fort ORONO—OSCODA Scott. It is the seat of several educational institu- tions, and is extensively engaged in the grinding and shipping of grain. OSAGE ORANGE (Maclura aurantiaca), a tree of the natural order Urticaceae, a native of North America. It attains a height varying from 20 to 60 feet. The wood which is bright yellow, is fine- grained and very elastic, and takes a high polish. The tree is largely employed in America, especially in the west, as a hedge plant. Its fruit is about the size of a large orange, has a tuberculated sur- face of a golden color, and is filled internally with radiating, somewhat woody fibres, and with a yel- low milky juice, whose odor is generally disliked, so that the fruit, although not unwholesome, is sel- dom eaten. OSAGES, a tribe of American Indians, of the Da- kota stock, formerly very troublesome, but now settled in the north of Indian Territory, with Quaker teachers. They number about 1,200. OSBORNE, EDWIN S., born at Bethany, Pa., Au- gust 7, 1839. He was educated at the university of northern Pennsylvania and at the New York State and National Law School, graduating in the class of 1860, and receiving the degree of LL. B.; is by profession a lawyer; served in the Union Army during the war ; was commander of the Depart- ment of Pennsylvania, Grand Army of the Repub- lie in 1883; was a delegate from the 12th Congres- sional District to the Republican National Conven- tion at Chicago in 1888, and was elected to Con- gress in 1885. OSCAR II., FREDERIC, King of Sweden and Nor- way, born at Stockholm in 1829. After his educa- tion and foreign travels were completed, he suc- ceeded to the throne in 1872. He re-organized the army and the railroads. In 1873 he visited Norwe- gian Lapland, and in 1875 the emperors of Ger- many and Russia. King Oscar has fine literary taste. He has published translations of G0the’s Faust and Tasso, a sketch of Charles XII., and a volume of poems. OSCEOLA, (As-se-he-ho-lar,“Black Drink”), a Sem- inole chief, born in Georgia in 1804, died J an. 30, 1838. He was a son of an English trader, named Powell, and of achief’s daughter. With her he re- moved to Florida while a child and there attained great influence among the Indians. In 1835 his wife, the daughter of a runaway slave, was seized as a slave. The outraged husband threatened re- venge, and for his threats was imprisoned six days in irons by General Thompson; six months after- ward he killed the general and four others outside Fort King. This was the beginning of the second Seminole war. He then placed himself at the head of a band which had surprised and massacred Ma- jor Dade and a detachment of soldiers. and taking to the almost impenetrable Everglades with two or three hundred followers, he fought for nearly two years with great energy and skill the superior numbers sent against him. He was taken prisoner at last, in October, 1837, by General J esup, while holding a conference under a flag of truce, and cofined in Fort Moultrie until his death. ' OSCEOLA, a village, the county seat of Clarke county, Iowa, about forty-five miles south of Des Moines. It contains a normal school and a high- school, and several mills. OSCEOLA MILLS, a borough of Pennsylvania, on Mushannon Creek, about thirty miles north of Altoona. It contains numerous mills and a ma- chine-shop, and is engaged in coal-mining. OSCODA, a village of Michigan, seventy miles north of Bay City, at the mouth of Au Sable River, and close to An Sable village. It contains several OSCOTT——OSYMANDYAS saw-mills and planing-mills and has a large trade in lumber. OSCOTT, a Roman Catholic college, near Bir- mingham, which claims to be the center of the R0- man Catholic movement in England. The name is first met with towards the close of the 17th century as the seat of a Catholic mission, which continued to be served by different priests till in 1752 it was formed into a college for the education of both lay- men and ecclesiastics, and called St. Mary’s Col- lege. In 1835 the present buildings were erected, and in 1889 the establishment became purely ec- clesiastical, no longer admitting lay students. It it now styled St. Mary’s Seminary. OSGOOD, FRANCES SARGENT, daughter of J o- seph Locke, born at Boston, Mass., June 18, 1811, died at Hingham, Mass., May 12, 1850. In 1835 she married S. S. Osgood, a portrait-painter, resided in England in 1836-40, and while there published The -Casket of Fate and A Wreath of Wild Flowers from New England. Returning to Boston in 1840, she soon afterward removed to New York, and subse- quently published Poetry of Flowers, and Flowers of Poetry; The Floral Ofiering, and two volumes of oems. A complete edition of her poems was pub- ' ished in 1850. O’SHAUGHNESSY, ARTHUR WILLIAM EDGAR, an English poet and naturalist, born in London, March 14, 1846, died J an. 31, 1881. He was employed in the natural history division of the British Museum, and married a daughter of Dr. Westland Marston; she died in 1879. During his brief life he published Epic of Women; The Lays of France, and Music and Moonlight; and soon after his death appeared Songs of a Worker. As a poet he reveals imagination, passion, tenderness, melody, and a mastery of lyric- al forms. OSHKOSH, the county-seat of Winnebago county, Wis., on both sides of the Fox River, at its entrance to Lake Winnebago, eighty miles north- west of Milwaukee. Population in 1890, 22,752. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 55. OSKALOOSA, the county-seat of Mahaska county, Iowa, 104 miles by rail northwest of Bur- lington. Population in 1890, 7,300. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 55. OSMAN, NUBAR Pssna, a Turkish general, born at Tokat, in Asia Minor, in 1832. After his military -education was finished, he entered the cavalry in 1854 and served under Omar Pasha. He took part in the suppression of the rebellions in Syria (1860), in Crete (1867), and the Yemca (1874). After the Russians had crossed the Danube in 1877, Osman Pasha defeated their ninth corps near Plevna, and then thoroughly fortified that city. On Sept. 14th he repulsed the Russian besiegers with a loss of 2,000 men. On Dec. 10th he madea gallant but un- successful attempt to break through the Russian lines. Being wounded he was compelled to capit- ulate, surrendering 40,000 men and 400 cannon. His skillful conduct of the siege had given him fame as an engineer and commander. After the war the re-organization of the Turkish’ army was intrusted to him. He became commander-in-chief of the imperial guard (1878), governor-general of Crete, and minister of war in 1878. In 1882 he re- tired to private life. OSMOSE, the inter-diffusion of two liquids through a septum, usually of bladder or of parch- ment paper. If a bottle, filled with one liquid, be closed by parchment paper, and be completely im- mersed in a vessel containing another liquid, in- crease or decrease of the contents of the bottle will occur according as the liquid contained in the bottle passes out through the septum less quickly or more quickly than the other liquid passes in- 1181 wards. When the contents are increased the phe- nomenon has been called endosmose; when they de- crease it has been termed exosmose. The distinc- tion is obviously not a scientific one; fora reversal of the positions of the liquids will cause a reversal of the osmotic process, so that the process which was formerly denominated exosmose must now be called endosmose, and vice versa. The phenomenon is one of extreme importance, for it is constantly taking place in living bodies—both animal and vegetable. OSNABURG, a village of Ohio, four miles east of Canton. It has abundant deposits of limestone, iron, and coal. OSSORY, a diocese of the Roman Catholic church of Ireland, embracing the county of Kilkenny and parts of King’s and Queen’s counties. The bishop has his cathedral at Kilkenny. There is an Ossory parliamentary division in Queen’s county. OSTEOLEPIS, a genus of fossil ganoid fish pe- culiar to the Old Red Sandstone. It is character- ized by smooth rhomboidal scales, by numerous sharply-pointed teeth, and by having the two dor- sal and anal fins alternating with each other. The body is long and slender. , OSTERODE, a town of Hanover, at the western base of the Harz Mountains, on the Siise, an af- fluent of the Leine, thirty miles northwest of Nord- hausen. Its church of St. Giles contains the graves of the dukes of Grubenhagen, and there are also a fine town-hall, baths, large grain-stores, and cotton, woolen and linen factories. Population, 6,435. OSTUN I, a city of South Italy, twenty-two miles northwest of Brindisi, Population, 15,199. OSWALD, Fnmx LEOPOLD, a Belgian—American writer, born in 1845, and educated as a physician, but soon turned his attention to natural history. In pursuit of his favorite studies he has traveled extensively, and has been a frequent contributor to scientific and popular magazines. He is the author of Summerland Sketches, or Rambles in Back- woods of Mereico and Central America (1880) ; Zo'o'logi- cal Sketches (1882); Physical Education (1882), and Household Remedies (1886). OSWEGO, a city, the county-seat of Labette county, Kan., on the Neosho River, ten miles north of Chetopa. It has an excellent water-power and a number of mills and factories. Population in 1890, 2,522. OSWEGO, a port of entry and county-seat of Os- wego county, N. Y., situated at the mouth of Os- wego River, on Lake Ontario, at the extremity of Oswego Canal. Population in 1890, 21,826. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 64. OSIVEGO FALLS, a village of New York, on Os- wego River, opposite Fulton. It contains numer- ous mills and factories. OSWEGO TEA, a name given to several species of Monarda, natives of North America, because of the occasional use of an infusion of the dried leaves as a beverage. They belong to the natural order Labiatag somewhat resembling mints in ap- pearance, and have an agreeable odor. The infus- ion is said to be useful in intermittents and as a stomachic. OSYMANDYAS, the name of a great king of Egypt, mentioned by Diodorus and Strabo, who reigned, according to these authors, as the 27th successor of Sesostris. He is said to have distin- guished himself by his victories, to have invaded Asia with an army of 400,000 men and 20,000 cav- alry, and to have conquered‘ the Bactrians, who had been rendered tributary to Egypt by Sesostris. In honor of this exploit he is said by Hecataeus to have erected a monument which was at once a palace and a tomb, and which, under the name of Osyman- 1182 deion, was renowned for its size and splendor in later times. The Osymandeion is generally believed to‘ be represented by the extant ruins of the Ram- esseum at Medinet Habu though great difficulty has been felt in reconciling the descriptions of its mag- nificence in ancient writers with the dimensions of the existing relic. Nor can the name of Osyman- dyas be recognized amongst the Egyptian kings. OTCHAKOFF, a seaport of Russia, on the north shore of the estuary of the Dnieper, thirty-eight miles northeast of Odessa. It occupies the site of the ancient Alector, and has beside it the ruins of the once important Greek colony of Olbia. In 1492 the khan of the Crimea built here a strong fortress, which was taken by the Russians under Miinnich in 1737, recovered in 1738, and again captured after a long siege by Potemkin in 1788, and definitive- - ly annexed by Russia. After it had been bom- barded by the Allied fleet in 1855 the Russians de- molished the fortifications. In 1887a ship-canal was opened here, which makes the estuary of the Bug and Dnieper much more easily accessible to large ships. Population, 6,977. OTIS, HARRISON GRAY, born in Boston, Oct. 8, 1765, died there Oct. 28, 1848. He graduated at Harvard in 1783, was admitted to the bar in 1786, and soon attained distinction in his profession. In 1796 he was chosen to the State legislature, and was a Federalist leader in Congress from 1797 to 1801. He was United States District Attorney, Boston, 1801; speaker in the Massachusetts legislature 1803-05; president of the State senate in 1805-11; judge of common pleas 1814-18; was in the United States Senate 1817-22; and was mayor of Boston, Mass., 1829-32. OTSEGO, a village of Michigan, on the Kalama- zoo River, ten miles southeast of Allegan. It has a number of mills and factories. OTTAWA, one of the largest rivers of British North America. It rises nearly 300 miles due north of Ottawa City, flows west to Lake Temiscamingue, some 300 miles, and thence 400 miles southeast, and falls into the St. Lawrence by two mouths, which form the island of Montreal. Its drainage basin has an area variously estimated at from 60,- 000 to 80,000 square miles. During its course it sometimes contracts to 40 or 50 yards; elsewhere it widens into numerous lakes of considerable size. It is fed by many important tributaries. OTTAWA, a city of Canada, the capital of the Dominion, and the county-seat of Carleton county. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 68. OTTAWA, a city, the county-seat of La Salle county, Ill. Population in 1890, 9,971. See Britan- nica, Vol. XVIII, p. 69. OTTAVVA, a city, the county-seat of Franklin county, Kan., on the Osage River, twenty-seven miles south of Lawrence. It is the seat of Ottawa University and other educational institutions, and contains numerous mills and factories. Popula- tion in 1890, 6,271. OTTAWA, a village of Ohio, on the Auglaize River, twenty miles north of Lima. It has manu- factories of spokes, hubs, sash and blinds. OTTER, an aquatic canivore in the family Mustelidee, which also includes the badgers and weasels. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 69. The most common otter of North America is Lutra canadensis, which is much larger than European species, and ranges throughout the continent, though it is rare in settled districts. OTTERBEIN, PHILIP WILLIAM, a German clergy- man, born at Dillenburg, Germany, in 1726, died at Baltimore, Md.,in 1813. He was a minister of the Re- formed church in Germany, but in 1752 followed the call of Rev. Michael Schlatter to become a preacher OTCHAKOFF-—OULESS among the German settlers of Pennsylvania. ‘ He had an ardent missionary spirit, and was a power- ful orator. He made extensive tours; joined with preachers of other denominations in holding revi- val meetings, prayer meetings, and open-air meet- ings in groves. He encouraged eloquent laymen to pray and exhort, some of whom became regular preachers afterwards. First he had charge of a church at Lancaster, Pa. In 1758 he removed to Tulpehoken, Pa.; in 1760 he went to Frederick, Md., and in 1765 he settled at York, Pa. In all his pastorates his novel methods excited antagonism In 1774 he founded the Church of United Brethren in Christ at Baltimore, Md. Yet, strange as it may appear, he never left the communion of the German Reformed Church, and continued to do revival work among all other religious bodies. Shortly before his death he ordained Martin Bbhnr - as preacher and superintendent of the new sect. OTTERY ST. MARY, a town of England, on the river Otter, 11 miles east of Exeter. Twice the scene of a great confiagration, in 1767 and 1866, it retains its magnificent collegiate church, a re- duced copy of the cathedral of Exeter, with the only other transeptal towers in England. Begun about 1260 by Bishop Bronescombe, it is Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular in style, and was restored by Butterfield in 1849-50. The old King’s Grammar-school was demolished in 1854. Alexander Barclay was a priest here ; Coleridge was a native; and “Clavering” in Pendennis is Ot- tery St. Mary, the Devonshire residence of Thack- eray’s stepfather. The town has manufactories of silk, shoe-laces, handkerchiefs and Honiton lace. Population, 2,924. OTTUMWA, the county-seat of Wapello county, Iowa, on both sides of the Des Moines River, 75 miles west of Burlington, in the heart of the State’ bituminous coal fields. Population in 1890, 13,996. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 70. OUABAIN, a crystalline gulucoside separated from the wood and roots of Carissa shimperi, a plant growing on the east coast of Africa. It is intensely £oisonous,a twelfth of a grain being sufficient to ill a rabbit. It acts upon the heart in the same way that digitalis does, and has been employed in medicine as a substitute for digitalis, and also to lessen the violence of the paroxyms in whooping- cough. The Somalis make an extract of_ the wood and roots for an arrow poison. OUBLIETTE (Fr. “place of forgetfulness”), a dungeon in which persons condemned to perpetual imprisonment were confined-—especially a perfectly dark underground dungeon—into which the pris- oners were let down from above by ropes. OUIDA, the pseudonym of the novelist Lonrsn DE LA RAME, who was born about 1840, and who spent part of her girlhood with her mother at Bury St. Edmunds. About 1874 she was living in London at the Langham, and since then Florence has been her chief abode. She was writing for “Colburn’s New Monthly” and “Bentley’s Magazine” as early as 1861 ; and among more than a score of novels by her may be mentioned Under Two Flags, the best, and Guilderoy published in 1889. Muscular heath- enry, nature-worship, and an encyclopsedia ignor- ance are the prevailing notes of these books, which remind one of the scene-painting, very clever, but wholly unreal. One wearies of their brown harlots and blasé aristocrats; one ceases even to be- even amused with their classical and cosmopolitan malapropisms. OULESS, WALTER TVILLIAM, portrait painter,. born at St. Helier’s, Jersey, Sept. 21, 1848, and edu- cated at Victoria College, Jersey. He began to- study art in London in 1864; four years later first \ OUNUE—OWEN exhibited at the academy; and became an A.R.A. 1877, an RA. in 1881. of Darwin is most generally known, on account of the very fine etching from it by Rajon. His por- traits of Justice Manisty and Cardinal Newman are fine examples of his different methods. OUNCE (Lat. uncia), the twelfth part of the as or libra (pound), or indeed the twelfth part of any magnitude, whether of length, surface, or capacity. Hence inch, the twelfth part of a foot. In troy weight the ounce is divided into 480 grains, and 12 ounces make a pound; the ounce in avoirdupois weight contains 437 % grains troy, and 16 of them go to the pound. OURAY, a town, the county-seat of Ouray coun- ty, Colo. It has valuable deposits of silver, and contains a smelting furnace and saw-mills. OUSELEY, SIR FREDERICK ARTHUR GoRE (1825- 1889), an English divine and musician, born Aug. 12, 1825, and at nineteen succeeded his father, Sir Gore Ousley (1770-1844), the celebrated Orientalist and first baronet. He graduated at Christ Church, Oxford, and took orders, his first curacy being at St. Paul’s, Knightsbridge. In 1855 he followed Henry Bishop as professor of Music at Oxford, and in 1856 became vicar of St. Michael's, Tenbury. He had an immense knowledge of music, extending from St. Ambrose to Wagner. His mastery of the literature of music is seen in his edition of Neu- mann’s History of Music, and his treatises on har- mony have taken their place as standard works. He was an accomplished linguist, and collected a magnificent library. His oratorios, St. Polyearp and Hagar, are too solid and severe to be popular, but will always command respect. Havergal’s Memor- ials of F. A. G. Ouseley, published after his death in 1889, is a collection of contemporary opinions pro- nouncing him a perfect gentleman, a skilled mu- sician, and a churchman who devoted the whole of his fortune to building and endowing St. Michael’s College, Tenbury, for the training and education of choristers. OUTHWAITE, J osnrrr H., born in Cleveland, Ohio, Dec. 5, 1841; was educated in the public schools of Zanesville, Ohio, taught two years in the high-school of that city, and was principal of a grammar school in Columbus, Ohio, three years; read law while teaching, and was admitted to the bar in 1866; practiced law from 1867 to 1871 at Osceola, Missouri; was elected prosecuting attor- ney of Franklin county, Ohio, in 1874, and again in 1876; was appointed one of the trustees of the County Children’s Home from March, 1879, until July, 1883, and one of the trustees of the Sinking Fund of the city of Columbus in 1883, and re-ap- pointed in 1884 for a term of five years; and was elected to Congress in 1885. OVAMPOS, or Ovxnso, also called Ornnnnnno, an industrious and peaceable Bantu people of the west coast of Africa, inhabiting the country south of the Cunene. Ovampoland is accordingly in the German Protectorate, and extends from Damara- land northward to the Portugese frontier. Some 50 miles from the coast the country rises into a lofty tableland, which is moderately fertile, then declines to the south and east into the deserts of the Kalihari and the region of Lake N gami. Many strong indications of copper ore are found in vari- ous places. Ivory is still traded in. OVARY: in botany, the part of the pistil con- taining the ovule. OVEN-BIRD, a genus and sub-family of Passer- ine birds, family Dendrocolaptidae. The name is given because some of the species build nests re- sembling an oven or beehive. The genus, which consists of nine species, is exclusively South Ameri- Of his portraits, perhaps that - , ports. 1183 can, ranging from Guiana and Ecuador to La Plata. The habits of the birds have been described chiefly by Mr. Edward Bartlett, and by Darwin in his Voyage of the Beagle. The name oven-bird is also applied, for a similar reason, to the willow- wren. OVERLAP: in geology. When the upper beds of a conformable series of strata extend beyond the bottom-beds of the same series, the former are said to overlap the latter. Hence the strata show- ing this structure constitutes an overlap. OVERSTONE, SAMUEL J ornss LOYD, Barron, (1796-1863), an English economist and financier. On leavmg Cambridge Loyd entered his father’s banking-house. He entered parliament in 1819 and in 1850 was raised to the peerage. The first of Lord Overstone’s famous tracts on the Bank of England and the state of the currency was pub- lished in 1837. and was followed by others between that period and 1857. The proposal for makinga complete separation between the banking and is- sue departments of the Bank of England, intro- duced by Peel into the Act of 1844, was first brought forward in these tracts. OVID, a village of Michigan, on Maple River, ten miles east of St. John. It contains several mills, machine-shops and factories. OVID, a village, the county seat of Seneca county, N. Y., situated on a ridge between Seneca and Cayuga Lakes, about forty miles north of El- mira. It is the center of a thriving local trade. Near here is the Willard Lunatic Asylum. OVIPAROUS, a term applied to the great major- ity of female animals, whose eggs are first laid and then hatched. Oyovioiparous is a corresponding term applied to animals in which the eggs are hatched within the body of the mother, and ',where there is no nutritive connection between parent and offspring. Some reptiles, amphibians, fishes, etc., which do not lay their eggs illustrate this mode of parturition. OWATONNA, a city the county-seat of Steele county, Minn., on Straight River, fifteen miles south of Faribault. It is the seat of the State school for dependent children, contains a valuable mineral spring, and has important manufactures anda good shipping trade. Population in 1890, 3,845. OWE£O, the county-seat of Tioga county, N. Y., on the usquehanna River at the mouth of Owego Creek, 228 miles northwest of Population in 1890, 8,930. See XVIII, p. 85. OWEN, DAVID DALE, geologist, born in Lanark- shire, Scotland, in 1807, died at New Harmony, Ind., in 1860. In 1825 he settled with his father, Robert Owen, at New Harmony, Ind., but subsequently he went to Germany to study geology and natural history. Returned to Indiana in 1833, and the legislature of that State employed him to make a geological survey of Indiana,the results of which are given in his Re ort of a Geological Reconnoisance in 1837 (Indianapo is 1838). In 1839, the United States Government appointed him to make geolo- gical surveys of Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The results were published in 1852. The published reports contained numerous plates, notably several on gigantic mammoth remains. He was succes- sively State geologist of Arkansas and Indiana. Dr. Owen’s extensive scientific knowledge was of great benefit in accomplishing his geological work, for as a chemist he made analysis of minerals and waters that are included in his reports; as a naturalist he described fossils new to science; and as an artist he made sketches of scenery, diagrams, sections of rock, strata. and maps which accompanied his re- New York City. Britannica, Vol. I184 OWEN, J OHN JASON, an American educator, born at Colebrook, Conn., in 1803, died at New York City in 1869. After studying theology at Andover Theo- logical Seminary, he became principal of the Cor- nelius Institute, New York, in 1836. In 1848 he was made professor of the Greek and Latin lan- guages in the New York Free Academy. After- wards he was vice-president of this institute. The Free Academy had its name changed to that of the College of the City of New York, while Owen was its vice-president. Owen’s publications were editions of Xenophon’s Anabasis and C'yropwdia; Homer’s Odyssey and liidd; and 2. Commentary on the Gospels and the Acts (1857-69). He was an able scholar, faithful teacher and learned commutator. OWEN, RoBERT DALE, author, born at Glasgow, Scotland in 1800; died at his summer residence at Lake George, N. Y., in 1877. He was educated at Fellenberg’s school, at Hofwyl, Switzerland, and in 1825 settled with his father, Robert Owen, at New Harmony, Ind. In 1828 he established in New York a weekly paper, “ The Free Inquirer,” which was devoted to socialistic principles. In 1832 he returned to New Harmony. While a member of the Indiana legislature from 1835-8, he did much to promote the common schools of that State. In 1843 he was elected to Congress, in which he served two terms. He took an active part in organizing the Smithsonian Institution. He was afterwards appointed one of the regents of this institution, and served also as chairman of its building committee. From 1853-8 he was at Naples, at first as United States charge d’ afiairs, and afterwards as United States Minister. His later years were devoted to the propagation of spiritualism. Owen’s principal writings are Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World (1860) ; The Debatable Land Between this World and the Next (1872); and Threading My Way (1874) ; an autobiography. OWEN, SIR PHILIP CUNLIFFE, a British promoter of industrial art, born in 1828. In 1860 he was made assistant director of the South Kensington Museum, and in 1873 he succeeded Sir Henry Cole as director. In 1876 he was executive commissioner at the Cen- tennial exhibition at Philadelphia, and in 1878 he served as secretary of the royal commission for the Paris exposition. He took an active part in the International Fisheries exhibition at London in 1883, the Health and Education exhibitions in 1884, the Music exhibition in 1885, and the Colonial and Indian exhibition in 1887. In all these cases he displayed great executive ability, and promoted the objects of the industrial arts materially. In 1873 he was knighted. He received various other marks of appreciation from his government. WEN, SIR RICHARD, an English anatomist and zoiilogist, born at Lancaster in 1804. He became assistant curator of the Hunterian Museum; in 1834 he was appointed professor of comparative anatomy at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital; Hunterian professor in the same subject at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1836; superintendent of the nat- ural history department in the British Museum in 1856. In 1839, from the examination of a fossil bone sent to him from New Zealand, he propoundeda theory of the existence, in remote ages, of a bird more gigantic than the ostrich; and the accurucy of his theory was subsequently established by the discovery of the whole fossil. This led him to the adoption of his famous theory of the extinction of species. He is a volum- inous writer on the subject to which his scientific researches have been devoted. OVVEN, WILLIAM D., born at Bloomington, Ind., Sept. 6, 1846. He was educated at the Indiana State University and afterwards studied law, but never OWEN—OXENFORD engaged in the practice; served in the ministry of the Christian church from 1868-78; was associate editor of the “Western Journal ;” is the author of Success and of the Genius of Industry; was presi- dential elector in 1880, and was elected to Congress in 1885. OWENS, JAMES W.,born in Springfield township, Franklin county, Ind., Oct. 24, 1837. He entered Miami University, at Oxford, Ohio, in 1859, and graduated in 1862; is a lawyer by profession; en- listed in the army as a private soldier in the 20th Ohio Volunteer infantry, and served during the first three months’ service; re-enlisted at the end of the three month s’ service, and was made first lieu- tenant of Company A, 86th Ohio Volunteer infantry, and on the re-organization of that regiment was made captain of Company K; attended law school at Ann Arbor, Mich.; was elected prosecuting at- torney of Licking county, Ohio, in 1867, and re- elected in 1869; was elected to the Ohio senate in 1875, and re-elected in 1877, and was elected presi- dent of the senate; is a member of the board of trustees of Miami University, and was elected to Congress in 1889. OWENSBORO, the county-seat of Daviess coun- ty, Ky., on the Ohio; 160 miles below Louisville. Population in 1890, 9,818. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 88. OWEN SOUND, a town and port of entry of On- tario, at the head of Georgian Bay, 122 miles north- west of Toronto. It possesses a deep sheltered harbor, and has a large trade in lumber and grain, besides manufactories of furniture and wooden wares,machinery and Woollen goods. The Canadian Pacific steamers leave here for Port Arthur. Pop- ulation, 6,000. OWL, see Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 88-91. OWOSSO, or OwAsso, a city of Michigan, on the Shiawassee River, seventy-eight miles northwest of Detroit. The river supplies abundant water- power, and the city has flour and planing-mills, and furniture and sash and blind factories, besides foundries and railway shops. Population in 1890, 6,544. OXALIDEE, a natural order of exogenous plants, allied to Geraniacew; including herbaceous plants, shrubs,and trees; with generally compound alternate leaves; calyx of five equal persistent se- pals; corolla of five equal unguiculate petals, spir- ally twisted in bud; ten stamens; the ovary, five- celled, with five styles; the fruit a capsule of five cells opening by five valves, or more rarely a berry with five one or many-seeded cells. Temperate North America and the Cape of Good Hope may be said to be the headquarters of the order. The herbaceous parts of almost all the species are dis- tinguished by a strong acidity, which is owing to the presence of oxalate of potash; some, however, are bitter and slightly stimulating. The fruit of some is pleasingly acid and cooling—as Carambola —and reputed to be antiscorbutic and antiseptic. OXALURIA, the occurrence of crystals of oxalate of lime in the urine. " OXEN FORD, J OHN, dramatist and critic, born in Camberwell, England, in 1812, died Feb. 21,1877. He was originally educated for the bar, but early turned to a life of letters, made himself familiar with French, German, and Spanish literature, and soon made his name known by admirable transla- tions of such books as G6the’s Dichtung und Wahr- heit and Eckermann’s Conversations with Giithe. For his last thirty years he was dramatic critic for the London “Times,” and his criticisms were ever characteristic of the genial kindliness of his nature. He was a fluent and graceful writer, yet his origin- al work suggested rather than demonstrated his OXFORD—DYSTER powers as a critic. His Illustrated Book of French Songs showed a dexterous mastery of the lighter forms of verse. He wrote many plays, among them the Dice of Death; the Reigning Favorite; the Two Orphans; as well as the liberetto for The Lily of Killwrney, and one farce at least, Twice Killed, that became widely popular. OXFORD, a village of Alabama, twenty miles northeast of Talladege. It is the seat of Oxford Col- lege, and an important shipping point for cot- ton. OXFORD, a village of Georgia, about forty miles east of Atlanta. It contains the Palmer Institute, and is the seat of Emory College. OXFORD, a village of Indiana, about twenty- two miles west of Lafayette. It contains an acad- emy, and is the center of a good local trade. OXFORD, a village of Iowa, fifteen miles west of Iowa City, near the Iowa River. It contains an academy, and is a thriving trade center. OXFORD, a village of Maryland, one mile north of Baltimore. It contains many handsome subur- ban residences. OXFORD, a village of Maryland, and a popular summer resort, situated on the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, on a navigable arm known as Three Haven River, ten miles southwest of Eas- ton. OXFORD, a village of Massachusetts, on French River, ten miles south of lVorcester. It contains many mills and extensive boot and shoe factories. OXFORD, a village, the county seat of Lafayette county, Miss., about thirty miles south of Holly Springs. It is the seat of the University of Miss- issippi, the Oxford Academy, the Oxford Institute, and the Union Female College. OXFORD, a village of New York, beautifully sit~ uated in the fertile valley of the Shenango River, eight miles south of Norwich. It contains an acad- emy, many mills and a tool factory. OXFORD, a village, county seat of Granville county, N. C., about forty-five miles north of Ral- eigh.- It contains an orphan asylum, and is exten- sively engaged in the tobacco trade. OXFORD, a village of Ohio, forty miles north- west of Cincinnati. It contains important manu- factories of agricultural implements. The Oxford Female Seminary, the Western Female Seminary, and Miami University are located here. OXFORD, a borough of Pennsylvania, about thirty miles west of Wilmington, Del. It contains extensive car-works and various other manufactor- ies, and is the seat of Lincoln University. OXFORD CLAY, the principal member of the Middle Oolite series. OXFORD FURNACE, a village of New Jersey, fifteen miles northeast of Phillipsburg. It con- tains many extensive foundries,furnaces, factories, machine-shops and mills. OXYCHLORIDES, chemical compounds con- taining both chlorine and oxygen in combination with some other element, and intermediate in com- position between the oxides on the one hand and the chlorides on the other. Thus, antimonious oxy-chloride is intermediate between antimonious oxide and antimonious chloride. OYSTER. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 106- 110. The oyster fishery is by far the most important of the fishing industries of this country. The Ameri- can oyster (Ostrea Viv-giwiana) is found along the Atlantic coast from Florida to the Gulf of St. Law- rence. In some portions of this range it occurs in natural beds of large extent, that of Long Island Sound being 115 miles in length. Chesapeake Bay, with its many inlets and river mouths, is the best adapted home for the American oyster. It attains 1185 here its highest excellence. The bottom of this bay is almost covered with beds of the finest oysters in the world. Baltimore is the most important mart in the oyster trade. It cans and pickles vast quan- tities of oysters for shipment to the west and to foreign countries. Farther south the coast oysters occur plentifully, but are only gathered for local use. On the coast of Georgia they occur in some places in such abundance as to form natural breakwaters firm enough to resist the billows of the ocean. The coast region here is made up of salt marshes from 12 to 18 miles wide through which slow-flowing rivers make their way to the sea. These rivers flow between banks of living oysters, so closely compacted, that a vessel might in some places, obtain a cargo in a space only three or four times its own length. Oysters abound also in the inlets and small bays of the Gulf of Mexico. In the Bay of Mobile they are plentiful and of ex- cellent quality, and are cultivated on a large scale. In Louisiana are beds of oysters unsurpassed in size and flavor. On the Pacific coast oysters exist abundantly in the Strait of Fuca and in Puget Sound. These oysters are, however, quite small, but of fine flavor. The eastern oyster has lately been introduced on the Pacific coast and seems to be susceptible of easy cultivation there. In like manner oysters of the Chesapeake are brought to the Long Island and planted there to supply the beds that have become exhausted by over-dredg- mg. Oysters are said to be fatter in winter than in sum- mer. lVhat we call “fat” in the oyster is, however, no fat at all but a deposit of protoplasm, which forms a. very digestible and highly nutritious food for man. It is laid down in the mantle or fleshy portion of the animal during the winter season, and again exhausted during the reproductive period in summer, when the oyster becomes poor and non- nutritious. The so-called “fattening” by removing the oysters for a few days to water fresher than that in which they grew is a dealer’s trick. The oyster absorbs more fresh water than sea-water. By this means it becomes plumper, and at the same time loses part of its saltness. Some dealers even warm the water by means of steam, in order to induce the oyster to take in more water and thereby become plumper. The principal food of the oyster consists of micro- scopic beings and fragments of organic matter, which are carried by the currents of water to the mouth of the animal at the hinge end of the shell. VVhen this material is examined through the mi- croscope, it is seen that the animal subsists largely upon what scientists call “diatoms”—one of the lowest types of moving plants which swim in the water, encased in minute sandstone cases or boxes of delicate workmanship. When these have been found in the intestines of the oyster, they have usually had their living contents already dissolved out by the action of the gastric juice. Some American oyster-lovers reject green oysters under the impression that they are poison- ous or at least unhealthy. In France and England green oysters are looked upon as a special deli- cacy. They bring higher prices than the ordinary varieties. Investigation has demonstrated that their green color is due to the eating of green vege- table food, as the young grass growing on the bot- tom of shallow oyster beds. The chlorophyll of the green food is absorbed in such quantities as to tint the blood-cells of the animals greenish. Green oysters are, in reality, more palatable and nutri- tious than white ones. As to the statistics of the oyster fishery in the United States we take from the census report of 2-38 1186 1880 (the report of 1890 not being published yet) the data in table below. The total value of sales includes for Maine $37,- 500, and for Pennsylvania $187,500, Philadelphia being an important seat of the oyster trade. To compare the American production and con- sumption of oysters with those of Great Britain and France we append here a small table taken from Mulhall’s Dictionary of Statistics of 1886. The left-hand column gives the production of oysters by millions, and the right-hand table gives the I OYSTER \ Production. 'Consumption,.' Per Millions. lions. In a-b.' U. Kingdom . . . . . . .. 300 London.........220 60 France . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 380 Paris . . . . . . . . . .. 57 26 United States . . . . ..11,200 New York . . . . ..810 660 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . .. 600 France . . . . . . . . ..260 7 Total . . . . . . . . .12,480 Baltimore packs seven million bushels per annum. An oyster three months old is the size of a shilling, six months half-a-crown, but is not fit to eat before four years old. The oyster beds established by ad- vice of Abbé Bonnetard in France produced 97 yearly consumption by millions: million oysters in 1831. OYSTER INDUSTRY or THE UNITED Srnns, ACCORDING TO Crmsus REPORT OF 1880. I 1 States Persons Capital Bushels Value to Value of ‘ ' Employed. Invested. Produced. Producer. Sales. New Hampshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9 2,4 1,000 800 $ 6,050 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' 896 303,175 ,000 41,800 405,550 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 110,000 163,200 225,500 356,925 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,006 316,200 336,450 386,625 672,875 New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,724 1 013,000 1,043,300 043,300 1,577,050 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .................. . . 2,917 1,057,000 1,975,000 1,970,000 2,080,625 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,065 145,000 300,000 325,000 687,725 Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,402 6,034,350 1 600,000 2,650,000 4,730,476 V1rgin1a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,315 1,351,100 6,837,320 1,948,636 2,218,376 North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,020 68,500 170,000 60,000 60,000 South _Car0lina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 12,250 50,000 20,000 20,000 Georgla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 18,500 70,000 35,000 35,000 ' Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166 22,000 78,600 15,950 15,950 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 16,000 104,500 44,950 44,950 - Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60 3,000 25, 10,000 10,000 ‘ Louisiana ........ .., ................................... .. 1,400 30,750 295,000 200,000 200,000 ‘ exas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 240 17,750 95,000 7,300 47,300 , Washington Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85 6,550 15,000 10,000 45,000 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52,805 $10,583,295 $22,195,370 $9,034,861 $13,438,852 in 11s7 P PABNA--PAGE PABNA, a town of Bengal, India, on an arm of the Ganges, 115 miles north of Calcutta. Popula- tion, 15,267. The district has an area of 1,847 square miles and a population of 1,311,728. PACA, a remarkable genus of rodents, allied to the Agoutis, represented by a single species, which ' ranges in Central and South America from Guate- mala to Paraguay, east of the Andes. Its cheek- bones are uniquely developed, the zygomatic arch being enlarged to form a great cavity on each side. Each communicates by a narrow aperture with the mouth, is lined by mucous membrane, and does not contain food as an ordinary cheek-pouch naturally does. Their function, if they have any, is unknown. The paca is large for a rodent, being about two feet in length. It is stout and some- what pig-like in build, with a large blunt head, cloven lip, small ears, stump-like tail, thick legs, five-toed feet, and rounded back. The color is brownish yellow above, whitish below, with whit- ish yellow spots or longitudinal bands along the sides. Though somewhat clumsy in form and gait, the paca runs actively, and can swim well. It lives alone or in pairs in the moist forests, especially by sides of rivers, and tends to be nocturnal in its habits. It makes burrows, which are said to have three openings. The female bears only one or two young at a birth. As a vegetable eater, the paca sometimes does damage to sugar-cane plantations and gardens. Its fat, pork-like flesh is much es- teemed. PACHACAMAC, a village of Peru, eighteen miles southeast of Lima, with the ruins of a temple from which Pizarro took immense treasure. PACHMARHI, a sanitarium and convalescent depot for European troops in India, situated 2500 feet above the plains, in the Central Provinces, 110 miles southwest of J abalpur. PACIFIC, a village of Missouri, on the Maramee River. It has rich beds of white sand, fire-clay, and de osits of iron, copper and lead. PAC ARD, ALPHEUS SPRING, a natur8 list, born at Brunswick, Maine, Feb. 12, 1839. He graduated at Bowdoin in 1861, and was for a time assistant to Agassiz at Cambridge. He took part in several scientific expeditions, was State entomologist of Massachusetts in 1871-73, and lectured at Bowdoin and elsewhere. In 1878 he became professor of Zoology and Geology at Brown University. He is best known as a distinguished entomologist; his classification of insects, proposed in 1863, has been generally accepted. As an evolutionist, Professor ackard is one of the leaders of the “ Neo-Lamarc- kian ” school. PACKER, Ass, a railroad constructor, born at Groton, Conn., in 1806; died at Philadelphia, in 1879. When the Lehigh Valley Canal was opened in 1823, he engaged in canal boating till 1831. Then he took a contract for canal-locks, and in 1838 he began to build boats for the transportation of coal to New York, by way of the new canal. He also engaged in the coal-mining business. In 1844 he was elected to the State legislature, and after Car- bon county was created he became its county judge. In 1850 he projected the Lehigh Valley Railroad as an outlet for the anthracite coal region; he secured the necessary subscription of capital, and had by 1855 the ' line completed from Mauch Chunk to Easton, with branches to Hazleton and Mahanoy. Subsequently he secured its extension northward to connect with the Erie Railroad. Mr. Packer was president of the Lehigh Valley Railroad. Before the line was completed he became finan- cially embarrassed. But by sharing largely in the profits of the mining and transportation business which this road developed he soon became the richest man in Pennsylvania. In 1853 he was elected to Congress, in which he served two terms. In 1865 he gave $500,000 and 115 acres of land to found Lehigh University at Bethlehem, Pa. The scheme of its studies embraces civil mining and mechanical engineering, physics, chemistry, metal- urgy, French and German. By his last will Mr. Packer secured an endowment of 1% million of dollars to this university and one of $500,000 to its library. PADEREWSKI, IGNACE J AN, one of the greatest pianists of the age, was born in Podolia, a province of Russian Poland, Nov. 6, 1860. He began to play on the piano at the age of three years. At the age of seven he was placed under the instruction of a master. In 1872 he went to Warsaw, where the foundation of his knowledge of harmony and coun- terpoint was laid by R0 erski. Later he pursued his musical studies un er Kiel, the celebrated teacher of Berlin. His first musical tour was made through Russia, Siberia, and Roumania, and during that tour he played only his own compositions. At eighteen years of age he became professor of music in the conservatory of Warsaw. In 1884 he was promoted to a professorship in the conservatory of Strasburg; but in less than a year he determined to abandon teaching and enter upon the career of a piano virtuso. After three more years of_thor- ough study under the ablest masters, he began his professional tours, achieving notable success in all the chief cities of Europe. He married at the age of 19. Later his wife died. but a son survived her. He practices from six to eight hours daily. In the autumn of 1891 he came to New York, and began, at the age of 31, a tour of extraordinary success in the chief American cities. PADUCAH, a city, the county-seat of McCracken county, Ky., on the Ohio River, near the mouth of the Tennessee, about fifty miles above Cairo. Pop- ulatgion in 1390, 13,076. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, . 1 2. p PAGE, Tnonas JEFFERSON, commodore, born at Shelly, Va., in 1808. He entered the United States navy in 1827 as midshipman. In 1839 he was com- missioned as lieutenant and made a voyage around the world on the “Dolphin.” In 1853 he commanded an expedition for the exploration of the tributaries of the Rio de la Plata. While thus engaged, his steamer, the “Water-Witch,” was fired upon from a Paraguayan fort on the Parana River, and one of his men was killed. He returned the fire,but his vessel was not fixed for offensive operations. In May, 1856, he returned to the United States. In 1859 a fleet sent out by the United States Govern- ment obtained reparation from Paraguay. He completed his surveys in 1860, and turned the 1188 charts, notes, and journals over to the navy depart- ment, when he resigned his commission and entered the Confederate service. Page then commanded the heavy batteries at Gloucester Point on York River, but had to retreat after Yorktown was abandoned. In 1862 he was commissioned as commodore, and went to England to take command of an iron-clad, then building in the Mersey. But the British gov- ernment took possession of the vessel, because the United States Minister threatened war. Page then obtained a small iron-clad lying at Copenhagen, which he called “Stonewall.” But when he entered a Spanish harbor with her, she was seized by the oflicers of Queen Isabella. After that he removed to the Argentine Republic and engaged in cattle- farming. The Argentine government commissioned him soon afterwards to superintend the construc- tion of two iron-clads and two gun-boats in Eng- land, which formed the nucleus of the Argentine navy. Commodore Page has since resided at Flor- ence, Italy. He published the narrative of his South American exploration in La Plata in 1895. PAGE, WILLIAM, portrait-painter, born at Al- bany, N. Y., in 1811, died at Tottenville, Staten Is- land, N. Y., in 1885. He studied painting under Samuel F. B. Morse and at the National Academy of Design. After that he studied theology at An- dover and Amherst for two years. His faith being shaken he returned to painting again. Settling down in New York City he executed likenesses of William L. Marcy, John Quincy Adams and others. In 1836 he was elected a member of the Academy. From 1849 till 1860 he resided in Europe, chiefly at Florence and Rome. While in Europe he painted the portraits of Robert Browning and his wife, and those of many other well-known Englishmen and Americans, also his Venus, Moses and Aaron on I/Iount Horeb, Infant Bacchus, and Flight into Egypt. In his brilliant coloring Page has become the rival of Titian. After his return to New York he painted Lowell, President Eliot of Harvard, Henry Ward Beecher, Admiral Earragut, General Grant, and many more. From 1871 till 1875 he was president of the Academy of Design. In his old age his intel- lect became clouded. Page had been thrice mar- ried and twice divorced. PAGET, SIR GEoRGE EDWARD, K. C. B., born at Yarmouth, England, in 1809, and educated at the Charterhouse and at Cambridge. He took his B. A. degree in 1831, became Fellow of Caius in 1832, M. D. in 1838, D. C. L. Oxford and Durham, LL. D. Edinburgh, and F. R. S. in 1855. In 1872 he was ap- pointed regius professor of physio in Cambridge, and became K. C. B. in 1885. Sir G. Paget may well be regarded as a public benefactor, as having taken the principal part in the great advance that has been made of late years in the education of medical practitioners.——His brother, SIR JAMES PAGET, Bart, was born at Yarmouth in 1814. He became mem- ber of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1836, Hon. Fellow in 1843, member of the council in 1865, pres- ident of the college in 1875, Bradshawe Lecturer in 1882, serjeant-surgeon to the queen, surgeon to the prince of Wales, and consulting surgeon to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. He was created baronet in 1871, and in the same year LL. D. of the university of Edinburgh. Two standard works are Lectures on Surgical Pathology, and Clinical Lectures. He is vice-chancellor of the University of London, and a member of the Institute of France (Academy of Sciences). PAINE, ROEERT TREAT, an American lawyer, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, born in Boston, March 11, 1731, died in 1814.—His son, Thomas, (1773-1811), changed his name, to avoid confusion with the author of the Age of Rea- PAGE--PAINTING IN AMERICA son, to RoRERT TREAT PAINE, JR. He became a not- ed writer and was author of the song Adams and Liberty. PAINESVILLE, a village, the county-seat of Lake county, Ohio, on Grand River near Lake Erie, about 30 miles east of Cleveland. It has many ex- cellent educational institutions, a fine harbor, and numerous manufacturing industries. PAINTING IN AMERICA: PORTRAIT PAINTING. The earliest painter of American birth of whom we have record is Robert Feke. He painted portraits at Philadelphia about the middle of last century. Specimens of his work are in possession of Bowdoin College, the Redwood Athenaeum, New Port, R. I., and the Rhode Island Historical Society. Next in date is Matthew Pratt (1734-1805). The portrait of Cadwallader Colden,which he painted for the New York chamber of commerce in 1772, attests his un- doubted talent. But the most noted painters of the last half of the 18th century, were John Single- ton, Copley and Benjamin West. Copley’s (see Britannica, Vol. VI, p. 346) skill in portraiture is shown by numerous pictures in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; at Harvard University, and in many private collections. Of his numerous histori- cal pictures, executed in England, the Death of the Earl of Chatham, has become most famous. \Vest (see Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 505) produced a large number of historical and Scriptural pictures of a high order, as the Death of Wolfe; the Departure of Regulus; Death on the Pale Horse, and Christ Re- jected. When 65 years old he painted one of his largest works, Christ Healing the Sick, which on being exhibited at London drew immense crowds, and was purchased by the British Institution for 3,000 guineas. - The next period, that of the Revolution, pro- duced two painters, whose names stand high in the list of American artists, Gilbert Stuart and John Trumbull. (For Stuart see Britannica, Vol. XXII, p. 611). Stuart studied for several years under Ben- jamin West in London. After he came back to America in 1793, he painted a large number of national portraits. The one of Washington, known as the Athenaum Head, is best known to the American public. Excellent specimens of his works are owned by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; the New York Historical Society, and other insti- tutions. Stuart was a master in the rendering of the flesh tints, and was more successful in giving fine heads than fine figures and draperies. Trumbull (see Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 592) studied also under Benjamin West in London. He also pro- ducedanumber of portraits, including several of George Washin ton. But his talents were most conspicuous in istorical composition. His most notable works are The Siege of Gibralter; Declaration of Independence; Death of Montgomery, and Battle of Bunker Hill. In 1817 he received a commission from Congress for four historical subjects: Declara- tion of Independence; Surrender of Burgoyne; Sur- render o Cornwallis; and Resignation 0 Washington. Some 0 the best specimens of his skil may be seen at Yale College. Among the less renowned American painters who fleurished from 17 80 to 1840 we mention Charles Wilso Peale, he painted several portraits of Washington ; Jo .ph Wright, Edward Savage, Wil- liam Dunlap (w 0 published in 1834 a History of the Arts of Design in the United States); Col. Henry Sar- gent, John Neagle, who painted in 1825 a life-size picture of Patrick Lyon, the blacksmith; John Vanderlyn, best known by his Marius among the Ruins of Carthage, and Ariadne, which is classic in style. Washington Allston, a native of South Car- olina, was sometimes called the “American Titian” PAINTLNGIN'AMERICA—PALANQUIN from his brilliant coloring (see ALLSTON in Vol. I, p. 85, of these Revisions and Additions). Later American portrait-painters were: Samuel L. Waldo, and William J ewett, who painted in part- nership; William E. West, Charles C. Ingham, Henry Inman, George P. A. Healy, W. H. Furness, Thomas Le Clear, George A. Baker; Thomas P. Rossiter, Joseph Ames. Richard M. Staigg was noted for his miniatures, in which department Thomas Cummings also worked. Charles Loring Elliott was successful in the rendition of character, and William Page strove to imitate Titian in his coloring. Daniel Huntington, Thomas Hicks, and George H. Yewell have also produced notable works in portraiture. More prominent are the American artists of the middle of the present century. Emmanuel Leutze, though of German birth, was brought here as an infant, and painted mostly American subjects, as Washington Crossing the Delaware and Westward the Star of Empire takes its Way, the last being in our national capitol. Edwin White painted some American historic pieces, notably Washington Re- signing His Commission. Peter Rothermel has pro- duced some works illustrative of American history, among which is the Battle of Gettysburg. William H. Powell is best known by his De Soto Discovering the Mississippi, in the capital at Washington. Christian Schiissele, an Alsatian, was for some years director of the schools of the Pennsylvania Acade- my. His Clear the Track, Men of Progress, The Iron- Worker, and King Solomon became widely known through the prints by John Sartain and other en- gravers. GENRE PAINTING.—.AIIlOI1 the American genre painters of the middle of this century the most im- portant is William Sidney Mount. His works are thoroughly national in spirit. He delineated the humorous side of the life of the American farmer. The negro, too, figured frequently in his composi- tions. F. WV. Edmonds produced also some clever genre pictures of American subjects, and Richard Caton Woodville, who studied at Diisseldorf, be- came well known through his Mexican News ; Sail- or’s Wedding, etc., but was cut short in his career when only 30 years of age. Our Indians and trap- pers found delineators in George Catlin, Charles Deas, and William Ranney. The best known American genre painters of later date are John B.Irving. who was noted for spirited execution and elaborate finish, Frank B. Mayer, John F. Weir, and Seymour J . Guy. The latter has given us some charming pictures of child- life. Two of our most successful genre artists are Thomas W. Wood and John G. Brown. The former depicts scenes of rural life and produces pictures with negro subjects. Mr. Brown is the painter of our news-boys and boot- blacks whom he often brings before us in charac- teristic positions. Many others might be men- tioned in the department of figure-painting, nota- bly B. F. Reinhart, J. W. Ehninger, Constant Mayer, E. I/Vood Perry, Edward H. May, Alfred C. Howland, etc. Landscape Painting.~—Of the many American landscape painters we mention especially Albert Bierstadt, Thomas Hill, and Thomas Moran. Bierstadt (see article in Vol. I, p. 281 of these Re- visions and Additions) became famous by his paintings of Rocky Mountain Scenery, the Yosemite Valley, etc. Hill has produced some bold and effective paintings of California Scenery and the Yellowstone, and Moran made a fine paintin of the Grand Caiion of the Yellowstone, which is int e capi- tal of Washington. Moran’s work shows him to be a careful student of nature, as well as a painter well 1189 versed with the technique of his calling. Jervis McEntee, Homer D. Martin, George Inness and others, represent the “subjective style” of land- scape painting, that is, they strive to reproduce for others such impressions as a scene called forth in their own minds when they contemplated it. Their pictures are not purely objective, that is, they do not reproduce all the details of a scene. They strive mainly for general impressions. Marine Painting.—Of American marine painters we mention James Hamilton, a native of Ireland, who settled at Philadelphia, and who depicted the Capture of the Serapis; Old Ironsides; the Ship of the Ancient Mariner, and other weird and phantastic subjects. William Bradford, who painted effective pictures of Eastern coast scenery and icebergs, and Edward Moran, who successfully introduced the human figure into some of his marine pictures. William T. Richards had his attention of late years directed to the painting of marine and coast views in water colors which show a very careful finish. Arthur Quartley, who was originally a sign- painter, succeeded in placing himself in a few years in the front rank of our marine painters. Alfred T. Bricher has produced some fresh and vigorous coast scenes; and Maurice F. H. De Haas, who was court-painter in Holland before he came to America in 1869, made a number of strong and brilliant compositions in the marine line. Animal Painting.—In the line of animal-painting we find first John James Audubon, a native of Louisiana, as a scientific delineator and painter of birds (see Britannica, Vol. III, pp. 70-71). He ranks high as a painter and naturalist. Arthur F. Tait, an English artist in the animal line, who has settled in this country, is well known to the pub- lic, since many of his works have been litho- graphed and widely circulated. Vllalter M. Brack- ett and Gurdon Trumbull have made the painting of fishes a specialty. William H. Beard has gained a reputation through his pictures of bears and monkeys, in which the weaknesses and foibles of humanity are reflected with caustic satire. His brother, James H. Beard, has also won a good name as an animal painter, and so has his nephew, James Carter Beard. Peter Moran has been suc- cessful in painting sheep and cattle. So have James Hart, Thomas Robinson, George Inness, J r., and J . Ogden Brown. Miss Fidelia Bridges painted charming pictures of bird-life; and R. M. Shurtleff introduced deer into his paintings of forest-scene- mes. Still-Life Painting.—In the department of still- life, Raphaelle Peale, the son of the portrait painter, Charles Wilson Peale, was probably the first to produce finished pieces. George H. Hall and A. J . H. VVay have been known by their paint- ings of fruit pieces. H. ‘V. Parton and Ellen Rob- bins produced charming pictures of flowers in va- rious groupings only to be excelled by the ideal and brilliant flower-pieces of John Lafarge. The latter excells especially as a colorist and decorator Some still-life pieces have been produced by ‘Vil- liam VV. Harnett with an almost photographic truthfulness to nature. PALANQUIN, an Indian vehicle corresponding somewhat to the Roman litter and the modern European sedan-chair, but, unlike the latter, used for long distances by travelers where railways or good carriage-roads do not exist. It is a wooden box about eight feet long, four feet wide and four feet high, with wooden shutters which can be opened or shut at pleasure, and is constructed like Venetian blinds. At each end of the palanquin, on the outside, two rings are fixed, and the ham- mals, or palanquin-bearers, of whom there are four, 0 1190 two at each end, support the palanquin by poles passing through these rings. PALAPTERYX, a genus of fossil birds whos‘e remains are found in the river-silt deposits of New Zealand, associated with the gigantic Dinornis, and which, like the Dinornis, resembled in the form of the sternum, and the structure of the pelvis and legs, the living wingless apteryx. Palapteryx, however, seems to have possessed rudimentary wings, in which respect it differed from Dinornis. PALATINE, a village of Illinois, about twenty- five miles northwest of Chicago. It has manufac- tories of sash, blinds, and doors. PALATKA, a village, the county-seat of Putnam county, Fla., situated on the west bank of the St. J ohn’s River, about seventy miles south of Jackson- ville. It contains manufactories and is an impor- tant shipping point. PALESTINE, a village, the county-seat of An- derson county, Texas, about 150 miles north of Houston. It produces a variety of manufactures, and has a good trade in lumber and hides. Popu- lation in 1890, 5,834. PALEY, FREDERICK Arrnnor, classical scholar, %randson of the author of the Evidences, born at asingwold, England, in 1816. He resided at Cam- bridge till his conversion to the Roman Catholic faith in 1846, and later from 1860 till 1874, when he was appointed professor of classical literature at the Roman Catholic College at Kensington. He next went to live at Bournemouth, was twice clas- sical examininer to London University, and for the classical tripos at Cambridge, and continued till the sudden close of his life, in 1888, his arduous labors in classical scholarship. In early life at Cambridge he helped to found the Camden Eccle- siological Society, and published books on Gothic architecture; but the important work of his life began in 1844 with the first part of his edition of /Eschylus with Latin notes. He re-edited ]Eschy- lus for the “ Bibliothea Classica,” as well as Euripi- des, Hessiod, the lliad, and completed the Sopho- cles of Mr. Blaydes, all for the same series; and also prepared minor editions of similar works, or parts of these, for the “Cambridge Texts” series. His Propertius, Ovid’s Fasti, and Martial were less suc- cessful, but his three comedies of Aristophanes, Theocritus, and his Select Private Orations of Demos- thenes (in conjunction with Dr. Sandys) were recog- nized as works of the very highest value. He pub- lished prose translations of the Philebus and Thea- tetus of Plato, the 5th and 10th books of Aristotle’s Ethics, the Odes of Pindar, and the Tragedies of Eschylus, and renderings in verse of the 5th book of Propertius and Fragments of the Greek Comic Poets. Other works are a treatise on Greek Particles, Greek Wit (1881), and an unsatisfactory edition of the Gospel of St. John. Paley received the degree of LL.D. from Aberdeen in 1883. A sagacious textual critic and a sound exegete, he left behind him tra- ditions of a high type of scholarship, of the age when yet scientific philology was not, and German might be neglected. In his later years he adopted a late date for Homer. PALFREY, J OHN GORHAM, an American clergy- man and historian, born in Boston, May 2, 1796, died in 1881. He was an able anti-slavery orator and politician; but is best known for his careful and scholarly History of New England. PALGRAVE, FRANCIS TURNER, a gifted poet and -critic, born in London, in 1824. He filled for five years the ofiice of vice-principal of the Training College for schoolmasters at Kneller Hall, and afterwards was private secretary to Earl Granville, and an ofiicial in the educational department of the Privy-council. He succeeded Shairp as pro- PALAPTERYX—PALLICE fessor of poetry at Oxford in 1886. He is best known as the editor of the admirably selected Golden Treasury of English Lyrics; The Children’s Treasury of Lyrical Poetry; The Sonnets and Songs of Shakespeare; Selected Lyrical Poems of Herrick, of Keats, and Treasury of Sacred Song. PALGRAVE, WILLIAM GIFFORD (1826-88), an English author, born in Westminster, January 24, 1826. He was educated at the Charterhouse School and Trinity College, Oxford, graduating with great distinction in 1846. Next year he ob- tained a commission in the Bombay native in- fantry, which, however, he soon resigned to become a priest in the Society of Jesus. After ‘a course of study at Laval in France and at Rome he was sent at his own request as a missionary to Syria, where he acquired a wonderful intimate knowledge of Arabic. Summoned to France in 1860 by Napoleon III. to give an account of the Syrian massacres, he went disguised as a physician on a daring expedition at the emperor’s expense through Central Arabia, traversing the entire Wahabi kingdom, and return- ing to Europe through Bagdad and Aleppo. With the consent of the emperor he published his Narra- tive of a Year’s Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia, one of the best books of travel in the Eng- lish language. Palgrave quitted the Society of Jesus in 1864, and was sent by the British govern- ment in 1865 to treat for the release of Consul Cam- eron and the other captives in Abyssinia. He was nominated consul to Sukhum-Kalé in 1866, at Trebi- zond in 1867, at the island of St. Thomas in 1873, at Manila, in 1876, and consul-general in the princi- pality of Bulgaria in 1878, and in Siam in 1880. He was appointed British minister to Uurguay in 1884, and died at Monte Video, September 30,1880. PALI, the commercial capital of J odhpur, forty- five miles by rail from J odhpur City. PALIKAO, a place on the canal between Pekin and its port on the Peiho. Here in 1860 was fought an engagement between the Anglo-French troops and the Chinese, and hence the French general, Cousin-Montauban (1796-1878), who was minister of war in August and September, 1870, received his title of Count Palikao. PALINURUS, ]Eneas’s helmsman who was lulled to sleep at his post and fell into the sea. When ]Eneas visited the lower world he related to him that on the fourth day after his fall he made the coast of Italy, and was there barbarously murdered, and his body left unburied on the strand. The Si- byl prophesied that his death should be atoned for, a tomb erected to him, and a cave (Palinurus, the modern Punta della Spartivento) named after him. PALISANDER WOOD, a name sometimes given to rosewood. PALIURUS, a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Rhamnaceee, nearly allied to the genus Zizyphus, but very different in the fruit, which is dry orbicular, and girded with a broad membran- ous wing. P. aculeatus is often called Christ’s Thorn, from the fancy that it supplied the crown of thorns with which our Saviour was crowned. It is a deciduous shrub or low tree, with slender, pliant branches and ovate three-nerved leaves, each of which has two sharp spines at the base, one straight and the other re-curved. It is a native of the countries around the Mediterranean, of India, and many parts of Asia. It is often used for hedges in Italy and other countries. PALK STRAIT, the northern portion of the shal- low passage between the south coast of India and the island of Ceylon. PALLICE, LA, a harbor opened in 1889 to receive large transatlantic and other ocean-going vessels bound for La Rochelle in France, whence it is less PALLI§HR—PALMYRA than three miles distant. It consists of an inner basin 28% acres in extent and an outer harbor pro- tected by two moles, each 1,380 feet long. PALLISER, SIR VVILLIAM, C. B., born at Dublin, June 18, 1830, died Feb. 4, 1882. He entered the army as a cavalry oflicer, and in 1863 invented the chilled shot that bears his name, and a system of strengthening cast-iron ordnance by the insertion of a steel tube. He retired in 1871, and sat for Taunton as M. P. PALM, a measure of length, originally taken from the width of the hand, measured across the joints of the four fingers. In Great Britain a palm is, somewhat loosely, understood to be the fourth part of an English foot, or three inches. PALMA, a town of Sicily, fourteen miles south- east of Girgenti. Population, 11,702. PALMER, a pilgrim who had performed the pil- grimage to the Holy Sepulchre, and had returned, or was returning home after the fulfillment of his vow. The Palmers were so called from their car- rying branches of the Oriental palm, in token of their accomplished expedition. On arriving at their home they repaired to the church to return thanks to God, and offered the palm to the priest, to be placed upon the altar. PALMER, a village of Massachusetts, on the Chicopee River, about fifteen miles east of Spring- field. It has manufactories of carpets, machinery, carriages and hats. Population in 1890, 6,898. PALMER, BENJAMIN MORGAN, a Presbyterian minister, born at Charleston, S. C., in 1818. He has held Presbyterian pastorates at Savannah, Ga., Columbia, S. C., 0nd since 1856 has been at New Orleans. He assisted in establishing the “Southern Presbyterian Review,” in 1847, and has been one of its editors. He earnestly supported the seces- sion movement and the Confederate cause. He is the author of The Life and Letters of Rev. James Henley Thornwell (1875) ; Sermons (2 vols.) ; and The Family in its Civil and Churchly Aspects (1879). PALMER, ERASTUS Dow, an American sculptor, born at Pompey, N. Y., in 1817. He was in early life a carpenter, and later a successful cutter of cameos. He turned his attention to sculpture about 1852; and has produced many fine mytholog- ical and allegorical groups. His Landing of the Pil- grims, for the capitol at Washington, is a fine group of fifteen figures. PALMER, JAMES CROXALL, surgeon-general of ‘ the U. S. Navy, born at Baltimore, Md., in 1811; died at \Vashington, D. C., in 1883. He studied medicine at the University of Maryland, and was commissioned assistant-surgeon in 1834, and sur- geon in 1842. During the Mexican war he served off the coast of Mexico, afterwards in the Pacific, and on the steam frigate Niagara during the first attempt to lay the Atlantic cable. On the latter occasion he originated a plan for splicing the wire in mid-ocean. At the outbreak of the civil war he took medical charge of the United States Naval Academy then removed to Newport, R. I. In 1863 he joined Admiral Farragut’s blockading squadron. He was attached to the flagship Hartford during the bat- tle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864. At the close of the war Dr. Palmer returned to the North, and was af- terward in charge of the naval hospital at Brook- lyn for years. In 1871 he was commissioned medi- cal director, and in June, 1872, he became surgeon- general of the navy, but retired a year later. PALMER, J onn MCCAULEY, an American eneral and statesman, born in Kentucky in 1817. e be- came a lawyer in Illinois; State senator in 1852; delegate to the peace convention in 1861; colonel of volunteers on the outbreak of the war; major- 1191 general 1862-66; and was governor of Illinois from 1869 to 1873. PALMER, J onn WILLIAMSON, American physi- cian and author, born in Baltimore in 1825. He studied medicine in Philadelphia; went to Cali- fornia; thence to China; was active in the cause of the Southern Confederacy and became an editor in his native city. In 1855 he married Henrietta Lee, author of the Heroines of Shakspeare. He has writ- ten and translated many novels and plays; but is best known for his works on East Indian manners and customs. PALMER, RAY, an American theologian, born in Rhode Island in 1808, died March 29, 1887. He wrote many hymns and sacred poems among which is the hymn My Faith Looks Up to Thee. PALMETTO, see Palms in Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 189-191. The Palmetto is the American representative of the palm family. It extends 29%“ WA ‘ '_-_-m '1 \ !'.’i’.7 N§i£M/N I |~ ‘_.- . . .. , .y ;/ . ,‘ PALMETTO. northward as far as the latitude of North Carolina. Two genera and four species of palmetto exists in the region between North Carolina and Florida. The most important species is the “cabbage” palmet- to (Sabal palmetto), which sometimes grows 50 feet in height and 15 inches in diameter, with leaves five feet long and broad. It is found also in the Bermudas. Its products are timber and the leaves, the former being exceedingly durable, very porous, and especially valuable for wharf-building, as it re- sists water and is not attacked by the teredo. The fruit is not edible. The leaves are made into hats, baskets, mats, etc. The terminal bud or “cabbage” is eaten. It consists of a circle of unexpanded leaves, and forms one of the most delicious table vegetables. PALMETTO—LEAVES, the leaves of the Pal- myra palm, imported for the manufacture of hats and mats. PALMIERI LUIGI, an Italian meteorologist, born April 22, 1807. He taught mathematics in several lyceums, became in 1847 professor at Na- ples, and in 1854 director of the observatory on Vesuvius. He has invented many meteorological instruments, and written several works on volca- noes and seismology. PALMYRA, a village, the county-seat of Marion county, Mo., five miles west of the Mississippi, River, and fifteen miles northwest of Hannibal. It is an important agricultural center, contains several manufactories, and is the seat of a number of educational institutions. PALMYRA, a village of New York, about twenty miles east of Rochester. It manufactures printing 1192 presses, scales, grain-drills and other machinery, and is an important trade-center. PALMYRA, a village of North Carolina, ‘near the Roanoke River, about eighteen miles north of Tarborough. It is an important shipping-point for the products of an extensive district. PALMYRA W0,0D, properly the wood of the Palmyra palm; but the name is generally used for all kinds of imported palm-tree wood; much of which is the wood of the cocoa-nut palm, Cocos nucifem, and the allied species C. plumosa. PALO ALTO, thirty miles from San Francisco, the seat of a university founded at a cost of up- wards of $15,000,000 by United States Senator Le- land Stanford of California. The institution is to provide, entirely gratis, education from the Kin- dergarten stage to the most advanced instruction that human teachers can supply; and all the pupils are to board on the premises, at the smallest possi- ble charge. PALO ALTO, a battle-field, about nine miles northeast of Matamoras, Texas. Here, on May 8, 1846, 6,000 Mexicans were defeated by 2,000 Ameri- cans under Gen. Taylor. PALTOCK, ROBERT, an English writer, born in London about 1699, died March 20, 1767. He was educated at St. Paul’s School, was bred to the law, and while in Clement’s Inn secured his title to re- memberance by writing the tale of Peter Wilkins, a Cornish Man, published anonymously in 1750, and often reprinted. The authorship, known to some in 1802, remained generally a mystery till 1835, and first appeared on the title-page in 1839. PAMLICO SOUND, a shallow body of water, some 75 miles long by 10 to 25 miles wide, on the coast of North Carolina, separated from the ocean by long, narrow islands of sand, with narrow passages. PANA, a city of Illinois, about forty miles south- east of Springfield. It contains many manufact- ories, is an important center of trade, and is the seat of an academy. Population in 1890, 5,067. PANCOAST, JOSEPH, an American surgeon, born in New Jersey in 1805, died in 1882. He was the author of many valuable professional works, and a prominent teacher of surgery and anatomy. PANCRAS, Sr., the son of a heathen noble of Synnada, in Phrygia. He lost both parents while aboy, and was taken to Rome by an uncle and there baptized, but was slain in the Diocletian per- secution, being only 14 years old. The first church that St. Augustine consecrated in England was dedicated to St. Pancras; it stood at Canterbury. PANDEAN PIPES, a series, fastened side by side, of short reeds or pipes, graduated in length so as to give out different notes when blown across their mouths. PANDHAR PUR, a town of British India, 112 miles southeast of Poona, on a branch of the Kistna. It is highly revered by the Hindus on account of a temple dedicated to an incarnation of Vishnu. Population, 16,910. PANDOURS, a people of Servian origin who lived among the mountains of Hungary, near the village of Pandour in the country of Sohl. The name used to be applied to that portion of the light-armed infantry in the Austrian service raised in the Slavonian districts on the Turkish frontier. They originally fought after the fashion of the “free-lances,” and were a terror to the enemy, whom they annoyed incessantly. Their appearance was exceedingly picturesque, being somewhat Ori- ental in character, and their arms consisted of a musket, pistols, a Hungarian sabre, and two Turk- ish poinards. Their habits of brigandage and cru- elty rendered them, however, as much a terror to the people they defended as to the enemy, and PALMYRA—- PANTHAYS about 1750 they were put under stricter discipline, and gradually incorporated with the regular army. The name is now obsolete. PANGE LINGUA (Lat., “Now, my tongue the mystery telling”), one of the most remarkable of the hymns of Roman Breviary, and like its kindred hymn, Lauda Sion, a most characteristic example of mediaeval Latin versification. The Pange I/ingua is a hymn in honor of the eucharist and belongs to the service of the Festival of Corpus Christi. It was written by the great Angelic Doctor, Thomas Aquinas, and consists of six strophes of verses in alternate rhyme. Besides its place in the oifice of the Breviary, the “Tantum ergo,” a portion of this hymn, forms part of the service called Benediction with the Blessed Sacrament, and is sun on all oc- casions of the exposition, procession, an other pub- lic acts of eucharistic worship. PANSLAVISM, a movement with the aim of drawing closer together all the various races of Slavonic stock, and combining their influences in political and other directions. Some extreme Slavophils have even proposed an actual amalga- mation in nationality, language, literature, and re- ligion. The first literary representative was the Slovak poet Kollar and the movement showed first in Bohemia, where the philological and historical work of Schafarik and Palacky contributed to give it impetus. The Poles of Prussia resisted Germani- zation; Serbs, Slovaks, and Croats asserted their rights against their Magyar masters; and the still less fortunate Slavs of Turkey gladl swelled the chorus. But at the first great ans avic congress at Prague in 1848 the most convenient medium of intercourse proved to be the tongue of the alien Germans! Russia, after being called to suppress the Hungarian revolution, came to be regarded as the protector of the Slavs; and the papers and periodicals of Russian Slavophils, such as Aksakoff and Katkofl’, heartily promoted this growing feel- ing. The growing dominance of Russia caused the Poles to withdraw their hearty support, and even the Czechs began to fear that Panslavism, under Russian guidance, looked like Panrussism. There were no Poles at the second congress ot.Moscow in 1867; but Russia found a most receptive field for her propaganda in Bulgaria, Servia, and Mac- edonia. And in the recurrent crises of the East- ern question Russia became more pronouncedly the protector of all Eastern Christians. The Aus- trian Slavs put into the background by the re- constitution oi the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1867, which gave so much more power to the Magyars. The war in the Balkan Peninsula in 1875-78 was doubtless largely due to Panslavist intrigue as well as to Christian grievances; but the re-arrangements that have taken efliect since the Berlin treaty, especially the resolute self-assertion of the Bulgarians, have somewhat dis-illusioned Russian Panslavists. PANTAGRAPH, or PANTOGRAPH (Gr. panta, “all ;” graphein, “to delineate”), an instrument invented for the purpose of making copies, reduced or en- larged, of drawings or plans. It is made in various forms. Enlargements or reductions can now be done so much more accurately by means of photo- graphy that the pantagraph is nearly obsolete. PANTHAYS, a Mohammedan community occu- pying the province of Yun-nan in the southwest of China, who asserted their independence in 1855. In 1859 they captured Talifoo, the second city of the province, and in 1858 the capital. Their leader Wen-soai (King Suleiman) established his authori- ty over about 4,000,000 people, of whom not above a tenth were Mohammedans. In 1866 the Chinese government recognized the independence of the ’ etc. _ wood-fibre is employed, This consists in the r'e-~ . duction of the wood to cellulose by boiling it with -a disintergrating chemical under pressure. Hough- PAOLA--PAPER BOATS Panthays, and in 1872 their king sent his son Has- san on a mission to Europe. Meanwhile, the Chin- ese again attacked the Panthays, defeated them utterly, and finally suppressed their empire. PAOLA, a city, the county-seat of Miami county, Kan., on Peoria Creek, about forty-two miles south of Kansas City. It has a number of manufactories, and is [the trade center of a fertile agricultural district. Population in 1890, 2,927. PAOLI, a village, the county-seat of Orange county, Ind., about ten miles south of Orleans. It is the headquarters of various industries, and the Southern Indiana Normal School. PAPA (Lat. “father”), the Latin form of the title now, in the Western church, given exclusively to the Bishop of Rome. Originally, however, meaning simply “father,” it was given indiscriminately to all bishops. In the Greek church, whether in Greece proper or in Russia, papa is the common appelation of the clergy. PAPAIN, a nitrogenous body, isolated from the juice of the tropical Papaw. The juice from which it is extracted is a milky, white, inodorous fluid, obtained by making incisions in the ripe fruit. From this papain is isolated by precipitation with alcohol after the fatty matters present have been removed. It has only recently been shown that papain possesses, like pepsin and trypsin, the power of digesting meat-fibre; and this digestion will go on in an alkaline, a neutral, or an acid solu- tion. ferments, and like them is employed in some cases of dyspepsia. PAPAW, a small South American tree of the natural order, Passiflorea which has now been in- troduced into many tropical and sub-tropical countries. The fruit is eaten either raw or boiled. The seeds when chewed have in a high degree the pungency of cresses. The powdered seeds and the juice of the unripe fruit are powerful anthelmintics. The juice of the fruit and the sap of the tree ren- der tough meat tender, and even the exhalations from the tree have this property. It bears fruit all the year, and is exceedingly prolific. The Cham- buru, another species of the same genus, a native of Brazil, is remarkable for the extremely acrid and poisonous character of its juice, and the dis- gusting stercoraceous odor of its flowers. In the United States the name Papaw is given to the Asi- mina triloba, a small tree of the natural order Anonaeeae, the fruit of which, a large oval berry, three inches long, with soft, insipid pulp, is eaten by negroes, but not generally relished by others. All parts of the plant have a rank smell. PAPENBURG, a small port in the northwest of ‘ -the province of Hanover, twenty-five miles west of Oldenburg by rail and near the Ems, with which ‘ Population, 6,916. In ' it is connected b canals. the neighborhoo are extensive moors. PAPER. For the growth of the American paper ‘manufacture, the introduction of ‘mechanically prepared wood-pulp and of wood fibre produced by chemical treatment, was of chief-importance. Since 1870, white pine and poplar slabs are ground by pressing them against a rapidly revolving mill- Jstone, while water flowing upon it washes the . separated fibres away. This process, however, leaves the resinous matter in the wood. The pulp thus preparedcan therefore only be used for ad- mixture to other pulp which serves for the making of inferior papers, as wrapping paper, paper boards, For fine grades of paper, chemically prepared ton and Sinclair boiled it with 15-20 per cent. of Hence it belongs to the group of digestive I __'__ > woolen blankets running over rollers. 1193 caustic soda under a pressure of ten atmospheres Large quantities of wood-fibres have been prepared here in this way. But the heat and soda combined give the paper a brownish tint and weaken it. The chemical process of Dr. Mitscherlich, of Freiburg, Germany, prevents this. In this process the wood is boiled with bisulphite of lime. The pulp thus produced is of excellent quality, and the cost of the process is much lower than that of the soda pro- cess. Wood-fibre goes now into various grades of printing and writing papers, but some rags are em- ployed with it. The Mitscherlich process was first extensively used in Germany. But it is at present more largely employed in the United States and Canada. One other important step in paper-making is the bleaching of the pulp by electrolysis. This is an American invention. It has been in practical op- eration since l888. Since it effects a saving of bleaching material and insures an economy in the manufacture of white paper, it will soon be gener- ally introduced in the United States. The varieties of paper made are chiefly the fol- lowing four classes: (1) news and printing papers; (2) writing-papers of various kinds, blue, cream and yellow laid, and wove and tinted, and for ac- count-books, etc.; (3) wrapping or packing papers, brown and purple, heavy manilla for cartridge and bags; (4) miscellaneous, such as light copying, tis- ’ sue, and pottery papers, blotting and filtering, cig- arette, etc. Lastly, there are all kinds of card- boards and mill-boards made. In the printing papers generally, and especially in the better class of newspapers about 60 to 70 per cent. of wood pulp is used. Besides the wood pulp rags, cottonwaste, bagging, etc., enter into the composition. The process is as follows: These seemingly unpromisin g materials are first reduced to a pulp, and are then mixed-with water until the mass assumes the consistency of good, old-fash- ioned country milk. This liquid is discharged from vats upon an endless moving wire belt, the water escaping through the interstices of the wire and leaving behind it, on the belt, the little fibres of wood, rags and cotton. Here is the sheet of pa- per in embryo, but it is yet wet and has not been pressed, and has but little strength. The damp sheet of fibres is transferred to a series of endless The web of paper becomes dryer and is pressed by the rollers. The fibres now adhere quite well together. The web is put upon an endless belt of canvas, travel- ing over cylinders filled with steam, which serve to dry the paper thoroughly. Next the paper—for such it has become-—goes through calenders, which impart to it a smooth surface. It is then cut into sheets and is ready for the market. There are now in this country about 1,000 paper and pulp mills, and in Canada about 70. The total daily production of paper in the United States was in 1881 about five millions of pounds. It rose in 1887 to eight millions of pounds. The follow- ing . are the statistics of the paper trade of the United States for 1887 :. Capital invested . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. _$80,000,000 Tons of paper made . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . . .. 1,‘ ,000 Value of product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $95,000,000 Number of hands employed . . . . . . . . . . . .. 40,000 /,Wages paid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $18,500,000 Many flour-barrels, buckets, car-wheels, and nu- merous other things are now made of paper. One factory in Iowa turns out 1,600 flour-barrels daily, each barrel taking 6 lbs. of paper. For general ar- ticle on PAPER, see Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 227. PAPER BOATS. The United States Navy Depart- 2 . wards. 1194 ment purchased, in March, 1891, a paper whale-boat gig to be placed on board the next vessel fitted out for the use of the Navy. This boat effects a saving in weight of about 50 per cent. over the or- dinary wooden boat of the same pattern, and it is claimed to be equal to the heavier wooden boat in every respect. The cost is about the same. Some experiments have already been made which show that the boat can be submerged for an indefinite length of time without the material becoming water-soaked or otherwise deteriorating. PAPILIONACEJE, a sub-order of the natural order Leguminosae, whose plants have flowers of the peculiar structure called papilionaceous, and of which the pea and bean afford familiar examples. The number of Papilionaceae is very great—about 4,800 species being known. They are found in all parts of the world, abounding in the tropics. Many have superb and beautiful flowers; many are plants of beautitul form and foliage, trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants; many possess valua- ble medicinal properties, and many are of reat importance as furnishing food for man an do- mestic animals, others as furnishing dyes, fibre and timber. PAPINEAU, LoUIs J osnrn, a Canadian states- man, born at Montreal in October, 1789, died at Montebello, in Quebec, Sept. 23, 1871. At twenty he was elected to the legislative assembly, and speedily worked his way to the head of the radical or French-Canadian party, and in 1815 was chosen speaker of the house of assembly for Lower Canada, a post that he held until 1837. He opposed the union of Upper and Lower Canada, formulated the grievances and demands of his party in the ninety- two resolutions, and agitated actively against the imperial government. When the province rose in rebellion in 1837, a warrant was issued against Pap- ineau for high-treason, though he took no active part in the fighting. He escaped to Paris; but re- turned to Canada and was pardoned in 1847. PAPULES, or PIMPLEs, solid small elevations of the skin, either pale in color or inflammatory and more or less red. Papules occur as an early stage in the development of the eruption in many skin diseases —— for example, in eczema, where they speedily become vesicles; or in acne, where they become pustules. The papular diseases proper, where the eruption in its fully developed form con- sists of papules, are lichen and prurigo. PARA, the name which the river Tocantins re- ceives in its lower course, from the Cametét down- It is twenty miles broad opposite the City of Para, and forty miles broad at its mouth. The Paranan, an arm of the Amazon, which cuts off Marajé Island from the mainland, pours into it part of the waters of the great river. PARA, a coin of copper, silver, or mixed metal, though most generally of copper, in use in Turkey and Egypt. It is the 40th part of a piastre and varies much in value, owing to the debased condi- tion of the Turkish coinage. PARADISE, a village of Pennsylvania, about sixty miles west of Philadelphia. It has a good 10- cal trade, and manufactures leather and carriages. PARADISE-FISH, a Chinese species of Macro- pod often kept in aquaria for its beauty of form and coloring. In the male the colors increase in bril- liancy at the paring-season, and he swims around his wished-for mate, fluttering the long, deli- cate filaments of the ventral fins, or erecting those of the tail fin like a peacock’s train in mini- ature. PARADOXIDES BEDS, a term sometimes ap- plied to the Harlech or Longmynd and Menevian rocks of Great Britain, which are characterized by PAPILIONACEZE—-PARAGUAY the presence of trilobites-=belonging to the genus Paradoxides. PARAGUAY, REPUBLIC OF. For general article on PARAGUAY, se_eBritannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 243- 245. An imperfect census of March 1, 1887, gives the area and population as follows: Area (probably correct) 91,970 square miles; population, 329,645, in- cluding 155,425 males and 174,220 females. There were, besides, 60,000 semi-civilized and 70,000 un- civilized Indians. Of foreigners in Paraguay in 1887, there were 5,000 Argentines,2,000 Italians, 600 Brazilians, 740 Germans, 500 French, 400 Swiss, and 100 English. The country is divided into twenty-three electorial districts. The population of the capital, Asuncion, was 24,838 in 1886; other towns are Villa Rice, 11,000; Conception, 11,000; San Pedro, 12,000; Luquc, 8,000—including their district. ’ In 1886 there were 100 immigrants; in 1887, 563; in 1888, 1,064. In the three months ending June 30, 1889, there were 503 immigrants, of whom 190 were Italians, 84 Spaniards, 77 French, and 62 Ger- mans. About one-third of the inhabitants are liv~ ing in the central districts, containing the capital, a third in the districts of Villa Rica and of Cua- sapa, the rest being spread thinly over the remain- ing portion of cultivated country, which was for- merly pretty well populated. , Nearly three-fourths of the territory was national property; but in recent years most of it has been sold, much of it in very large estates. CONSTITUTION AND GovERNMEN'r.—A new consti- tution was proclaimed on November 25, 1870. The legislative authority is vested in a congress of two houses, a senate and a house of deputies, the ex- ecutive being entrusted to a president, elected for the term of four years, with a non-active vice- president at his side. The senate and chamber of deputies are elected directly by the people, the former in the ratio of one representative to 12,000 inhabitants, and the latter one to 6,000 inhabitants, though in case of the sparsely po ulated divisions a greater ratio is permitted. T e senators and deputies receive each 200l. per annum. The president of the republic, Don Juan G. Gon- zales, was elected September 1890. The president exercises his functions through a cabinet of responsible ministers, five in number, presiding over the departments of the interior, of finance, of worship and justice, of war, and of foreign affairs. The president receives a salary of $9,500 a year; the vice-president $2,800, and each of the ministers $3,000 a year; but the total ad- ministrative expenses are stated not to exceed $25,000. The country is divided into twenty-three coun- ties (partidos), which are governed by chiefs and justices of the peace, assisted - by municipal councils. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND JUs'rIcE.—The Roman Catholic Church is the established religion of the state, but the free exercise of other religions is permitted. Education is free and compulsory. In 1887 only 20 per cent. of the Paraguayans and 60‘ per cent. of adult foreigners could read and write. There were in 1888 150 public elementary schools, with 28,526 pupils. In 1887 there were only 138' schools, with 15,180 pupils. There are, besides, over 100 schools subsidised by the council of edu- cation, and at Asuncion there is a national col- lege, with fifteen professors and 150 students. In Asuncion there is also a public library, and five newspapers are published in that city. A high court of justice, and various inferior tribunals, with local magistrates, exercise judicial functions. - ' PARALLEL FOROE&—PARDON FINANCE AND Comnnncn-The public revenue of Paraguay is derived mainly from customs duties. The revenue for 1889-90 is ofiicially stated to be $4,124,764; expenditure, $4,152,797. The customs revenue in 1888 amounted to $1,389,106 ; in 1889 to $1,419,880. The external debt has been reduced by various arrangements, and on January 1, 1890, amounted to $23,521,544, including the consolidated English debt annuity of $4,220,250. The internal debt has (1890) amounted to $11,035. The total value of imports from all directions in 1887 was 2,442,116 pesos, the exports in all direc- tions 2,005,610 pesos. In 1888, imports $3,289,757, exports $2,588,608. The chief imports are textiles, valued at 712,938 pesos in 1887 ; wines 199,823 pesos, rice 449,354 pesos. The value of yerba mate’, or Paraguay tea, in 1882, was 964,800 pesos; in 1884, 729,351 pesos; in 1885, 616,573 pesos; in 1887, 520,116 pesos ; the other chief exports being tobacco, in 1881, 658,650 pesos; in 1882, 410,380 pesos; in 1884, 248,960 pesos; in 1885, 428,846 pesos; in 1887, 691,858 pesos; and hides and skins, 278,687 pesos in 1887. PRODUCTIONS.-—-The number of horned cattle in Paraguay in 1887 was 730,000, sheep 32,000, horses 62,000, goats 11,000, pigs 12,000. The chief agricul- tural products' besides yerba and tobacco are, maize, rice, wheat, mandioca, and cotton, barely sufiicient for home consumption. In 1882, 37,500.- 000 lbs. of sugar were produced. Only 158,100 acres were under cultivation in 1887-—viz: maize 58,000 acres, mandioca 41,400 acres, beans 22,300 acres, tobacco 16,300 acres, sugar 7,100 acres, rice 3,400 acres, sundries 8,800 acres. There were in 1887,1,198 factories, tanneries, mills, and houses of business, with an aggregate working capital of 4,550,000 pesos, giving employment to 2,600 persons. DEFENSE AND INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS. —— The entire force, kept chiefly for preservation of inter- nal order, consists now of 623 men, organized in one battalion of infantry, two squadrons of horse, and one brigade of artillery. There is a national guard which may be called out in time of war, and in which service is obligatory. There is a screw steamer of 440 tons and 4 guns, and two small steamers on the river. In 1889, 933 vessels, of 36,503 tons, entered the port of Asuncion, and 930 of 33,735 tons cleared. There is a railway of 92 English miles, from Asuncion, the capital, to Villa Rica. Receipts in 1887 amounted to 161,550 pesos, and the expenses to 111,337 pesos. A concession was granted in 1887 for the extension of the railway through the southern part of the republic to the river Parana, and another towards the Bolivian frontier. There are about 60 miles nearly ready (December, 1890) for opening beyond Villa Rica. In the republic there are about 25 kilometres of tramway. The river navigation is important; in 1887, 1,100 ves- sels of 41,250 tons entered, and 1,046 of 41,624 tons cleared during the year. There is a line of tele- graph at the side of the railway; the national tele- graph connects Asuncion with Corrientes in the Argentine Republic; and thus with the outside world; there were 23,437 messages in 1889. The telephone is in operation at Asuncion, with a net- work of 1,000 kilametres of wire. Paraguay joined the postal union in 1881; the number of letters, newspapers, etc., transmitted in 1888 was—inland. 256,267; international, 282,886; in all, 539,153; the corresponding number in 1887 was 438,846. MONEY AND OREDI'r.—There are several banks in Paraguay. That patronized by the government, the national bank, had May, 1889, a bank-note cir- ~ 1195 culation of $947,915 ; on October 31, 1889, its accounts balanced at $4,473,982. Those of the commercial bank March 31,1890, balanced at $1,988,839. The agricultural bank began in July 1888, with a view to lending small sums for agricultural purposes. PARALLEL FORCES, forces which act in par- allel lmes, such as the weights of the portions that make up any framework or structure on the earth’s surface. With the exception of a particular case parallel forces have always a single resultant, Wh1Ch is readily found by the method of moments. PARALLELOPIPED, a solid figure having six faces, the faces being invariably parallelograms, and any two opposite faces equal, similar and par- allel. If the faces are all squares, and consequently equal, the parallelopiped becomes a cube. PARAMEOIUM, or SLIPPER ANIMALCULE, an in- fusonan common in pond water or in vegeta- ble infusions. In shape it is an asymmetrical oval, 111 length about fin of an inch. If dry grass be steeped in a glass of water for some days, the animalcules dormant about the stems revive and multiply very rapidly. Each paramecium is covered with rows of cilia which lash it through the water and drive food-particles into an aper- ture which serves as a mouth. A paramecium often divides transversely into two; these two re- peat the process, and with continually diminish- ing size rapid multiplication may thus proceed for a while. It has its limits, however, and then two individual Infusorians conjugate, exchange some of the material of their paranuclei, and separate. PARANA, a southern state of Brazil, on the coast, with an area of 85,453 square miles, and a population of 187,548, including several colonies of Germans and Italians. The capital is Curitiba véitth a railway to Paranagua, the port of the s a e. PARANA, the capital of the Argentinian prov- ince of Entre Rios. It stands on a high bluff, overlooking the Parana, opposite Santa Fé, 410 miles from Beunos Ayres. The town was the capi- tal of the Confederation from 1852 to 1861; after- wards it sank rapidly, but has now again a popula- tion of 15,009. PARASITE,(Gr. from para, “beside,” sitos, “food ;” one who eats with another; hence, one who eats at the expense of another), a common character in the Greek comedies ; a low fellow, who is ready to submit to any indignity that he may be permit- ted to partake of a banquet, and who lives as much as possible at the expense of others. PAROHIM, a town of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, twenty-three miles southeast of Schwerin. Popu- lation, 9,726. PARDOE, JULIA, an English authoress, born at Beverley in 1806, died Nov. 26, 1862. She published poems and a novel in her fifteenth year, and Traits and Traditions of Portugal in 1833. A visit to Gon- stantinople in 1836 led to her City of the Sultan, Romance of the Harem and Beauties of the Bosphor- us. She next visited Hungary, and wrote The City of the Magyar, and a novel, flhe Hungarian Castle (1842). A series of works deals with French his- tory. Others of her numerous works are, The Confes- sions of a Pretty Worn an; Flies in Amber; The Jealous Wife; ReginaZdLyZe; Lady Arabella, and The Thou- sand and One Days. She received a pension of $500 in 1859. PARDON. The power of pardoning crime is, by the constitution and laws of most of the States of the American Union, conferred upon the governors of the respective States. In the following States, however, the governor is assisted by an executive council, when the question of pardon is to be de- 1196 cided: Maine, Florida, Louisiana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Vermont. In Pennsylvania, the governor grants pardons only on the recommendation of a board of pardons. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 271, 272. PAREGORIC, or PAREGORIG ELIXIR, the Com- pound Tincture of Camphor of the pharmacopoea. It consists of an alcoholic solution of opium, benzoic acid, camphor, and oil of anise, every fluid ounce containing two grains each of opium and benzoic acid, and one and a half grains of camphor. This preparation is much used both by the profession and the public. It has been found useful in chronic rheumatism, and, especially in the case of chil- dren, to relieve slight pains in the stomach and bowels. PAREIRA-BRAVA, a lofty climbing shrub in- habiting the forest of Peru and Brazil, and bearing bunches of _oval berries resembling grapes. The plant yielding the root of commerce is the Chon- drodendron tomentosum, which has a long branching woody root, of . a yellowish to a greenish brown color internally, and has attained considerable -‘reputation in medicine. . PARELLA, a name given to some of those crusta- ~ceous lichens which are used to produce Archil, _'Cudbear, and Litmus, but which more strictly be- -longs to one species, Lecanora parella, and the red or crimson dye prepared from it. PAREPA-ROSA, see ROSA, in these Revisions and Additions. PARIS, CITY or. For general article on PARIs, including map, see Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 274- 95. Since the establishment of the republic, the work of improving the city has gone steadily for- ward, new streets have been opened near the Paris Bourse de Commerce and the post-office; the Champs de Mars, a waste,of sand, has been con- verted into a beautiful garden, in which rises the Eiffel tower; the museums of the J ardin des Plantes have been rebuilt: the Quartier Latin has been covered with educational buildings. In 1890-91, two great undertakings were mooted—a system of metropolitan railways to connect the great Paris stations with the heart of the city, and the conver- sion of Paris into a seaport by the deepening of the Seine, or the construction of a ship-canal to the Channel. The enthusiastic advocates of the latter scheme predict that in a few years it will make Paris the largest city in Europe and the center of the commerce of the world. Early in 1890, a scheme was revived and modi- fied for supplying each inhabitant of the city with 250 litres of good water daily, instead of the totally inadequate 100 litres, which had necessitated re- sort to the River Seine. The proposed sources are near Verneuil, about 100 kilom. from Paris, at the confines of Normandy and the Isle of France. The _cost was estimated at 35,000,000 fr., of which 8,000,- 000 were to be set aside to indemnify the riparian owners of the tributary Avre for the withdrawal of water from the sources of that stream. On July, 1890, the senate passed the bill. In October it was reported that work had already been begun on that portion of the ‘scheme which involved tunnel- ling under the heights of Marly and the park of St. Cloud for a length of 43/4 miles, and at some points at a depth of 215 feet. At this writing (1891) the project of an under- ground tramway system for the city is under con- sideration with apparently increasing favor. Parisreported in the census of Dec. 31, 1886, a population of 2,344,450. The relation of Paris in respect of population, to the other principal cities of France, isshown by the following table com- piled from census of 1886: , PAREGORIC—PARIS - Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..2,344,550 Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..58,965 Lyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 401,930 Tourcoing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..58,008 Marseille . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 379,143 Le Mans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..57,591 - Bordeaux . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 240,582 Montpellier . . . . . . . . . . . . ..56,765 Lille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 188,272 Besan on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..56,511 Toulouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147,617 Greno le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..52,484 Nantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127,482 Versailles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..49,852 ' St. Etienne . . . . . . . . . . .. 117,875 St. Denis . . . . . . . . ..I .... ..‘.48,009 ‘ Le Havre . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 112,074 St. Quentin . . . . .._ . . . . . . ..47,353 Rouen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107,163 Troyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..46,972 . Roubaix . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100,299 Clermont-Ferrand . . . . . .,46,718 Reims . . . . . . . . . .... .. 97,903 Boulogne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..45,916 Amiens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0,288 Caen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..43,809 Nancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 79,038 Bourges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..42,829 - Nice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77,478 Béziers . . . . . . . . _ , . . . . . . . ..42,785 Angers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73,044 Avingnon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..41,007 Brest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70,778 Lorient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..40,055 Toulon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70,122 Dunquerque . . . . . . . . . . . . ..38,025 Nimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69,898 Cette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..37,058 Limoges . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68,477 Cherbourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..36,878 Rennes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 66,139 Rochefort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..31,256 Di‘on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60,855 Pau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..30,622 . Or éans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60,826 Boulogne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..30,084 Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59,585 Douai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..30,030 PARIS, a city, the county-seat of Edgar county, ' Ill., about fifteen miles south of Danville. It is an important manufacturing and trade center. Pop- ulation in 1890, 5,049. _ PARIS, the county-seat of Bourbon count , Ky., on Stoner Creek, nineteen miles northeast o Lex- ington. It contains a military institute, and man- ufactures whisky, flour, and cordage. Population in 1890, 5,505. PARIS, a village, the county-seat of Oxford coun- ty, Maine, picturesquely situated on a hill about fifty miles north of Portland. It produces various manufactures, and is the seat of two academies. Population in 1890, 3,100. PARIS, a village, the county seat of Monroe county, M0,, on the Middle Fork of Salt River,~ twenty-five miles east of Moberly. It has manu- factories of woolen goods and furniture, and is the trade center of a region rich in timber and coal. PARIS, a village, the county-seat of Henry coun- ty, Tenn., seventy miles west of Clarksville. It has a lucrative trade in tobacco and cotton, con- - tains several factories and mills, and is the seat of an academy. PARIS, a city, the county-seat of Lamar county, ' Texas, ninety-eight miles northeast of Dallas. It has manufactories of brooms, furniture, sashes, wagons, ploughs, etc. Population in 1890, 8,254. ' PARIS, a genus of plants of the small endogenous natural order Trilliaceae, of which one species, P. quadrifolia, called Herb Paris, is common in moist, shady woods in some localities. It is rarely more than a foot high, with one whorl of generally four leaves, and a solitary flower on the top of the stem, followed by a berry. The berry is reputed-narcotic and poisonous, but its juice has been employed to cure inflammation of the eyes. The root has been used as an emetic. PARIS, COMTE DE, son of Duc d’Orléans, and grandson of King Louis Philippe, born at Paris in 1838. He was educated in England having left France after the overturn of the monarchy in 1848. He and his brother the Due de Chartres served on the staff of General McClellan during part of the- American civil war'. He married in 1864 the eld- est daughter of the Due de Montpensier, and has three children. After the death, in 1885, of the Comte de Chambord, the head of the royal house of France, the Comte de Paris was acknowledged by nearly all the Legitimists as his successor. In 1886, on the passing of the expulsion bill, the Comte de Paris once more left for England. After his re-' turn from the United States he allied himself with the Liberals and Republicans against the empire,- L and subsequently with the Legitimists against M. Thiers. He "is the author of an interesting and comprehensive ‘work in six volumes on English PARIS BASIN—PARKES trade unions. He visited Lisbon in 1889 on oc- casion of the christening of his grandson, the infant prince of Portugal. His son, the Due d’Orléans, was sentenced in 1890 to two years’ imprisonment for having entered French territory in order to offer himself as a private soldier in the national army. He was, however, released after a short im- prisonment. PARIS BASIN, in geology, the area in which the Cainozoic systems of France are best devel- 0 ed. pPARIS GREEN, a cupric aceto-arsenite powder, called also mitis-green, emerald-green, imperial- green, French green, Vienna green, Schweinfurt green, and sometimes Scheele’s green, from which it differs in that it contains acetic acid. As a pig- ment it is fairly permanent, somewhat lacking in body, and is sparingly employed by artists and decorators for the production of avivid light green color. As an insecticide it is very poisonous, and is extensively used in the extermination of the cot- ton-worm, the potato bug, and other noxious in- sects. PARIS SHIP CANAL. The project of opening up the port of Paris to the sea by the canalization of the river Seine, which had often been discussed, was definitely revived by the announcement, at the end of 1889 that a scheme had been formulated by M. Bouquet de la Grye, and been generally ap- proved. The estimated expenditure for the work between Rouen and Paris was $27,000,000. The plans and papers were exposed to public view at the Hotel de Ville from September to the middle of November. From these it appeared that the proposed canal from Rouen to Paris is to have a length of 180 kilométres and a depth of 6 metres, and the seaport is to be constructed between St. Denis and Clichy, the expense being estimated at 135,000,000 fr., the details of which were given. The duration of the journey from Rouen to Paris was stated to be 17 hours, and the dues 6% fr. per ton. From Rouen, Nov. 1, 1890, it was reported that the council-general of the Seine Inférieure had refused to assent to the scheme. PARIS, TREATIE8 or. See the article TREATIES in these Revisions and Additions. PARISHVILLE, a village of New York, on the west branch of St. Regis, about thirty-five miles east of Ogdensburg. The river, falling about 125 feet in a mile affords a fine water-power. The chief industries are the manufacture of lumber and of cheese. PARK CITY, a village of Utah, about thirty miles east of Salt Lake City. It is an impor- tant silver and lead mining town. PARKE, EDWARDS AMASA, an American theolo- gian, author and educator, born in Rhode Island in 1808. He has been prominently connected with Amherst College and with Andover Theological Seminary, and was for many years an editor of “Bibliotheca Sacra.” Among his most valuable writings are numerous biographies of prominent Americans, PARKE, J orm G., a distinguished American soldier, born in Pennsylvania in 1827. He grad- uated at West Point in 1840; became brigadier- general of volunteers in 1861 ; commanded at the capture of Fort Macon; was major-general in 1862 ; served thereafter as General Burnside’s chief-of- ~stafl', and later commanded the 9th corps. After the war he commanded a corps of engineers; and in 1887 he was appointed superintendent of the \United States military academy. PARKER, Anass J ., an American jurist, born in Connecticut in 1807, died in 1890. He was admitted to the bar in 1828; was elected to the legislature of 4 1197 New York in 1833; entered Congress in 1837; was vice-chancellor of New York in 1844; and United States district attorney in 1859. He published several volumes of law reports, and assisted in the preparation of the Revised Statutes of 1859. PARKER, FOXHALL A., an American naval com- mander and writer, born in New York City in 1821, died in 1879. He graduated at the Philadel- phia Naval School; served in the Florida war and in the Mediterranean; became executive officer at the Washington Navy-yard in 1861; served with distinction throughout and since the war; was pro- moted to commander in 1862; captain in 1866; and superintendent United States naval academy in 1878. He was the author of valuable naval text- books, and was a charming and miscellaneous writer. PARKER, J OEL, an American jurist, born in New Hampshire in 1795, died in 1875. He prac- ticed law at Keene; was judge of the New Hamp- shire supreme court in 1833; chairman of commit- tee to revise the State laws in 1840; law professor at Harvard in 1847. He was the author of a num- ber of political works. PARKER, JDEL, an American divine, born in Vermont in 1799, died in 1873. He became presi- dent of Union Theological Seminary in 1840; and was editor of the “ Presbterian Quarterly Review.” PARKER, JOEL, an American statesman and soldier, born in New Jersey, in 1816, died in 1888. He was admitted to the bar in 1842; became State legislator in 1847 ; major-general of volunteers in 1861 ; and governor of New Jersey in 1862. PARKER, J OSEPH, a popular English preacher and author, the son of a stone-cutter, born at Hex- ham, April 9, 1830, and like Spurgeon began to preach in early youth. He was ordained pastor of the Congregational Church at Banbury, and became minister of the Cavendish Street Church, Manches- ter, in 1858, and of Poultry Chapel, London, in 1869, now City Temple (opened 1874). He visited the United States in 1888 and received the degree of D. D. from Chicago University. As a preacher he is strong and vigorous, with a splendid com- mand of racy English. PARKER, PETER, an American missionary and governmental representative, born in Massachu- setts in 1804, died in 1888. He studied theology and medicine; went to China, and established at Canton a highly hospital and medical training school. He represented the United States in va- rious capacities, and in 1855 was commissioner with power to revise our treaty with China. After his final return in 1857 he became a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. PARKER, WILLARD, a distinguished American physician and surgeon, born in New Hampshire in 1800, died in 1884. He was professor of anatomy and of surgery in various colleges; became pro- fessor of surgery in the New York College of Phy- sicians and Surgeons in 1839; and president of the State Inebriate Asylum at Binghamton in 1865. He made many valuable physiological discoveries. PARKER CITY, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the Alleghany, fifty miles south of Oil City. It is the trade center of a rich oil-producing region. PARKERSBURG, a city, the county-seat of Wood county, ‘W. Va. Population in 1890, 8,389. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 301. PARKES, S1R HENRY, K. C. M. G., an Australian statesman, born at Stoneleigh, England, in 1815. He emigrated to New South ‘Vales in 1839, and at Sydney became eminent as a journalist, editing The Empire from 1849 to 1856. A member of the colon- ial parliament in 1854, he held various government offices and became prime-minister in 1872. He has 1198 since been several times head of the ministry, and has been identified with the promotion of free trade. He was the representative of New South‘ Wales at the colonial conference in London in 1887, and in 1891 was president of the council for arrang- ing afederal union of the Australian colonies. PARKHURST, JOHN, an English Biblical scholar, born at Catesby in N orthamptonshire in June, 1728, died at Epsom, March 21, 1797. He was edu- cated at Rugby and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, and took orders, but soon after retired to his estate at Epsom to give himself to study. In 1762 ap- peared his principal work, A Hebrew and English Lereicon, Without Points, a very creditable perform- ance for its time, and long a standard work. Park- hurst also wrote a treatise against Dr. Priestly, to prove the divinity and pre-existence of Jesus Christ. ' PARKMAN, FRANoIs, an American historian, born in Boston, Mass., Sept..16, 1823. He graduat- ed at Harvard in 1844, studied law for two years, then traveled in Europe, and returned to explore the Rocky Mountains. Parkman has worked his way to recognition as a historical writer on the period of the rise and fall of the French dominion in America. He has paid many visits to France to examine ar- chives. His books are, The California and Oregon Trail; The Conspiracy of Pontiac; Pioneers of France in the New World,- The Book of Roses; Jesuits in North America; Discovery of the Great West; The Old Régime in Canada; Count Frontenac and New France underLouis XIV, and Montcalm and Wolfe. PARKS OF THE WORLD. See diagram, page 1199. * NEW YORK STATE PARK AT NIAGARA FALLs.—This is the ofiicial title given to a reservation on the New York side of Niagara Falls. The land of this park comprises 115 acres, and includes the former “Prospect Park.” This land is reserved for the avowed purpose of preserving the scenery of the Falls of Niagara, and of restoring such scenery to its natural condition. It extends along the river- front from the upper suspension bridge to a point nearly a mile above the falls. For the land taken in by this park the State of New York paid the sum of $1,433,429.50. The park was opened to the public July 15, 1885. The access to the grounds is free, but there are small charges for using the in- clined railway and the elevators, for visiting the Cave of the Winds, and for riding on the steamer Maid of the Mist. All along the edge of the crags a space has been prepared for people to stand upon, from 20 to 30 feet wide, and extending from the brink of the falls to the high ground back of the wooden balcony, from all of which a fine view is had of the nearer fall, the river above it, the islands, the Canadian Falls and the Ontario reser- vation. Similar improvements have been made on the ' Canadian side of the falls. The grounds taken here extend southward from the Clifton House for nearly two miles, and include the Cedar Islands, ' for which an admission is charged. The area of the Ontario reservation is about the same as that of the New York State reservation. But the Canadian government paid only $402,000 for the land taken in by it. PARK AREAS OF OTHER EUROPEAN CITIES. Acres. Birmingham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Bradford. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 215 Brighton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105 Bristol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 442 Dublin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,753 Edinburgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 407 Glasgow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,100 Hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..3,600 Leeds . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 350 J PARKHURST-PARPCS or THE WORLD Leicester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Liverpool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,790 ‘M-anchester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Newcastle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Norwich. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Nottingham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Oldham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Plymouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Portsmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Shefiield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Sunderland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Wolverhampton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 OTHER AMERICAN CITY PARKS. Lincoln Park, Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 230 Humboldt Park, Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193% Garfield Park, Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171 Douglass Park, Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171 Union Park, Chica 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23 urnett’s Wood, Cmcinnati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170 incoln Park, Cincinnati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 Tower Grove Park, St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 277 Northern Park, St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180 Shaw’s Garden, St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 109 Lindell Park, St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60 Lafayette Park, St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30 Patterson Park, Baltimore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70 Washington Park, Brooklyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30 PARKS AND PARKWAY SYSTEM or BosToN.— The site selected for the park and parkway sys- tem of Boston lies south and east of the Charles River. Of this system, Boston Common, which is in the center of the city, is the radiating point. From the vicinity of the Common five avenues lead southerly to the annexed districts of Dorchester, Roxbury and Brighton, in which have been located the rural parks. The Common is a tract of 72 acres, a beautiful urban pleasure-ground, compris- ing vistas of trees, green turf, pools of water with cut-stone borders, a profusion of shrubbery and beautiful flowers artificially arranged, an antique burial-ground, a ball-field, monuments and other natural and artificial features. It is divided by Charles street, and from the foot of its lower di- vision Commonwealth avenue, with its fine drive- ways, leads to the Fens of the Back Bay, the be- ginning of the parks and parkways. The Parkway begins at the Fens in the low tract, where the Stony Brook and the Muddy River empty their waters into the Back Bay Basin,a natural depression, formerly a tide pool, but now mostly filled up. At this point the Park Commis- sioners bought 100 acres of land for a park, called the “Back Bay Park.” Work upon this park was begun in 1879. An unsightly area was soon trans- formed into a beautiful recreation ground. The banks of the creek, which winds through this land, ‘are now thickly set with trees, shrubbery and wild vines, intermixed with flowers and herbaceous growths of various hues. The Boylston Road, car- ried above the waterway on a stone-arch, curves across this park near the foot. The parkway system is intended to form, with existing and projected city avenues, a continuous promenade from the Common through the Back Bay Fens to Marine Park by way of “Jamaica Park,” the “Arboretum” and “Franklin Park.” It will afford a passage having the character of a street of great width, strung with verdant features and other objects of interest. It follows up the fresh-water course of the Muddy River, a small stream bordered by rushy meadows and varied slopes from the adjoining upland, and adorned by trees in groups, diversified by thickets and open glades. In the upper valley is a chain of pictur- esque fresh-water ponds, alternating with attrac- tive natural groves and meadows, the uppermost of these sheets of water being Jamaica Pond. Besides the parkway, which follows the valley of the Muddy River in a southerly direction, there PARKS(HfTHE'WORLD are two extensive city avenues, “Commonwealth Avenue” and the “Beacon Street” widening, having the character of parkways, both important addi- tions to the means for open air recreation of the people of Boston. These avenues connect the Com- mon and the Fens with the existing spacious public pleasure grounds at Chestnut Hill, three miles away. Here are fine shade-trees and well-made drives and walks that pass between and around Chestnut Hill Reservoir, two broad artificial lakes, the whole area of the grounds being more than 200 acres in extent. Within the city a division of the parkway system, one and three-fourths miles in length, called the “Outer Pleasure Circuit of Back Bay,” is made by connecting Beacon Street with the Audubon Road that winds through the Fens. An arboretum is an open-air museum of living trees and other plants. The site of the “Arnold 1199 A continuation of the parkway will bring us to “Franklin Park.” This is the largest recreation ground in the Boston park system. It comprises 518 acres. The Roxbury Woods, a part of this park, is a rugged region of hills and dales, led es, woods and meadows, commanding fine views. _ ost of it is covered by second growth timber. The general landscape effect of Franklin Park is of a broad dale winding between low-wooded slopes, giving a wide expanse of unbroken turf lost in the distance under scattered trees. To gain extent of turfy surface, old causeways, ridges, knolls, rocks and walls have been removed, hillocks reduced and abrupt depressions partly filled. For public convenience the park is divided by a macademized road, Glen Lane crossing it from east to west, which is to be open night and day for all ordinary street uses. The division known as the \\..l ‘I I :1 (,.--'."\;‘,'._-x}?-_-_ , __," Z flu he \- I ~*\ '( .\ ~' ',. 1. _.-.-',~ ...: *:(f,; A . “'" ‘r "- --'--“:' :-"\+<'i.a','=f1“|\“£:§\-.-“*"”'~* -‘ \- . C ........ "' J "'1 ’-I-“Q‘$“'I~ ., \" \ l.l ‘ '\ X Qlieivgfiy '1.’ cc » \_-’U \ \ .(;r_| |.~’QI<~. , -. \-- c- I I‘. ' ‘ ~'\'.l:/',."’\e,Q-,¢4 \ “ -, .\ Q ,,_~ _.-- . w '3' ymu PARKWAY SYSTEM OF BOSTON. Arboretum,” shown at the left of our figure, com- prises 167 acres, formed in part by cleared fields and in part by picturesque woodland, known as the Bussey Woods. It is intended that this arboretum shall contain and display representatives of all the genera of trees hardy in eastern North America, and also groups of trees varying in number from 6 to 25, allowing for every species sufficient space for [its full growth. ‘ In a single year (1886) 70,000 trees and shrubs were permanently planted, and a large stone building was erected upon the grounds. The Arboretum is both a pleasure-ground and an open- air university for the study of botany and forestry. It is situated about four miles from the Common and easily reached by train or street cars. Its sur- face is strikingly diversified, comprising smooth grassy slopes, rocky hill-sides, partly wooded with numerous large trees and a small forest of hem- locks. Its eminences furnish noble outlooks over the surrounding country with distant prospects, in - one direction stretching seaward over the city, and in another across a charming country-side to dis- tant hills. “Country Park” contains two-thirds of the ground. As it is inclosed by itself, it may be considered as the main park. A large part of the Country Park is to be wooded, and adapted to the use of picnic and basket parties. For this purpose a dairy will be established, so that family parties may be fur- nished with milk warm from the cow. Tennis- courts, croquet-grounds, archery ranges and small lawns for little children’s festivities, are provided for in near connection with the various picnic grounds. But little more work is required to finish the surface of this park. The “Greeting” is a system of parallel and con- tiguous drives, rides and walks under rows of trees, providing a promenade and meeting-ground one- half mile in length. Like the Playstead, it is to be without underwood; and these two adjacent di- visions, which together will form an inclosed ground a mile in length, reaching across Franklin Park, are to be adapted by electric lighting for night as well as day use. 1200 GREAT NATURAL PARKS OF CoLoRAno.-—These parks constitute one of the chief interesting features of the State of Colorado. For a brief and partial descrip- tion of them, see Britannica,Vol.VI, pp. 161-163. The four principal ones bear the names of North Park, Middle Park, Estes Park, and South Park. They are not small areas of ground hemmed in by neighbor- ing hills or streams. but they are great territories, exceeding the areas of whole counties in some of the States. They contain fields and forests with great stretches of plains on which have roamed for many years immense herds of buffalo or cattle. North Park is situated in the extreme northern part of the State, and covers a part of Routt and Larimer counties. It embraces an area of about 2,500 square miles and is traversed by the North Fork and Platte Rivers. It is about seventy-five miles long and five miles wide, with an altitude of 9,000 feet above ocean level. The ranges of the Rockies which environ it, rise nearly 5,000 feet higher. The Park is in its general features an ir- regular plateau or basin, having a surface with gently rolling hills, and long level bottoms, and valleys clothed with luxuriant grasses and flowers. The hills are covered with timber. Middle Park, located in Grand county, embraces an area of about 3,000 square miles, and has an alti- tude of 9,000 feet. Like North Park, it is environed by mountains. Its streams are tributary to Grand River. It contains Grand Lake, on the shore of which is the town of Grand Lake, the county-seat of Grand county. About ten miles from Grand Lake is Hot Sulphur Springs, recognized as an at- tractive spot for invalids and other visitors. The springs are six in number, the waters from which unite in a common stream and flow over rocks into a natural basin. The resorts of Middle Park are fast growing into popularity. Estes Park is located at the foot of Long peak, about sixty miles from Denver and is one of the most beautiful resorts of Colorado. It is about six miles long and four miles wide, with an average height of 7,000 feet. The general contour is much like that of its sister parks, abounding in gentle slopes, dark pines, and beautiful Winding trails leading from open glades of the valley up dark cafions. Its clear brooks unite to form a consider- able stream named Big Thompson’s Creek. The road to the park is diificult of ascent, but is largely traveled by tourists because of the numerous at- tractions by the way, and by the still greater at- traction to be found in the park itself. South Park, the chief of the park system of Col- orado, lies to the south and east of Middle Park, and is isolated from it by a great snowy mountain range. It is fifty miles in length and about ten miles in breadth. Its northern extremity begins about seventy-five miles southwest from Denver and is reached by the Denver and South Park Rail- way. The maximum elevation is about 10,000 feet and the average elevation about 9,000 feet. Its streams are the tributaries of the South Platte River. Its soil is unexcelled in richness, with easy facilities for irrigation; and the numerous grassy plains are readily converted into luxurious fields of grain. The park is bounded on the east by a heavy timbered range 2,000 feet above the valley, while to the west are the snowy summits of “the Rockies.” The South Park Mineral Springs, and Hartzell’s Hot Sulphur Springs are in the southern portion of the Park, and gives promise of becoming points of great interest to invalids. San Luis Park, Colorado, lies south of South Park, embraces an area of about 18,000 square miles. The beautiful San Luis Lake is a principal object of mterest, and there are numerous thermal springs “ PARKS or TIIE WORLD possessing medical properties. This park has no- where an altitude of more than 7,000 feet, and the climate is exceedingly mild and genial. OTHER GREAT NATIONAL PARKs—Caloweras Bi Trees is the collective name of a grove of mammot trees, the Sequoia gigantea, situated in Calaveras County, California, seventy-five miles east of Stock- ton. This grove contains nearly 100 immense trees, which are a great attraction to the tourist and the student of nature. The largest of these, known as the Father of the Forest, and now lying prostrate, measures 435 feet in length, and 110 in circumference. The Keystone State, the tallest now standing, is 325 feet high, but the Empire State is regarded as on the whole the largest and finest of the trees. The bark of one of the trees cut was eighteen inches thick. The grove itself is about 3,200 feet long by 700 in breadth;in the vicinity are several other groves of giant trees of somewhat less note. The other most noted trees are: Mother of the Forest . . . . . .321 feet high, 90 feet circumference Hercules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320 feet high, 95 feet circumference Hermit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318 feet high, 60 feet circumference Pride of the Forest . . . . . . .276 feet high, 60 feet circumference Three Graces. . . . . . . . . . . .295 feet high, 92 feet circumference Husband and Wife. . .. . 252 feet high, 60 feet circumference Burnt Tree (prostrate). . . .330 feet high, 97 feet circumference Old Maid, Old Bachelor, Siamese Twins, Mother and Sons, Two Guardians, and others, of 261 to 300 feet in height. Mariposa Grove, a tract of land embracing really two groves about half a mile apart—within a total area of two square miles—is situated south of the Yosemite Valley about 25 miles. In this grove are between 400 and 500 immense trees whose average height is less, but whose average size is greater than that of the “Big Trees” in the Calaveras Grove. The largest is the Grizzly Giant, 94 feet in circumference, and its lowest branch 200 feet from the ground. The remains of a prostrate tree show that the total dimensions were 126 feet in circum- ference and 400 feet high. Three horsemen could ride abreast in the hollow of a section of it. Over 100 of the trees measure over 40 feet in circumference. South Grove. This grove is technically named “Stanislaus” Grove, situated on Beaver Creek, five miles southeast of the Calaveras Grove. There are said to be 700 to 800 trees in this grove, several of them being excellent specimens, and most of them in fine condition. King’s Grove. King’s and Kaweah grove is about 30 miles from Visalia, Cal., and is the largest one included in the “Big Tree” list. It covers an area of about 4% miles wide and 10 miles long. The largest tree is 106 feet in circumference, with a height of 276 feet. The number of the trees is very large, but few of them are over 60 feet in circum- p ference. Fresno Grove is situated in Fresno county, about 50 miles northwest of King’s. This grove covers an area of 2% miles in length by one to two in breadth, and contains between 500 to 600 trees. The largest measures nearly 20 feet in diameter at three feet from the ground. Crane Flat and Merced Grove consists of two groups of trees with a few scattered ones between them. One group is about a mile northwest of Crane Flat, on the Coulterville trail to the Yosem- ite; the other is three miles southwest of this on the new carriage road to the Yosemite. The trees are said to be smaller than those in the Calaveras Grove, the largest sound tree that has been meas- ured being 57 feet in circumference. Tule River Groves, one on the North Fork and the other on the South Fork. They are 15 miles distant from each other, and the north one is 30 miles from King’s. 1201 PARKS OF THE WORLD. The following diagram furnishes a comparative view of the areas of the chief public parks of the world. Only those definitely set apart for, and dedicated to, the uses of the people of the countries severally are included in the list. The scale is 400 acres to the inch. Windsor Park, Windsor Castle, 3,800 acres. Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, 2,740 acres. Water Park Vienna, 2,300 acres. Bois de Bologne, Paris, France, 2.100 acres. Phoenix Park, Dublin, 1,700 acres. Royal Park, Munich, 1,300 acres. Forest Park, St. Louis, 1,350 acres. South Park, Chicago, 1,055 acres. Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, 1,043 acres. Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, 1.040 acres. Central Park, New York, 843 acres. Druid Hill, Baltimore, 680 acres. Thiergarten, Berlin, 600 acres. Prospect Park, Brooklyn, 550 acres. Regent's Park, London, 450 acres. Queen’s Park, Edinburgh, 407 acres. Hyde Park, London, 400 acres. Schlossgarten, Stuttgart, 320 acres. Grosse Garten, Dresden, 300 acres. Victoria Park, London, 290 acres. Eden Park, Cincinnati, 216 acres. City Park, New Orleans, 150 acres. Prospect Park, Buffalo, 150 acres. New York State Park, Niagara, 115 acres. J ardin de Plantes, Paris, 77 acres. J ardin de Tuilleries, Paris, 50 acres. Boston Common, 48 acres. YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK.—Th1S public park. the largest in the world, was set apart by act of Congress of the United States, passed in February, 1872, and approved by the President March 1, 1872. It was taken mainlv from the Terri- tory of Wyoming (now a State), the remainder being taken from the Territory of Montana. Its area embraces about 3,575 square miles, or about 2,288,000 acres. In the language of the Congressional Act, the entire area is “reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set 9. art as a. public ark or pleasure ground for the benefit an enjoy- ment o the people.” For the full text of the Congressional Act and for an extended description of the park, and the pro- vision made for its supervision, see YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK in these Revisions and Additions. The immense size of this park (more than six hundred times the area. of Windsor Park) forbids its introduction into the illustrative and com- parative diagram on this page. ADIRONDACK PARK.—II1 accordance with and as promo- tive of a project long entertained, an effort is now (1891) be- ing made to induce the legislature of the State of New York to set apart for a great public park a long tract of the forest region known as the Adirondack Mountains, in the northeastern ortion of that State. A park association, com- posed of well- 'nown and enterprising citizens, has the mat- ter in hand, and it is hoped the project will be so laid before the ensuing legislature at its forthcoming session (January, 1892) as to secure early and afiirmative legislative action. The plan includes the purchase by the State of from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 of acres to be held in perpetuity for the State Park. The State already owns about 800.000 acres of the region desired for that purpose. Should the project, now assuming practical shape, be successful, the Empire State will have the honor of providing the greatest public park thus far established in the whole world. See ADIRONDACK PARK in these Revisions and Additions. VERsAILLns.—The great park at Versailles is nearly 50 miles in circumference. It is_ divided into the large and small park—tl1e latter being that immediately in rear of the palace, and including the beautiful gardens. Fountains, alleys and parterres abound in all directions. The great palace was 11 years 1n building. and was finally completed in 1672, but the royal court was not transferred thither until 1680. $200,000,000 were expended upon the palace and the grounds. Rivers were turned from their courses that a supply m_1ght be made to the fountains. Here Louis XIV. attracted multitudes by the mag- nificences of his courts. Here, also, ouis XV. resided, and also the unfortunate Louis XVI., until the revolution in 1792. In the northwestern part of the park there are the two small palaces called the “Great and Little Trianous." The Grandes Eaux, or the play fountains, furnish the most interesting spectacle of the kind in the world. 2-89 1202 PARLEMENT—PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE PARLEMENT, the name applied in France, down to the revolution, to certain superior and final courts of judicature, in which also the edicts of the king were registered before they became laws. Of these the chief was that of Paris, but there were no fewer than twelve provincial parlements. These, though not actually connected with that of Paris, invariably made common cause with it in its struggles with the royal power. The parlement of Paris dated from the 14th century. Its influ- ence grew during the 16th century, and it began to find courage to deliberate on the royal edicts as well as merely register them, which the king could always force them to do by coming in person and holding a “lit de justice.” Louis XV. exiled the members from Paris in 1753 for their interference in the struggle between the J ansenists and the Jesuits, and in 1770 abolished the old parlement al- together and established the Parlement Maupeou. I1Louis XVI., however, recalled the former counsel- ors. PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE. See Britan- nica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 311-313. Parliamentary law is the rule of action which directs and controls the proceedings of a parlia- mentary body. It tends to prevent confusion, and insures despatch in the transaction of business. A deliberative assembly without binding laws would be in an anarchical condition. American parlia- mentary practice is different from the English. Thomas Jefferson, when he presided over the United States Senate, prepared his Manual of Par- liamentary Practice, and the rules and principles laid down in his manual are to-day recognized by Congress “in all cases to which they are applicable and in which they are not inconsistent with other rules subsequently made.” Deliberative bodies, as the United States Con- gress, and the State legislatures, usually adopt rules for their own government which are adapted for their peculiar purposes. But where no such rules exist, or when questions arise to which their rules do not apply, the body is bound to obey the common parliamentary law. This law is based up- on the principles of equity, and tends to give jus- tice to the minority as well as to the majority, and also to every member of the assembly present. METHODS OF VOTING.-——Proceeolings in Delibera- tive Bodies.—-After the chairman has declared the assembly open for business, motions are in order. A motion is a formally worded proposi- tion presented to the assembly for its considera- tion and adoption. The member offering it says: “I move,” etc. The resolution which he offers com- mences: “Resolved,” etc. The questions are de- cided by vote. A “vote” may be by voice——all say- ing age or no in concert—or by elevating the hands, or by standing up, or by ballot. A majority vote usually decides the question. In putting a question before the house the chair- man says: “The question is on the adoption of the motion (or resolution, or amendment) which you have just heard. As many of you as are in favor of its adoption will say Aye.” When the ayes have voted he will say: “As many as are opposed will say No.” After voting is over, the chairman an- nounces the result. Since he has to judge from the number of voices heard, the vote by voice is only approximate. Holding up the hands and counting the uplifted ones is more reliable. When the chair is in doubt as to his estimate of a vote by voice, he usually asks the members to rise and stand still until counted. This count decides how many votes there are for and how many against the question. This method of voting is called a division of the house. If a member doubts . the correctness of the chairman’s estimate‘ of a vote by voice he will rise and say: “Mr. Presi- dent, I call for a division of the house.” Upon this the chairman says: “A division is called for. Those in favor of the motion will rise and stand un- til counted.” In a similar way he will take the op- posing votes. In taking a division of the house, the standing members may be counted by the chair- man, or the clerk, or by one or more members ap- pointed by the chair. Another way of voting is that of taking the peas and nays by making each member answer when his name is called, and having his vote recorded. In Congress this mode of voting must be resorted to when the demand for it is sustained by one—fifth of the members present. Voting by ballot is usu- ally required in the election of officers, in the ad- mission of new members, and also when secrecy is desired. In the admission of members white and black balls, or slips of paper, are often employed. For the method of voting in both houses of the United States Congress, see the article on VOTING in these Revisions and Additions, and also RULES OF ORDER. As a rule the chairman does not vote unless his vote would be decisive. In the United States House of Representatives the rule prevailes that the Speaker “shall not be required to vote in ordi- nary legislative proceeding, except where his vote would be decisive, or where the House is engaged to vote by ballot.” MoTIoNs AND THEIR TREATMENT.-—After a motion has been presented, other motions bearing upon the same subject are in order. The first motion is then called the “main” question, the subsequent ones are subsidiary or secondary motions. The most common of the subsidiary motions is that to amend the main one. The mover wants to im- prove the primary motion. He oifers an amend- ment. Then other members may move to amend his amendment. The vote on the amendment to the amendment must first be taken. Then follows the vote on the amendment, and finally on the main or original motion. If a motion to postpone to a certain day is moved and canried, the question cannot be taken up before the time specified, except by a two-thirds vote. But when the day has come, the subject is entitled to be taken up in preference to everything else, ex- cept privileged questions. If a motion to postpone indefinitely is made and carried, the question is en- tirely removed from consideration for that session. A motion to refer or commit, if adopted, takes the question from the house, and transfers it to the consideration of a committee. A motion to re-com- mit takes a subject already reported by a commit- tee back to the same committee. All the above mentioned motions are debatable. A motion to lay on the table is not debatable. If adopted, it removes the question from considera- tion until the House votes to take it up. This can be done at any time by a majority vote. As a rule the motion to lay on the table everything that ad- heres to the motion upon which it bears. Thus, if an amendment is laid on the table, it carries with it the main question. The previous question is a method of cutting off debate. It is undebatable. It is equiyalent to the question: Shall the discussion now cease? A mem- ber rises and says: “I move the previous question.” Then the chairman puts the question before the House by saying: “Shall the main question be now put?” If the previous question is thus carried, the debate on a pending amendment or both amend- ment and the main question is stopped. INCIDENTAL QUEsTIoNs.—There is a class of ques- PARMA—PARNELL tions which is called incidental. These include 1, questions of order; 2, objections to the considera- tion of a question; 3, reading of papers; 4, with- ~drawal of a motion; and 5, suspension of the rules. If anything in the procedure is against parlia- mentary law or the rules of the house, and a mem- ber rising, addresses the chair thus: “I rise to a point of order,” the chairman will interrupt the proceedings and say: “The member will state his point of order.” The member then will state his point, and the chairman thereupon will decide, whether the point is, or is not, well taken. If now any member is dissatisfied with the decision of the chair, he takes an “appeal to the house.” The question then is: “Shall the decision of the chair stand as the judgment of the assembly?” An ap- peal to the house is debatable, except when the previous question was pending at the time when the point of order was raised. To sustain the chair does not require more than a majority vote. Even a tie vote sustains his decision. PRIVILEGED QUEsTIoNs.--Some questions may be introduced at almost any time, and must be con- sidered before any other subject that may be be- fore the house. These privileged questions are: 1) To adjourn; 2) to fix the date to which the body shall adjourn; 3) questions of privilege; 4) a call for the order of the day. A motion to adjourn is nearly always in order. The exceptions are these: If a motion to adjourn has just been lost, it cannot be repeated until there has been some business done or some progress in the debate made since the motion had been lost. Neither can the motion to adjourn be made while a member has the floor. But the member may give way in order that the motion may be present- ed. A motion to adjourn cannot be received while the yeas and nays are being called, or while the members are voting on any question, or when the previous question has been called and sustained and is still pending. The motion to adjourn can- not be debated nor amended. It supersedes all other motions, except the one to fix the date to which to adjourn. The motion to fix the time to which the adjournment will stand, when the meet- ing does adjourn, takes precedence of all other questions. It may be made after the meeting has voted to adjourn, as long as the chairman has not announced the result of the vote. It may be amended by changing the date of re-assembling. The general rule as to the rank of questions is that of the United States House of Representatives, which is as follows: “When a question is under de- bate no motion shall be received but to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn, to adjourn, to take a recess, to lay on the table, for the previous question, . . . . ..to postpone to a certain day, to refer or amend, or to postpone indefinitely, which several motions shall have precedence in the foregoing order.” A motion to re-consider, if carried, brings back before the house a question that has been decided, and places it again before the house just as it stood before the vote was taken upon it, but as the rule of the United States House of Representatives puts it, “The fact of a question having been decided un- der the operation of the previous question does not prevent debate on the motion to reconsider if the original question was otherwise debatable.” The motion to re-consider may be applied to votes on all questions excepting on motions to adjourn, to suspend the rules, aflirmative votes on motions to lie on the table or take from the table, on mat- ters which have passed from the possession of the house, and on the previous question when it has 1203 been partly executed. It may be made when other business is before the house. DUTIES or THE CHAIRMAN.—The chairman must recognize the member who rises first and addresses him first. No member can be deprived of his rights by the chair, as long as he is in order. But there is this exception: When the member, upon whose motion the subject on hand has been brought be- fore the house, has not spoken on the question and asks to be heard, the chairman is bound to give him the first chance to speak. During the debate the chairman has no right to cut it off before all the members who have asked for the floor, have had their chances. When a vote has been taken and the result announced, if it appears that a mem- ber had risen and addressed the chair at the proper time, but was not recognized, even then his right to speak must be conceded, and the question voted upon will stand as though no vote had been taken. PROCEDURE IN CoNeREss AND THE STATE LEGISLA- TUREs.—-IN Congress and in the State legislatures bills are read three times. Where the legislature is a double body, consisting, for example, of a senate and a house of representatives, a bill after passing one body is sent to the other. If both bodies agree to its passage, then it is sent to the president or chief-executive for his signature. If the second body makes amendments in the bill, then,when it is returned, the house where it originated considers the amendments. If there is not agreement be- tween the two houses,each house selects a commit- tee of conference, and this committee endeavors to agree upon amendments which will meet the approval of both bodies. If the chief-executive vetoes the bill it is returned to the house where it originated; then, if it receives a two-thirds vote of each house, the bill becomes a law without the approval of the executive. PARMA, a village of New York, about ten miles west of Rochester. It contains manufactories of leather, flour, and iron. PARNAHYBA, a river of Brazil, which rises in the Serra Mangabeiras, about 90 south latitude and throughout its course (650 miles) forms the bound- ary between the states of Maranhao and Piauhy. It enters the Atlantic by six mouths. The stream is swift, but navigable by boats for nearly 350 miles. On the east bank, fourteen miles from its mouth, is the unhealthy town of Parnahyba, with a consid- erable trade. Population, 8000. PARNELL, CHARLES STEWART, an Irish patriot and statesman, is a descendant of Parnell the poet —author of The Hernzit—and his family have been associated with Irish parliamentary life for upward of a century. His reat grandfather, Sirlohn Parnell, was chancellor 0% the exchequer in Grattan’s par- liament, and the most vigorous opponent of the Act of Union, for his denunciation of which he was dismissed from ofiice, he having previously resisted all efforts of the imperial government to allure him into acceptance of their proposals. The fami- ly came originally from Congleton, Cheshire; and Sir Henry Parnell, grand-uncle of Mr. Parnell. and a prominent member of the English parliament in the time of Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne, under whom he held oflices of distinction, when raised to the peerage, took the title of Lord Congleton. Mr. Parnell’s grandfather was William Parnell, mem- ber of parliment for Wicklow, and a political writ- er. His father was Charles Henry Parnell; and his mother, married May 21, 1835, is the surviving daughter of Charles Stewart——“Old Ironsides”—a distinguished rear admiral of the United States navy. Charles Stewart Parnell was born at Avon- dale, County Wicklow, Ireland, June 28, 1846; edu- cated principally under private masters; and was I204 for some time a member of Magdalene College, Cambridge. After a tour of the United States he settled down on his property at Avondale. In 1874 he became high-sheriff of county Wick- low; next year he contested county Dublin with-= out success, but in April, 1875, was returned as an avowed Home Ruler for county Meath. He took an active part in parliamentary affairs, and in as- sociation with Mr. Biggar he initiated what was known by the various names of the “obstructive ” and the “active” policy. He opposed with great persistence the bill for annexing the Transvaal; the flogging clauses in the Mutiny Act, and the Prisons Bill; and there were many scenes of vio- lence and excitement, and several all-night sittings of the house. He finally succeeded in getting some modifications in the treatment of political prison- ers introduced into the Prisons Bill; and being joined by Mr. Chamberlain and other leading Radi- cals, lie led to the abolition of flogging in the army. He now threw himself with energy into the agrarian agitation, joined Michael Davitt in the foundation of the Land League, and in October, 1879, was elected its first president. He first, at a meeting at West- port in the previous June, used the phrase, “Keep a firm grip of your homesteads,” which became the watchword of the agitation. He went to America in December, 1879, raised the sum of $350,000 in aid of the distress then widespread in Ireland, and for the Land League movement. At the general elec- tion of 1880 he was elected for county Meath, county Mayo, and the city of Cork; and elected to sit for the last mentioned place. He was elected in May, 1880, leader of the new party. He took an active part in the Land League agitation outside parliament, and in the debates in the house; and after the Land Act was passed was arrested in Oc- tober, 1881, on a charge of intimidation and ob- structing the working of that act. He was released on parole in April, and finally in May, 1882. Already the Land League had been proclaimed as an illegal association after the issue of the “no rent” manifes- to, but early in 1884 the Nationalists succeeded in re- viving it under the name of the National League and Mr. Parnell was elected its president. At the general election of 1885 he was reelected for Cork, and his action in influencing the Irish vote secured the re- turn of many Conservative candidates, and pro- portionally weakened the Liberal party, with whom. however, Mr. Parnell later on formed an alliance, and by the vote of the Irish party overthrew the former government of Lord Salisbury on Mr. Jesse Collings’ amendment to the address, J an. 26, 1886. Mr. Parnell’s name came prominently before the public in connection with the home rule proposals of Mr. Gladstone, whose views on this question had by this time undergone a complete change. Mr. Parnell introduced a land bill in the beginning of 1887 which was rejected, though its leading pro- visions with modifications were subsequently em- bodied in the government’s own measure. Later in the session a sensation was caused by the publi- cation in the “Times” newspaper of the facsimile of a letter purporting to have been written by Mr. Parnell to a member of the party of Irish invinci- bles, excusing the murder of Mr. Burke, though regretting that of Lord Frederick Cavendish. On the night of the publication of this document Mr. Parnell returned to the house of commons, from which he had been absent, and in an animated speech denounced the letter as a base and infamous forgery. Subsequently, on a motion of Sir Charles Lewis—which, though demanding that the pub- lisher of the “Times” should be brought to the house, was not framed in the interests of the Irish PAROLE—PARRAKEET party—the prominent Irish members demanded that the question of the authenticity of the letter should be investigated by a committee of the house of commons, composed, if the house thought fit, entirely of conservative members. The govern- ment declined to grant a committee, but promised that if Mr. Parnell liked to take action against the “Times” he should have the assistance of the law officers of the crown—a proposal which was treated with ridicule by the Irish members and their friends. Mr. Parnell refused to bring an action for libel on account of the alleged forgeries and the charges of complicity with assassins, brought against him and his associates in the series of ar- ticles published by the “Times” under the title of “Parnellism and Crime,” because he had no confi- dence in aMidd1esex jury. After the collapse of an action brought against the “Times” in May, 1888, by Mr. Frank Hugh O’Donnell, a former col- league, at which other damaging letters were put in by the attorney-general, Mr. Parnell again de- manded a parliamentary inquiry, and alleged that these other letters were also forgeries. The government refused to grant a committee of the house on a question of privilege, but decided that the whole of the charges against Mr. Parnell and the Irish party should be investigated by a com- mission of judges, consisting of Sir James Hannen, Mr. Justice Smith, and Mr. Justice Day. Mr. Par- nell was represented at the commission by Sir Charles Russell, Q. C., M. P., who delivered a most eloquent oration, and by Mr. H. H. Asquith, M. P. The inquiry occupied 128 days. Its principal event was the breakdown under cross-examination, and the flight and suicide at Madrid, of Pigott, the for- ger of the letters and the principal witness for the “ Times ;” and the result of the investigation was that Mr. Parnell was cleared of the charge of hav- ing been guilty of organizing outrages. He sought to bring an action for dama es against the “Times” in Edinburgh, but Lord Kginnear held there was no jurisdiction. He was presented with the free- dom of Edinburgh, July 30, 1889, and was present at a large meeting in the Corn Exchange, when an address by 146 liberal associations was presented to him. In November, 1890. shortly after a grand banquet given to Mr. Parnell on his forty-fourth birthday, his friends were saddened by the an- nouncementlthat he had been condemned in costs as co-respondent in the divorce case of O’Shea v. O’Shea, and that Mr. Gladstone had demanded his deposition. The Irish parliamentary party met, however, and reelected him to the leadership; but later, forty-four members withdrew and declared for Justin McCarthy. He died in 1891. PAROLE, the declaration made on honor by an oflicer, in a case in which there is no more than his sense of honor to restrain him from breaking his word. Thus, a prisoner of war may be release from actual prison on his parole that he will not go beyond certain designated limits; or he may even be allowed to return to his own country on his parole not to fight again, during the existing war, against his captors. To break parole is ac- counted infamous in all civilized nations, and an oflicer who has so far forgotten his position as a gentleman ceases to have any claim to the treat- ment of an honorable man, nor can he expect quarter should he again fall into the hands of the enemy he has deceived. PARRAKEET, or PARROQUET, a name commonly given to many of the smaller species of‘ the parrot. family. One of the species, the Zebra parrakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus), is very beautiful, and in the vast inland plains of Australia is to be seen in . flocks of many hundreds feeding on the seeds of 'PARRETT—PARTNERSHIP thegrasses, which afford food also to many other smaller species. PARRETT, WILLIAM F., an American lawyer and statesman, born in Indiana in 1825. He was raised ona farm, studied law, and was admitted to the bar about 1847 ; practiced in Indiana and Oregon; held various positions of trust; was circuit judge in Indiana for many years; and was elected to Con- gress in 1889. PARRICIDE, rather a popular than a legal term. In the Roman law it comprehended every one who murdered a near relative; but in English the term is usually confined to the murderer of one’s father, or of one who is in loco parentis. In the Roman law a parricide was sewed up in a leather sack, along with a live cock, viper, dog and ape, and cast into the sea. PARRISH, EDWARD (1822-72), an American pharmacist, member of a family of distinguished physicians, connected for many years with Phila- delphia, and best known through “ Parrish’s Chem- ical Food.” This is the popular name for a non- officinal preparation medicinally known as Com- pound Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, every drachm of which contains 1 grain of phosphate of iron, 2% of phosphate of lime, besides soda and potash. PARROTT, RORERT PARKER, an American in- ventor, born in New Hampshire in 1804, died at Cold Spring, N. Y., in 1877. He graduated at VVest Point in 1824, and was lieutenant of artillery until 1836, when he became superintendent of the iron and cannon foundry at Cold Spring, N. Y. He is known as the inventor of the Parrott system of rifled guns and their projectiles. PARSLEY (Petroselinum), a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferse. The species are annual or biennial, branching, smooth, herbaceous plants, with variously pinnated leaves. Common Parsley (P. sativum), which has tripinnate shining leaves, one of our best-known culinary plants, is a native of the south of Europe, growing chiefly on rocks and old walls. The cultivation of parsley is extremely simple, seed requiring to be sown an- nually to keep up a constant supply. A variety with curled leaflets is generally preferred to the common kind with plain leaflets, as finer and more beautiful, being often used as a garnish. Hamburg Parsley is a variety with a large white carrot-like root, cultivated for the sake of its root, and much in the same way as the carrot or parsnip. To produce large roots and of delicate flavor a very rich soil is required. The foliage of parsley is not merely of use for flavoring soups, etc., but is nutritious at the same time that it is stimulating, a quality which it seems to derive from an essential oil present in every part of the plant. Parsley contains also a peculiar gelatinous substance called Apiine. The bruised leaves of parsley are sometimes employed as a stimulating poultice. The seeds are deadly poison to many birds, and when powdered they are sometimes used for killing lice. PARSNIP (Pastinaca), a genus of plants of the natural order Umbellifera, having compound um- bels with neither general nor partial involucres; yellow flowers, with roundish, involute, sharp- pointed petals; calyx almost without teeth; fruit dorsally compressed and flat, with a broad border, the ridges very fine. The species are annual, bien- nial, or perennial herbs, with carrot-like, often fleshy roots and pinnate leaves. The common parsnip (P. sativa) is a native of England, and was brought to America by English navigators, and planted here by the Indians prior to the date of white settlement. In recent times selections of the wild plant have been made, which by cultiva- tion for a period of ten years have developed vari- 1205 eties of superior excellence. The parsnip is now cultivated for the sake of its root, which in culti- vation has greatly increased in size and become more fleshy. The flavor is disliked by some, as well as the too great sweetness, but highly relished by others; and the root of the parsnip is more nu- tritious than that of the carrot. The produce is also on many soils of larger quantity ; and although the parsnip delights in a very open rich soil, it will succeed in clayey soils far too stiff for the carrot. It is rather remarkable that it has not been more extensively cultivated as a field-crop and for the feeding of cattle, especially as cattle are very fond of It; and not only is the flesh of cattle fed on it of excellent quality, but the butter of dairy cows fed on parsnips in winter is said to be superior to that produced by almost any other kind of winter-feed- ing. The mode of cultivation of the parsnip scarcely differs from that of the carrot. There are several varieties in cultivation. Avery lar e vari- ety called coquaine, cultivated on deep san y soils, has roots sometimes three or four feet long; but this is fully twice the ordinary length, and there is a smaller turnip-rooted variety sometimes culti- vated in gardens where the soil is very shallow. The parsnip is used chiefly in winter, whether for the table or for feeding cattle. It is improved rather than injured by frost, but is apt to become rusty if allowed to remain too long in the ground, and exhibits acrid qualities after it has begun to grow again in the spring. The root of the parsnip is much used in the north of Ireland for making a fermented liquor with yeast and hops, and both in England and Ireland for making parsnip wine. A spirit is also obtained from it similar to that of the potato. PARSONS, a city of Kansas, about thirty-five miles south of Humboldt. It is an important rail- road center, and contains machine-shops and man- ufactories of plows, furniture, pottery and tiles. Population in 1890, 6,736. PARSONS, a borough of Pennsylvania, about three miles northwest of Wilkesbarre. It has sev- eral collieries. PARSONS, SAMUEL HOLDEN, an American gen- eral, born in Connecticut in 1737, drowned in Ohio in 1789. He held many colonial offices, served with distinction throughout the Revolution; and was afterwards appointed to responsible positions in connection with Indian affairs; was first judge of the Northwest Territory; and published valuable papers on American antiquities. PARSONS, THEOPHILUS, an American jurist, born in Massachusetts in 1750, died in 1813. He held many responsible positions, and was chief-justice of the supreme judicial court from 1806 until his death. His decisions are famous. His son, THEO- PHIL as PARSONS (1897-1882), was also an eminent jurist and a voluminous writer of legal and theo- logical works. PARTICK, a town of Scotland, prettily situated, chiefly on a rising ground on the Kelvin, immedi- ately above its junction with the Clyde, and three miles northwest of the Cross of Glasgow, of which city it now forms a suburb. N ine-tenths of the workmen of Partick are engaged in shipbuilding- yards, but there are also many flour-mills, cotton- factories, and bleach-fields. Population, 27,410. PARTNERSHIP. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 329-332. Every association of two or more per- sons for the purpose of doing business on joint or undivided account is a partnership. As a rule, the term is only applied to un-incorporated business associations. A partnership may be constituted either by the respective persons contributing capi- tal or skill, or one or more furnishing capital and 1206 others skill. Thus, lawyers in partnership may furnish no capital; members of a mercantile firm may all contribute capital; while some may supply capital and others skill. PARTNERSHIP-CONTRACT, ITs NATURE AND RELATION To REAL ESTATE. The general principles of law governing contracts are to be extended to the relation of persons in partnership with each other. Persons entering into partnership must not be incapacitated to enter into this contract,that is, they must not be minors, or imbeciles, or under duress, etc. The capital of a mercantile partner- ship usually consists of personal property, though there may also be real estate and for the purposes of the partnership. The question may arise, whether this land is to be governed by the tech- nical rules applying to real estate, or by those which prevail in the law of personal property. If a partner dies, his widow can have no dower in this land, nor can his heirs inherit, until all the part- nership debts are paid and the joint affairs are fully settled. After this the widow can have her dower and the heirs can inherit. The “good will” of a partnership is often an im- portant part of its assets. This is the expectation that customers will continue to resort to the place where the business is transacted. The good will is property of a peculiar kind. It cannot be sold by a sheriff on an execution, as it is in its nature in- tangible. When one of the partners dies, his ex- ecutor can only realize something from this source by selling the stock and premises together. In this case the good will goes naturally with the sale of the premises. Partners are classified into secret, dormant, nominal and ostensible. A “dormant” partner is one who supplies capital but takes no active part in the management. A “secret” partner is one who is not known as a partner, though he may be active in the interest of the concern. A “nomi- nal” or “quasi” partner is one who has no real con- nection with the firm, but holds himself out as a partner. Persons who give credit to the firm on the faith of his name, may holil him liable on the ground of estoppel. In some of the States there is a partnership known as limited. In a “limited” partnership no liability is incurred by the members beyond the amount of their subscription. It is in the nature of a corporation. “Joint-stock companies” are partnerships consisting of a large number of per- sons whose liability is usually that of a general partner. Holding land in partnership by specula- tors is recognized as true partnership, but farming la.hI_1(l on shares has been held to be no partner- s 1p. EFFECTS or PARTNERSHIPS ON THIRD PERSONS AND BETWEEN THE PARTNERs TIIEMSELVES.—~OI1C who merely lends his name to a firm (nominal partner) is liable to those who have acted upon the supposi- tion that he was in fact a partner. He may directly assert his partnership, or he may give the firm per- mission to use his name over the shop-door or in printed notices , bills, advertisements, etc.—in all cases he will be estopped from denying his liability as a partner, even if he has no share whatever in the firm. It is essential, however, that this hold- ing himself out as a partner should have been prior to the contract with the third person, as well as the inducement to it. A point of interest in partnership law is the ca- pacity of one member of a firm to bind his asso- ciates in respect to third persons. The partnership liability rests upon the participation in the profits; because whenever a person takes by agreement a share of the profits of a firm, he withdraws a por- , PARTNERsI~I“IP-coNTRAcT tion of the funds to which the creditors of the firm had a right to look for re-imbursement. He should accordingly be held liable to the creditors. This is the doctrine laid down in a celebrated early English case (Waugh vs. Carver), which has been quite generally followed in the courts of the United States. The New York court of appeal has lately re-afimred (Leggett vs. Hyde) the correctness of this theory, and makes the participation of profits the basis of partnership. ~ If a partner gives a promissory note, and signs the firm name without the consent of his asso- ciates, and this note is taken up before maturity in the regular course of business by a purchaser in good faith, the latter can collect the note from the firm, notwithstanding the partner who has execut- ed the note, has no right whatever to bind the firm by such a note. The ground of this rule is, that the partner issuing the note had the “appar- ent authority” to issue it, and that a third party could not possibly distinguish this note from others which the partner has a real right to issue. If, however, the purchaser of the note knew, or had reasons to know, that the partner was violating his duty, the firm will not be liable for the note. Owing to the intimate relations between part- ners the act of one is for many purposes the act of all. Notice to one of any fact touching their com- mon business is notice to all. An admission made by one is supposed to be made by all. Such an ad- mission, if it affects their common interests, is re- ceivable in evidence. If one of the partners com- mits a wrongful act (tort), or commits a fraud, in connection with the common business, all of them are answerable for it. The liability ceases when the wrongful act is wholly unconnected with the partnership business. The relation of partners between themselves is largely based on trust and confidence. This view prevents each one from doing any act without the partners’ consent in reference to the firm business, which shall inure to his own advantage. Thus, if he buys up a claim against the firm for less than - its face value, he can only charge to the firm what he actually paid. If he take from a landlord, in his own name, a renewal of a valuable lease be- longing to the firm, he will be obliged to account as a trustee for the profits which may accrue. DIssoLUTIoN or PARTNERSHIP—A partnership may be dissolved in a number of ways. The leading modes are : a. The express consent of the parties. b. The sale by one of his interest. c. Death of one or more members. d. Bankruptcy. e. Marriage of a female partner. f. Insanity legally established. g. The fact that one becomes by the law of na- tions an enemy of his associates. h. The action of a court of equity decreeing a dissolution on such grounds as, that the ends sought to be accomplished are impracticable; or that one of the firm is so conducting himself as to bring dis- aster upon the common interests; or is in such a state of mind that he cannot contribute to the common advantage, etc. i. The voluntary withdrawal of a member. The effect of the dissolution is to prevent any new contracts from being made. It only remains to pay outstanding debts, and to close existing transactions. Actual notice of dissolution must be brought home to persons who have been in the habit of dealing with the firm, with regard to per- sons who have had no previous dealings with the firm, notice in the newspapers is sufficient. This notice is necessary to terminate the agency of each PARTON—PASSPORT REGULATIONS partner and his powers and liabilities as such. When the dissolution takes place by operation of law, or by the death of a partner, notice is not nec- essary. PARTON, J AMES, a distinguished American bi- ographer, born in England in 1822. He was edu- cated at White Plains. N. Y., taught school; be- came an editor; produced his Biography of Horace Greeley, in 1855, and other valuable biographies in rapid succession. His wife, Sarah Payton Parton, sister of N. P. Willis, well known by her pen name of “Fanny Fern,” was born in Maine in 1811, and died in 1872. PARTRIDGE. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 332-3. The commonest kinds of partridges are the PARTRIDGE. gray ones and the red-legged ones. The first lives in England and the second in France. Of the birds called partridges in this country we mention (1) the ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), and (2) the bob-white (Ortya; irirginianus), a kind of quail. The first is found in the Eastern States and the second in Virginia and other States. In the Mid- dle and Southern States the bob-white is called pheasant. In the West there is the pinnated grouse, called prairie-hen (Cupidonia cupido), the sharp-tailed grouse (Pediaecetes columbianus), the sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), the dusky grouse (Can ace obscurus), and several others. All of these are small gallinaceous game-birds with naked and scaly tarsi, and are often called partridges. PARTRIDGE-WOOD, avery pretty hardwood from the West Indies and Brazil; the product of the leguminous tree Andira inermis. PASADENA, a pretty country town in southern California, ten miles east of Los Angeles. It has a great hotel with accommodation for 500 people and a population of about 12,000. PASCAGOULA, a navigable river in the south- eastern part of Mississippi, formed by the junction of the Leaf and Chickasawha. It flows eighty-five miles south to a small bay of the same name on the Gulf of Mexico. PASCO, SAMUEL, an American statesman, born in London, England. He removed with his father to Prince Edward Island; thence to Massachusetts; was prepared for College in Charlestown, and grad- uated at Harvard in 1858; in 1859 he went to Flor- ida to take charge of the Waukeenah Academy; in 1861 he entered the Confederate Army as a private; at the close of the war became clerk of the Circuit Court of his county; was admitted to the bar in 1868; in 1872 became a member of the Dem- ocratic state committee, and from 1876 to 1888 was its chairman; in 1880 was elected a Presidential 1207 elector at large; in 1885 was president of the con- stitutional convention of his State; in 1887, while speaker of the State house of representatives, he was elected to the United States Senate. His term of service will expire in 1893. PASCOAG, a village of Rhode Island, about twenty-four miles west of Providence. It contains many woolen mills and other manufactories. PASEWALK, a town of Prussia, twenty-six miles northwest of Stettin. It was plundered and burned three times by the Imperialists in the Thirty Years’ War, by the Poles in 1657, and by the Russians in 1713. Population, 9,514. PASHA (spelt also pacha and bashaw), a title de- rived from the Persian, used in the Ottoman em- pire, and applied to governors of provinces, or mili- tary and naval commanders of high rank. The three grades of pashas used to be distinguished by the number of the horse-tails——three, two or one- borne before them as their standards. This an- tique system was abolished by Mahmud II., but the three ranks still survive. PASSAGLIA, CARLO, a Catholic theologian, born of humble parents at Lucca, May 2, 1812, died at Turin, March 12, 1887. He was trained a Jesuit, and in 1844 became professor in the College Ro- mano. He was eminent alike for his learning and eloquence. In 1855 he published an elaborate treatise on the doctrine of the Immaculate Con- ception, but ere long he resigned his chair, and in 1859, leaving the Society of the Jesuits, entered warmly into the discussions as to the temporal - power of the Pope, and wrote a famous pamphlet, Pro Causa Italica ad Episcopos Italianos. The result was that he had to withdraw to Turin, where he edited the Mediatore and became professor of Moral Philosophy. PASSAIC, a city of New Jersey, on the Passaic River, eleven miles by rail northwest of Jersey City. It has foundries and print-works, manufac- tories of woolens and shoddy, whips, india-rubber, and chemicals. Population,1890, 13,028. PASS CHRISTIAN, a village of Mississippi, on Mississippi Sound, about sixty miles east of New Orleans. It is the seat of Pass Christian Col- le e. 1LPASSIONISTS, a religious congregation of priests of the Roman Catholic church, the object of whose institute. indicated by their name, is to preach “Jesus Christ and Him crucified.” The founder, St. Paul of the Cross, was born in 1694 near Genoa, obtained the sanction of Benedict XIV. in 1741, and died at the mother-house of the society on the Ccelian Hill at Rome in 1775. The cross appears everywhere as their emblem, and a large crucifix forms a part of their very striking costume. Fora time the congregation remained in obscurity;but in the first half of the 19th cen- tury it rose into notice. In 1842 it secured a foot- ing in England. The American province, begun in 1852, numbers between one hundred and two hundred religious houses. PASSOVER, see TABERNACLE in these Revisions and Additions. PASSOW, FRANZ, a German scholar, born at Lud- wigslust in Mecklenburg, Sept. 20, 1786, died March 11, 1883. He was educated at Gotha and Leipzig, and‘ in 1815 become professor of Archaeology at Breslau, in 1829 director also of the museum of art there. His H andwo'rterbuch der griechischen Sprache is the work that preserves his memory, and form- ed the basis of Liddell and Scott’s G-reek Lescicon. PASSPORT REGULATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. Persons from other countries traveling in the United States need no passport. Citizens of 1208 this country, who desire passports preparatory to travel in any country abroad, can obtain such pass- ports by making application to the proper Govern- ment oificer. Such application must be accompa- nied by proof of citizenship. VVhen the applicant is a native citizen of the United States he must transmit his own aifidavit of this fa.ct,_stating his age and place of birth, with the certificate of one other citizen of the United States to whom he is personally known, stating that the declaration made by the applicant is true. The affidavit must be attested to by a notary pub- lic under his signature and seal of oflice. When there is no notary in the place the afiidavit may be made before a justice of the peace or other officer au- thorized to administer oaths; but if he has no seal, his official act must be authenticated by certificate of a court of record. A person born abroad who claims that his father was a native citizen of the United States must state in his affidavit that his father was born in the United States, has resided therein, and was a citi- zen of the same at the time of the applicant’s birth. This affidavit must be supported by that of one other citizen acquainted with the facts. NATURALIZED CITIzENs.—If the applicant be a naturalized citizen, his certificate of naturalization must be transmitted for inspection (it will be re- turned with the passport), and he must state in his afiidavit that he is the identical person described in the certificate presented. Passports cannot be issued to aliens who have only declared their in- tention to become citizens. Every applicant is required to state his occupa- tion and the place of his permanent le’gal resi- rlence, and declare that he goes abroad for tem- porary sojourn and intends to return to the United States with the purpose of residing‘ and perform- ing the duties of citizenship therein. The wife or widow of a naturalized citizen must transmit the naturalization certificate of the hus- band, stating in her afiidavit that she is the wife or widow of the person described therein. The chil- iren of a naturalized citizen, claiming citizenship through the father, must transmit the certificate of naturalization of the father, stating in their afii- davits that they are children of the person de- scribed therein, and were minors at the time of such naturalization. The oath of allegiance to the United States will be required in all cases. APPL1cATIoN.—The application should be accom- panied by a description of the person, stating the following particulars—viz.: Age: years. Stat- ure: feet, -—— inches (English measure). Forehead:——-. Eyes Nose: Mouth: -—— Chin:——. Hair: Complexion:——. Face: If the applicant is to be accompanied by his wife, minor children or servants, it will be sufficient to state the names and ages of such persons and their relationship to the applicant, when a single pass- port for the whole will suffice. For any other per- son in the party a separate passport will be re- quired. A woman’s passport may include her minor children and servants. FEE REQUIRED.-—-By act of Congress approved March 23, 1888, a fee of one dollar is required to be collected for every citizen’s passport. That amount in currency or postal note should accompany each application. Orders should be payable to the dis- bursing clerk of the Department of State. Drafts or checks are inconvenient and undesirable. TERMINAL AND RENEWAL.--A passport is good for two years from its date and no longer. A new one may be obtained by stating the date and number PASTA——PASTEUR of the old one, paying the fee of one dollar, and furnishing satisfactory evidence that the applicant is at the time within the United States. The oath of allegiance must also be transmitted when the former passport was issued prior to 1861. Citizens of the United States desiring to obtain passports while in a foreign country must apply to the chief diplomatic Representative of the United States in that country, or, in the absence of a diplo- matic representative, then to the consul-general, if there be one, or in the absence of both the officers last named, to a consul. Passports cannot be law- fully issued by State authorities, or by judicial or municipal functionaries of the United States. (Re- vised Statutes, §4075.) To persons wishing to obtain passports for them- selves,blank forms of application will be furnished by this department on request, stating whether the applicant be a native or naturalized citizen, or claims citizenship through naturalization of hus- band or parent. Forms are not furnished except as samples, to those who make a business of pro- curing passports. Communications should be addressed to the De- partment of State, indorsed “Passport Division,” and each communication should give the post-office address of the person to whom the answer is to be directed. Professional titles will not be inserted in passports. Persons applying to the department for forms should in all cases state if for native or naturalized citizens. PAssPoRTs REQUIRED.-—Passports are necessary for the Turkish dominions, including Egypt and’. Palestine, and must be certified by a Turkish con- sular oificer before entering Turkish jurisdiction. Persons quitting the United States with eventual purpose of visiting any part of Turkey, are advised that their passports may conveniently be certified in advance by the consul-general of Turkey at New York, thus avoiding possible difficulty in obtaining the prescribed visa in another country en route. Persons traveling with United States passports desirous of entering Germany from France should not neglect to have their passports viséed by the consul-general of Germany at Paris, thus possibly Tparing themselves much inconvenience and de- ay. It is also understood that in many of the larger- cities of Germany passports are required of all for- eigners who therein take up even a short resi- dence. PASTA, GIUDITTA, an Italian opera singer, born of Jewish parents, Negri by name, at Como near ' Milan, April 9, 1798, died April 1, 1865. She receiv- ed her musical education at Como and in the con- servatoire at Milan. She had a magnificent voice, which passed easily from the highest soprana notes to the gravest contralto tones; and she possessed fine dramatic power. La Somnambula was written for her by Bellini. PASTEL, chalk mixed with other materials and various colors, and formed into pencils or crayons. Drawings with such dry, colored crayons may be made on paper or parchment, and have been espe- cially used in portraiture. PASTEUR, Lours, an eminent French chemist and pathologist, distinguished for his discoveries in bacteriology, born at Dole, in the department of Jura, Dec. 27, 1822. He studied at Arbois, at Be- sancon, and at the Ecole Normale and the Sor- bonne in Paris. He became professor at Dijon in 1848; at Strasburg in 1849; at Lille in 1854, and at Paris in 1857, where the centre of his labors has been at the Ecole N ormale, at the Sorbonne, and at the Pasteur Institute, which was formally opened PASTORALlMHSTLES—PATER in 1888. His work was at first chemical. Follow- ing up well-known researches by Arago, Biot and Mitscherlich, he discovered the facets on tartrate crystals and what are called left-handed tartrates. He also propounded the theory that “molecular ~dissymmetry”--supposed to be expressed in the power which solutions of some organic substances have of causing a beam of polarised light to rotate -—-was characteristic of living matter and its pro- -ducts. It it said that a German manufacturer of -chemicals noticed that impure tartrate of lime fer- mented when dissolved and exposed in the sun, and that this prompted Pasteur to an investiga- tion, the result of which was the discovery of a living ferment——a micro-organism comparable in its powers to the yeast-plant which Cagniard-La- tour and Schwann had discovered in alcoholic fer- mentation. Pasteur was further able to show that the little organism would, in a solution of paratar- trate of ammonia, select for food the “right- handed” tartrates alone, leaving the “left-handed,” although the difference between these is merely physical, not chemical. Having got hold of a clue, Pasteur went on to show that other fermentations -—lactic, butyric, ascetic—are essentially due to organisms. He was naturally led to corroborate and extend Schwann’s researches on putrefaction, which is also due to micro-organisms, and this path of investigation enabled him to make import- ant practical suggestions in regard to the making of vinegar and the prevention of wine disease, as also to correct insufiiciently careful experiments which were leading many to believe that sponta- neous generation was demonstrable. Prompted by his illustrious master Dumas, Pasteur next direct- ed his inquiries to those diseases of silkworms by which the silk industry in France had been al- most ruined. It is said that he had never before even seen a silkworm, though he knew the sup- posed disease-germs which had been demonstrated by previous investigations in the insect’s blood. These he traced from egg to larva, from chrysalis to moth; and, as the pébrine disease is distinctly manifest in the adults, though it may be hidden in the young, the practical conclusion is plain that unhealthy moths should be rejected, and that all precautions should be taken to prevent infection. But Pasteur’s work on the diseases of silkworms overstrained him, and in 1868 he was laid aside by paralysis. Soon, however, he was at work again, investigating beer as he had investigated wine, de- tecting the intruders which sometimes interfere with the life of the yeast-plant and spoil the brew. His researches began to come yet closer to human life, for he attacked the problem of splenic fever, the bacillus of which had been discovered by Da- vaine and skillfully traced from stage to stage by Koch. Of Pasteur’s investigations in this connec- tion, that by which he showed that birds were not liable to fall victims to splenic fever, because the temperature of their blood is too high for the pros- erity of the germ, may serve as a characteristic i lustrations. Passing from splenic fever to fowl cholera, he showed that it was possible to attenu- ate the virulence of injurious micro-organisms by exposure to air, by variety of culture, or by trans- mission through various animals. He thus “tamed” the bacillus of splenic fever. and demon- strated by a memorable experiment that sheep and cows “vaccinated” with the attenuated bacilli were protected from the evil results of a subse- quent innoculation with the virulent virus. Pas- teur’s subsequent researches in regard to hydro- phobia are discussed in the article on that subject in these Revisions and Additions. See also the ar- ticles there referred to in the Britannica. 1209 PASTORAL EPISTLES. XVIIL, pp. 348-51. PASTORAL POETRY, poetry which professes to delineate the scenes and incidents of shepherd life. As an attempt to realize an imaginary and highly idealized state of society it is a completely artificial form,and it has already disappeared from litera- ture, never to be revived. The delightful Dorset- shire poems of Barnes exhibit the only natural method in which pastoral society can give subjects to modern poetic art. The pastorals of our mod- ern literatures are essentially a humanistic revival of the Greek idylof Theocritus,Bion,and Moschus, and the Latin eclogve of Virgil, and first made their appearance in Tuscany in the 16th century. The earliest dramatic pastoral is the Favola dz’ Orfeo of Politian, performed at the court of Mantua in 1472, but the first complete pastoral was Agostino Bec- cari’s comedy, IZ Sacrifizio, played at Ferrara in 1554. Its finest and most famous successors were the Aaninta of Tasso, represented at the court of Ferrara in 1578, and Guarini’s Pastor Fido. The earliest non-dramatic pastoral was G. Sannazaro’s Arcadia (1504), which through Sidney’s famous ro- mance with the same title exercised a great influ- ence upon English literature. PASTORAL THEOLOGY, that branch of theolog- ical science which regards the duties and obliga- tions of pastors in relation to the care of souls. PATCHES. During the whole of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century these fantastic orna- ments were commonly worn by women and some- times by men. In 1650 a bill against “ painting, black patches and immodest dresses” was read for the first time, but got no further. The senseless custom was still rife when (1712) Pope described among the treasures of Belinda’s toilet-table “ Puffs, powders, patches, Bibles, billet-doux” (Rape of the Lock, i. 138). Attempts have been made to revive the fashion with but partial success. PATCHAGUE, a village of New York, on the southern shore of Long Island, about fifty-five miles east of New York City. It produces a variety of manufactures and has a large trade in fish and oys- ters. PATCHOULI, a perfume derived from the dried branches of Pogostemon patchouli, first introduced as an article of merchandise in 1844. The plant, a low shrub 2% or 3 feet high, is a native of Silhet, the Malay coast, Ceylon, Java, the neighborhood of Bombay, and probably also of China. Every part of the plant is odoriferous, but the younger por- tions of the branches with the leaves are chosen. The odor is very powerful, and to many persons is extremely disagreeable. The odor of patchouli was known in Europe before the material itself was introduced, in consequence of its use in Cash- mere to scent the shawls with a view of keeping out moths; hence the genuine Cashmere shawls were known by their scent, until the French found the secret, and imported the herb for use in the same way. In India it is used as an ingredient in fancy tobaccos and as a perfume for the hair. It is also much prized for keeping insects from linen and woolen articles. The essence of patchouli is a peculiar heavy brown oil, with a disagreeably powerful odor; it is obtained by distillation, and requires extreme dilution for perfumery purposes. PATEN (Lat. patina, “a dish”), a small circular plate employed for the wafers or bread in the eucharist service. It is always of the same mater- ial as the chalice, often richly chased or carved, See Britannica, V0 . _ and studded with precious stones. PATER, lV_u/ran, born in London, August 4, 1839. He was educated at King’s School, Canter- bury, and at Queen’s College, Oxford, taking a 1210 classical second-class in 1862. He was elected to an open fellowship at Brasenose; has traveled in Italy, France and Germany; and has earned his rank among the best prose-writers of his time. His books are Studies in the History of the Renaissance; Marius the Epicurean: his Sensations and Ideas, an imaginary biography of a young man brought up in Roman paganism, who passes through varied spiritual experiences, meets Marcus Aurelius him- self, and at last, shortly before his unexpected death, makes acquaintance with the mysterious new eastern religion, yet without being profoundly influenced by it; Imaginary Portraits of Watteau, Denys l’Auxerrois, Sebastian van Storck, andDuke Carl; and Appreciations. a volume of admirable criticism on Charles Lamb, WVordsworth, Col- eridge, Rossetti, Sir Thomas Browne, Blake, and on Style itself. PATEREROS, small pieces of ordnance, now obso- lete, worked on swivels; most commonly used on board ships, where they were mounted on the gun- wale, and discharged showers of old nails, etc., into hostile boats. PATERSON, a city, the county-seat of Passaic county, N. J ., on the Passaic River, seventeen miles northwest of New York City. Population in 1890, 78,358. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 359. PATMORE, COVENTRY KEARSEY DEIGHTON, poet, born at Woodford, England, July 23, 1823, the son of P. G. Patmore, author of Literary Reminiscences. He published a volume of Poems in 1844, and three years later joined the staff of librarians in the Brit- ish museum, where he remained till 1868. Soon after he settled at Hastings, where he built a large Catholic church. His second volume of poems, Tamerton Church Tower, etc., prepared the way for his greatest work, The Angel of the House, an exquisite and sincere poem of love from the domestic side, which has had a great popularity. Patmore edited the anthology entitled The Chil- drens’ Garland; the Autobiography of Barry Corn- wall, and the posthumous poems of his son, Henry Patmore, Horilegium Amantis, a selection from his poems, was published in 1888. PATON, JOHN GIBsoN, missionary to the New Hebrides, the son of a stocking-maker, born in the parish of Kirkmahoe, Scotland, May 24, 1824. After some experience in Glasgow City Mission, he of- fered his services for the foreign mission field in con- nection with the Reformed Presbyterian Church, and on his ordination he settled down towards the end of 1858 amongst the cannibal natives of Tanna. Here he labored amidst trials and difiiculties till 1862, when he was forced to leave, owing to the hos- tility of the natives. For the next twenty years his work was on the neighboring island of Aniwa, the whole population of which became Christian. Both by voice and pen he afterwards attracted pub- lic attention and sympathy towards this field of mission labor; and his brother published and edit- ed his graphic and thrilling missionary narratives in 1890. In 1891 he was made a D. D. of Edin- burgh. PATON, SIR J OSEPII NOEL, a Scotch painter, born in Dunfermline, Dec. 13, 1821, and studied for a time at the Royal Academy, London. His cartoon sketch, The Spirit of Religion, gained one of the three premiums at the Westminister Hall competition in 1845. Two years thereafter his oil-picture of Christ bearing the Cross and his Reconciliation of Oberon and Titania, jointly gained the prize of $1,500. Dante Meditating the Episode of Francesca was exhibited in Edinburgh in 1852; the Dead Lady, in 1854, and The Pursuit of Pleasure in 1855. Scenes from fairy- land and from ancient legend, and religious and mystical allegory, painted with grace, tenderness, PATEREROS—-PATTISON and something of over-refinement, have made his work familiar, and have been often engraved. Among his other pictures,Home from the Crimea; In Mem- oriam a scene from the Indian Mutiny, and a series of six pictures-illustrations of the Dowie Dens o’ Yarrow. He has illustrated Aytoun’s Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers, and in 1864 he executed twenty illustrations of the Ancient Mariner. He has pub- lished two volumes of poems. PATRICK, MARsENA R., a distinguished American general, born in Houndsfield, N. Y., in 1811, died in 1888. He graduated at West Point; served in the Florida and Mexican wars; resigned, became a farmer, and was president of the Agricultural Col- lege and superintendent of the New York State Agricultural Society. During the civil war he was inspector-general of New York; brigadier-general; provost-marshal-general of the army of the Poto- mac, and later of the combined armies before Richmond. After the war he was again president of the State A ricultural Society. PATRONS F HUSBANDRY, See GRANGERs in these Revisions and Additions. PATTERSON, CARLILE PoLLooK, an American naval commander and engineer, son of Daniel Tod Patterson of the United States Navy, born in Miss- issippi in 1816, died in 1881. He served in the Med- iterranean; studied civil engineering, and joined the coast survey about 1838; went into business on the Pacific coast in 1853; was appointed hydro- graphic inspector of the Coast Survey in 1861, and superintendent in 1874. PATTERSON, RoEERT, an American military commander and a prominent manufacturer, born in Ireland in 1792, died in 1881. He removed to America and became a merchant in Philadelphia; served as major-general of volunteers in the Mexi- can and civil wars. He was the owner of immense manufacturing interests in Philadelphia. PATTERSON—BONAPARTE, see BONAPARTE, ELIZABETH PATTERsoN, in these Revisions and Ad- ditions. PATTI, ADELINA MARIA CLORINDA, a distin- guished prima-donna, born at Madrid, Feb. 19, 1843, the daughter of a Sicilian tenor and the “Signora Barilli,” a Roman. At seven she sang Casta Diva in Tripler Hall, New York; and in the same ‘city she made her operatic début as Lucia in 1859. In London she first appeared in 1861 as Amina in La Somnambula, when her success was as splendid as it had been in America, and as it since has been wherever she has sung. In Russia, in 1870, she re- ceived from the emperor the Order of Merit. Her voice is an unusually high soprano, reaching to F in alt, of rich bell-like tone and remarkable evenness; to these qualities she adds purity of style and the highest artistic finish. Equally at home in the tenderness of deep passion and the sprightly vivac- ity of comedy she has also sung splendidly in ora- torio. She married in 1866 the Marquis de Caux, and on her divorce from him in 1886, the tenor Er- nesto Nicolini. Her home is Craig-y-nos Castle, near Swansea, Wales. PATTI, CARLoTTA, sister of Adelina, born in Flor- ence, Italy, in 1840, died in Paris in 1889. She made her début in New York City as a concert singer in 1861; was a fine vocalist, but was prevented by a slight lameness from appearing much in opera. She married Ernst de Mnnck the violoncellist, in 1879. PATTISON, DOROTHY WYNDLOW (1832-1878), Eng- lish nurse, sister of Mark Pattison the author, born at Hauxwell in 1832. Her enthusiasm was early kindled by the devotion of Florence Nightingale; and in 1864 she joined the sisterhood of the Good Sa- maritans at Coatham ; and was transferred to Walsall in 1865, where she died in 1878, and where HATTISON—PAWNBROKING the working-people of the “Black Country,” the scene of her heroic labors for their welfare, erected a monument to her memory in 1888. PATTISON, MARK, an English scholar and au- thor, was born at Hornby in 1813, died at Harrow- gate, July 30, 1884. He was brought up at Haux- well, where his father was rector; entered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1832; and became fellow of Lin- coln College in 1839. Under the dominant influ- ence of Lincoln he gave himself first to the study of theology, twice carried off the Denver prize, wrote two Lives of the Saints, translated for the Li- brary of the Fathers the Matthew in the Centena Aurea of Aquinas, and almost followed his master into the fold of Rome, being saved only, as he him- self explains, by his habits of study and a constitu- tional slowness to act. We have his own account of his spiritual transition from the Puritanism of his home into the atmosphere of Anglicanism, and how that in its turn fell from him as the horizon of the Catholic Church opened itself up before his eyes, only to disappear before “the highest devel- opment, when all religions appear in their histori- cal light as efforts of the human spirit to come to an understanding with that Unseen Power whose presence it feels, but whose motives are a riddle.” His reaction from Newmanism re-awakened within him all his zeal for pure scholarship, and, no less lofty in his ideal of the teacher than the student, he soon became a tutor of altogether exceptional devotion and influence, and acting head of the college as sub-rector, under Dr. Tatham. On the death of the latter in 1851 Pattison was kept out of the headship which was his right by a discreditable obscurantist intrigue, which gave an almost para- lyzing blow to his sensitive nature. A further un- successful attempt was made to deprive him of his fellowship on a technical plea; and the result of his disappointment was that for ten years he took little real interest in the life of Oxford, while his ideas of University reform henceforth grew rather towards an increase of the professorial than tutorial system. But his educational sympathies soon extended far beyond mere college life; he published an article on education in the Oxford Essays, acted as assist- ant-commissioner on the Duke of Newcastle’s Com- mission of Inquiry into Elementary Education in Germany, rambled in the long vacations through England, Scotland and Germany, visiting most of the universities of the latter country, and served for three months of 1858 as “Times” correspondent at Berlin. Meanwhile he gave himself up with rare devotion to severe and unbroken study, and scholars soon began to recognize his Roman hand in the col- umns of the “Quarterly,” the “Westminster” and the “Saturday Review.” His luminous and thoughtful Report on Elementary Education in Protestant Ger- many appeared in 1859; his equally learned and temperate paper on Tendencies of Religious Thought in England, 1688-1750, in Essays and Re- views. At length in in 1861 he was elected rector, but, though he made an exemplary head, the spring and elasticity of earlier days were gone. In 1862 he married the accomplished Emilia Frances Strong, afterwards Lady Dilke, who helped him to make Lincoln a social and intellectual centre for a world much wider than the walls of Oxford. Down to his last illness and his death he lived wholly for study, maintaining a mediaeval rather than modern ideal of the life of the scholar as a suficient end in itself. PATTON, FRANCIS LANDEY, an American edu- cator, born in Warwick, Bermuda, in 1843. He was educated at Toronto at and Princeton; ordained in New York and became a prominent Presbyterian minister; in 1872 was called to the chair of didactic 1211 and polemical theology in the Theological Semi- nary at Chicago; removed to the College _of New Jersey in 1881, and became its president in 1888. He has published valuable theological works. and has been editorially connected with the “Interior” and with the “Presbyterian Quarterly.” PAUILLAC, a port on the left bank of the estu- ary of the Gironde, in France, thirty miles north of Bordeaux. It is the place from which the best brands of Médoc (claret) are shipped to Bordeaux. Population, 2,216. PAUL. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 415-429. PAULDING, HIRAM, an American rear admiral, son of John Paulding, one of the captors of Major André; born in New York City in 1797, died in 1878. He became a midshipman in 1811; lieutenant in 1816; served against the pirates in the West Indies in 1823; captain in 1844; suppressed the Walker filibustering expedition in 1857 ; retired as rear ad- miral in 1861; was in command of the Brooklyn navy yard during the war, and became governor of the Philadelphia Naval Asylum in 1866. PAULIST FATHERS, an American Roman Cath- olic missionary society, organized with papal sanc- tion in New York city in 1858, and originally and for some years afterward composed exclusively of priests who, like their founder, Father Isaac Thomas Hecker, were converts from Protestantism. They take no special vows, and can leave the order at will. They aim to adapt themselves to the usages and needs of American life. They are generally men eminent for learning; their schools are of a high order; and the “Catholic VVorld,” founded by them in 1865, is the chief Catholic magazine in the United States. They are known collectively as The Congregafion of St. Paul the Apostle. PAULOWNIA, a genus of trees belonging to the natural order Scropulariaceae, with but one species, P. imperialis, a native of Japan, and now grown in the United States. It has heart-shaped leaves and large panicles of purplish flowers. The name is derived from that of a Russian princess, Paulovna. PAWLING, a village of New York, 65 miles north of New York City. It is the seat of Pawling Insti- tute. Marble is quarried in the vicinity. PAWNBROKING, the lending of money at a certain rate of interest on the security of goods, such as jewelry, apparel, utensils or tools deposited with the broker. A Paum is a contract whereby the owner of a thing delivers it to a creditor as security for a debt con- tracted by himself or by a third party. This con- tract is of great antiquity, as may be seen on re- ferring to the story of Judah and Tamar (Gen. xxxviii) and the provisions of the Mosaic law (Exod. xxii). In modern times the superior class of money-lenders have often advanced money on pledges of plate, etc.; this was the business carried on by the Lombard traders, from whom Lombard street in London takes its name; and it is said that the three golden balls which figure over every pawn- shop were taken from the armorial bearings of the Medici family. Property of considerable value is sometimes pawned with bankers and others; and an equitable mortgage may be described as a kind of pawn. Among the poorer classes, clothes, tools, etc. are frequently pledged when money runs short; like other small money-lenders, the pawn- broker is regarded by his customers as an extor- tioner. though the profits of the trade are not par- ticularly high. On the continent efforts have been made to supersede the pawnshop by establishing what are called Monts de Piété. In England a quasi-charitable institution of the same kind was started in 1708, but it came to a disastrious end in 1731 ; another scheme, started during the bubble 1212 mania of 1824-25, was equally unfortunate. In Ireland there were, in 1841, as many as eight Monts de Piété, but they had all disappeared by 1853. On comparing the rules and charges of the Mont de Piété at Paris (the largest establishment of the kind in the world) with those of English pawnbrok- ers, it does not appear that there is any striking superiority in the French system. It is understood that the Paris establishment is superior to the London pawnshop in two points—it charges a lower rate of interest, and gives greater facilities for recovering stolen goods. On the other hand it is said that oflicialism, which must prevail where a large staff is employed, makes it more diflicult for the poor to obtain advances. The rules of English common law which apply to a contract of pawn are founded in part upon the Roman law. The pawnbroker acquires what is sometimes called a special property in the goods deposited; he has a right to retain them, and if the debt be not paid within the stipulated time, he has a right to sell them; if the sale produces more than the amount of the debt, he must account for the surplus. The pawner has a right to redeem at any time before sale; interest is not due unless there is an express or implied contract to pay. In the United States the pawnbroking business is regulated by the laws of the several States. Us- ually the mayor of a city has the power to grant and issue licenses to pawnbrokers in the respective city. Pawnbrokers are required to be persons of good repute. In New York the rate of interest is limited to 25 per cent. per annum on sums less than $25, and to 7 per cent on sums above $25, yet the rate usually charged is 3 per cent. per month, and there are further charges for storage, safe-keeping, etc., which reduces the sum received by the pawner materially. The unredeemed pledges must be sold at public auction. The law also demands that the amount received for any article over the pawnbroker’s just claims shall be returned to the pawner. Pawnbrokers’ shops are usually found on business streets of the poorer districts of our cities, and are more patron- ized by the foreign population than by the native Americans. PAWNEES, a tribe of North American Indians now in the Indian Territory. See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN, in these Revisions and Additions. PAW PAW, a village of Michigan, on the Paw Paw River, twenty miles west af Kalamazoo. It has an excellent water-power, many mills, and a good trade in wheat, lumber and wool. PAVVTUCKET, a city of Rhode Island, on Paw- tucket River, about five miles north of Providence. Population in 1890, 27,502. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 439. PAXTON, a city of Illinois, about fifty miles east of Bloomington. It has a good trade and a variety of manufactures. PAYER,JUL1Us, an Austrian explorer, born at Schtinau in 1842. He entered the army as lieuten- ant in 1859, became professor of history at the military academy of Vienna in 1865, and in 1869 to 1870 he accompanied the German expedition to the North pole under Captain K. Koldewey. In 1872 he was given, in conjunction with Herr Weyp- recht, the mission to ascertain if an open sea ex- ists east of Spitzbergen, between Europe and America. Their steamship, Tegetthofi’, became im- prisoned between ice-fields near Nova Zembla. After enduring great hardships, Payer and Weyp- recht landed, in April, 1874, at Franz Joseph Is- land, where they had to abandon the ship. They then traveled 300 miles on sledges, embarked on two canoes, and were, after suffering great depriva- \ PAWNEES—PAYSON 'tions, picked up by a Russian whaler, which carried them to Lapland. Thence they returned to Vienna by land in July 1874. Pa_ er was re- tired from the army in 1875. He pu lished Die zweite deutsche Nordpolfahrt (1874) ; Die Expedition des Tegetthofl”, and Reise nach den Eisfeldern des Nordpols (1876). He died in 1883. PAYN, J AMES, an English novelist, born at Chel- tenham in 1830, and educated at Eton, Woolwich Academy and Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1855 he published avolume of poems, in 1858 succeeded Leitch Ritchie as editor of “Chamber’s Journal,” and in 1882 Leslie Stephen as editor of the “Corn- hill Magazine.” Of his hundred novels, Lost Sir Massingberd, A W oman’s Vengeance, Carl;/0n’s Year, Not Wooed but Won, By Proxy, Thicker than Water, The Talk of the Town, and The Heir of the Ages, main- tain a fair average of merit, below which they sel- dom fall, but above which they never rise. A characteristic note is a somewhat thin vein of hu- mor. PAYNE, HENRY B., an American statesman and manufacturer, born in New York State, Nov. 30, 1810. He was educated at Hamilton College; stud- ied law; was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice at Cleveland 1834; after twelve years was compelled to retire, since which time he has been largely interested in manufacturing, railroads, and many other enterprises; became a member of the State senate of Ohio in 1849; was the Democratic candidate for the United States Senatorship in 1851, and for governor in 1857 ; was a prominent member of several Democratic conventions; was elected to Congress in 1875; and was United States Senator from 1885 to 1891. PAYNE, JOHN Hownnn, (1792-1852), the author of Home, Sweet Home, was born in New York City, June 9,1792; passed his early childhood at East Hampton; made his début as an actor in his native city in February, 1809, and in 1813 appeared in Lon- don. For thirty years he had a successful career as actor and author of plays, chiefly adaptations. The best known were Brutus, Charles II. , and Clari, or the Maid of Milan, which contains the celebrated song for which his memory is cherished. Its music is supposed to have been adapted from a Sicilian air by Sir Henry Bishop. Payne was appointed American consul at Tunis in 1841, and died there, April 10, 1852. It is a singular fact that the man who wrote Home, Sweet Home had never a home during the last forty years of his life, and died in a foreign land. His remains were removed to Amer- ica and buried at Washington in 1883. PAYNE, SERENO E., born at Hamilton, N. Y., June 26, 1843. He graduated at Rochester in 1864; was admitted to the bar in 1866, and has since prac- ticed law at Auburn; was city clerk of Auburn, 1868-71; supervisor of Auburn, 1871-72; district at- torney of Cayuga county, 1873-79; president of the board of education at Auburn, 1879-82; and was elected to Congress in 1883. PAYNTER, THOMAS H., born in Lewis county, Kentucky, Dec. 9, 1851. He was educated at Centre College, Danville, Ky.; is a lawyer, and has been actively engaged in his profession since his admis- sion to the bar in 1873; was appointed attorney for Greenup county in 1876, and held that oflice, under appointment, until August, 1878, at which time he was elected to the same office, which he held until 1882; and was elected to Congress in 1889. PAYSON, a village of Illinois, about fifteen miles northeast of Quincy. It has manufactories of ag- ricultural implements, and is the center of a good local trade. PAYSON, a village of Utah, near the southern end of Utah Lake, about sixty-five miles south of PAYSON—PEAR Salt Lake City. It has a good local trade. Utah Lake is a sheet of the purest fresh water, and abounds in fish. PAYSON, EDWARD, an American divine, distin- guished for his zeal and piety,born at Ringe, N. H., in 1783, died in 1827. He graduated at Harvard in 1803; became teacher in an academy in Portland, Me.; and was ordained in 1807. PAYSON, LEWIS E., an American lawyer and statesman, born in Providence, R. I., Sept. 17, 1840. He removed to Illinois in 1852; received a common school education, with two years at Lombard Uni- versity, Galesburg. Ill.; studied law and was ad- mitted to the bar at Ottawa, Ill., in 1862; removed to Pontiac in 1865; was county judge from 1869 to 1873; and member of Congress from 1881 to 1891. PAZ—SOLDAN, PEDRO, a Peruvian poet, born at Lima in 1839. In 1850 he went to Europe to pursue literary studies at Madrid, Paris, and Rome. After returning home in 1863 he served in various gov- ernment ofiices at Lima, and was sometimes sent abroad in a diplomatic capacity. To the Peruvian journals he contributed many sketches of travels and manners. His Poesias Peruanas (1867) give graphic pictures Of the people and scenery of Peru. His Chispazos is a little volume of sonnets and epi- grams. He has also published a Diccionario de Pe- ruanismos, in which he illustrates the variations of Peruvian speech from pure Castilian. PEA, a leguminous plant. See Britannica, Vol. XIII, p. 441. PEABODY, a city of Kansas, eighteen miles northeast of Newton. It has a good local trade. PEABODY, a village of Massachusetts. Popula- tion in 1890, 10,158. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 441. PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON, an American di- vine and author, born in Massachusetts in 1811. He taught theology at Harvard for many years, and was for some time editor of the “North American Review.” PEABODY, ELISABETH PALMER, an American philanthropist and educator, born in Massachu- setts in 1804. She has been a voluminous writer of educational works. She became a teacher in Boston in 1822. Her Chronological History of the United States was written in conjunction with her sister Mary, wife of Horace Mann. Another sister was the wife of Nathaniel Hawthorne. PEABODY, OLIVER IVILLIAM BOURN, a scientific and biographical writer, pastor for twenty-seven years of the Unitarian church at Springfield, Mass., born in New Hampshire in 1799, died in 1848, His Birds of the Commonwealth was prepared for the Massachusetts Zoological Society, of which he was a commissioner. His posthumous works were edited by his son EVERETT PEABODY, born in 1831, and killed at the battle of Shiloh in 1862. PEACE RIVER. a large river of Canada. It rises in two branches in the Rocky Mountains, in British Columbia, and flows northeast to the out- let of Lake Athabasca, where it joins the Slave River by five widely separate mouths. The delta thus formed is, with that of the Athabasca River, the most fertile part of the country. The river has a length of about 100 miles, but it is much encum- bered with rapids. The Peace River was followed by Sir A. Mackenzie in his expedition of 1792-93. PEACH, a tree and its fruit. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 442-3. The peach tree is of me- dium size, usually not over fifteen feet high. It has a spreading head, deep-green, lanceolate leaves, and rose-like flowers. The fruit is a drupe or stone-fruit, the outer portion becoming fleshy, and when ripe very soft and succulent. The stone is hard and rut-like. Peaches are divided into 1213 “clingstones” and “freestones,” according as the flesh clings firmly to the stone, or becomes loose when ripe, leaving the stone clean and dry. In the United States peaches cannot be raised profitably beyond 400 north latitude. They reach their highest perfection in the Middle States. For the market peaches are most abundantly raised in Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia and Pennsylvania. In 1888 the crop was estimated at eight millions of baskets. Many peaches are dried, canned, or made into brandy. In California very large crops are raised for canning. The fruit there is large and of excellent quality. But those raised in Missouri, Ohio, Illinois, Florida, Georgia, and Texas are generally sweeter though sma . - PEACOCK—STONE, the name under which the dry cartilaginous ligaments of some large lamelli- branchiate molluscs, as the pearl-oyster, have been sold by jewellers. PEAK, the hilly district of northwest Derby- shire, England, having Castleton for its capital. Measuring some thirty by twenty-two miles, it is watered by the Dove, Derwent. and Wye, and cul- minates in Kinderscout (2082) feet. The Peak Cavern or Devil’s Hole near Castleton penetrates 750 yards; and crowning a rock above the village is Peveril Castle, so named from its first lord, a natural son of William the Conqueror. The won- ders of the Peak were celebrated early by Thomas Hobbes and Charles Cotton. PEALE, CHARLES VVILsoN, an American painter and naturalist, born in Maryland in 1741, died in 1827. He painted fine portraits of VVashington and of his principal ofiicers, with whom he served with distinction throughout the war. He was a popular lecturer, a manufacturer, an ingenious inventor and a creditable scientific writer. PEALE, REMBRANDT, a distinguished American painter, son of Charles Wilson Peale, born in Pennsylvania in 1778, died in 1860. He painted a portrait of VVashington in 1795, and became emi- nent as a painter of portraits. He published a life of his father, and several works on art. His most famous pictures were The Court of Death and The Roman Daughter. PEANUT (Arachis hypogaza), a leguminous plant, with branching stem 12 to 18 inches high, and hairy pinnate leaves. Its flowers are papilliona- ceous. of yellow color, and stand single in the axils of the leaves. After the petals of the lower blossoms are decayed, their flower-stalks bend down, and insinuate their ovaries into the earth 2 to 4 inches deep. Here the fruit develops and ripens. The seeds are borne in an oblong pod, 1 to 1% inches long, contracted in the middle, and with a reticulated surface of yellowish color. There are usually two seeds in each pod. They are of irregular ovoid form, have two thick cotyledons, and a straight radicle. Peanuts are cultivated in the temperate regions of North America. Their large and pleasant-tasted seeds are much used as food, more than half a million bushels being annu- ally eaten in New York City alone. Formerly they were imported from Brazil and the \Vest Indies. But now Virginia and the Carolinas supply the American market. Peanuts are very nutritious, and contain about twenty per cent. of a fixed non- drying oil as good as olive oil. See GTROUND NUT, Britannica. Vol. XI, p. 221. PEAR. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 445-16. The fruit of the pear tree (Pyrus comznum'sl tapers towards the stem, and is not sunk in a cavity at the base, as in the apple. It has not the firmness of the apple; but it is more sugary and melting. Near its core the pear has a hard concretion com- 1214 posed of indurated cells. The pear is an ancient fruit. At the present day more than 3,000 varieties of pears are enumerated in the catalogues, though only about twenty of these are in practical cultiva- tion. Among the varieties widely cultivated for sale the greatest favorite is the “Bartlett,” which is notable for its size, lusciousness and abundant bearing. Ninety per cent. of the pears grown in the United States for sale are of this variety. Another smaller pear is the “Seckell.” This variety is traced to a single tree in the suburbs of Phila- delphia. It is of unsurpassed flavor. As a rule pears are better if picked when just mature, and then ripened in the house. The pear has awide range of distribution. It flourishes equally on the sea-coast of the South Atlantic and on the highlands of the interior. Pear trees are most largely cultivated in Georgia, Flor- ida and California. The latter State is best adapted to their culture; it produces pears in large quantities and of extraordinary sizes. Many Cali- fornia pears are shipped to the East, and still greater quantities are preserved by canning, for which they are excellently suited, since canning preserves much of their original flavor. PEA RIDGE, in Arkansas, the scene of a battle fought March 6 to 8, 1862, in which the Confeder- ates were defeated by the Union forces under Gen. Curtis. PEARSE, MARK GUY, an English Wesleyan Methodist minister and author, born in 1842, at Camborne. His early life in Cornwall, together with his keen and sympathetic insight into the character of the Cornish people, have contributed a distinctive feature to all his sermons and writ- ings. In 1861 he entered as a medical student at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. He was at that time a Methodist local preacher: but, there being little scope for a local preacher in a London circuit, he was before long induced to give himself up to the \Vesleyan ministry. His first pastoral charge was in Leeds, where he commenced his labors in 1863. He afterwards “traveled” in the Brixton Hill, Ipswich,Bedford, Highbury and Westminster cir- cuits. After a period of retirement he resumed his ministry at Launceston, and next went to Bris- tol,_where some books on the theme of entire con- secration were written by him. Daniel Quorm and His Religious Notions, a remarkable sketch of pious Cornish character, was published in 1874. Mr. Pearse is also a powerful temperance orator. Has been recently associated with the London Wesley- an Mission. PEAT. See under FUEL in Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 807-810. Peat is found toward the northern border of the United States from New England to North Dakota; but it is not much used as fuel in this country. It consists of partly decomposed roots of small plan ts. and forms only in cold, moist climates. It is largely used as fuel in Northern Europe. PEA-WEEVIL, or PEA—BUG, a beetle, which in the larva state, devours the interior of seeds, leav- ing little but the hull untouched. It is about one- fifth of an inch long, oval, convex; the head bent downwards, black, variegated with bright brown hairs, and with white spots on the wing- cases. PECAN (Carya oliveeformis), a North American tree belonging to the hickory genus of nut-trees. It is a handsome, lofty tree, growing to the height of 70 feet, with a straight trunk, and compound leaves. It abounds on the rich bottom lands from Illinois southward to Mississippi, and thrives espec- ially in Arkansas and the Indian Territory. It is the largest of the hickory trees; but its wood is of PEA RIDGE—PEEL little use except for fuel. The fruit of the pecan- tree is the most palatable of all the hickory nuts. It is sweet, of an agreeable flavor, and has a thin, easily broken, yellowish-brown shell, without the internal partitions of the ordinary hickory nut. The pecan is extensively raised for sale in the Southern States. PE CATONICA, a village of Illinois, on Pecaton- ica River, fourteen miles west of Rockford. It is engaged in pork-packing and in manufacturing. PECCI, JOSEPH (1807-1890), an Italien cardinal, brother of Pope Leo XIII. PECK, WILLIAM DANDRIDGE, naturalist, born at Boston, Mass., in 1763, died at Cambridge, Mass.,. in 1822. He graduated at Harvard College in 1782, devoted himself for twenty years to the study of natural history, and was made professor of this science in Harvard College in 1805. He held this chair till 1822, when he was sent to visit the scien- tific institutions of Europe, and was absent three years. He published a Catalogue of American and Foreign Plants in 1818; History of the Sing- Worm; Description of the Atherine, and Methods of glaking Impressions of Vegetable Leaves by Means of moke. PECULIAR, in English law, a particular parish or church having jurisdiction within itself, and exempt from the jurisdiction of the ordinary. PEDEE, GREAT, a river of North and South Caro- lina. It rises in the Allegheny Mountains, in the northwest of North Carolina, and running south by east flows through the east portion of South Carolina, and enters the Atlantic through Winyaw Bay at Georgetown. It is navigable to Cheraw, 150 miles, and is about 350 miles in length. The LITTLE PEDEE, its principal eastern branch, is formed by the confluence of several smaller rivers in the south part of North Carolina. PEDICELLARI1Ef remarkable minute apend- ages of the integuments of many of the Echinoder- mata, having the form of a stalk, with a small two- bladed or three-bladed forceps at its summit. They are generally believed to be organs of the star-fish or sea-urchin. PEDRO II., DE ALCANTARA, the last Emperor of Brazil, son of Pedro I. of Brazil and IV. of Portugal born Dec. 2, 1825. He succeeded in 1831 ; was crowned in 1841; married a daughter of the king of Naples in 1843—issue, one daughter, married to a son of the Duke de Nemours. Pedro II. was de- posed in 1889, upon the peaceful establishment of the United States of Brazil. He died in 1891. See BRAZIL, in these Revisions and Additions. PEEKSKILL, a village of New York. Popula- tion in 1890, 10,026. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 452. PEEL, ARTHUR WELLSLEY, speaker of the British house of commons, born in 1829, being the son of the celebrated Sir Robert Peel. He entered parlia- ment in 1865, was parliamentary secretary to the poor law board in 1868-71; secretary of the board of trade 1871-73; patronage-secretary of the treas- ury 1873-4; under-secretary of the home depart- ment in 1880; and was elected speaker in the house in 1884 and reelected in 1886. PEEL, SAMUEL W., an American statesman, born in Independence county,Ark., Sept. 13, 1832. He received a common school education; was elected clerk of the circuit court of Carroll county, Ark., in 1858, and again in 1860; entered the Confederate service in 1861 as a private, and was elected major of the 3rd Arkansas infantry (State troops); re- entered the Confederate service in 1862 as a pri- vate, and was elected colonel of the 4th regiment Arkansas Infantry; at the close of the war he com- menced the practice of law in the State courts; PEEL-TOWERS--PEN was appointed prosecuting attorney of the 4th ju- dicial circuit of Arkansas in 1873; upon the adop- tion of the new constitution in 1874 was elected to the same place, and was elected member of Con- gress from 1883 to 1893. PEEL-TOWERS, towers erected on the Scottish borders for defense. They are square, with turrets at the angles, and the door is sometimes at a height from the ground. The lower story is usually vaulted, and formed a stable. PEET, HARVEY PRINDLE, an American educator, prominent as a teacher of the deaf and dumb, born in Connecticut in 1794, died in 1873. He taught for ten years in Hartford, and became principal of the New York Institution for Deaf Mutes in 1831. PEGASSE, or PAoAssE (Bos pegasus), a species of ox, a native of the interior of Western Africa. PEGASUS, a genus of fishes, constituting the --=~r—\w-‘~M— .s.1.s.s*s$s5“tiT‘5==-_ WJ; - ‘me- - - - ‘>1 "“'~.‘~ : 1. K 2;/'_._._ \ 33“ \ \ ' \“§?:~‘. Tr. . V .v .,: 2 ha 5 'Q"\ -.TP-'__-—'_‘.-_-—-- - -_. 2 ~‘ .. -._ .. 9*. - -=-='-'*'1 — ..=~AL~"*E' rm ‘£5 "“ - ' ,, 8 (‘e -\ :9‘ ‘I -— q :7» - — ' 1;; ‘P ' "*2" ' ‘1‘('-- . ‘." ‘-_,'\_~\" ,. - _:: —'_a. L, w.¥;¥:'-,\;":_, - _ ~__ .. __~ "f'$?-\l' l _-_. - __ _.._._‘ "_,_h._‘ ,___._,_____- _....__ --- _. SEA DRAGON (Pegasus draco). family Pegasidw. related to the group Lophobranchii. The species are few; they are small -fishes, natives of the Indian seas, interesting from their peculiar form and appearance. The breast is greatly ex- panded, much broader than high, the gill-openings in the sides; the pectoral fins are extremely large and strong; a long snout projects before the eyes, and the mouth is situated under and at the base of it; the body is surrounded by three knobbed or spinous rings. PEKIN. a city, the county-seat of Tazewell coun- ty, Ill., on the Illinois River. It is the trade-center of a rich farming district, and produces a variety of important manufactures. PELHAM, a village of New York, fifteen miles northeast of New York City. It contains many beautiful country residences. PELLA, a village of Iowa, seat of the Central University of Iowa and the center of a variety of manufacturing and other interests. PEMBERTON, J onn C., an American soldier, born in Pennsylvania in 1814, died in 1881. He graduated at West Point; served in the Seminole and Mexican wars; became a lieutenant-general in the Confederate army. and was in command of Vicksburg when that city was taken by General Grant in 1863. PEMBROKE, a village of Maine, ten miles north- west of Eastport. It is the seat of an extensive iron and nail manufactory. PEMBROKE, a village of New Hampshire, on the Merrimac River, five miles south of Concord. It is the seat of an academy. PEMICAN, as made by the American Indians, consists of the lean portions of venison dried by the sun or wind, and then pounded into a paste and tightly pressed into cakes; sometimes a few fruits of Amelanchier ovate are added, to improve the flavor. It will keep for a very long time uninjured. t'l;‘ha:it made for the Arctic voyagers is chiefly of ee . PEN. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 483-4. In 1860 the “Esterbrook Steel Pen Company” started an extensive steel pen factory at Camden, _ smooth rollers, which con- 1215 of steel pens in America. In 1881 the firms Turner Harrison, of Philadel hia, and the Miller Bros. Cutlery Company, of enden, Conn., entered the field of manufacturing steel pens. These three firms are now the only makers of steel pens in this country, and their combined annual out- put is about 1% millions gross. As raw material these firms use crucible steel made at Birming- ham, England, which is imported here both rolled and in the rough. When rolled it is in strips 4 feet long and 3 to 3% inches wide. Mnrnon or MANUEAo'rURE.—In making steel pens the strips of steel are first prepared by dipping them for a short time in dilute sulphuric acid, which removes the scale or black surface; the acid itself is afterwards carefully removed by immer- sion in clean water; the sheets are then passed backwards and forwards through a rolling-mill with \ \ \ 6 dense the steel, and re- duce it to the exact thick- ness required, it having been previously cut into strips of various widths, according to the kind of pen to be made; for the or- dinary kind its width is seen in Fig. 1. This is then passed through a cutting- 7% e / .4/er/er////////////ewe//é / ;/Z/7 //W/%///W./%%///A ////,, //, \ \ \ machine, which rapidly \ punches out pieces of the \ \\_ shape down in Figure 2, \ \ and in the order shown x in Figure 1, which is a por- tion of the strip with the pieces or blanks, as they are called, out out; that which is represented is the waste or scrap. The blanks are now passed through a succession of operations, ~ _ \ each conducted by a sep- Flsure 1- arate person; women or girls are chiefly employed. By the first process after the cutting, they are passed one by one into a machine worked by a small hand lever, which makes the two side-slits as seen in Figure 3. Piercing is sometimes per- formed by the same, but more frequently by a similar machine, in which, however, only one punch may act, and cut out the small hole seen in Figure 4. The repeated rolling and stamping of the metal have by this time made it hard and brittle, and it is necessary to anneal it, for which purpose some thousands of the slit and pierced blanks are /’/’// r 3 put into an iron box, and placed in the fire which softens I them considera- 1'. third process. 5] other operator ill receives them I I hand-press and * M 5 a punch stamps ll, .1:»l called, the name 2 of the maker Fig- The fifth is somewhat similar, and is sometimes omitted; it consists in placing it under another any ornamental mark or number. The sixth pro- cess, called rm'sing, consists in passing into anoth- N.J.;and this house is to-day the largest maker f o r a t i m e, bly; this is the .1 .| IVheu cold, an- 1 ll 1’ ii and with another ll 1 ' or marks, as it is H ure 5, which constitutes the fourth process. press, which has a punch and die for embossing er press, which has a sinker and grooved die as in 1216 Figure 6. The flat blank a is pushed under the sinker c, is pressed by the ac- tion of the lever in- to the groove d, and comes out with its edges curved up, as in b. The seventh process consists in hardening, which is done by placing the pens in an iron box or mufile, and when they are at a red heat, throwing them into oil ; this renders them exceedingly brittle and hard, too much so, indeed, for they have now to pass through the eighth or tempering pro- cess, which brings them to the required temper or hardness and elasticity. The ninth operation is scouring; this consists in putting a large number into a tin cylinder, which is kept revolving by ma- chinery ; sand and course emery-pow- der are mixed with them; and the friction of these materials and of the pens themselves cleanses them from all impurities, and brings out the natural color of the metal. The tenth and eleventh processes consist in grinding the outside of the nib, first lengthwise (fig 7), and then crosswise (fig. 8), which are done by different persons at separate grind- ing-wheels. Next follows the most important operation, constituting the twelfth process or sZitting—that is, making the central slit, upon the nicety of which the whole value of the pen de- pends. This is done in a hand-press similar to the others, but the cutting part consists of two chisels, one fixed on the table, the other com- ing down on the depression of the lever, and so accurately adjusted as to just clear each other. The operator then skillfully holds the pen length- wise on the fixed chisel, and brings down the movable one, so as to effect the beautifully clean cut which constitutes so important a fea- ture in the manufacture. Two other processes, the thirteenth and fourteenth, finish the series: the first is coloring, by heating them in a revolv- ing cylinder over a charcoal stove, which gives them a blue or yellowish color, according to the time employed; and the last is varnishing them with a varnish composed of lac and naptha. The process of manufacture has changed very little during the last twenty years. After the pens are finished, they are assorted. Each pen is examined. They are then packed in boxes con- taining a gross each, and the boxes are packed into cartoons of twenty-five gross each. At first only pens having fine points were wanted. Now, however, many writers want “stub” pens, which have short and rather broad points. Gonn Pnns.—Gold pens were first made in this country by John Isaac Hawkins, an Englishman, who after years of experimenting had succeeded in making a serviceable gold pen. In 1836 Simeon Hyde, an American, purchased Hawkins’ business for $1,500 and a royalty on the pens sold. The process of making gold pens was not covered by patent; it was therefore kept secret by Hyde. But it leaked out gradually, and by 1849 there were fif- teen firms engaged in making gold pens. To-day PENALTY—PENCIL the gold pens are provided with iridium tips, and their manufacture is a special industry. FOUNTAIN Pnns.—N. A. Prince, of New York, brought out the first fountain pen in 1848. A metal barrel contained the ink, and a valve controlled its flow. During the last thirty years a great many improvements in fountain pens have been made, and numerous patents have been taken out for fountain pens of different constructions. The vari- ations are chiefly in the means employed for feed- ing the ink to the pen. The “stylographic” pen is afountain pen, which has no nib, but a tapered point tipped with iridium, and pierced with a fine aperture. This aperture is closed by a thin iridium plug or needle attached internally to a fine gold spring, which pushes back when the writer presses the point of the pen upon the paper, and lets the ink flow to the point. This pen has become very opular. PENALTY is (1) a punishment annexed by law or judicial decision, to a violation of law; it means usually a sum of money to be paid. But the ex- pression “death penalty” is also often used. (2) A penalty provided by contract is a forfeit which an obligor agrees to pay if he shall fail to fulfill his part of the agreement. The most ordin- ary form of penalty is that named in abond. In a common money bond the obligor often binds him- self in absolute terms to pay to the obligee a cer- tain sum which is the “penalty ;” but in a subse- .quent clause, called the condition, it is provided, that if he shall pay another and smaller sum with interest at a specified time, the entire obligation shall be void. A penalty thus inserted in a contract, is a mere matter of form. Its legal effect was long established by equity; and this equitable doctrine has been fully accepted by courts of law. The party who fails to perform his agreement does not thereby forfeit the whole sum mentioned as the penalty, but is liable only for the amount of dam- ages actually sustained by the other party, and upon payment of such damages, or the principal and interest of the debt if the instrument is a penal bond, he is discharged from all other obligation. Under certain circumstances, however, such a clause is treated as any other promise to pay and is binding according to its terms, so that the exact amount named in the contract can be recovered from the obligor. PENCIL, see Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 489-90. The manufacture of lead pencils was started in this country in 1861 by A. W. Faber, of Stein, Germany. His factory was located in New York City. But it burnt in 1872, and a new one was built at Green- point, L. I. In 1865 the Eagle Pencil Co. entered this field of manufacture, and the American Lead Pencil Co. commenced the business in the same year. They were followed in 1872 by the Dixon Crucible Co., which makes also lead pencils. To- day the firms mentioned are the only manufactur- ers of lead pencils in the United States. The graphite used for lead pencils is mixed with fire clay. The Dixon Crucible Co. uses American graphite for its pencils. All the other companies employ graphite coming from Bohemia, and Faber uses for his drawing pencils graphite coming from a mine in Siberia. The clay mixed with the graphite is imported from Bohemia and Bavaria. It is of a brownish color, and feels oily or greasy when rolled between the fingers. The cases of most pencils are made of cedar wood which comes from Florida. Other woods have been used to a slight extent. In America machines are now used for most processes, while in Europe they are per- formed by hand. The consequence is that the American manufacturer produces six pencils, while . ty miles southeast of Walhalla. PENDANT—PENNSYLVANIA the European manufacturer makes only one. The finish is the same in both cases. PENDANT, or PENNANT, a narrow flag of great length, tapering to a point, and carried at the head of the principal mast in a royal ship, to show that she is in commission. PENDER, WILLIAM D. (1834-1863), a Confeder- ate general, born in North Carolina in 1834. He graduated at West Point, and was active on the frontier until 1861; became major-general in the Southern army, and was killed at Gettysburg in 1863. PENDLETON, a township of Lancashire, Eng- land, with a station on the Lancashire & York- shire Railway. It is a suburb of Manchester, and is two and a half miles west-northwest of the town of that name. Population, 25,489. PENDLETON, a village of South Carolina, twen- It is the seat of two academies. PENDLETON, EDMUND, a lawyer and an Ameri- can statesman, born in Caroline county, Va., in 1721, died at Richmond, Va., in 1803. In 1752 he was elected to the house of burgesses; in 1774 he was a member of the first continental congress. In 1776 he drafted the resolution instructing the delegates of Virginia to propose in congress a declaration of independence. During the Revolu- tionary war he was chairman of the Virginia Com- , mittee of Safety. When the State of Virginia was organized, he became speaker of the house. He also presided over the State convention which rati- , fied the Federal constitution. From 1779 till his death Pendleton was president of the court of ap- peals. PENDLETON, Gaonen H., born in Ohio in 1825. . He became a member of Congress in 1857; United States Senator 1879; and minister to Germany in 1885. PENEDO, a flourishing town of Brazil, in the province of Alagoas, fifty miles southwest of Maca- yo, on the San Francisco, near its mouth. In the district, cotton, rice, and other crops are grown. Population of town 9,000, of district, 17,574, mostly n Ians. PENF1ELD,avillage of New York, on Ironde- ‘ quoit Creek, eight miles east of Rochester. It con- tains a number of mills. PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN. See UNITED STATES in Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 777, § 284. PENN, J onn, a signer of the Declaration of Inde- J pendence, born in Virginia in 1741, died in 1788. He held various public ofiices, and was a member of Congress. PENN ALISM, the name given to a practice once prevalent in the Protestant universities of Ger- many, which seems to have been essentially the same as the fagging of the English public schools. The freshmen or students of the first year were considered by the elder students as virtually their servants. Pennalism is said to have been introduced in the beginning of the 17th century, and to have been mostly confined to the Protestant universi- ties of Germany. But the germs and modifications of it were much earlier and more general. The servitude imposed on the pennals was probably an aping of the usage of chivalry, by which a candi- date for knighthood had to serve for a time as page to one already a knight. All attempts to check - the evils of pennalism were long unavailing. Edicts against the practice were issued in Jena and other universities about the beginning of the 17th cen- ' tury, but it was not till the last half of the century that the universities, by uniting in severe meas- ures, were able to check the evil. PENNINGTON, J onn B., an American statesman, J‘ .l._._ .- 1217 born near New Castle, Del., Dec. 20, 1825. He re- ceived an academic education at New Castle and Newark, Del., and a collegiate education at Jefferson College, Pa.; went to Indiana and was engaged in teaching; returned to Delaware, studied law under the direction of Hon. Martin W. Bates, and was admitted to practice in April, 1857 ; was a member of the State house of representatives in 1857 ; was clerk of the house in 1859, 1863 and 1871; was a delegate to the Democratic national convention at Charleston and Baltimore in 1860; was appointed United States Attorney for the District of Delaware in 1868 by President Johnson, and attorney-general of the State by Governor Ponder in 1874, and was a member of Congress from 1887 to 1891. PENNINGTON, WILLIAM (1757-1826) a Revolu- tionary soldier. He became associate judge of the supreme court of New Jersey in 1804; was gover- nor in 1813, and United States district judge from 1815 to the time of his death. His son, VVILLIAM PENNINGTON (1796-1862), held many important of- fices. He was governor of New Jersey from 1837 to 1843; a member of Congress in 1859, and was chosen Speaker of the House. PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF. For the general article on PENNSYLVANIA, see Britannica,Vol. XVIII, pp. 498-504. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as follows: Area, 45,215; popula- tion, 5,258,014-—an increase during the decade of 975,123. Capital, Harrisburg, with a population of 40,164. POPULATION OF CHIEF CITIES AND TOWNS.—Th8 following table gives the population of the cities and towns which in 1890 had each over 8,000 inhab- itants; also their population in 1880 and their in- crease during the decade: ~' - Pop. Pop. Per Cities and Towns. 1890. 1880. Increase. Ct. Allegheny . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105,287 78,682 26,605 33.81 Allentown . . . . . . 25,228 18,063 7,165 39.67 Altoona . . . . . . . . . .. 30,337 19,710 10,627 53.92 Beaver Falls . . . . . . . .. 9,735 5,104 4,631 90.73 Braddock . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,561 3,310 5,251 158.64 Bradford . . . . . . . .. . 10.514 9,197 1,317 14.32 Butler.. . . . . . . . . . . . 8,734 3,163 5.571 176.13 Carbondale . . . . . . . . 10,833 7,714 3,119 40. Chester. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,226 14,997 5.229 34.87 Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.599 8.312 2.287 27 .51 Dunmore . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,315 5,151 3,164 61.42 Easton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,481 11,924 2,557 21.44 Erie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.634 27,737 12,897 46.50 Harrisburg . . . . . . . . . . 40,164 30,762 9,402 29.05 Hazleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,872 6 ,935_ 4,937 71.19 J ohnstown . . . . . . . . . . 21,805 8,380 13,425 160.20 Lancaster . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.011 25,769 6,242 34.22 Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,664 8,778 5,886 67.05 McKeepsport. . . . . . . .. 20.741 8.122 12,529 152.57 Mahano . . 11,286 7,181 4.105 57.16 Meadvil e . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,520 8,860 660 7.45 Mount'Carmel .. 8,254 2.378 5,876 247.10 Nanticoke. . . . . . . .. 10,044 3,884 6,160 158.60 Newcastle. . . . . . . . . 11,600 8,418 3,182 37 .80 Norristown . . . . . . . .. 19,791 13,063 6.728 51.50 ' ‘ y . . . . . .. 10,932 7,315 3,617 49.45 Philadelphia . . . . . . . . 1,046,964 847,170 199,794 23.58 Phoenixville . . . . . . . . . 8,514 6,622 1, 27.42 Pittsburgh . . . . . . . .. . 238,617 156,389 82,228 52.58 Pittston . . . . . . . . . . . 10.302 7,472 2,830 37.87 Plymouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,344 6,065 3,279 54.06 Pottstown . . . . . . . . .. . 13,285 5,305 7,980 150.42 Pottsville . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,117 13,253 864 6.52 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58,661 43,278 15,383 35.44 Scranton . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75,215 45,840 29,365 64.05 Shamokin. . . . . . . . . . . 14,403 8,184 6,219 75.99 Shenandoah . . . . . . . . . 15,944 10,147 5,799 57.13 South Bethlehem . . .. 10.302 4,925 5,377 109.18 Steelton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,250 2,447 6,803 278.01 1218 - - Pop. Pop. ~ Per Cities and Towns. 1890. 1880. Increase. Ct. West Chester . . . . . . . .. 8,023 7,046 982 13.94 Wilkesbarre . . . . . . . . . . 37,718 23,339 14,379 61.61 Vliilliamsport . . . . . . . . . 27,132 18,934 8.798 43.30 York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,793 13,940 6,853 49.16 The census returns of several other cities and towns are as follows: Ashland, 7,376; Bethlehem, 6,750; Bristol, 6,535; Franklin, 6,220; Huntingdon, 6,062; Lockhaven, 7,350; Sharon, 7,447; Uniontown, 6,358; Washington, 7,045; Dubois, 6,137; South Chester, 7,067. AREAS AND POPULATION BY COUNTIEs.—-The land areas in square miles, and the population, sever- ally, of the counties of the State were as follows in 1890: Counties. Areas Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 33,486 32,455 Allegheny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 551,959 355,869 Armstrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 - 46 ,747‘ 47,641 Beaver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 50,077 39,605 Bedford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 38,644 34,929 Berks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901 137,327 122,597 Blair ............................ . . 524 70,866 52,740 Bradford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,150 59,233 58,541 Bucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 70,615 68,656 Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 55,339 52,536 Cambria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 66,375 46,811 Cameron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 7,238 5,159 Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 38,624 31,923 Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,145 43,269 37,922 Chester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764 89,37 83,481 Clarion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 36,802 40,328 Clearfield ....................... . . 1,079 69,565 43,408 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850 28,685 26,278 Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 36,832 32,409 Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,015 65,324 68,607 Cumberland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 47,271 45,977 Dauphin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 96,977 76,148 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 74,683 56,101 Elk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 22,239 12,800 Erie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 86,074 74,688 Fayette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 80 .006 58,842 Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 8,482 4,385 Eranklm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 51,433 49,855 Fulton .......................... . . 435 10,137 10,149 Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 28,935 28,273 Huntingdon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 35,750 33,054 Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830 42,175 40,527 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640 44,005 27 ,935 J uniata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 16,655 18,227 Lackawanna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 142,088 89,269 Lancaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965 149,095 139,447 Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 37,517 33,312 Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3730 43,131 38,475 Leh1gh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 76,631 65,969 Luzerne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 201,203 133,065 Lycoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,195 70,579 57,486 McKean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,065 45,853 42,565 Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (560 55,744 [151 Miifhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 19,996 19 ,577 Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 20,111 20,175 Montgomery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 123,290 975,494 Montour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 ,645 15 ,468 Northampton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 84,220 70,312 Northumberland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 74,698 53,123 Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 26,276 27 ,522 Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 1,046,964 847,170 Pike ............................. . . 620 9,412 9,663 Potter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,070 22,778 13,797 Schuylkill ............. . ._ . . . . . . . . . 816 154,163 129,974 Snyder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 17,651 17,797 Somerset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,106 37,317 33,110 Sullivan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 11,620 8,073 PENNSYLVANIA Counties. Area. 5&8‘ f8%I.)' Susquehanna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850 40,093 0,354 T1oga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,120 52,313 45,814 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 17,820 16,905 Venango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 46,640 43,670 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855 37,585 27,981 Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 890 71,155 55,418 Wayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738 31,010 33,513 W estmpreland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,035 112,819 78 ,036 Wyoming ....................... . . 396 15,891 15,599 York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910 99,489 87,84 GOvERNoRs OF PENNsYLvANIA.—The following is a complete list of the governors of the State, with - the periods and dates of services: UNDER THE SWEDES. Peter Minuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1633 John Printz . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1643 Peter Hollander . . . . . . . . . ..1633 John Pappegoya . . . . . . . . ..1653 Johann C. Rysingh, 1654. UNDER THE DUTCH. Deryck Schmidt . . . . . . . . . . .1655 Goeren Van 'Dyke . . . . . . . .1657 -John Paul J aquet . . . . . . . . ..1655 Wm. Beekman. . . ._ . . . . . . . .1658 Colony divided into city Colony united . . . . . . . . . . . .1662 ' and company . . . . . . .1657-62 Wm. Beekman. . . . . . . . . . . .1662 Jacob Alricks . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1657 Alex. D’Hinoyossa . . . . . ..1663 Alex. D’HinOyOssa . . . . . . . . .1659 Captured by the English,1664 UNDER THE ENGLISH. Col. Richard Nichols . . . . ..1664 Anthony Cove . . . . . . . . . .. 1673 Robert Carr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1664 Peter Alricks . . . . . . . . . . ..1673 001. Francis Lovelace . . . . . .1667 Sir Edmund Andross. . . .1674 THE PROPRIETARY GOVERNMENT. Wm. Markham . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1681: John Evans . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1704 Wm. Penn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1682 Charles Gookin . . . . . . . . ..1709 The Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1684 Sir Wm. Keith . . . . . . . . . . ..l717 Commissioners appointed Patrick Gordon . . . . . . . . . .1726 by Penn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1736 John Blacknell . . . . . . . . . . . . .1688 George Thomas . . . . . . . . ..1738 The Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1690 Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1747 Thos. Loyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1691 James Hamilton . . . . . . . . .1748 Wm. Markham . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1691 Robert Hunter Morris. . .1754 Benj. Fletcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1693 Wm. Denny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1756 Wm.Markham . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1693 James Hamilton . . . . . . . ..1759 Wm. Markham . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1695 John Penn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1763 Wm. Penn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1699 Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1771 Andrew Hamilton. . ., . . . . . . .1701 Richard Penn . . . . . . . . . . .1771 The ' Council . . . . . ..'.’ . . . . . . ..1703 John Penn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1776 IN THE REVOLUTION. ., Committee of Safety, Benj. Franklin, Chairman, 1776-77. PRESIDENTS OF THE SUPREME EXECUTIVE COUNCIL. Thos. Wharton, Jr . . . . . . . . .1777 John Dickinson . . . . . . . . . .1782 Joseph Reed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1788 Ben). Franklin . . . . . . . . . ..l785 Wm.Moore....., . . . . . . . . . . . ..1781 Thos. Mlfiiin . . . . . . . . . . . ..1788 STATE GOVERNMENT—UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1760. Thomas Mifiiin . . . . . . . . . . . ..1790 Joseph Heister . . . . . . . . . ..1820 Thomas McKean . . . . . . . . . ..1799 John Andrew Shulze. .. 1823 Simon Sn der . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1808 George Wolfe . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 William indlay . . . . . . . . . ..1817 Joseph Ritner . . . . . . . . . . . .1835 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1838. David R. Porter . . . . . . . . . . . .1839 James Pollock . . . . . . . . . . . .1855 Francis R. Shunk . . . . . . . . ..1845 Wm. F. Packer . . . . . . . . .. 1858 Wm.F. Johnston . . . . . . . . . ..1848 Andrew G. Curtin . . . . . ..1861 Wm. Bigler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1852 John W. Geary . . . . . . . . . ..1867 John F. Hartranft,1873. UNDER THE CoNsTITUTION or 1873. John F. Hartranft . . . . . . . . . .1876 | Robert E. Pattison. . . .1883-87 Henry M. Hoyt . . . . . . . . ..1879-83! James A. Beaver . . . . . ..1887-91 Robert E. Pattison, 1891-95. The governor’s Oflicial term closes J an. 15, 1895. The governor’s salary is $10,000. CoNDENsED HISTORIC OUTLINE.—The first settle- ment within the present boundaries of Pennsyl- vania was by Swedish colonists in 1638. This set- tlement was captured by the Dutch who made other settlements at the Minisinks in 1660. In - Philadelphia and Pitts- PENNSYLVANIA 1664 the English captured New Amsterdam (New York) and the Pennsylvania colonists united their .- fortunes with the latter. In March, 1681, Charles II.,of England granted to William Penn the tract embracing the present State of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia was founded in 1682. Penn made friendly treaties with the Indians, and peace pre- vailed throughout the colony for 60 years. Phila- delphia was the chief seat of meeting of the Con- tinental Congress, and in Independence Hall in that city the “ Declaration of Independence” was adopted, signed, and promulgated in 1776. A State constitution was adopted in 1790—and this was re- vised in 1838, 1850, and 1857, and during the civil war; and a new one was adopted in 1873. In 1799 the capital was removed from Philadelphia to Lan- caster, and in 1812 to Harrisburg. THE IRON INDUsTRY.—Iron was first made in Pennsylvania in 1692, and was described by Rich- ard Frame, as “ a piece of some forty pounds.” The first successful iron works in the State were estab- lished in 1716, by Thomas Rutter, at Manatawny Creek, in Berks county, about three miles above Pottstown. , In 1617, Samuel Nutt, a Quaker, established a forge on French Creek, in the northern part of Chester county. After the Revolution the manu- facture of iron received a fresh impulse, and was extended farther into the exterior. The first iron manufactured west of the Allegheny Mountains is said to have been made in 1790, “in a smith’s fire,” by John Hayden, of Haydenville, Fayette county. Until about 1840 nearly all the iron manufactured was made with charcoal fuel. Anthracite coal had been used as early as 1815, but proved a failure owing to the blast used being cold. In December, 1831, Dr. F. W. Geissenhaimer applied for a patent on an ap lication of a hot air blast to anthracite coal in t e manufacture of iron. This invention was the commencement of a new era in the iron manufacture of the country. Furnaces‘ and other iron establishments were quite numerous by 1835, and many additions were made during the next 15 or 20 years. The first rolling mill in the United States to puddle iron and roll iron bars was built -on the Redstone Creek in 1816-17. At present the iron interests of the State are enormous. Exten- sive mills, producing iron of almost every known de- 1219 very thick. It is found in long narrow basins, dis- posed mainly in three fields: 1st, the Schuylkill and Mine Hill field, with an area of 146 square miles; 2nd, the Shamokin, Mahanoy, and Lehigh basins, with an area of 128 square miles; 3rd, the Lackawanna and Wyoming field, with an area of 198 square miles. Anthracite coal was first used as fuel by two Connecticut blacksmiths, named Gore, in 1768, and was brought into domestic use by Judge Jesse Fell of Wilkesbarre, in 1808. The bi- tuminous coal-fields are in the western and south- western part of the State; they cover about 12,000 square miles, and the annual product of the mines is over 15,000,000 tons. Block coal is found in Mer- cer county. - THE PETROLEUM FIELD.—Th6 coal-oil or petro- leum field is in the western and northwestern part of the State, and the product of the wells is enorm- ous. The history of the development of the petro- leum district of the State is very remarkable. Un- der the name of “Seneca oil” petroleum had long been known and obtained on Oil Creek. It was not, however, until 1845 that oil was found in any quantity. In that year a bore for a salt well de- veloped two oil springs that yielded a barrel in 24 hours. In 1854 a company was organized in New York, land purchased, and experiments made in refining the oil. In 1859 a New Haven company put down a well at Titusville, which, by pumping, pro- duced 1,000 gallons of oil per day. As other wells were sunk, some were found that flowed 3,000 bar- rels per day from a depth of 500 to 700 feet. An intent excitement overran the whole country. The few fortunate land-owners suddenly became mil- lionaires. The oil brought immense prices, and well after well was put down till, at the end of 1860, more than 2,000 had been sunk in the vicinity of Oil Creek. The business has now assumed a stable character, through the basis of extensive specula- tions. The crude oil is now transported eastward by the means of “pipe lines.” Pipes of large bore are laid near the surface of the ground, and pump- ing stations are located at intervals to pump the oil through the pipes. CANALS or PENNsYLvANIA.——The following table gives1 some of the facts and figures relating to the cana s: .scription, are located at ‘burgh-—the chief iron man- -ufacturing cities. A very large business is also done -in the manufacturing of machinery, textile fabrics, _-glass, leather goods, and many other articles. THE CoAL F1ELDs.-Near- ly all of the anthracite coal in the United States, and more than half of the bi- tuminous coal mined are taken from the Pennsyl- vania mines. The produc- tion of anthracite coal prac- tically dates from 1820 when the yield was less than 2,000 tons. By 1840 the annual yield reached over 1,000,000 tons, and for 1881 it was 30,261,940 tons. The anthracite coal-fields of Pennsylvania cover an -.area of only 472 square miles, but the veins are #5 3 3 s ' . U‘ Q) Q ,2 :2 .c: o 5 #1 - Canals. 2:’ 5g E23 3‘; 5,’ 5 Cost. -1 g gs: Q East Division, (Duncan’s Island M11e° Feet‘ Feet‘ F“ to Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46 50-60 34 6 11 1830 _ Juniata Division. (Duncan’s Is~ Pald Cap. land to Hollidaysburg) . . . . . . .. 127 40-60 24-30 4 66 1830 Stock, Susqueh’na Division, (Duncan’s $ 4,457,150 Island to Northumberland)... 41 40-60 24-30 4 44 1830 West Branch Division, (North- Debt, umberland to Farlandsville). . 81 40-60 24-30 4 1 3,274,600 North Branch Division, (North- 43 1830 umberland to Wilkesbarre)... 64 40-60 24-30 4 1 Union, (Middletown to Read- ing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. '78 43 28 4% 132 1827 5,907,000 Junction, ( State Line to E1- mira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 42 26 4 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Delaware and Hudson, (Hones- ‘ dale to Rondout) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 108 48 30 6 106 1829 6,317,653 Delaware Division, (Easton to Bristol) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 44 26 6 32 1830 . . . . . . . . Lehigh Coal and Nav. C0., (Eas- ton to Coalport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 60-100 45 6 53 1829 4,455,000 Schuylkill Coal and Nav., (Mill Creek to Philadelphia) . . . . . . .. 108 60-300 40-45 6 71 1825 13,207,000 Susquehanna, ( Columbia to Havre de Grace) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45 50 30 5 30 1830 4,857.105 Wiconisco , ( Millersburg to Clark’s Ferry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 45 28 4 7 2836 512,000 Mongahela Nav . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 8 1344 1,132,000 1220 Paoennss OF POPULATION IN PENNSYLVANIA BY DECADES.-—IIl 1790, 434,373; 1800, 602,365; 1810; 819,- 091; 1820, 1,047,507, 1830, 1,348,233; 1840, 1,724,033; 1850, 2,311,786; 1860, 2,906,215; 1870, 3,521,951, 1880, 4,282,891 ; 1890, 5,258,014. For numerous other items of interest relating to Pennsylvania, see the arti- cle UNITED STATEs, in these Revisions and Addi- tions. PENNSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY. See CoL- LEGES AND UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES in these Revisions and Additions. PENN YAN, a village, the county-seat of Yates county, N. Y., on Kenka Lake, about fifty miles southeast of Rochester. It is the seat of an acad- emy, and has an excellent water-power and several manufactories. PENOBSCOTS are a tribe of Indians of the Al- gonquin family, living on an island in Maine, near the mouth of the Penobscot River. They count about 500 souls and are Roman Catholics. PENSACOLA, a seaport city, the county- seat of Escambia county, Fla., on Pensacola Bay. Popu- lation in 1890, 11,751. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 504. PENSION SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES. A pension is a periodical payment of money by the Government to a person retired from service, or to his widow and children, in consideration of his past services, especially a yearly sum granted to retired soldiers and sailors who have been wound- ed or disabled in the performance of their duties. The pension system of the United States differs from those of European countries in the fact that pensions are here only granted for military or naval services during a war, but not for long serv- ices during peace times, and that they are only paid to invalids, who in whole or in part have be- come disqualified for the performance of manual labor by reason of wounds or diseases contracted in the services. RATES or PENSIONS.-—II1 1816 the “total pension” for privates was fixed at $8 per month; for second lieutenant $15; first lieutenant $17; captain $20; major $25; and lieutenant-colonel and all oificers of higher rank $30. Like rates were fixed for naval oflilcers of the same relative rank. Fractional rat- ings were iven for lesser degrees of disability. In 1866 ongress created three grades above that of “total pension.” What is known as the “first grade pension” includes cases of permanent disa- bility in a degree requiring the regular aid and at- tendance of another person. This grade entitles the beneficiary to $50 per month. On June 16, 1880, an act was passed increasin the pension of all who were then on the roll at $50 to $72. The “second grade pensions” include cases of perma- nent incapacity for the performance of any manual labor. The pension for these cases is $30 per month. The “third grade pensions” are for disa- bility equivalent to the loss of a hand or foot, the rate being $24 per month. For disability below these grades the rates range from $2 to $18 per month for privates,non-commissioned oificers and lieutenants, the maximum in the cases of oflicers above the rank of lieutenant being the old “total of rank.” There is also a class of “permanent spe- cific” disabilities, such as the loss of both hands, both feet, or both eyes. For these cases the pen- sion is fixed at $72 per month. For amputation at the shoulder or hip joint, or so near the joint that no artificial limb can be used, $45 per month is paid; for total disability of an arm or leg, loss of one hand and one foot, or total disability of the same, or amputation at or above the knee $36; for the loss of a hand or foot, or total disability of the same, or for total deafness, $30 per month. 0 .- - n PENNSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY--.PENSION Widows of privates receive $12 per month, and $2 additional for each child of the deceased soldier. When no widow survives, minor children receive their pension jointly. Dependent parents, receive $12 per month; widows and dependent parents of commissioned ofiicers receive the “total of rank.” We give here the United States pension law which is in force at present. It was approved March 4, 1890. ‘in case a minor child is insane, idiotic or otherwise UNITED STATES P_ENSION LEeIsLA'rIoN.-Pensions to the Totally H_elpZess.—Th1s act provides that all soldiers, sailors and marmes who have since the 16th day of June, 1880, or who may hereafter become so totally and permanently help- less from injuries received or disease contracted in the ser- vice and hne of duty as to require the regular personal aid and attendance of another person, or who, if otherwise en- 'titled, were excluded from the provisions of “An act to In- crease pensions of certain pensioned soldiers and sailors who are utterly helpless from injuries received or disease contracted while in the United States service,” approved June 16, 1880, shall be entitled to receive a pension at the rate of $72 per month from the date of the passage of this act or of the certificate of the examinin surgeon or board of surgeons showing such degree of disa ility made subsequent to the passage of this act. The Dependent Parents and Disability Act.-—The act ro- vides that in considering the ension claims of depen ent parents, the fact of the sold1er’s death by reason of any wound, injury, casuality or disease which, under the condi- tions and imitations of existing laws,would have entitled him to an invalid pension, and the fact that the soldier left no widow or minor children having been shown as required by law, it shall be necessary only to show by competent and sufficient evidence that such parents or parent are without other means of support than their own manual labor or the contributions of ot ers not le ally bound for their support; Provided, that all pensions al owed to dependent parents un- der this act shall begin from the date of the filing of the ap- plication hereunder, and shall continue no longer than the existence of the dependence. SEC. 2. That all persons who served ninety days or more in the military or naval service of the United States during the late war of the rebellion, and who have been honorably dis- charged therefrom, and who are now or who may hereafter be suffering from a mental or physical disability of a erma- nent character, not the result oi their own vicious abits, which incapacitates them from the performance of manual labor in such a degree as to render them unable to earn a support, shall, u on making due roof of the facts according to such rules an regulations as t e Secretary of the Interior may provide be placed ug)on the list of invalid pensioners of the United States, and e entitled to receive a pension not exceedin $12 per month and not less than $6 per month,pro- portione to t e degree of inability to earn support; and such pension shall begin from the date of filing o the appli- cation in the Pension Oflice, after the passage of this act, upon proof that the disability then existed, and shall con- tinue during the existence of the same: Provided, That per- sons who are now receiving pension under existing laws, or whose claims are pending in the Pension Oifice, may, by ap- plication to the Commissioner of Pensions, in such form as he may prescribe, showing themselves entitled thereto. re- ceive the benefit of this act; and nothing herein contained shall be so construed as to prevent any pensioner thereun- der from prosecuting his claim and receivin his pension under any other general or special act: Provi ed, however, That no person shall receive more than one pension for the same eriod: And,provided further, That rank in the ser- vtilce s tall not be considered in applications filed under t is ac . SEC. 3. That if any officer or enlisted man who served ninety days or more in the army or navy of the United States during the late war of the rebellion, and who was honorably discharged has died, or who shall hereafter die, leaving a widow without other means of support than her daily labor, or minor children under the age of sixteen ears, such widow shall upon due roof of her husband’s eath, without proving his death to e the result of his army ser- vice, be placed on the pension roll from the date of the ap-- glication therefor under this act at the rate of $8 per month uring her widowhood, and shall also be paid $2 er month for each child of such officer or enlisted man un er sixteen years of age, and in case of the death or remarriage of the- widow,leaving a child or children of such ofiicer or enlisted. man under the age of 16 years such pension shall be a1d such. child or children until the age of sixteen. Provi ed, That erma— nently helpless, the pension shall continue during t e life of said chi d, or during the period of such disability, and this proviso shall apply to al pensions heretofore granted or. hereafter to be granted under this or any former statute and such pension shall begin from the date of application therefor after the passage of this act. And, rovided, further, That said widow shall have married sai soldier prior to the passage of this act. SEO. 4. That no agent, attorney or other person engaged in preparing, presenting, or prosecuting any claim under the: PENTASTYLE-PE'RPETUAL MOTION rovi.-sions of this_ act, shall,_directly or indirectly, contract or, demand, receive, or retain for such services in preparing, resenting or prosecutmg such claim a sum greater than ten Idollars, which sum shall be payable only upon the order_ of the Commissioner of Pensions by the pension agent making payment of the pension allowed, and any person who shal violate any of the provisions of this section, or who shall wrongfully withhold from a ensioner or claimant the whole or any part of a pension or c_ aim allowed or due such pen- sioner or claimant under this act, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemenor, and upon conviction thereof, shall for each and every such offence be fined not exceeding five hundred dollars or be imprisoned at hard labor not exceeding two years, or both, in the discretion of the court. The following list shows the number of pensioners in 1890 and the amount of money paid by the United States Government for pensions in that year: ,,_, m <9 O 3 5 Annual value 3 34 of pensions Year ending June 30, 1890. ,Q",;; _ as shown by gag _ 1890, roll 2 ,_2_,¢,9,g June 30, Arm g Invalids . . . . . . . 392,809 $51,250,064 49 Y ----------- ~ Widows, etc. .. 104,458 15,962,996 00 NW §Invalids . . . . . .. 5,274 756,043 00 Y ------------ -- §Vidows, ect. .. 2,460 4s4i,%%:(s) gg urvlvors . . . . . . 413 , War Of 1812 ------ ~ lgvidows ...... .. 8.610 1,2s9,fs:0 00 - - urvivors . . . . .. 17,158 1,650, '2 00 War wlth MeX1c°- lWidows ...... .. 6,764 649,680 00 Total .......................... .. 537,944 $72,052,143 49 NoTE.—Average annual value of each pension on the roll June 30, 1890, $133.94. PENTASTYLE, a building with a portico of five columns. PENTATEUCH. pp. 505-14. PEORIA, a city, the county-seat of Peoria county, Ill., on the Illinois River. Population in 1890, 40,- 758. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 515. PEPERINO, an Italian term applied by some geologists to the brown volcanics tuffs derived from augitic rocks. to distinguish them from the ordi- nary tufas, which name they confine to the lighter colored pumiceous rocks that have more trachyte in their composition. PEPPERELL, SIR WILLIAM, a distinguished In- dian fighter, born at Kittery Point, Me., in 1696, died in 1759. He held many important colonial of- fices, and was acting governor of Massachusetts from 1756 to 1758. PEQUOITS. See INDIANS, NoRTH AMERICAN, in these Revisions and Additions. E See Britannica, Vol. XVIII., p. 521-22. PEREIRA, J ONATHAN, an English pharmacolo- gist, born in London, May 22, 1804, died ‘Jan. 20, 1853. In 1823 he was appointed resident medical ofiicer of the General Dispensary in Aldersgate Street, at which institution he became, three years afterwards, lecturer on chemistry. In 1824, he pub- lished a translation of the London Pharmacopoe; which was followed by a A Manual for the Use of Students; A General Table of Atomic Numbers, with an Introduction to the Atomic Theory, and other text- books for the use of those who were preparing for medical examinations. He laid the foundation of of those researches which issued in his great work on Materia Medica. In 1832, he resigned‘ the office of lecturer for that of professor of Materia Medica in the New Medical School in Aldersgate street, and at the same time he succeeded Dr. Gordon as lecturer on chemistry at the London Hospital. His Elements of Materia Medica appeared in 1839— 1840, and at once established his reputation as a pharmacologist. Among his other contributions to See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, l J 1221 science, the best known are his excellent treatises on Diet and on Polarised Light, both of which ap- peared in 1843. - PEREJASSLAVL, an ancient town of Russia, in the government of Poltava, 100 miles south of Tchernigov, at the confluence of the Trubesh and Alta, near the Dnieper. A battle was fought here in 1149. Population about 10,000. PERI (Fairy), according to the mythical lore of the East, a being begotten by fallen spirits, which spends its life in all imaginable delights, is immor- tal, but is forever excluded from the joys of Para- dise. It takes an intermediate place between angels and demons. PERIAGUA, a large canoe composed of the trunks of two trees, hollowed and united into one fabric, whereas an ordinary canoe is formed of the body of one tree only. Periaguas are used in the Pacific, and were formerly employed among the West India islands, whence the frequent allusion to them in Robinson Crusoe. PERIPTERAL, a term applied to temples or like buildings having columns all around the cella. PERPETUAL MOTION. If a machine could be devised, constructed and set in motion so as to re- ceive from unfailing sources outside of itself an energy sufiicient to fully compensate all obstruc- tion of its motion by friction, gravity or other ob- stacles, its motion might be described as perpetual. But the projectors of “perpetual motion” aim be- yond this and assume the possibility of construct- ing a machine which itself generates the power to keep itself in motion, that is, a machine which not only keeps up the supply of the original power, but also currently an addition of power sufiiicient to overcome the obstacles of friction, etc. It has been well said that such a machine is, by the eternal law of physics, an eternal impossibility. No matter how simple or how complex, no matter how delicately adjusted or how slight the friction, this inexorable law remains—the force which originally moves the machine must generate another force equal to itself and some additional ‘force to over- come the friction. And the law is the same, no matter what device be adopted. Suppose it be (as in many attempts it has been) a series of falling weights on one side of the wheel, those weights must rise exactly as high on the other side of the wheel, and let the combination be what it may, they must pass ‘ through as many rising curves as falling curves-— that is, as many units of movement against as with gravitation—and the friction of the wheel be over- come besides. Suppose it were p_ossible to reduce friction to a minimum of one unit in a machine whose power was 10,000,000 units, then the power of 10,000,000 would have to generate 10,000,001 to prevent a stoppage. ' For further illustration, take the device of a horizontal wheel, the original power applied at a point A on its circumference: A moves around to its original place, there an equal power must be be applied to send it around again (for, of course, whatever power sent it around once will be needed for each successive round), and whatever extra power is needed to overcome the friction. Put the original power at 100, then that 100 power must generate a power equal to 100 plus friction. Alge- braically stated your problem is to make 100:: 100+f. Of course f might be reduced to a very small amount, and it is barely conceivable that a ‘ place might be found where there is no f—but not on this earth. In a perfect vacuum, assuming the production of it to be possible, a top would run a surprisingly long time, there being no friction on the air; but .such a condition is obviously impossible. 1222 it must rest on something, and that means friction. Ifa top could be suspended in mid-air, with some attractive force above it which exactly balanced. gravitation, and then set in motion in a perfect vacuum,‘ the thing might be accomplished; but On this earth, there is no motion without friction, and where there is friction, perpetual motion is an eternal impossibility. PERRY, a village of New York, at the outlet of Silver Lake, eight miles east of- Warsaw. It is a summer resort and the seat of an academy. PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794-1858), com- modore in the United States Navy, a brother of Commodore O. H. Perry. He conducted the skill- ful negotiations which opened Japan to foreign commerce in 1854. ’ PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD, a commodore in the United States Navy, the hero of the “battle of Lake Erie,” commonly known as “Perry’s victory ;” born in Rhode Island in 1785, died in 1819. He was en- gaged in the war with Tripoli, and filled many im- portant positions. RY, THOMAS S., an American writer and educator, born in Rhode Island, graduated at Har- vard and became tutor there in 1878. He has written a number of works on the history of litera- ture, and was for a time editor of the “North American Review.” PERRY, WILLIAM HAYNE, born at Greenville, S. C., June 9, 1837. He received his early educa- tion at Greenville Academy; graduated at the Fur- man University, Greenville; then entered the South Carolina College at Columbia, but left there before graduation and entered Harvard College, where he graduated _in 1859; read law under Hon. B. F. Perry his father, at Greenville; was admit- ted to the bar and has since racticed; served dur- ing the whole war of the rebel ion in the Confederate cavalry service; was a member of the State con- vention of South Carolina in 1865; member of the State legislature of South Carolina 1865-66; solic- itor of the 8th Judicial Circuit of South Carolina 1868-72; member of the State senate from Green- ville county, 1880-84, and a member of Congress from 1885 to 1891. PERRY, WILLIAM STEPHENs, a distinguished American divine, bishop of the Protestant Episco- pal Church, born in Rhode Island in 1832. He be- came president of Hobart College in 1876; and bishop of Iowa and president of Griswold College in the same year. PERRYSBURG, a village of Ohio, on the Man- mee River, nine miles southwest of Toledo. It contains a number of manufactories, and is an im- portant shipping-point for lumber and staves. PERSECUTIONS, THE TEN, of the Christian Church, the name by which are known, in eccles- iastical history, certain periods of special severity exercised towards the rising community of Chris- tians, for the purpose of compelling them to re- nounce their new creed, and to conform to the es- tablished religion of the empire. The notion of ten such periods is commonly accepted almost as an historical axiom; and it is not generally known that this precise determination of the number is comparatively recent. In the 4th century, no set- tled theory of the number of persecutions seems to have been adopted. Sulpicius Severus, in the 5th century, is the first who expressly states the number at ten. The ten persecutions commonly re- garded as generai are the following: that unuer Nero, A. D. 64; under Domitian, A. D. 95; under Tra- jan, A. D. 107; under Hadrian, A. D. 125; under Mar- cus Aurelius, A. D. 165; under Septimius Severus, A. D. 202; under Maximus, A. D. 235; under Decius, \F PERROT-PERSIAN A. D. 249; under Valerianus, A..D. 257;under Dio- cletian, A. D. 303. PERSHORE, a market-town in the county of ' Worcester, nine miles -southeast of the city of that name, on the Avon. It contains two churches- that of St. Andrew’s, small and ancient; and the church of the Holy Cross, in Norman and early En- glish, witha lofty square tower. This church is the only remaining portion of the ancient abbey- church of the same name. Population, 2,826, who are employed in wool-stapling, in manufacturing agricultural-implements, and in raising fruits and vegetables for the markets of the large manufac- turing towns in the vicinity. PERSIA. For general article on the kingdom of PERsIA, see Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 561-660. The latest published oflicial census (that of 1881), reported the area at 628,000 square miles. Popu- lation, based largely on estimates, as follows: Inhabitants of cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1,963,800 Population belonging to wandering tribes . . . . . . . . . . . . .1,909,800 In abitants of vil ages and country districts . . . . . . . . ..3,780,000 Total population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,653,600 The number of Europeans and Americans resid- ing in Persia does not exceed 450. The principal cities of Persia are :-Teheran, with a population of 210,000 ; Tabriz, with 165,000; Ispahan, Meshed, each with 60,000; Barfurnsh, with 50,000; Kerman, Yezd, each with 40,000; Hamadan, Shiraz, Kazvin, Korn. Kashéin, Resht, each with 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. Of the nomads 260,- 000 are Arabs, 720,000 Turks, 675,000 Kurds and Leks, 20,700 Baluchis and Gipsies, 234,000 Lurs. REIGNING SHAH AND RoYAL FAMILY.—Nasr ed-din,‘ Joorn July 13, 1831; eldest son of Muhammed Shah; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, September 10, 1848. Coronation at Teheran, Octo- ber 20, 1848. - Sons of the Shdh. 1. Muzafer ed-din, heir-appar- ent (Valiahd), born March 25, 1.853, and has four sons and four daughters. 2. Masiid, Zil es- Sultan, born J an. 5, 1850, and has five sons and four daughters. 3. Kamran, Naib es-Saltaneh, born July 22, 1856, and has one son and three daughters. 4. Salar es-Saltaneh, born May 2, 1882. 5. Rukn‘ es-Saltaneh, born Feb. 14, 1883. There are also thirteen daughters. A The royal family is very numerous; there are some thousands of princes and princesses, but the official ‘year-book only mentions three brothers, three sisters, 140 uncles, great uncles and cousins of the shah. The Shah of Persia——by his official title “Shahin- shah,” or king of kings—is absolute ruler within his dominions, and master of the lives and goods of all his subjects. The whole revenue of the country being at their disposal, recent sovereigns of Persia have been able to amass a large private fortune. That of the present occupant of the throne is reported to amount to five or six millions sterling, most of it represented by diamonds, the largest, the Derya i Niir, of 186 carats, and the Taj i Mali, of 146 carats, and other precious stones forming the crown jewels. The present sovereign of Persia is the fourth of the dynasty of the Kajars, which took possession of the crown after a civil war extending over fif- teen years, from 1779 to 1794, The date of acces- SlOIl of each of the four members of the reigning dy- nasty was as follows: Agha Muhammed.....‘... 1794 Muhammed . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1835 Fath Ali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1797 Nasr ed-din . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1848 PERSIANIHHWDER—PERTH.AMBOY It is within the power of the Persian monarchs to alter or to overrule the existing law of succes- sion and to leave the crown, with’ disregard of the natural heir to any member of their family. GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION.-—Th6 form of govern- ment of Persia is in its most important features similar to that of Turkey. All the laws are based on the precepts of the Koran, and though the power of the shah is absolute, it is only so far as it is not opposed to the accepted doctrines of the Muhammedan religion. The executive govern- ment is in the hands of a ministry appointed by the shah. There are at this writing (1891) eleven cabinet ministers. The country is now divided in- to 27 provinces governed by “governors-general.” Every town has a mayor. The Mahometans of Persia are mostly of the sect called Shiah, difl:‘er- ing to some extent in religious doctrine, and more in historial belief, from the inhabitants of the Turkish Empire, who are called Sunni. The Per- sian priesthood (Ulema) is very powerful and works steadily against all progress. Any person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting its laws may act as a priest (Mulla). Of the popula- tion, 6,860,600 belong to the Shia’h faith, 700,000 Sunnis, 8,500 Parsis (Guebres), 19,000 Jews, 43,000 Armenians, and 23 Nestorians. EDUoAT1oN.—-There are a great number of col- leges (medresseh), supported by public funds, in which the students are instructed in religion and Persian and Arabic literature, as well as in a certain amount of scientific knowledge; and many schools for children,while private tutors are very common. being employed by all families who have the means. A polytechnic school with a number of European professors, opened in Teheran forty years ago, has done much towards introducing the knowledge of Western languages and science into Persia. There are also military colleges at Te- heran and Tabriz. But the bulk of the population are taught only to read the Koran. F1NANoE.—The revenue in 1887 amounted to £1,750,000; the expenditures to £1,630,000. Of the revenue £280,000 was received from customs, and £1,470,000 from direct taxes. Persia, on January 1, 1891, had no public debt. ARMY AND NAvY.—The Persian army in 1890 numbered, according to ofiicial returns of the min- ister of war, 105,500 men, of whom 5,000 form the artillery (20 batteries), 54,700 the infantry (78 bat- talions), 25,200, the cavalry, regular and irregular, and 7,200 militia (24 battalions). Of these troops, however, only one half are liable to be called for service, while the actual number embodied—that is, the standing army-—does not exceed 24,500. The number liable to be called for service is as follows: Infantry, 35,400; irregular cavalry, but more or less drilled, 3,300 , undrilled levies, 12,130; artillery, 2,500 ; camel artillery, 90; engineers, 100; total, 53,520. By a decree of the shah, issued in July 1875, it was ordered that the army should for the future be raised by conscription, instead of by irregular levies, and that a term of service of twelve years should be substituted for the old system, under which the mass of the soldiers were retained for life; but the decree has never been enforced. The Christians, Jews, and Guebres, as well as the www 1223 Mussulman inhabitants of the Kashan and Yezd districts, are exempt from all military service. The army has been under the training of European ofiicers of different nationalities for the last thirty years or more. The navy consisted of two vessels, built at Bremen haven——the Persepolis, screw steamship, 600 tons, 450 horse-power, armed with four 3-inch guns; and the Susa, a river steamer, on the River Karim, of 30 horse-power, and with one 3-inch Krupp gun. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. — A small railway from Teheran to Shah abdul-azim (six miles) was opened in July 1888. Another from Mahmudabad on the Caspian to Barfurush and Amol (twenty miles) was in December 1889 under construction. The former is in the hands of a Belgian company, the latter is a private undertaking by a Persian merchant. The River Karim at the head of the Persian Gulf has been opened to foreign naviga- tion as far as Ahwaz. The only carriageable roads in Persia are Teher- an-Kom and Teheran-Kazvin, each about 94 miles, and on the latter mails and travelers are conveyed by post-carts. Persia had in 1890, a system of telegraphs consist- ing of 3,824 miles of line, with 6,124 miles of wire, and 82 stations. The time of transmission of mes- sages to England was one hour and ten minutes. An extensive postal service has been opened be- tween the chief business of the kingdom, andletters and packages are delivered with much regularity and safety. RECENT EvENTs.——The shah, after a protracted visit to Europe where he and his extensive retinue were received with marked official favor, an- nounced his purpose to make important changes in the Persian constitution and laws and order that his people might enjoy the quiet and prosperity of the English and Continental nations, and in 1890 he appointed a special commissioner to make the nec- essagy inquiries, and report to him the changes de- sire . PERSIAN POWDER, a preparation of the flow- ers of the composite plant, Pyrethrum carneum or mseum, which are dried and pulverized. This pow- der has wonderful eflicacy in destroying noxious insects, and is extensively used for that pur- ose. PERSIMMON, the Virginia date plum. DATE PLUM, in these Revisions and Additions. PERSONAL EXCEPTION, in the Roman law, a ground of objection which applies to an individual, and prevents him doing something which, but for his conduct or situation, he might do. The term is adopted in the law of Scotland. PERSONIFICATION, a figure of rhetoric by which inanimate objects, or mere abstract concep- tions, are invested with the forms and attributes of conscious life. Oratory and poetry often derive great power and beauty from the employment of this figure. PERTH AMBOY, a city of New Jersey, and a port of entry, at the mouth of the Raritan River, oppo- site South Amboy, twenty miles southwest of New York. It is the seat of an academy, produces a variety of manufactures, has extensive deposits of fire-clay, and is an important railway terminus. Population in 1890, 9,512. See 1224' PERU, REPUBLIC or. For general article on PERU, see Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 669-679. There has been no recent census, but the general opinion is expressed that the real present figures would not vary much from those of 1876. The Re- public is divided into nineteen departments, the area and population of which were reported as fol- lows at the last census taken (in 1876) :- {PERU} created in 1874, with good collections and labora- tories. There are in the capital and in some of the principal towns private high-schools under the di- rection of English, German and Italian . staffs. Lima has also a public library, with a rich collec- tion, besides the one of the university and school of mines. There are two minor universities at Cuzco and Arequipa. By the terms of the Constitu- tion there exists absolute po- ;,§ 22%’: litical, but not religious _fr_ee- mgh rag _ dom, the charter prohibiting Departments. L.é.§ Population. Departments. I 3 3 Population. the public exercise of any other 32-E religion than the Roman Cath- -1"‘ at plic. whifch his declaredB the re- igion o t e state. ut par- _5t‘§it;.s'a;: :: 1 1:: ttiit £3123? if’;-"&5{15ii5 I I I 1 1 i 3: 2:33? iigitt 15,‘,§’,‘§,1,§’“,§i,y0ftk§§f§r,§fce ath‘,’,e,‘;;t%‘.,Ii Amazonas ...... .. 14,129 34,245 Cuzco .......... .. 95,547 ,445 - - ’- - .-t.f€§£€n.;:::::::: i’§;Zi3 diff? f¥§fti9i'.:::::::: 23-iii i‘递3Zi - 51% Bring-Ztlgso aasnv%eIll1I;1s,aJl:1w%éh Ancachs ....... .. 17,405 284,091 Moquegua ...... .. 22,515 283786 synagogues At the census of Lima ......... 14760 { 225,922 Apurimac . . . . . . .. 02,325 119,245 1876 th ' _ 'C8-118-0 - - . - ’ 34,492 Lambayeque..... 17,939 85,984 ere were 5,087 Pr0teS_ ag11&I10&ve11<=&---- 10,814 13%-£2 _ tants, 498 Jews; other reli- Juunailill-ll.C.$(.)'.-2.... 33,822 209,871 Total . . . . . . . . . .. 463,147 2,621,844 gwns, 27,073. ' 9OFI1~iANC(]iL-1-1The budget ford1889- p ace t e revenue an ex- penditures at following figures : The careful estimated total population in 1888 was 2,690,945. Total area, 503,000 square miles. Population of Lima, the capital, 101,488. Revenue Expenditure- d There are besides about 350,000 uncivilized In- ians. As a result of the war with Chile, the latter 0 Soles.* Soles. country, has annexed the Province of Tararac-s4 Df§$§f%§r59::::::::: ’i;§§3;i38 ‘é%‘$%‘£%S§1‘ési'.:::::::::: Sit??? The Chilians also occupy the department of Tacna Railways . . . . . . . . . . .. 74,750 Min. Foreign Affairs. 177,300 fog ten yrlslari, after which a pogullar vote is to de- ,¥g1S;g<;aig<]11eS - - - - - - - - - -- 129583 ‘J glsggggaé - - - - - - -- 1 égggig ci eto W10 countr it is to eon . - ' ' ' ‘ ' ‘ ' ' " ’ 7. ' ' ' ' ' ‘ " ’ ' CoNsTITUTIoN AND (§rOVERNMENT.—-I§I'GSGHt consti- other recelpts """ " 123000 Army and Navy‘ @4123? tution proclaimed October 15’ was revised T013811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,275,197 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,891,958 November 25, 1860. It is modeled on that of the ‘ Surplus -------------- '- 383,238 United States, the legislative power being vested in a senate and a house of representatives, the former composed of deputies of the provinces, in the proportion of one for every 30,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 15,000, and the latter of rep- resentatives nominated by the electoral colleges of the provinces of each department, at the rate of two when the department has two provinces, and one or more for every other two provinces. The parochial electoral colleges choose deputies to the provincial colleges, who in turn send represen- tatives to congress, and elect the municipal coun- cils as well. The executive power is intrusted to a president. There are two vice-presidents, who take the place of the president only in case of death or incapac- ity, and they are elected for four years. President of the republic.—Col. Remigo Morales Bermudez, elected August 10, 1890. The president has to exercise his executive functions through acabinet of five ministers, hold- ing oflice at his pleasure. None of the president’s acts have any value without the signature of a minister. EDUCATION AND RELie1oN.—Elementary educa- tion is compulsory for both sexes, and is free in the public schools that are maintained by the munici- palities. High-schools are maintained by the gov- ernment in the capitals of the departments, and in some provinces pupils pay a moderate fee. There is in Lima a central university, called " Universi- dad de San Marcos,” the most ancient in America; its charter was granted by the Emperor Carlos V.; it has faculties of jurisprudence, medicine, polit- ical science, theology, and applied science. Lima possesses a school of mines and civil engineering, Peru has a considerable public debt, divided into internal and external. The internal liabilities (1888) were estimated oflicially at over 109,287,000 soles, excluding 83,747,000 soles paper money, the paper sole being equivalent to only 2%d. The out- standing foreign debt is made up of two loans, con- tracted in England in 1870 and 1872: _ Outstanding Foreign Loan. Principal. Railway 6 per cent. loan of 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . £1l,141,580 “ 5 per cent. loan of 1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,437,500 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .£31,579,080 The two loans above were secured on the guano- deposits (now in possession of Chile) and on the general resources of the republic. No interest has been paid on the foreign debt of Peru (which was held chiefly in England) since 1876. An arrangement was made in 1885 with Chile by which a percentage of the guano deposits should be paid as interest to the bondholders; and a small amount was transmitted to England in 1883, but it was not till January, 1890, that the bondholders’ claims were settled by an arrangement with the Chilian government securing certain guano de- posits, the estimated value of which is 2,250,000l. The interest arrears of. Peru amounted in 1889 to .£22,998,651. In January, 1890, what is known as the Grace-Donoughmore contract was finally rati- fied. By this the English council of foreign bond- * A sole is of the nominal value of four shillings sterling, or $1.25; the real value is generally less. PERU—PETERS holders released Peru of all responsibility for the 1870 and 1872 debts, on condition that the bondholders had ceded to them all the railways of the state for 66 years. The bondholders under- take to complete and extend the existing rail- ways. DEFENsEs.-The army of the republic is composed of six battalions of infantry, numbering 2,400 men; of two regiments of cavalry, numbering 600 men; of two brigades of artillery, numbering 500 men; and of a gendarmerie of 2,400 men, forming a total of 5,900 men. The Peruvian navy now consists of three steam- ers. CoMMERcE.—The foreign commerce of Peru is chiefly with Great Britain, and with Germany dur- ing recent years; it is carried on from several ports, of which the principle are Callao, Paita, Eten, Salaverry, Chimbote, Pisco, Mollendo, Arica, and Iquique. According to the “Peruano” the Value of the imports for 1887 was 8,658,531 soles, and the exports 8,872,287 soles. Of the import value 7,075,079 soles and of the export value 4,032,185 soles passed through the port of Callao. The sta- tisticsof imports and exports for 1888 have not been published, but the receipts to the Callao cus- tom house amounted in that year at 3,081,694 soles, whilst the corresponding receipts in 1887 amounted to 2,876,387 soles. The chief exports were, sugar, 1,944,629 soles; wool, 762,288 soles; caoutchouc, 444,397 soles ; cotton, 415,590 soles; coca, 369,360 soles. Chile now possesses the province of Tarapaca, where are large nitre deposits. The guano and nitre deposits, the former to a great extent exhausted, are actively worked. Peru has numerous gold and silver mines. The most important silver mines are situated in Huay- Ilura, Palmaderas, Montes Claros, Carabaya, J auli, Castrovierreina, Salpo, Ancastis, Chilete, and the Cerro de Pasco. Their produce amounted to 1,395-, 936 ounces in 1874; to 1,357,432 ounces in 1875; to 1,358,792 ounces in 1876; to 1,427,592 ounces in 1877, and to 1,771,710 ounces in 1884. SHIPPING AND NAvIeATIoN.——In 1888, 460 vessels of 425,964 tons, entered the port of Callao, besides 816 coasting vessels of 8,806 tons. The port of the Paita was visited by 178 vessels in 1887 ; that of M01- lendo in 1888 by 222 vessels of 293,185 tons. The merchant navy of Peru in 1888, consisted of 30 sailing vessels of 6,265 tons, which exceeds that of 1887 by 19 vessels and 1,849 tons; and it is expect- ed that the increase will be progressive, as accord- ing to a concession contained in the law, foreign- ers are allowed to own vessels carrying the Peru- , vian flag. INTERNAL CoMMuNIcATIoNs.—In 1889 the total working length of the Peruvian railways was re- ported as 1,625 miles. The Peruvian railways, in- cluding those ceded to Chile, cost about 36 million sterling. The length of telegraph lines in 1878 was 1,564 miles. The telegraph cable laid on the west coast of America has stations at Paita, Callao, Lima, and Mellendo, and thus Peru is placed in direct com- munication with the telegraphic system of the World. A telephone system is in operation between Callao and Lima. _ RECENT EvENTs.—In January 1890, the senate approved the financial loan named above. In Feb- ruary the ministry resigned and a new cabinet was formed. In August a new president was elected, and the government was overturned, a new minis- try being formed, with Sefior Valcarel as premier. It was reported that the ex-Dictator, Gen. Pierola, had escaped (Nov. 3.) from the imprisonment to 1225 which he had been consigned on a charge of sedi- tion. PERU, a city of Illinois. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 679. PERU, a city, the county-seat of Miami county, Ind., on the Wabash River, fifteen miles east of Logansport. It is an important manufacturing center. Population in 1890, 6,731. PERUVIAN ARCHITECTURE. Although the buildings of Peru were erected probably about the 12th century, A. D., they possess an extraor- dinary likeness to those of the Pelasgi in Eu- rope. This resemblance arises probably from the circumstance that both nations used bronze tools, and were unacquainted with iron. The Pe- ruvian walls are built with large polygonal blocks of stone, exactly like what we call “Cyclopean ma- sonry.” The jambs of the doorways slope inwards, like those of Etruscan tombs, and have similar lintels. The walls of Cuzco are good examples of this style. It is further remarkable, that these walls are built with re-entering angles, like the fortifications which were adopted in Europe only after the invention of gunpowder. PESHTIGO, a village of Wisconsin, on Peshtigo River, near Green Bay. It contains a large num- ber of mills, and has an active trade in lumber. PETALUMA, a town of California, on Petaluma Creek, about 40 miles north of San Francisco, and connected with it by a line of steamboats. It is an important center of agriculture and stock-rais- ing. Wine is produced in abundance. Population in 1890, 3,686. PETARD, an instrument for blowing open gates and demolishing palisades. It consists of a half- cone of thick iron filled with powder and ball; this is firmly fastened to a plank, and the latter is pro- vided with hooks, to allow of its being attached se- curely to a gate. The engineers attached the pe- tard, lighted the slow-match by which it was to be fired, and fled. When the explosion took effect, a supporting column charged through the breach, While the defenders were yet in consternation. PETER. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 693- 697. PETERBOROUGH, a village of New Hampshire, on Contoocook River, eighteen miles east of Keene. It contains a number of factories, foundries, and cotton-mills. PETERBOROUGH, a town, the county-seat of Peterborough county, Ontario. on the Ontonabee River. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p. 775. PETER, EPISTLES or. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII. pp. 697-98. PETERMANN, Areusr HEINRICH, a German geographer of great note, born in Prussian Saxony, in 1822, died in 1878. He assisted Prof. Berghaus in the preparation of his physical atlas; prepared the maps for Humbolt’s Asie Centrale; in 1845 went to Edinburgh to superintend the English edition of , the Physical Atlas; in 1847 went to London, where he became a member of the Royal Geographical Society. and contributed to the Aflzenazum, Encyclo- pzcdia. Britanm'ca, etc. In 1854 he returned to Ger- many, and became director of Justus Perthes’ geo- graphical institution in Gotha. In 1855 he began the publication of his celebrated llIittlzeiZzmge'n,- he was much interested in several African and Arctic expeditions; and in 1876 he visited the United States. PETERS, CHRISTIAN Fnrnnnron AUGUST (1806- l880), a German astronomer. He was noted for his valuable investigations of the motions of the fixed stars; was long the editor of the “Astrono- mische Nachrichten,” and director of the Altona Observatory. 1226 PETERS, CHRIsTIAN HENRY FREDERICK, an emi- nent American astronomer, born in Germany in 1813, died in 1890. He graduated at Berlin; trav- eled for some years, and settled in the United States; became connected with the Coast Survey, and in 1858 with Hamilton College, where he taught astronomy and had charge of the Litchfield Observatory; was chief of the transit of Venus party to New Zealand in 1874. As director of the Litchfield Observatory, which he brought to a high state of perfection, he recorded more than 20,000 spots on the sun, and cata- logued some 16,000 zodiacal stars. He made ex- tensive investigations concerning comets; and was known to the general public as the discover- er of a very large number of asteroids. PETERS, RIOHARD, born in Philadelphia in 1744, died in 1828. He was a lawyer, a Revolutionary officer, member of Congress, United States District Judge, and one of the first agriculturists in Amer- ica to use plaster of Paris as a fertilizer. PETERS, SAMUEL ANDREW, an American divine and Tory of the Revolutionary period, born in Con- necticut in 1735, died in 1826. He is chiefly remem- bered for his satirical History of Connecticut, and is the “Parson Peter” of Trumbull’s Hudibrastic po- litical poem McFingal. PETERS, SAMUEL RITTER, born in Ohio in 1842. He enlisted in the army in the fall of 1861, and was mustered out in June, 1865, having held succes- sively the offices of sergeant, 2nd lieutenant, 1st lieutenant, adjutant, and captain in the 73rd O. V. V. I.; was elected in the fall of 1874 to the State senate of Kansas; appointed in March, 1875, judge of the 9th judicial district; in the fall of 1875 was elected to the same judgeship without opposition, and reélected in 1879, and was a member of Con- gress from 1883 to 1891. PETERSBURG, a village, the county-seat of Menard county, 111., on the Sangamon River twenty miles northwest of Springfield. It is the center of an extensive timber district, and has an abundant water-power and several mills. PETERSBURG, a village, the county-seat of Pike county, Ind., near the White River, twenty miles southeast of Vincennes. It contains a num- ber of manufactories. PETERSBURG, a city of Virginia. Population in 1890, 23,317. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, p. 702. PETERSFIELD, a parliamentary borough and market-town in Hampshire, England, twenty-three miles northeast of Southampton, and fifty-five miles southwest of London. It is a pleasant coun- try town, and contains a Norman parish chapel of the 12th century, and an educational institution, called Churcher’s College. An equestrian statue of William III., once richly gilt, stands in the market-place. Population, 6,104. PETERSON, CHARLES, J., an American writer and publisher, born in Philadelphia in 1819, died in 1887. He wrote numerous biographies of military and naval heroes, and a number of historical and fictitious works; was editor and proprietor of “ Pe- terson’s Magazine.” PETIGRU, JAMES LoUIs, an American lawyer, born in South Carolina in 1789, died in 1863. He was attorney-general of his native State, and is distinguished as the codifier of its laws. The cod- ification was completed in 1862. PETITION. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 703-05. In the United States the right of petition was formally recognized by a constitutional amendment which forbids Congress to make any law prohibiting “the right of the eople peaceably to assemble, and to petition the overnment for a redress of grievances.” PETERS—PEZENAS PETOFI, SANDOR, a Hungarian poet and patriot, born in 1822, probably killed in the battle of Szeg- esvar in July, 1849. His numerous songs (the most popular of which “Now or Never,” gave the first impulse to the Hungarian uprising in 1848) rank very high as specimens of lyrical poetry. PETOSKEY, a village of Michigan, on Lake Michigan, sixty miles north of Traverse City. It has a good water-power from Bear River, and man- ufactures lumber and lime. PETROLEUM. See Britannica, VOl._XVIII, pp. 712-20. See also MINING, in these Revisions and Additions. PETROLEUM PIPE-LINE, a continuous series of iron pipes through which Oil is pumped from the place of supply to the refinery, to market, or to the place of export. The transportation of crude petroleum is thus effected on an immense scale in the United States, where there is an an aggregate of many thousand miles, one line extending in op- posite directions from the oil-region of Pennsylva- nia to New York and to Chicago. PETROLIA, a borough of Pennsylvania, about forty miles north of Pittsburgh. It has extensive manufactories connected with the oil-trade. PETSH, or IPEK, a pleasant town of European Turkey, in Albania. It stands on the Bistritza, or White Drin, sixty-five miles northeast of Scutari. Population, 8,000. PETTENKOFER, MAX voN, born in Germany in 1818, became professor of chemistry at Munich, in 1847, and professor of hygiene in the Bavarian University in 1865. He has written many valuable works on hygiene. PETTIE, JOHN, a Scotch painter, born in 1839. He is noted for his life-like scenes of old English life. He became a Royal Academician in 1873, in place of Sir Edwin Landseer. Many of his works have been engraved. PETTIGREW, J AMEs BELL, a Scotch surgeon and anatomist, born at Roxhill in 1834. He is the author of the article FLIGHT, FLYING MACHINES, in the Britannica, Vol. IX., pp. 308-23, and of a popu- lar work on Animal Locomotion. PETTIGREW, RIOHARD FRANKLIN, an American statesman, born at Ludlow, Vt., July 1848. He re- moved with his par'ents to Evansville, Rock coun- ty, Wis., in 1854; was prepared for college at the Evansville Academy, and entered Beloit College in 1866, where he remained two years; was a mem- ber of the law class of 1869, University of Wiscon- sin; went to Dakota in July, 1869, in the employ of a United States deputy surveyor as a laborer; lo- cated in Sioux Falls, where he engaged in the sur- veying and real-estate business; opened a law Of- fice 1875 ; was elected to the Dakota legislature as a member of the council in 1877, and reélected in 1879; was elected to Congress in 1881 as a delegate from Dakota Territory; to the Territorial Council in 1884; United States Senator, under the provis- ions of the act of Congress admitting South Dakota into the Union, 1889-95. PETWORTH, or Sussnx MARBLE, a thin layer of limestone, composed of the shells of fresh-water Paludinae. It has been long, but not extensively used for ornamental purposes. A polished slab of it was found in a Roman building at Chichester, and pillars formed of it exist in the cathedrals of Chi- chester and Canterbury. PEWAUKEE, a village of Wisconsin, on Pew- aukee Lake, twenty miles west of Wisconsin. It has a number of manufactories. PEZENAS, a manufacturing town of France, in the department of Hérault, on the left bank of the river of that name, twenty-five miles west-south- west of Montpellier. It stands in a district remark- PFEIDERER—PH1LADELPHIA able for its beauty, and so well cultivated as to have received the name of the Garden of Hérault. The vicinity produces excellent wine, and woolen and linen goods are manufactured. It is known as one of the principal brandy markets of Europe. Population, 6,824. PFEIDERER, OTTO, a German theologian, born at Stettin in 1839. In 1868 he became pastor at Heilbronn, Wiirtemberg, and in 1871 professor of theology at Jena. In 1875 he was called to Berlin as professor of systematic theology. He has pub- lished Die Religion, ihr Wesen und ihre Geschichte (1869); Moral und Religion; Religions-Philosophie auf geschichtlicher Grundlage (1886); Grundriss der christlichen Glaubens- und Sittenlehre (1880). PHAGEDJENA, a variety of ulceration in which ' there is much infiltration, and at the same time rapid destruction of the affected part. The sore presents an irregular outline, and a yellowish surface; it gives off a profuse bloody or ichorish discharge, and is extremely painful. It usually at- tacks persons whose constitutions are vitiated by scrofula, by the syphilitic virus, by the abuse of mercury, and by intemperance. It frequently appears in the throat after scarlatina in a severe form. If relief is not afforded by the internal ad- ministration of opium (to allay the pain), and of quinia, or some other preparation of bark, wine, beef-tea, etc., to improve the tone of the constitu- tion, together with astringent and sedative local applications, recourse must be had to the destruc- tion of the part by strong nitric acid, or some other caustic. PHARSALUS, now FERSALA, anciently a town of Thessaly, south of Larissa, on the river Enipeus, a branch of the Peneus (now the Salambria), and historically notable mainly for the great battle fought here between Caesar and Pompey, August 9, 48 B. c. PHEASANT-SHELL (Phasianella), a genus of gasteropodous molluscs of the family Turbinidae, of which the shells are much valued for their beauty, and when they were rare, in collections, were some- times sold for extraordinary prices. They are now comparatively cheap and plentiful, being found in great numbers on some parts of the Australian coast. PHELAN, JAMES, born in Aberdeen. Miss., Decem- ber 7, 1865. He removed with his father, the Con- federate senator, to Memphis in 1867; received a rivate-school education; in 1871 attended the entucky Military Institute, near Frankfort; in 1874 entered the University at Leipzig, Saxony; after Michaelmas, in 1875, received private instruc- tion in Latin, from Richard Sachse, Oberlehrer in the Gymnasium zu St. Thomas; took the degree of doctor of philosophy in February, 1878; returned to Memphis; studied law, and began the practice in 1881; was elected to the 50th Congress, and was reélected to the 51st Congress. PHELPS, a village of New York, eight miles northwest of Geneva. It contains important man- ufactures of machinery, malt, peppermint, and other essential oils, and has valuable deposits of , plaster of Paris. PHELPS, AUsTIN, theologian, born at Brookfield, Mass., in 1820, died in 1890. He was made pastor of the Pine Street Congregational Church at Boston in 1842, and professor of sacred rhetoric in the An- dover Theological Seminary in 1849; and was re- lieved from this position in 1884. He published The Still Hour; Hymns and Choirs; The New Birth; Theory of Preaching; Men and Books; English Style of Public Discourse; and time—books for churches and Sunday schools. His writings are conser- A! 1227 vative, yet show broad views, and are clothed in pure style. PHELPS, ELIZABETH STUART, an American au- thoress, daughter of Moses Stuart, born at Andover in 1815, died in 1852. She was married to Prof. Austin Phelps in 1842. She wrote Sunny Side and other tales. Her daughter, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPs, author of The Gates Ajar, and Beyond the Gates; born at Andover in 1844, has written many popular tales and poems. She was married to Rev. H. D. Ward in 1888. PHELPS, J OHN W., an American soldier, born in Vermont in 1813, died in 1885. He graduated at West Point; served in the Florida, Mexican, and civil wars; became brigadier-general and accom- panied General P/utler’s expedition to New Or- leans; armed the negro slaves as soldiers, was de- clared at outlaw by the Confederate government, was not sustained by the United States Govern- ment, and resigned his commission. When the negroes were finally armed by the Government, a major-general’s commission was offered to him and declined. He was afterwards president of the Vermont State teachers association; was an ac- tive anti-mason, and wrote several books. PHELPS, OLIVER, an American merchant, born in Connecticut in 1749, died in 1809. He engaged very heavily in land speculation in western New York; opened a land office in Canandaigua, which is said to have been the first in America; invented the system of townships and ranges now in use by Government surveyors; held many positions of trust, and promoted many public enterprises. PHELPS, WILLIAM WALTER, Congressman, born in New York City in 1839. He became a prominent lawyer and director of several important financial institutions; member of Congress in 1873; minister to Austria in 1881; member of Congress in 1882, and is at present (1891) minister to Germany. PHIGALIAN MARBLES, the name now given to the sculptured frieze taken from the cella of the temple of Apollo at Phigalia in Arcadia in 1814, and transferred to the British Museum. It represents the contests between the Centaurs and Lapithae. The Phigalian temple of Apollo is, next to the Theseium at Athens, the most perfect architectu- ral ruin in all Greece; but owing to its sequestered position at the head of a lonely and rocky glen among the Arcadian hills, it long remained un- known in modern times, except to the shepherds of the district; and to the same circumstance it probably owes, in part, its preservation. Chandler first visited and described it in 1765. PHILADELPHIA, CITY or. For extended and general article on the city of Philadelphia see Bri- tannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 736-741. The census of 1890 reported the area at 129.31 square miles; pop- ulation, 1,046,964. The progress of population dur- ing the last three decades is shown by the follow- ing census returns: Population Increase. 56 29 Census, 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5,5 Census, 1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 674,022 108,493 Census, 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 847,170 173,143 Census, 1890 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,046,964 199,794 Should the total increase of the city population and suburban population be as great during the present decade as it was during the decade closing in 1890 the grand total will exceed two millions. If the suburban population of Philadelphia re- ported in the census of 1890 be added in order to show an equitable comparison between Philadel- phia and certain other cities that have made re- cent considerable additions to their territory, and whose population reported in totals of 1890, was 1228 inclusive of those additions, the following table would be furnished: Pop. 1890. Increase. Philadelphia City Proper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,046,964 199,794 Montgomery Co., Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 123,290 26,796 Bucks Co., Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70,615 1,959 Delaware 00., Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74,683 18,582 Gloucester Co., N, J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,649 2,763 Hiddlesex Co., N. J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,754 9.468 Burlington Co., N. J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.528 3,126 Camden 00., N. J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87,687 24,439 Total “Greater Philadelphia” 1,552,170 287,233 DENsITY OF PoPULATIoN.—Philadelphia has a population of 8,091.54 to the square mile. Its area eguals 82,809.62 acres, with a population of 12.64 to t e acre. W \ l Fl’ .4"...-Pt‘. u -‘"='r.'»‘=~‘--i=_ “Z%.~ 1 —- s-- 1, t 1! . I ~ ]| -' . ~" _ :""‘lC£5C “-‘ 1; ‘M l.-- ,1 l‘. ~‘\' II 7-I I-' I :'|- T-" A -J % I l.—‘§~:. PHILADELPHIA EDUCATIONAL FAoILITIEs.—The public school system of the city comprises more than 400 schools, affording an education to over 100,000 pupils; be- sides which there are high and normal schools and colleges, and the University of Pennsylvania. There are also numerous hospitals and other charitable institutions, and several libraries, of which the Mercantile and Library Com- panly of Philadelphia contain over 100,000 volumes eac . Among its recently erected educational build- ings, is the Drexel Industrial Institute, costing about $500,000, and completed in the autumn of 1891. The donor, Mr. Anthony J. Drexel, of the well-known banking house, provides also an en- -.u_I ._ . ", ‘ 7.7!;-.’ . I, - ._,. . ,._ Ir/' Q ._ . , , _._ I ._+'_\-‘.. -=.. / v 6 ~‘i_~', H M l “H IL‘ I I ~ ‘ .- .--‘T’: - : - 15' "4, KN - ‘N’ , 2:?‘ _- 1 ' ‘ £1 J\"'k~____ CITY BUILDINGS, PHILADELPHIA. Chicago has an area of 160.57 square miles, with an average population of 6,849.66 to the square mile, or 102,764.80 acres, with a population of 10.70 to the acre. New York City has an area of 40.2 square miles, with an average of 37‘675,31 to the square mile; or 25,740.80 acres, with an average population of 58.87 to the acre. MANUFACTURING EsTABLIsHMENTs.—In manufact- uring industries, Philadelphia holds the highest rank of any city in America. Among the most rominent branches of manufactures are the fol- owing: Boots and shoes; bread and bakery prod- ucts; carpets and rugs; clothing; furniture; ma- chinery; tin, copper and sheet-ironware; and most kinds of woolen goods. At this writing (October,1891), the census returns of 1890, relating to manufactures, have not been completed. Those for 1880 reported for the city of Philadelphia the following summaries: Number manufactories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,1567 Amount capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. $187,48,857 Average number of hands employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185.527 Wages paid during the year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64,265,966 Cost of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99,155,477 Value of products....... ..... ....... 324,342,937 dowment fund of $1,000,000 to keep the institute in permanent operation. The building is located at the northeast corner of 32nd and Chestnut streets, and occupies three sides of the square. It is three stories high, 200 square, and fronts on Chestnut street. The special feature of the interior is alarge cen- tral hall, nearly 100 feet square, and reaching to a glass roof on the ceiling line of the third floor. From the northern or rear end of this hall a grand marble stairway leads to the upper floors. Broad galleries run around the inside court on the second and third floors, giving entrance to the various rooms, all of which are lighted from the outside. On the first floor are the museum, 56 by 70 feet; the library, 56 by 70 feet; and reading room, 50 by 40; a small lecture hall, 40 by 56; and, distinct from other parts of the building, the great lecture hall, 56 by 154 feet, which will seat about 2,000 people. There are twenty-four class-rooms in the building, amply provided with cloak-rooms, wash-rooms, etc., and as each of these will contain, on the aver- age, at least 100 pupils, there will be room for 2,400 in the building at once. In the middle of the front on the top floor is the gymnasium, a room about PHILADELPHIA 60 feet square, which will, of course, be fitted up with all necessary appliances. _ On Dec. 1,1888, Mr. Isaiah V. Williamson of Phila- delphia conveyed by deed of trust to a board of seven trustees, for educational purposes, property valued at $5,000,000. The conditions of the trust call for the establishment of a comprehensive sys- tem of trade schools in which boys are to have free instruction, under the most competent teachers, in any trade they prefer. A tract of ground near Philadelphia, not larger than three hundred acres in extent, and -not to exceed in price four hundred dollars an acre, was to be acquired, and on this land the requisite number of substantial buildings were to be put up, designed both for class-room and dormitory purposes. Dwellings were also to be built for the instructors, and funds set apart_for their support. If the five millions of the original gift prove to be inadequate for these various ob- jects, Mr. WILLIAMSON has let it be understood that he is ready to increase the endowment to ten or twelve million dollars. Hence, in its larger possi- bilities, the gift is one of the most stupendous in all history. Possibly no benefaction on record is greater, except the foundation of Leland Stanford Junior University by Senator Stanford of Califor- nia.* See WILLIAMSON, ISAIAH V., in these Revis- ions and Additions. PCPULATICN or PHILADELPHIA BY WARDs.—The following table, taken from the final oflicial returns of the census of 1890, shows the population of the city by wards, the total population being 1,046,964: Wards P0pula- Wards. Popula- tion. tion. 1 ...................... .. 53, 18 ...................... .. 29,164 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31.563 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55,545 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,925 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20, 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26,900 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,981 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45,329 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8,7 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35,294 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,179 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42,556 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16,971 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9,791 62,138 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21,514 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32,905 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,953 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46,390 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14,170 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54,759 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17,923 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30,614 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,737 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32,974 15 ..................... .. 52,705 3 ...................... .. 30,050 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17,087 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33,171 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19,546 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23,721 ARCHITECTURAL IMPRovEMENTs.-—During the last few years new ideas of architecture have wrought surprising changes in the buildings of Philadelphia. The beginning of this advance apparently dated with the Centennial in 1876. A great number of massive and splendid public and business edifices are now the immediate result. Among them are: the new City Hall, one of the finest buildings in the United States; the Drexel Building (not the institute mentioned above) ; Brown Buildings; Union Trust Company’s buildings; and the oflices of the Pennsylvania Railway and the Girard and Penn Mutual Insurance Companies. The advance is also seen in the architectural designs and finish of many of the‘ new palatial residences of the pri- vate citizens. 3 OTHER MIsCELLANEoUs STATISTICAL ITEMs.—- Philadelphia had at the date of the census of 1890, 750 paved streets out of a total of 1,151 streets, with an average width of 50 feet, with an average yearly cost of construction of $637,550; 1,150 miles of streets lighted by 25,993 street lamps (of which 1,045 were electric), at an average annual cost of $636,605; an unlimited supply of water, with 11 reservoirs and a total capacity of 891,482,454 gal- *At this writing, October,1891, the institution is in pro- gress. 1229 lons, 1,151 miles of street sewerage; a police force of 1,717 men employed at an average cost of $1,000,.- 000; and a fire-department of 521 men, with 180 horses, kept up at an average annual expense of $625,000. A CCNDENSED CHBONOLOGICAL HISTCRIC OUTLINE. City planed by William Penn and called Philadel- phia (“Brotherly Love”) . . . . . . .. “American Weekly Mercurie” started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1719 The “Pennsylvania Gazette,” founded by Franklin, started Philadelphia Library (oldest in the city) founded by Benjamin Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 1, 1731 Benjamin Franklin arrives in Philadelphia, 1723, and thenceforward for 67 years (until his death, in 1790) makes the city his home. Poor Richard’s Almanac (“The Way to Wealth”) start- ed by Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Franklin organizes the first association for extinguish- ing fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Franklin discovers and announces the identity of elec- tricity and 11 htning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1752 First Continenta_ Congress met in Philadelphia. .Sept. 4, 1774 Declaration of R1 hts adopted Oct. 14, 1774 Declaration of In ependence adopted and read from a stand in the State House yard by John Hopkins . - - . ~ - . - - 0 - ~ - o - . . . - 0 . - . . . . - . - - . - - . . | - - - - . - - l July 4, 1776 General Howe takes Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept., 1777 Battle of Germantown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Oct. 3, 4, 1777 Federal Government adopted by Con ress . . . . . . . . . .Nov., 1777 In consequence of the disastrous batt es of Brandywine and Germantown, the British army had possession of this city from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept., 1777, to June, 1778 British troops quit Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 28, 1778 The convention that formed the present Constitution of the United States met in Philadelphia . . . . . . ..May, 1787 Washington, the first President of the United States re- sided in abuilding which stood in Market Street one door east of Sixth Street, south side. Death of Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 17, 1799 The steamboat of John Fitch began to make regular trips on the Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1790 The yellow fever visits Philadelphia, and carries off more than 4,000 persons out of a population of a lit- tle over 40,000, or whom half, it was thought, had fled the city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1793 Washington’s last address to Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 7, 1796 John Adams inaugurated President . . . . . . . . . . . . . .M arch 4, 1797 The yellow fever again visited Philadelphia, but was not so fatal as in 1793 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1798 The Asiatic cholera ravaged the city and swept off 771 victims in the summer of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1832 The Pennsylvania Hall, belon ing to the Abolitionists, was attacked by a mob an burned, the Shelter for colored Orphans fired, and the negro quarters at- tacked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The city was disquieted by riots in the northern and southern suburbs, caused by jealousy between the Protestants and Catholics. The military were called out and several lives were lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Girard College, the gift of Stephen Girard, for the ed- ucation of orphan boys, costing $2,000,000, was opened . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848 The Asiatic cholera renewed its ravages, but less fatal than on its first occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1849 and 1854 The districts of Moyamensing, Southwark, Northern Liberties, Spring Garden and West Philadelphia, and the boroughs and townships of the entire coun- ty. were consolidated with the city proper . . . . . . . . . .. A great fair was held in Logan Square, under the aus- pices of the Philadelphia branch of the United States Sanitary Commission, afiording more than a million dollars for the relief of the sick and wounded so Iers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Dr. James Rush left $1,500,000 for the erection of abuild- ing and the support of a free public library . . . . . . . . . . New City Hall. at t e intersection of Broad and Market Streets, covering an area (exclusive of court-yards) of nearly four and a half acres, was commenced. . .. 1871 The city was visited by a great epidemic of small-pox . . 1872 The Centennial Exhibition was held on grounds at the southwest extremity of Fairmount Park (one hun- dred years after the Declaration of Inde endence was issued). This was the best attende and in many respects the most successful of all the great International Expositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1876 Second Presbyterian Ecumenical Council, represent- ing 52 ecclesiastical bodies, held . . . . . . .Sept. 22-Oct. 2, 1889 General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal church d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1-28, 1884 Interstate Military camp opened on Centennial grounds (Fairmount Park) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 1885 The great educational gift of $5,000,000 by Mr. Isaih V. Williamson to the city, conveyed in trust. . . . .Dec. 11, 1888 New Drexel Industrial Institute, erected at a cost of - $500,000, and presented to the citv with an endow- Inlentdof $1,000,000 by Anthony J. Drexel, was com- p ete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18% 1344 1854 1364 1859 1891 1230 PHILIP, a chief whose native name was Pome- tacom. He was the son of Massasoit, and is famous in New England colonial history as the Indian leader in “King Philip’s War.” He died in 1676. PHILIPPEVILLE, a thriving town and seaport of Algeria, in the province of Constantine, forty _ miles north-northeast of the city of that name, on the Gulf of Stora, between Cape Boujaroun and Cape de Fer. In the vicinity are quarries of the famous Filfila marble. been constructed. Population, 12,191. PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. nica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 746-748. PHILIPPINS, a Russian sect, so called from the founder, Philip Pustoswiéit, under whose leader- See Britan- ship they emigrated from Russia in the end of the - 17th century. They are a branch of the RASKOL- - mxs, of which there are two classes—one which recognizes popes (or priests); the other, which ad- mits no priest or clerical functionary. The Philip- pins are of the latter class. They refuse oaths, and decline to enter military service. PHILIPPOTEAUX, FELIX EMMANUEL HENRI (1815-84), a French artist, who became famous as a painter of battle-pieces, and is popularly known in this country through his remarkable panorama of the Siege of Paris. PHILIPPOTEAUX, PAUL, a French historical painter, born at Paris in 1846. He assisted his father in preparing the Cyclorama of the Siege of . Paris, and made a similar representation of the battle of Gettysburg, which has been exhibited in New York, Philadelphia and other cities. In 1888 he exhibited a series of thirty large paint- ings illustrating the career of Gen. Grant. PHILIPSBURG, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the Moshannon River, twenty miles north of Ty- rone. It contains a number of factories, mills, and machine-shops. PHILIPSTOWN, a town of Ireland, forty-seven inil;as southwest of Dublin. Its charter dates from 56 . 7 :g_HI7LISTINES. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 5 75 . 1 , . PHILLIMORE SIR ROBERT JOSEPH, an English jurist, born at London in 1810, died in 1885. He was made chancellor of the dioceses of Chichester and Salisbury, and in 1867 he became judge of the High Court of Admiralty, and of the Arches Court of Canterbury. On the reorganization of the courts he was nominated judge of the admiralty and probate division of the High Court of Justice, which ofiice he held till his death. His Commen- taries upon the International Law (4 vols.) have be- come famous. He also published Memoirs of George Lord Littleton; Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of - England, and an annotated translation of Lessing’s Laocofin (1874). PHILLIPS, WENDELL, an American orator and reformer, born in Boston, Mass., Nov. 29, 1811, died there Feb. 2, 1884. He was the head of the great anti-slavery party of Boston. He owed his firstim- pulse toward the cause to which his life was devot- ed to the suit occasioned by the “Broadcloth Club” of gentlemen, when it broke into the meeting of the Women’s Anti-Slavery Society in Boston in 1835, and made his first mark as an orator in 1837, . and from that time he took the rank of next to the first, if not the first orator, in America. PHILLIPS, WILLARD, born in Massachusetts in 1784, died in 1873. He was a lawyer in Boston, a judge of probate,,and the author of works on pat- ents, insurance, and on political economy. PHILLIPSBURG, a city of New Jersey, on the Delaware River, opposite Easton, Pa. It is an im- portant manufacturing town, and has valuable de- l A harbor has recently . PHILIP—PHOTOGRAPH.Y posits of limestone and iron ore. Population in 1890, 8,644. PHILPOTT, HENRY, an English divine, born at Chichester in 1807. He was educated at Cambridge; ordained in 1831; was chaplain to the late Prince Consort; was consecrated bishop of Worcester in 1851, and resigned in 1890. PHILPOTTS, HENRY, an English bishop, born at Gloucester in 1778, died at Bishopstoke in 1869. He was made bishop of Exeter in 1830, and was the offi- cial leader of the High Church party in its contro- versies of that period. In 1849 he refused to insti- tute the Rev. Mr. Gorham in a church living on the ground of his denial of baptismal regeneration. The privy council decided in Gorham’siavor, and the archbishop of Cantebury carried out this de- cision. Upon this Bishop Philpotts anathemized the archbishop. PHIPS, SIR WILLIAM, a colonial governor of Massachusetts, born in Maine in 1651, died. in 1695. He was knighted and made- high-sheriff of New England for having recovered an immense treas- ure of silver of one of the ships of the Spanish plate-fleet wrecked off the Bahamas. PHLEGETHON, “the Flaming,” a river of the - infernal regions, whose waves rolled torrents of fire. Nothing would grow on its scorched and des- olate shores. After a course contrary to the Cocy- tus it discharged itself, like the latter stream, into the Lake of Archeon. PHCENIX, a city of Arizona, capital of the Ter- ritory, county-seat of Maricopa county, situated on Salt River, about 225 miles northeast of Yuma. It is the trade-center of a rich agricultural and min- ing district, and contains a number of mills. PH(ENIX, a village of New York, on. Oswego River, fifteen miles north of Syracuse. It has an ' excellent water-power and a number of mills and other manufactories. PH(ENIXVILLE, a borough of Pennsylvania, on Schuylkill River at the mouth of French Creek, about twenty-eight miles northwest of Philadelphia. It is the seat of a seminary, and contains several mills, factories, and furnaces. Population in 1890, 8,514. PHOSPHATES. See Britannica, Vol. XVIII, pp. 815-819. The most important mineral containing phosphorus is apatite (see this article in these Re- visions and Additions). It consists mainly of “phosphate of lime,” and is found on the Island of Sombrero, in the West Indies. Lime phosphate is an essential element of plant-food. It is therefore much used as the basis of artificial fertilizers. It is also the main constituent of guano, and is found in marls, but only in small proportion. Phosphate rock exists abundantly in South Caro- lina. Over the marl-beds there is found a stratum of hard, rounded stones, from the size of a potato- to a diameter of several feet. These stones were formerly thrown away as useless. But in 1867 it was discovered that they contain from 50 to 60 per cent. of phosphate of lime. In 1886, the quantity of phosphate rock taken from the navigable rivers of South Carolina was 191,174 tons. It pays a royalty to the State. Most of this river rock is shipped to other States. The phosphate factories of South Carolina use exclu- sively land rock. Forty companies are engaged in. crushing this rock and manufacture it into fertiliz- ers. . PHOTOGRAPHY, RECENT PROGRESS IN. At the convention of photographers held at Buffalo- in August, 1891, Mr. Arthur H. Elliott, Ph. D., edi-~ tor of “Anthony’s Photographic Bulletin,” (pub- lished in New York) made the following report on the progress of photography during the past year : _ for a moment. PHOTOGRAPHY Beginning with the apparatus of the professional photographer, we do not find any important ad- vances. The cameras that were used a year ago hold their places in the estimation of the practical man. In the matter of hand cameras we note some quite unique improvements. In this respect the new film camera called the Kamaret is undoubt- edlya marked advance in the utilization of the space within the box to secure the most compact disposition of the parts. The roll is -so arranged that it occupies the space between the cone of rays from the lens and the side of the box. By this ' method of disposition, space hitherto not used has been made available, and the most compact hand camera now in the market is the result. Coming to the use of plates in hand-cameras, we must give the palm to the new magazine camera of Anthony. This embodies several new devices that are quite ingenious. First, the plates are made to come into focus automatically by means of a spring, and after exposure a single push on a button takes the exposed plate out of the way into a well, leaving another plate in place for further use. Second, after all the plates in the magazine of the camera have been exposed, the camera may be loaded up again by attaching a reservoir box to it containing a new lot of plates, which are readily transferred ~nv.:"-=>£+sssa1TnnnszInimn is M in mm llil Lin--1" ‘ f-l.~'.7i~. I |';‘l .5 I 11 n: "W‘iE -2 FY’- 'e'- !a1'lP‘l‘!hw‘.§ I I .| ‘ i I W ' . ,3 v~:,.1:‘:§§Il'j ., ‘ll ant E! > ‘I .1 I - -~w,;;‘|i : - >,-. I _ =l-‘i I‘ *=. .*%lI:{iF!~'lg-‘~.l9-' "'-1"‘ ll ~ J1 ;: I .' :- .- 3» i\iq;if.5:iil'l~,l *5 .5, I ' I‘ ‘ lit. ‘ 1 FITTED WITH BENSTER HOLDER. to the body of the camera by the use of a couple of slides. The empty box can now be used to hold the exposed plates in the camera, and these are re- moved by attaching it to the bottom of the camera, and with the movement of two slides the plates fall out to give place to those that are to be exposed afterwards. We must confess that this is a decided advance in the construction of hand cameras. Yet another hand camera must take a little of our attention This is the I-Ietherington. Here we have a camera using plates that are arranged pretty much as the leaves of a book. As each plate is exposed it is turned down out of the range of the lens, just as you would turn down the leaf of a book if it was stood up on its back closed. Each plate is turned down; a spring brings a new one into place. This is a most ingenious piece of ap- paratus; but as soon as the plates are all exposed you have to resort to a dark room to refill the plate-holders. In the matter of lenses,by far the most important step has been taken by Carl Zeiss in the adapta- tion of the Jena glass to photographic lenses, and the construction of a lens in which the chemical 1231 and visual rays come to one and the same focus. Yet another improvement is the use of the lenses so corrected that they may be used at very short focus and wide angle without the distortion hith- ' erto encountered in lenses of thischaracter. There ‘ is no doubt that this Jena glass, which has done such wonders in the field of microscopy, is des- tined to teach us some new things in the world of photography. While on the subject of lenses we must not for- get to speak of the efforts of the English lens makers to come to some understanding in the mat- ter of threads and flanges of the lens mounts. Although nothing definite has yet been accom- plished, a-report on the subject has been approved ' by the principal English lens makers, and with a little further modification there is no doubt that a ' uniform screw thread for the lenses of the same size, also a uniform thread for tripod screws, and a uniform system of marking the diaphragms of lenses will be adopted by all the English makers, and probably by those of America, France and Ger- many. If this can be accomplished, the photogra- pher will be in the same position as the microscop- ist, in having all his lenses of the same size fit into the flanges on his cameras or into adaptors that also are uniform for all makes of lenses. While we are noting the novelties in photographic apparatus, a word about the new rival of the pho- tographic operator is worth our attention. We mean the automatic photographing machines, where you put a nickel in the slot and get your picture taken, framed and all. But they are at present not worth more than a word, for all we have seen are easily distanced by the poorest tin- type artist that visits the smallest country town. Nevertheless, these machines are the beginning of a series of inventions that will make a likeness of the sitter in front of them, and purely by mechani- cal motions as certain in their action as those of a clock. At present they are more of a curiosity than an innovation in photographic work. Since we last met quite a furore has been seen in the matter of color photography. Prof. Lippmann, of France, startled the world with the announce- ment that he had discovered the secret of taking photographs in their natural colors. After-devel- opments proved that he had repeated the experi- ments of Edmond Becquerel, made twenty -five years before, except that he had used glass plates with greater success. Practically his work is of little value, but it is interesting as a development of the theory of interference in light. The pict- ures he obtained are of the same character as the colors of the soap bubble in the sunbeam or the film of oil on water. Working in the same field of research, but with much better experience to guide him, our own Carey Lea has shown us some new wonders in the properties of silver chloride. Indeed, he has dis- covered that the basis of modern photography, the metal silver, is capable of existing in several dis- tinct colored modifications. The Austrian photog- rapher, Verecsz, who also experimented in the field of color by photography, did work that is but a modification of the work of Carey Lea. Some means of determining the actinic value of _ light in its relation to photography has long been a desideratum, and the English experimenters, Messrs. Hurter and Driffield, together with Capt. Abney, have arrived at some interesting results, showing that the exposure determines the grada- tion of lights and shades in the negative. Incor- rect exposure will not give an harmoniously graded negative, and, furthermore, this incorrect exposure cannot be improved by a change of development. 1232 They have devised a method of determining the proper time of exposure, but at present the appa- ratus is more scientific than practical. A much more convenient apparatus for the pur- pose of determining the time of exposure is the neat little actinometer of Ballard, which depends upon the measurement of the actinic power of the light on a subject by finding out how long the pho- tographic, that is the blue and violet rays, take to fade from a phosphorescent tablet that has been exposed to their influence. Its mode of operation is very simple. A small tube, blackened inside, has at one end a tablet of luminous paint, so arranged that it hangs by a hinge which allows it to be ex- posed on the subject for half a minute. The tablet is then closed over the tube, and by looking into the latter the time of fading to a standard tint, also in the tube, gives a figure that is a measure of the photographic power of the light reflected by the subject. It is practical, and its indications are just as good as the sensitometer with which we de- termine the rapidity of our dry-plates. This same actinic power is modified by our use of the diaphragms in the lens. But here also some experiments of the past year have given us some new light. Dr. Michelke, of Germany, has shown that if we reduce the size of the opening in the lens to one-fourth we shall have to increase the time of exposure, not four times, as might be ex- pected, but 20 per cent. more, or nearly five times. By using yet smaller openings we must add still more to the time, and with one thirty-sixth of the opening the"time will have to be forty-eight times as long, or an increase of one-third the calculated time for correct -exposures with a corresponding larger stop. In a word, if the time of the exposure is correct with a stop of one inch, and it is desired to use a stop of one-quarter of an inch, we must increase the time of exposure, not four times, but nearly five times. In the field of orthochromatic photography, as it is called, there is not much new to report, but we are very glad to note that our American manu- facturers are making some of the best dry-plates to be found anywhere. There are rumors of the advent of collodion plates that are as rapid as the gelatine dry-plate, but we have not heard of any practical use of these plates It is stated that at the present time they are twice as costly as the geletine plates, but it is only a question of time when we shall have them in competition; and for many purposes they may be found of advantage even at double the present pric;s of dry-plates, notably in photo-mechanical wor . Flash-light photography has many workers and it is constantly being put to good use and its man- ner of application being improved. Various devices have been employed to overcome the hard shadows that were to be found in the first pictures made by its use. The methods of doing this are in the di- vision of the magnesium powder into a number of small charges rather than using it in one large flash. These charges are fired simultaneously by the use of a number of gas jets that are made to impinge on pieces of gun-cotton on which is placed the magnesium, the projection of the many flames, at the same instant being controlled by some de- vice that regulates the pressure of the gas and in- creases it at the same moment at every jet. Pic- tures made by these methods are very hard to dis- tinguish from those made by daylight. The color of the magnesium light is capable of much modification. And in this respect may be a most useful adjunct to the orthochromatic plates. I Two German experimenters have applied this in PHOTOGRAPHY photo-micrography using a mixture of perchlorate " of potash with magnesium, chloride of sodium and tartrate of barium, with some excellent results. The development of the photographic plate has received a good deal of attention during the past year. In the matter of developers there is not very much to report, but quite recently paramidophenol, a substance related somewhat to eikonogen, has been proposed as a new agent. Like eikonogen it it very soluble and it is also rather ex ensive; but if it is found to have any decided a vantage, the chemist will soon find a way to make it cheaply. At the present time it is said to possess good de- veloping powers, and its use gives no stains on the films. Compared with eikonogen and hydroquin- one, it oxidizes more rapidly than either. It is consequently more active than these developing agents. But its most important advantage is the fact that it will not color the film and can be used for a large number of plates in succes- sion. It is said that as many as twenty plates may be developed in the same bath without causing the least stain on the negative. From these indi- cations it would appear to be as rapid as pyrogallol without its staining defects. In connection with the subject of developers, the interesting experiments of Colonel Waterhouse de- serve amoment’s attention. He has found that by the addition of a very small quantity of thiocarba- mide to the developer of eikonogen it is possible to produce a positive image instead of a negative one. This is a matter of small inportance to the ordinary photographer, but to those who have to work the photo-mechanical processes it is a saving in the steps to be taken for the production of the final printing plate, for it saves the production of a posi- tive from the usual negative. Coming now to the printing processes, we must record the revival of the use of gelatine as a sub- stitute for albumen, with more improvements than it has seen in many years. Aristotype paper has made some very important advances during the past year, and if the march of progress is contin- ued it may supplant albumen paper entirely as a basis for the photographic print. Platinum printing still holds its own with ama- teurs, and it would be a source of profit to the pro- fessional photographer, in the better class of work, if he would but take time to overcome some of.the earlier difficulties. In Europe they are far ahead of us in this matter. A new printing process was presented to the pho- tographers by two English chemists some months ago,which depended for its action upon the change made by light in the chemical structure of a dye- stuff made from the coloring matter known as Pri- muline. This substance has the curious property of uniting with different organic matter and pro- ducing with each one a colored print. If therefore we print in diazo primuline from a star-shaped neg- ative, we can make each of the star rays of a differ- ent color, by the use of different organic matters put on as developers in the form of paste. great drawback to the success of the process is the color of the ground, which is of a bright yellow tint. Up to the present time the inventors have not been able to change this color, but if it is ever accomplished, we shallbe in possession of a print- ing process of great beauty and capable of many variations, this, too, without the use of silver or any other metallic salts, as the substances used are entirely of organic origin. The application of photography to astronomy continues to give the most wonderful results. Stars unseen by the human eye are detected by the pho- tographic dry-plates. And some recent photo- The- PHOTOGRAPHY graphs made in Sydney, Australia, show that the stars of the milky way are really larger than they appear to. the eye through the telescope. This is due to the fact that they emit many blue rays which are invisible to our sight, but whose light af- fects the photographic plate. Photo-mechanical printing processes have made important advances in color printing in which they are now producing some of the most beautiful work ever attempted by the aid of light and the printing press, and without the aid of the human hand. In this respect the work of Bierstadt, of New York, surpasses anything of the kind ever attempted be- fore. By the use of colored screens, he takes sev- eral negatives of the different colors that make up the painting he wishes to produce by photography, and by means of these he prepares corresponding gelatine surfaces that serve as the basis for the printing of the colors by superposition, as in the lithographic methods. The results obtained are very beautiful and are almost aperfect fac-simile of the original picture. It will be by some such pro- cess as this that we shall be able to make, not take, photographs in their natural colors. Such is a very rapid survey of the advances of our art since we last met, many really important steps of progress having received but a word of men- tion. PHOTOGRAPHY, INSTANTANEOUS. The new gelatine process of instantaneous photography re- cently introduced has well-nigh revolutionized the art. The process of preparing the plates for it is .very difficult. Yet the results of the experiments in taking instantaneous pictures have been highly satisfactory. The efl’ects of light on the prepared plates are so rapid, that the hand is not quick enough for the manipulations, and quicker working devices had to be employed. In pictures of vessels going at full speed taken by this process, the thinest ropes appear as distinct as when the boats are at rest, and each wave of the water is clearly pictured. Rogers, the sculptor, used the process with perfect success‘ for taking pictures of athletics struggling. Horses trotting or galloping are taken with accuracy; also children playing and running about. Pictures of persons laughing are full of life and free from any stiflfness. Recently several physicists have even taken instantaneous photo- graphs of lightning which show every detail of the flas quite distinctly; also pictures of cannon balls and other projectiles in the act of moving through the air have been successfully taken by this process. Pnoro-MECHANICAL Pnocnssns are all processes in which, by the aid of light, in connection with chemical and mechanical treatment, printing sur- faces are prepared which can be used for multiply- ing impressions without the further aid of light. Success in photo-mechanical processes depends upon the use of substances which are sensitive to light, and which are used to produce, photograph- ically, the design either flat for etching or direct printing, or in relief for molding, for electrotyping, stereotyping, etc. Bitumen or asphaltum was first used by Nicephore Niepce in 1827; chromatized gelatine, albumen and gum arabic were used by Talbot in 1852 for etched plates ; and chromatized gelatine was first employed for transfers and for fiatrotyping and stereotyping by Paul Pritsch in Prof. Chas. F. Chandler, of Columbia College, New York, classifies photo-mechanical processes as follows: 1. Those in which the picture is moulded in gelatine colored by a pigment woodburytype or photoglyph. 1233 II. Those in which the picture is printed in print- ing ink. A. Collotype processes (Lichtdruck, Phototype), in which the picture is printed from a gelatine surface. 1. Albertype; 2. Artotype; 3. Indotint or Auto- glyph; 4. Heliotype; 5. Leimtype. B. Processes in which the picture is printed from stone. 1. Photolithograph; 2. Photo-caustic; 3. Tnk Photo. 0. Processes in which the picture is printed from a metallic relief surface: “typographic or block printing.” a. Swelled gelatine processes. 1. Photo-electrotype (copper); 2. Photo-engrav- ing (type-metal). b. Photo-etchings. 1. Photo-zincograph (by transfer); 2. Zincotype (direct photo on plate with albumen or bitumen) ; 3. Typogravure (copper); 4. Chromotypogravure (several plates). D. Processes in which the picture is printed from an intaglio copper plate. 1. Photo-gravure; 2. Photo-aquatint; 3. Goupil- gravure. WooDnUnYTYI>Es.—The Woodburytype or Photo- glyph was invented by W. B. Woodbury. A sheet of bichromatized gelatine is exposed under a nega- tive; it is then washed to remove the unchanged gelatine that was protected from the negative, and finally dried. This relief film is then placed upon a sheet of lead and forced into it by hydraulic pressure, thus producing an intaglio mould. This mould is placed in a horizontal press and flowed with a solution of warm gelatine colored with pigment. A sheet of paper is then laid upon it, and the excess of colored gelatine is forced out by pressure. The paper print is hardened in a so- lution of alum. The result is a galatine pigment picture. A sheet of glass is sometimes substituted for the paper, and transparencies and lantern slides of great beauty are obtained. The STANNoTY1>E is.a modification in which tin foil, properly backed by electrotyping or otherwise, is substituted for the lead plates. The PHOTO-FILIGRANE or PHOTO-DIAPHANIC process consists in attaching the gelatine relief to a plate of steel and using it to produce, by pressure, transparencies in white paper, which resemble water-marks. ALBERTYPES.-—Joseph Albert, of Munich, in 1869, devised this most successful process for re-produc- ing photographs in printer’s ink. A sheet of plate glass is coated with a thin film of chromatized albumen and gelatine, laid face down on black velvet and exposed to light. It is then washed and dried. The insoluble film adheres firmly to the glass and serves as a founda- tion for the second film, which consists of chroma- tized gelatine. This is exposed under a negative which has been reversed by stripping. The plate is then soaked in water to remove the soluble bi- chromate, the film is hardened with chrome alum and then dried. The result is an almost invisible picture in gelatine, which has become insoluble in water, and actually repellent for water; while the gelatine which was protected by the negative (the whites) retains its absorbing power. The plate is fastened by plaster-of-paris to the bed of the press, and the printing is then con- ducted very much as in ordinary lithography. A wet sponge is applied to moisten the whites, and an ink roller to ink the picture. A sheet of paper is , placed on the surface, and on applying pressure 1234 the ink is transferred to the paper. may also be printed on linen, silk, etc. .ARTOTYPES.--Ob81‘I1el§t81‘, of Munich, invented this improvement on the Albertype in 1878. He uses a mixture of albumen and soluble glass for the foundation film, on which the sensitive film is afterward placed. As this film does not require to be hardened by light, opaque metallic plates may be substituted for the plate glass of the Albertype; otherwise the process is substantially identical with that of Albert. INDoTINTs.—In this process, invented by T. C. Rocher, of New York, the plate, usually of copper, is roughened or pitted by exposure to the sand- blast, in order to cause the sensitive film to adhere tenaciously. also produced in the film by the addition of alcohol- to the chromatized gelatine. After exposure under the negative, the unchanged bichromate is washed out and the plate is dried. These plates can be used in the power press, and 1,000 copies an hour may be printed from them. HELIoTY1>Es.—Between the years 1869 and 1872, Ernest Edwards, formerly of London, now of New York, made a number of improvements in collotype printing which resulted in the Heliotype. The most important features of the improvements are the hardening of the gelatine film by chrome alum, and the detaching of it from the support upon which it is first prepared. When completed it is a thin sheet or “ skin ” of gelatine, tough and flexible. For printing it may be placed on a plate of zinc, or it may be attached to a cylinder. It may be pre- served and used for printing, as occasion may demand. - COLLOTYPES IN CoLoRs.—Albert, Bierstadt, Frisch and others have succeeded in producing very beau- tiful pictures in colors, by preparing several gela- tine plates, each plate bearing particular parts of the picture, and being used for printing the appro- priate colored ink. As many as seven different plates are employed successively in producing the picture. A There are different methods in use for preparing the several plates. One plan is to make a separate negative for each color. This is accomplished by interposing a suit- able screen of colored glass, or colored liquid, be- tween the object and the photographic plate in the camera. For example, a screen which shuts out all colors except blue will permit only the blue portions of the picture to be photographed on the negative, and a gelatine plate from this negative may be used for printing with blue ink. In a simi- lar way another screen will furnish a negative and plate for the red portions of the picture and so on. Another plan is to prepare the gelatine plates from one and the same negative by ‘stopping out” all of the picture except that of one color. LEIMTYPEs.—In 1887, Husnik, of Prague, invented a process for preparing high relief plates of gela- tine that can be used for typographic printing in an ordinary printing press, either for the repro- duction of pictures or letterpress. Husnik uses a thick plate of chromatized gelatine and exposes it under a negative as usual. by means of gutta percha to zinc or wood, thus making a firm, but somewhat elastic foundation for the printing surface. He then develops the sur- face by treatment with a solvent, such as a satur- ated solution of an alkaline bichromate. This not only dissolves the gelatine upon which the light did not fall, but it also deepens and strengthens the relief. The development is stopped before any of the finest lines or dots are injured. The plate is The picture Extra toughness and tenacity are ‘ ‘ fer process.” ~ copies an hour. PHOTOGRAPHY dried and the lights are covered with a solution of opaque printer’s ink, by means of a camel’s hair brush. The plate is then exposed for a second time to the action of light, by which it is hardened and strengthened, not only on the surface,but also on the flanks of each line and dot. The black is then removed and the solvent is again applied to deepen the whites. These plates may be used di- rectly in the press, and will print 100,000 copies. , By making wax moulds from these plates they may be reproduced in copper by electrotyping. PHOTO-LITHOGRAI>Hs.—-Various plans were sug- gested for securing on lithographic stone a photo- graphic impression which could afterward, be used for printing the fatty inks. The process of J . W. Osborne, formerly of Melbourne, now of Washing- ton, was made public in 1861, and proved to be a great improvement. It is what is called a “trans- A sheet of paper is coated with a solution of albumen, gelatine and bichromate of potash. It is then dried in the dark, and subse- quently placed, face down, on a sheet of smooth copper, and passed through a lithographic press in order to glaze and flatten it. It is then exposed under a negative, and afterward coated uniformly with greasy lithographic transfer ink. In order to coagulate the albumen in the film, the paper is now floated, inked side upward, on boiling water. At the same time the unaltered gelatine, which was protected by the opaque portions of the nega- tive, absorbs moisture and swells, leaving the un- altered gelatine, the lines of the picture, depressed. The print is now placed, face upward, on a smooth board and washed off gently with a sponge dipped in water. It is then pinned to the board and the washing is completed with a stream of boiling water. The print is then dried, and the picture is transferred to stone by simply placing it upon the stone, face downward, and passing it through the press. The stone is now ready for lithographic printing in the steam press at the rate of 1,000 One hour is sufficient for taking the negative, preparing the transfer and placing it upon the stone. _ The picture may, if desired, be transferred to a zinc plate instead of stone. PHOTO-oAUsTIcs.—This name is given to photo- lithographs produced in half-tone by means of a Meisenbach ruled negative. INK PHOTOS.--This name is given by Sprague, of London, to photo-lithographs in half-tone, prepar- ed by a process which is kept secret. The pictures do not show the decided dotted character of the Mifsisenbach negative, but are very fine grained and so t. PHOTO-ELEcTROTY1>Es.-—Many processes have been " proposed for producing electrotypes from gelatine relief surfaces. Among the most successful are those of Paul Pritsch, of Vienna, 1857 ; Alphonse L. Poitevin, of Paris, 1862; Paul Emil Placet,of Paris, 1864; W. A. Leggo and G. E. Desearats, of Quebec, 1865; W. H. Mumler, of Boston, 1875. All of these consist substantially in exposing a sheet of chro- matized gelatine, under a negative, to the action of light. The efi’ect is to render the parts reached .by the light insoluble and non-absorbent for He then attaches this ' water. While the parts protected by the negative remain soluble in warm water and other solvents, and retain the property of absorbing cold water- and swelling. After the exposure under the nega- tive, the gelatine is either simply soaked in water to swell the whites, or it is treated with warm water, acetic acid or some other solvent to wash them away, In either case by making moulds of wax or plaster, it is easy to electrotype acopper re- lief block for typographic printing. By the use of PHYLLOXERA—PHHSICK Meisenbach, or other grained negatives, half-tone effects are obtained. PHOTO-ENGRAVINGS.—II1 this neighborhood this term has been applied to type metal relief ‘ blocks for typographic printing. These blocks have been made from gelatine reliefs prepared as de- scribed under ELECTROTYPES; plaster moulds being used for casting the type metal. The Moss process belongs to this class. It is said that the peculiarity consists in first taking a mould from the gelatine relief with a mixture of asphaltum, rosin, sulphur and india rubber, and with this mould making a second mould in plaster- of-paris for the casting of the type metal. PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPI-IS.—Tl1lS name is sometimes given to pictures printed from zinc plates to which the design has been transferred in adhesive trans- fer ink, from paper, in the manner described un- der PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHS. The plate is then treat- ed with acid to sink the whites, thus producing a lone relief. ZINooTYPEs.—High relief plates for typographic printing. The zinc is coated with bitumen or with bichromatized albumen. It is then exposed under a negative and subsequently developed. The bitu- men picture is developed with oil of turpentine. The bichromatized albumen is first coated with printer’s ink, then developed by gently rubbing in cold water with a tuft of cotton. By suitable etch- ing agents the whites are dissolved away, leaving the picture in high relief. The Ives process, invented by F. E. Ives, of Phila- delphia, in 1881, is a most ingenious process for producing half-tone negatives for making relief blocks. The picture is converted into a series of dots of varying sizes. The Meisenbach negative hes been already referred to. It was devised by G. Meisenbach, of Munich, in 1882, and is available for many difl’erent photo-mechanical processes. William Kurtz, of New York, has a process of simi- lar character, which gives very fine results. TYPO—GRAVURES.—-This is the name given by Boussod, Valadon & Co., successors to Goupil & Co., of Paris, to half-tone pictures printed from copper relief plates, which are apparently etched, either by means of bitumen, chromatized albumen, or some other similar sensitive coating. The surface of the metal is grained substantially in the same manner as plates prepared under Meisenbach neg- atives. These plates are much used in Paris by the illustrated papers. CHRoMo-TYI>oGRAvUREs are produced by the same process as Typo-gravures, except that several plates are used with different colored inks. “Fi- garo Illustre” is embellished with pictures of this kind. They are made by Boussod, Valadon & Co. PHoTo-eRAvUREs.—Numerous processes have been invented for producing copper intaglio plates by the aid of photography, beginning with the pro- cess of Niepce, 1827. In some of these processes the picture was etched into the copper; in others a mould was prepared and the plate was electrotyped into existence. Many firms in Europe and this country now prepare these plates, and the results are very fine. The processes, however, are rarely given to the public. The process of Mr. VVoodbury, 1870-72, which was worked with the greatest success by Goupil & Co., of Paris, consisted in preparingjust such a gelatine relief film as was made in the Woodburytype pro- cess already described. There was one modifica- tion, which consisted in adding a gritty powder, like pulverized glass, to the gelatine, to produce a grain in the relief film. This relief is used to make a mould which is used for electrotyping the final copper plate. Another process consists in coating 1 1235 the metal with chromatized gelatine, exposing un- der a transparent positive, and etching through the gelatine with perchloride of iron. _ PHoTo—AQUATINTs are pictures also printed from intaglio copper plates. The process is said to be simpler than the photo-gravure. It is adapted for reproducing portraits direct from life. GOUPIL-GRAVURES are fac-similes of water color paintings. They are printed in colors from photo- gravure plates. The plate is inked by hand in dif- ferent colored printing inks, and the picture is printed by one impression. The plate is then cleaned and again inked in colors for another im- pression, and so on. PHYLLOXERA (Phylloceera uastatrix). See Britannica, Vol. XXIV, p. 239, and the article IN- sncrs IN.IURIoUs To VEGETATION, in these Revis- ions and Additions. PHYSICAL EDUCATION. An admirable law of nature provides that—within certain limits- parts of the human frame increase in strength, ap- titude and size in proportion to the use made by them. In gymnastics this law is brought to bear successively on every part, and finally on the whole system in combined action. If the exertion be not carried so far as to induce excessive fatigue, all other parts of the body sympathize with the im- proving condition of that which is mainly exerted; the circulation, excited from time to time by the exercise, acquires fresh vigor, and, blood being driven with unwonted force into all parts of the system, every function is carried on with increased activity. An improvement in the general health soon becomes manifest, and the mind—if simulta- neously cultivated with judgment—increases in power and endurance. The special value of gymnastics lies in their ex- ercising the arms, shoulders, and chest. On this account they are particularly valuable for all who lead sedentary lives, and also as an important aux- iliary for those who wish by athletic exercises to perfect their muscular development. In Greece, the cultivation of the body by means of gymnastics began in the earliest life of the boy, and was fostered and encouraged by valuable re- wards in both fame and riches accruing from success at the Olympic games. Aristotle considered a com- monwealth essentially defective, if gymnastics were not a part of its code. Plato called him a cripple who, cultivating his mind alone, suffered his body to “languish through sloth and inactivity.” In Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and France gym- nastic exercises are made compulsory in most of the educational institutions as well as in the armies. In this country gymnastics was until lately re- garded as a pass-time for boys, or a prescribed remedy for some of the ailments of the other mem- bers of society. Of late some of the educational in- stitutions pay ofiicial attention to gymnastics, ath- letics, or physical education. Among these are prominent Harvard University and the University of Pennsylvania. Some of the other American col- leges have also introduced gymnastics recently, but this branch of their educational work plays only a subordinate role. It should be better understood that gymnastics does not only increase the muscu- lar strength and vitality of the body, but also the activity and vigor of the brain, and that it enables students to do more and better work in every branch of study. PHYSICK, PHILIP SYNG, an American physician and surgeon. born in Philadelphia,Pa., in 1768, died there in 1837. He was a member of the French In- stitute and of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London. He held many important posi- tions in Philadelphia. ' 1236 PHYTOLACCA, a genus of exogenous plants, of the natural order Phytolaccaceae. This order con- tains about seventy known species, half-shrubbery and herbaceous plants, natives of warm ‘parts of Asia, Africa, and America. The genus Phytolacca has for its fruit a berry with 8-10 cells, each cell one-seeded. P. decandra, the Poke or Pocan, a na- tive of North America, now naturalized in some parts of the south of Europe, is sometimes culti- vated for its young shoots, which, when blanched, are eaten like asparagus. PIAN A DE’ GRECI, a town of Sicily, in the prov- ince' of Palermo, ten miles southwest from Palermo. It was the chief colony of the Albanians who set- tled in Sicily in the‘ 15th century, taking refuge from Turkish tyranny. The colony at Piana de’ Greci was founded in 1488. The descendants of the colonists still follow the Greek ‘ritual, and adhere to all the customs of the Eastern church, although acknowledging the supremacy of the pope. The Albanian dress is partially retained among the poorer classes, and particularly among the women. The inhabitants of Piana de’ Greci are mostly hus- bandmen and shepherds. The houses are generally mean buildings of a single story. Population, about 7,500. PIANO, or PIANOFORTE, a well-known stringed instrument played with the fingers by means of a key-board. The business of manufacturing pianos is continually assuming larger proportions in the United States, and many useful improvements are made in their construction. The inventive genus of America has, during the last forty years, accom- plished more in perfecting and cheapening these instruments than that of all the other nations put together. The best American pianos are acknowl- edged to be superior in many of their details to the best ones produced in England and on the con- tinent of Europe. For general article see Britan- nica, Vol. XIX, pp. 64-78. - PIASSABA, or PIACABA, a remarkable vegetable fiber which has become an article of muchimport- ance. It is procured from Brazil, chiefly from the ports of Para and Maranham, and is produced by one or more species of palm. That which furnishes the greater part is the coquilla-nut palm (Attalea funifera); but Mr. Wallace states that much of it is procured from a species of Leopoldinia, which he has named L. piassaba. This material has been found of great utility in making brushes of a coarse kind, particularly those required to sweep the street. PIASTRE, a Spanish silver coin which has been extensively adopted by other nations. It was for- merly divided into eight silver reals, and hence was termed a piece of eight. The present Spanish piastre, commonly known as the peso duro, peso fu- erte, or, briefly duro, is the standard of the money system, and is equivalent to about a dollar of our money. PIATT, J OHN J AMES, an American poet, born in Indiana in 1835. Many of his books of poetry have been produced in conjunction with his wife, Sarah M. Bryan Piatt, and with VV. D. Howells. PIBROCH, a species of martial music performed on the bagpipe of the Highlanders, which has been found to have a wonderful power in arousing their military instincts. Its rhythm is so irregular, and its notes in the quicker parts so much jumbled to- gether, that a stranger has difiiculty in following the modulations or reconciling his ear to them. The earliest mention of the military music of the bagpipe is in 1594, at the battle of Balrinnes. Ac- cording to Sir Walter Scott, the connoisseurs in pipe-music affect to discover in a well-composed pibroch the imitative sounds of march, conflict, PHYTOLACCA-PIERCE flight, pursuit, and all the current of a heady fight. . Many remarkable instances have been recorded of the effect of the pibroch on the Highlanders. PICKEN, ANDREW, a Scotch novelist, born at Paisley in 1788, died in 1833. He traveled much in early life; followed various avocations in Scotland, Ireland and England; and became a professional writer in London in 1827. PICKENS, ANDREW, an American Revolutionary general, born in Pennsylvania in 1739, died in 1817. He is known as the hero of the battle of Cowpens and Kettle Creek. After the war he was for many years a legislator. PICKERING, TIMOTHY, an American Revolu- tionary statesman, born at Salem, Mass., in 1745, died in 1829. He was Washington’s adjutant-gen- eral and, later, quartermaster-general; and after the war he held high federal oflices. His son, JOHN PIGKERING (1777-1846), was a distinguished philologist. (1791-1868), was an eminent lawyer. CHARLEs PIGKERING (1805-1878), grandson of Timothy, was a physician. EDWARD CHARLES PIGKERING, great- grandson of Timothy, born in 1846, is an eminent _ astronomer. PICKERSGILL, FREDERICK RIGHARD, an Eng- lish painter, born in 1820. He studied at the Roy- al Academy of which he was elected a member in 1857. His Combat between Hercules and Archelaus and The Death of King Lear made him famous. His magnificent Burial of Harold was bought for the houses of parliament. PICKETT, ALBERT J . (1810-1858), assistant adju- tant-general in the Creek war, and author of a val- uable History of Alabama. PICKETT, GEORGE E., an American soldier, born in Virginia in 1825, died in 1875. He graduated at West Point, served with distinction in the Mexican war, and as major-general in the Confederate army. PICTON, ‘a town, the county-seat of Picton coun- ty, N. S., and a port of entry on Northumberland Strait. It has a good harbor and is an important railroad terminus, and a mining, manufacturing and educational center. PIEDMONT, a village of WVest Virginia, on the north branch of the Potomac, 170 miles east of Wheeling. It has a good trade connected with the coal-mining industry, and is an important shipping- ‘ point. PIEDRA BLANCA, a town of the Argentine Re- public, South America, in the province of Catamar- ca, twenty-miles southwest from Catamarca. Pop- ulation about 10,000. PIERCE, GEoRGE FosTER, an American divine, bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, born in Georgia in 1811, died in 1844. PIERCE, GILBERT AsHvILLE,an American states- man. He was born in East Otto, Cattaragus coun- ty, N. Y. He emigrated to Indiana in 1854; attend- ‘ ed Chicago University and studied two years in the law department of said institution ; enlisted in Com- pany H,9th Indiana volunteers, at the first call of the President, and was elected 2nd Lieutenant of said company. At the expiration of the three- months’ service was appointed a captain and as- sistant Quartermaster by President Lincoln; was at Paducah, Fort Donelson, Shiloh, Grand Gulf, Vicksburg, and entered the city at the capture, on July 4, 1863; was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in November, 1863 and served at Matagorda Island, in Texas in 1864 ; was appointed a colonel and in- spector, and special commissioner of the War De- partment; was at Hilton Head and Pocotaligo, South Carolina. and thence was ordered to the De- partment of the Gulf, where he served till October, Another son, OoTAvIUs PICKERING - * PIERCE—PINCKNEY 1865; was a member of the Indiana legislature in 1868; was assistant financial clerk of the United States Senate from 1869 to 1871 ; resigned to accept an editorial position on the “Chicago Inter-Ocean”; served as associate editor and managing editor of that paper for twelve years; in 1883 became con- nected with the “Chicago News ;” in July 1884, was appointed governor of Dakota, which position he resigned in November, 1886; at the meeting of the legislature of the State of North Dakota in N o- vember, 1889, was elected United States Senator. PIERCE, RICE A., born in Weakley county, Tenn., July 3, 1848; was for two years a member of the eighth Tennessee cavalry, Confederate States army; was wounded and captured in a cavalry fight near Jackson, Tennessee, in 186% ; was a pris- oner of‘war till close of war; attended the common schools of the country, and was two and one-half years at the London High School, London, Ontario ; read law at Halifax, North Carolina, in the office of Judge Edward Conigland; was licensed to prac- tice law by the supreme court of North Carolina, in July, 1868; was elected district attorney of the twelfth judicial circuit in 1874 ; reelected in 1878 for the full term of eight years; was elected to the 48th Congress and again to the 51st Congress. PIERCE CITY, a village of Missouri, about fifty miles west of Springfield. It is the trade center of a rich farming district. PIERMONT, a village of New York, on the west bank of the Hudson, four miles south of Nyack, just north of the Palisades. It contains many hand- some residences and several manufactories. PIERPON T, J OHN, an American poet, born in Connecticut in 1785, died in 1866. He was succes- sively a teacher, a lawyer, a merchant, a Unitarian minister, an army chaplain and an employé in the Treasury Department. He wrote many fine poems, and was an eloquent anti-slavery and tem- perance orator. PIERCE, a city, the capital of South Dakota and the county-seat of Hughes county, on the east bank of the Missouri, opposite Fort Pierre. It is the seat of Pierre University and has a very active river and railroad trade. PIERREPON T, a village of New York, near the Racket River, about ten miles south of Potsdam. It bhas manufactories of cheese-boxes and butter- tu s. PIERREPON T, EDWARDS, a distinguished Amer- ican jurist, born in Connecticut in 1817. He con- ducted the case of the Government against Surratt for complicity in the murder of President Lincoln; was Attorney-General of the United States, and was appointed minister to England in 1876. His decisions and writings upon international law have materially influenced the policy of European gov- ernments. PIETRAPERZIA, a town of Sicily, in the prov- ince of Caltanisetta, six miles southeast from Cal- tanisetta, on a lofty height rising from the left bank of the Salso. There are sulphur mines in the vicinity. Population, about 10,500. PIETA, the name given in the language of art to representations of the Virgin Mary, embracing the dead body of her son. It is a counterpart to the Madonna with the infant Jesus in her arms. The one affords an opportunity for the representation of the purest joy and highest motherly love; the other, of the utmost pain and grief. The pieta has long been a favorite subject, not only with painters, but with sculptors. A famous one by Michael An- gelo is in the Church of St. Peter at Rome. PIG. See SWINE in these Revisions and Additions. Y%I(?)EON. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 84 an 8 . 1237 PIGMENTS. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 85- 88, and the separate articles as BARYTA, Lrrrnmeo, BED AND WVHITE LEAD, SIENNA, VER)1ILro.\', etc. PIKE, freshwater fishes. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 88 and 89. PIKE, a foot soldier’s weapon, consisting of a long wooden shaft with a pointed steel head. Pre- viously to the use of the bayonet, infantry of the line of battle—that is, the heavy-armed troops-— were from the earliest times armed with spikes or spears. As a defence against cavalry, the pike, from its length and rigidity, was of great value; but though it long survived the introduction of gunpowder, it is now superseded by the bayonet. PIKE, ALBERT, an American lawyer and poet, born in Massachusetts in 1809, died in 1891. He became a journalist in Arkansas; was brigadier- general in the Confederate army; and wrote nu- merous ritualistic and other standard works on Freemasonry. PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813), an American soldier and explorer, born in New Jer- sey in 1779. In the service of the Government he explored the head waters of the Mississippi and the interior of the Louisiana Territory; discovered Pike’s Peak; reached the Rio Grande, and was for some time held prisoner by the Spanish authorities. He served in the war of 1812-14; commanded the expedition against Toronto, before which place he was killed by the explosion of the magazine, April 27, 1813. PIKE’S PEAK RAILVVAY, a railway up Pike’s Peak, Colorado. It is a rack-rail line on an im- proved principle, the line being nine miles long, with about four and a half miles of curves. The maximum gradient is about twenty-five per cent., and the sharpest curve sixteen degrees——395 feet radius. The summit is 14,200 feet above sea-level, and the trains are run at about five miles an hour. The chief difificulty in its construction was with the laborers, who had to become acclamatized to work at an altitude of 11,000 feet. PILLIBHIT, or PHILLIBIT, a town of India in the British district of Bareilly, northwest provinces, twenty-eight miles northeast of Bareilly, on the left bank of the Gurrah. It is a place of considera- ble trade and its rice, celebrated throughout India for its excellence, is the produce of the south of Kumaon. Population.26,760. PILLOVV, GIDEON J ormson, an American soldier. born in Tennessee in 1806, died in 1878. He served in the Mexican war, and was a distinguished major- general in the Confederate army. PILOT KNOB, a village of Missouri, at the foot of Pilot Knob Mountain, a mountain of iron ore. The village contains smelting furnaces, and has a good trade connected with the iron industry. PILOTY, KARL von, a German painter born at Munich in 1726, died there in 1886. In 1858 he be- came professor at the Munich Academy, and in 187-1, when Kaulbach died, Piloty was made direc- tor 01. the academy. His most noted works are The Assassz'naz‘2'0n of Tl’aZZmste2'n,' Nero amid the Ruins of Rome,‘ Columbus Dz'scovering Amwica,- The Deaflz of Julius Camzr; Mary, Queen of Scots, Lisz‘em'ng to He)‘ Death llrarz-am‘, and Tuswelda in the Trimnplz of Ger- manicus. He obtained the highest honors at several international exhibitions. Piloty was one of the foremost historical painters. PINCKNEY, a family of American statesmen, represented during the Revolutionary period by CHARLES Cornswonrn (1746-1825), and Tnorras (1750-1828), both born in South Carolina. They served with distinction throughout the war; and both held highly important positions of trust under the Federal g‘OV61‘11l11611l).GHARLES (1758-1824), their 1238 second cousin, was four times governor of South Carolina. His son, HENRY LAURENs (1794-1763), was a statesman and biographer, and the founder of the Charleston “Mercury.” PINDAR, JOHN S., born in Sharon, Schoharie county, N. Y., Nov. 18, 1835. He was educated in the common schools and Richmondville Seminary ; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1865; was elected President of the village of Cobleskill in 1882, was chairman of the Democratic county committee for many years; was elected to the 49th Congress, and at its close resumed the practice of law and was again in Congress from 1889 to 1891. PINE, a forest tree. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 102-106. The pine(Pinas) is well represented in the United States. The white pine (P. strobus) yields most of the lumber used here. It grows straight and rapidly, sometimes attaining a height of 200 feet. Its large and straight trunks are sought as masts of ships. A species of the white pine IS the sugar or Lambert’s pine of California and Oregon, one of the huge trees of the lVest. It is sometimes 300 feet high and twenty feet thick. The pines of the Southern Atlantic States are of special value in their abundant yield of rosin, and oil of turpentine, tar and pitch. This is mainly gathered from the “Georgia Pitch Pine” (P. aa- stralis), the yellow pine of the South- ern States. The lob- lolly pine (P. taeda) yields also a consid- erable quantity of turpentine. These resinous pines fur- nish hard lumber for floors and stairs. They range from North Carolina to Florida, and yield about ten million dollars worth of na- val stores (pitch, tar, etc.) per an- num. The crude turpentine is ob- tained by tapping the trees, and col- lecting the exuda- tions. Ten to fifteen per cent. of these is turpen- tine. This is obtained by distillation. The resi- duum constiutes the rosin of commerce. PINEAPPLE. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 106. The pineapple is the fruit of Ananassa sativa, a tropical plant, similar to the aloe, but with leaves having small sharp spines on its edges. From the center of a cluster of leaves rises a stem two feet high. This stem bears on its apex a conical spike of flowers, each flower in the axil of a bract. The upper fiowerless bracts develop and consolidate into a fleshy mass which is succulent and sweet when ripe. On the outer tesselated surface the tips of the bracts and the rudiments of the petals show themselves. Botannically considered the pineapple is no fruit, but an inflorescence, whose accessory parts are greatly enlarged. Most of the pineapples sold in the United States come from the Bahama Islands, where they are extensively grown. Some are also brought from Jamaica and Trinidad. PINE BLUFF, a city, the county-seat of J effer- son county, Ark., on the Arkansas River, about fifty miles south of Little Rock. It is an important LAMBERT’S PINE (P. LamJmrtiana). PlNDAR—JWTCHURlM BEANS manufacturing and educational center, and has an extensive trade in cotton and other products. Pop- ulation in 1890, 9,952. PINKNEY, VVILLIAM, an American statesman, born in Maryland in 1764, died in 1822. He became an eminent lawyer; was United States Attorney- General; Senator; and Minister to England, to Na- ples, and to Russia. PINS. For a general article on PINS AND PINMAK- ING see Britannica, Yol. XIX, pp. 97 and 98. PIOMBINO, a principality now incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. It lies along the Italian coast opposite the Island of Elba, the greater part of which belonged to it. Its extent was about 132 English square miles. Piombino is now a part of the province of Grosseto, in the kingdom of Italy. The strait between Piombino and Elba is called the “ Channel of Piombino.” PIP, CIIIP, or ROMP, a disease of poultry, often fatal. When it appears in a poultry-yard, it often attacks many fowls in rapid succession, so that it is regarded as highly contagious. It begins with a slight hoarseness and catching in the breath,which is followed by an offensive discharge from the nos- trils and eyes, rattling in the throat, and an ac- cumulation of mucus in the mouth, forming a “scale” on the tongue. The communication of the disease from one bird to another is supposed to take place through the contamination of the water in their common drinking vessel. Castor oil is freely administered by some poultry-keepers. PIQUA, a city of Ohio, an important trade and manufacturing center. Population in 1890, 9,090. See Britannica. Vol. XIX, p. 114. PIQUE VVORK, a very fine kind of inlaying with gold, silver and other costly materials; in fact, a kind of Buhl-work, carried out on a very minute scale. It is only applied to articles of small size, spch as snuff-boxes, card-cases, and similar arti- c es. PIRANO, a seaport of Austria, on a peninsula in the Bay of Largone, fifteen miles southwest of Trieste. It contains an old castle, has a port and several dock-yards, and is the seat of considerable trade and commerce. Among its more important edifices are an interesting Gothic church, a town- house, and a Minorite convent, with a number of good pictures. Wine and oil are made in consider- able quantities, and there are salt-works in the neighborhood, which produce upwards of 330,000 cwts. of salt annually, Population, 9,200. PISCATAQUA, a river about eighty miles in length, which forms the southern part of the boundary between Maine and New Hampshire, and empties itself into the Atlantic, forming at its mouth the excellent harbor of Portsmouth. PISCICULTURE. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp, 116-129. PISTOL, a fire-arm similar to a rifle butintended to be held in one hand when aimed and fired. Pis- tols vary in size, from the delicate saloon-pistol. often not 6 inches long, to the horse-pistol, which may measure 18 inches and sometimes even 2 feet. They are carried in holsters at the saddle-bow, in the belt, and in the pocket. Every cavalry soldier should have a pistol, for a fire-arm is often of great service for personal defense, and almost indispen- sible in giving an alarm or signal. Sailors, when boarding an enemy’s ship, carry two each in their waist belts. PIS-TOLE, oz. (Fr.). A gold coin of Spain, worth about 16 shillings sterlin or$3.60. In other coun- tries it varies from to PITCHURIM BEANS, or SAssAFRAs Nurs, an occasional article of importation from South Amer- ica. They are the seed-lobes of Neetandra puchury, PITKIN—%PLASENCIA growing on the banks of the Rio Negro and else- where in the rich alluvial parts of the basin of the Amazon. They are about an inch and a half long, and half an inch broad, and are much in request among chocolate manufactures for flavoring choc- olate, as a substitute for vanilla. PITKIN, an important mining village of Colo- rado, about thirty miles northeast of Gunnison. PITMAN, BENN, an American phonographer and educationist, brother of Isaac, born in Trowbridge, England, in 1822. He came to the United States and settled at Cincinnati. He was ofiicial reporter of many important State trials. In 1873 he became a professor in the school of design of the University of Cincinnati. PITMAN, IsAAo, the inventor of the Pitman sys- tem of shorthand writing, born at Trowbridge in 1813. He was educated at a college of the British and Foreign School Society, becoming afterwards master of the British school at Barton-on-Humber. He removed to Bath in 1839, where he subsequently established the Phonetic Institute, and set up a press for printing his own handbooks of phonetic shorthand, and a series of classical works in pho- netic type. Mr. Pitman is editor of the “Phonetic Journal,” which is devoted to the advocacy of writ- ing and spelling reform. See SHoRTHAND, in EN- CYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. PITRA, JEAN BAPT1sTE (1812-1889), a French cardinal and monk. He wrote a work on canon laws, and became a cardinal in 1863. PITTSBURG, a city, the county-seat of Alle- gheny county, Pa. Population in 1890, 238,473. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p‘. 150. PITTSBURG LANDING, in Tennessee, the scene of the battle of Shiloh. See Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 776. PITTSFIELD, a village, the county-seat of Pike county, Ill., about forty miles southeast of Quincy. It has a good trade, and contains several flour and tobacco manufactories. PITTSFIELD, a city, the county-seat of Berk- shire county, Mass. Population in 1890, 17.281. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 151. PITTSFIELD, a village of New Hampshire, about fifteen miles east of Concord. It is the seat of an academy. and contains a number of fac- tories. PITTSTON, a city of Pennsylvania. tion in 1890, 10,295. 151. PIZZO, a seaport of South Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, twenty-four miles southwest from Catanzaro, on the Gulf of Santa Eufemia. It was at Pizzo that Murat, the ex-king of Naples, was taken, tried and shot. He was buried in one of the com- mon vaults of a church to the erection of which he had largely contributed. Population, about 6,500. PLACERVILLE, a city, the county-seat of El Dorado county, Cal., about forty miles east of Sac- ramento. It is an important center of various in- dustries, principally gold-mining and fruit grow- Popula- See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. g. PLAID, a woolen garment, in the form of alarge scarf. made to wrap round the body, and used chiefly among the rural population of Scotland PLAIN FIELD, a village of Connecticut, about fifteen miles north of Norwich. It is the seat of an academy and has manufactories of cotton goods‘. Population in 1890, 4.519. PLAINFIFLD, a city of New Jersey, an import- ant educational center. Population in 1880, 11,- 250. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 168. PLAINS, a coal-mining village of Pennsylvania, on the North Branch of the Susquehanna, five miles northeast of Wilkesbarre. l239 PLAINWELL, a village of Michigan, on the Kal- amazoo River, ten miles north of Kalamazoo. It contains a number of flour, lumber, and paper manufactories. PLAN, a word f1-equently applied to all kinds of architectual drawings, but which ought to be limited to those which represent the horizontal sections of the various floors of buildings. Plans show the disposition of the apartments and walls, with the situation of the fireplaces, cupboards, doors, etc. PLANE, a tree of the genus Platam/s, of the nat- ural order Plato/wceze. It is known under the names of “buttonwood” and “sycamore.” The but- tonwood of the United States is the largest of the American deciduous trees. Specimens 40 feet in circumference and 100 feet high have been found near our rivers. It grow s from the Atlantic to the States west of the Mississippi, and as far north as Montreal, where it is called the “cotton tree.” Its young shoots, leaves and stipules, are thickly cov- ered with a fine down, which falls off as they ex- pand, and floats in the air. ‘When breathed in, it is apt to produce coughing. The female catkin is a globular ball one inch thick, borne on a flexible footstock 3 inches long. The wood of the plane is liable to warp if made into boards. It is mostly used for fire-wood. PLANETA, the Greek name of the vestment called by the Latins Casula, and in English “Cha- suble,” which is worn by priests in the celebration of mass. PLAN OF CAMPAIGN, a system of procedure propounded in 1886 in the columns of “United Ire- land” by \Villiam O’Brien. M. P., and supported by the Land League. It was a recommendation to Irish tenants not to pay rent to landlords, but to pay oflicials representing the League what was deemed a fair rent, which would be handed over to the landlords, provided the latter accepted it as a pay- ment in full. If refused, the money was to be used for the support of evicted tenants. The “Plan” was not long in being put in operation, and proved so embarrassing that the government proclaimed it as illegal. In spite of this, how ever, the “Plan” was long subsequently in operation in remote districts, and is so even now, though it gives much less trouble to the government. PLAQUEMINE, a village of Louisiana, capital of Iberville parish, on the Mississippi, twenty miles south of Baton Rouge. It has an extensive river- trade. Population in 1890, 3,211. PLASENCIA. an ancient and much—decayed, but picturesque town of Spain, forty-three miles north-northeast of Caceres. It stands on a steep hill, with beautiful and fertile valleys, extending on the northwest and southeast sides. It is al- most wholly girdled by the clear waters of the J erte; and the surrounding scenery, embracing city, castle, river, rock, and mountains, and over- arched by a sunny and unclouded sky, is remark- ably beautiful. The city contains the picturesque remains of an ancient castle, and is surrounded by crumbling walls. surmounted by 68 towers, and pierced by six gates. ‘Water is brought to the town by an aqueduct of eighty arches. There are seven Gothic churches,an episcopal and several other palaces, and the cathedral, an ornate Gothic edifice, begun in 1498, some portions of which are still unfinished, while others have been altered and disfigured. The cathedral contains many noble tombs, with efligies. Plasencia, once a flourishing and important city, was founded in 1190. It now carries on some minor manufactures of cotton, woolen, and hempen fabrics. and of hats and leather. Population about 6,000. 1240 PLATT-—-PLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORTS PLATT, ORVILLE H., an American statesman, born at VVashington, Conn., July 19, 1827. He received an academic education; studied law at Litchfield; was admitted to the bar in 1849, and has since practiced law at l\Ieriden; was clerk of the State senate of Connecticut in 1855 and 1856; was secre- tary of State in 1857 ; was a member of the State senate in 1861 and 1862; was a member of the State house of representatives in 1864 and 1869, serving the last year as speaker; was United States Senator from 1879 to 1891, and was reelected for the term expiring 1897. PLATTEVILE, a village of IVisconsin, about twenty miles north of Dubuque, Iowa. It is the seat of a State normal school, and contains a large number of mills, factories, and lead-furnaces. Pop- ulation in 1890, 2,790. PLATTSBURG, a village, the county-seat of Clinton county, Mo., on Smith’s Fork of Platte River, thirty miles east of St. Joseph. It is the seat of Clinton County Institute and of an acad- emy, and has a good local trade. PLATTSBURG, a village, the county-seat of Clinton county, N. Y. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 213. PLATTSMOUTH, a city, the county-seat of Cass county Neb., on the Missouri River. Population in 1890, 8,392. See Britannica, Vol. XVII, p, 309. PLAYFAIR, SIR LYON, an English chemist, born in India in 1819. He has held many important governmental oflices, and has written numerous scientific memoirs and valuable works on educa- tion. PLEASANT GROVE, a village of Utah, near Utah Lake, about forty miles south of Salt Lake City. It is the trade-center of a rich farming and fruit-growing region. PLEASANT HILL. a village, the county-seat of Cass county, Mo., about 60 miles west of Sedalia. It contains a college, several factories, and a num- ber of flour-mills. PLEASANT VALLEY, a coal-mining borough of Pennsylvania, eight miles Southwest of Scran- ton. PLEASANTON, ALFRED, an American general, born in the District of Columbia, in 1824. He grad- uated at West Point; served in the Mexican and civil wars; became major-general; was collector of internal revenue; and was retired in 1888. His brother, General Aueusrus J AMES PLEAS 4NToN, born in 1808, is known in connection with his inves- tigations concerning the influence of the blue ray of the sunlight and of the blue color of the sky in developing animal and vegetable life and in arrest- ing disease. PLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORTS. For special mention of many PLEASURE AND HEALTH RE- soRTs see the articles relating to them severally in the Britannica, and in these Revisions and Addi- tions. EUROPnAN.—Baden-Baden, located in the valley of Oos, and built partly on the slope of a hill, with numerous pleasant gardens and wealthy villas, one of the most fashionable watering-places and sum- mer resorts on the continent of Europe. The visi- tors during a single summer have sometimes num- bered over 50,000. There are thirteen hot springs flowing out of the rocks beneath the Schnecken- garten or terrace of the castle. They vary in tem- perature from 117 to 157 degrees Fahr. These springs have been known for centuries, and the principal one is covered with a vault of Roman masonry. There are also vestiges of early Roman vapor baths and statuary. The Promenade and the Conmarsationshaus and the open park in front are special attractions. The summer residence of the grand duke is here. Some of the edifices date as far back as about A. D. 1400. The parish church contains inonuments of several of the margraves. Brighton, the fashionable sea-side resort of the people of London, was onlya fishing town about 200 years ago. Dr. Russell, a medical writer on the use of sea-water for bathing purposes, first sug- gested that it be made into a place of summer re- sort. George IV., when Prince of Wales, selected it in 1784 as the place for his marine summer-house. Its great pavilion is a curious piece of Moorish architecture. Its chain pier, (1,136 feet long) erect- ed as a landing place in 1822, is composed of four chain bridges, each 255 feet in length, terminating in a granite-paved platform. The Steyne, its fash- ionable parade, was formerly awaste common. The Chalybeate Spring is highly esteemed for its medi- cinal virtues. Carlsbad, a town of Bohemia, on the L0pel near its junction with the Eger, famous for its hot springs. It is in the bottom of a narrow valley be- tween steep granite mountains. The springs con- tain the carbonate and sulphate of soda, with a temperature of 165 degrees Fahr. Every facility is furnished to health-seeking tourists, the number of whom have counted as many as 20,000 in a single year. The baths are most frequented from June to September. Cannes, a French town on the Mediterranean, twenty-two miles by railway southeast from Nice; a great winter resort with more than fifty hotels specially fitted up for the convenience of tourists. It stands on a declivity facing the sea on the south, and is surrounded by olive and orange groves. Population about 14,000. Ems, a noted watering place, pleasantly lo- cated on both banks of the Lahn, with a population of about 6,000. The two chief springs (under the old Kursaal) are the Kesselbrunnen and the Krau- chen. The temperature of the former is 116 de- grees Fahr. A covered suspension bridge connects these with the government gardens. The gambling rooms, which were formerly largely used, are now occupied for other purposes. Schonbrunn, Austria, the imperial summer pal- ace of Vienna, situated about a half-hour’s rail- way ride from the city. The palace, fitted up by the Empress Maria Theresa in 1775, and occupied by Napoleon in 1805 and 1809, contains 1,500 cham- bers. Behind it extends the large park, open to the public. The grand parterre is adorned with thirty-two statutes and fountains of much beauty. A zoblogical and a botanical garden are also con- nected with the park. Across the park are many wealthy villas and country houses and several public gardens. At Baden, near by, are several medicinal springs (alkaline and sulphur) and ex- tensive baths, largely frequented from the middle of May to the Middle of October. Stockholm, one of the most beautiful capitals of Europe, partly built on nine islets, some of which are centers of special attraction to visitors, pre- senting beautiful streets and public gardens. The most icturesque of the islets is Sbdermalm, on the steep'sides of which the houses ‘rise in terraces to the summit, which is crowned with St. Catherine Church. Numerous summer palaces and country residences extend along the northeast shore of Lake Maelar, (whose waters are discharged by the channel inclosing the islet), and on the margins of the Ladugaard’s Holm, whose central portions pre- sent a picturesque blending of rocks, wooded heights and romantic glens. Here also lies the famous Djurgaard, or zodlogical gardens, and one of the finest public parks in Europe, occupying a penin- sula two miles long by about one mile wide. PLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORTS St. Petersburg.—The summer gardens of this im- perial city are the favorite promenade of the in- habitants. They are one mile long, by a half a mile wide, and are handsomely wooded and ornamented with statues. Weisbaden, the capital of the Duchy of Nassau previous to 1866, now a part of Prussia; a beautiful town, celebrated for its baths, which attract a great concourse of visitors every year from June to Sep- tember. There are 14 hot springs, the chief of which is the Kochbrunn (boiling spring), with a temperature of 156 degrees Fahr., situated at the end of a beautiful arcade called the Trinkhalle. The Romans called these springs Fontes Mattiaci. The Kursaal, a great building constructed and furnished for royal luxury, is the principal attrac- tion. Formerly Wiesbaden was noted as a great gambling center, but since it passed under Prus- sian control gambling has been suppressed. Popu- lation about 21,000. AMERICAN.——NEW ENGLAND CoAsT.—Newp0rt, the most fashionable sea-side resort in America, on the beautiful island of Rhode Island, near the entrance of Narragansett Bay. There are three fine beaches, and the facilities for surf-bathing are unexcelled. The old stone mill in the park is an object of inter- est, and the island abounds in beautiful and ro- mantic scenery. Narragansett Pier is on the main-land opposite Newport. The beach is one of the best and safest on the Atlantic coast. Magnificent views are ob- tained from the heights. South and southwest are Block Island and \Vatch Hill Point. Cape Cod, Ma/*tha’s l’1'neje/ard, and Na/ztuclset are in Massachusetts. Cape Cod is a narrow sand pen- insula extending thirty-five miles east, then thirty miles north, northwest, and west. Martha’s Vine- yard and Nantucket are islands lying south of the Cape. To the north are Brant Rock, l\Iarshfield, Scituate, Cohasset, and Nantasket. Swampscott, the “Long Branch of Boston,” one mile from Lynn and thirteen miles northeast of Boston. There are three good beaches and no un- dertow. Nahant, a bold promonotory to the south, has a beach as hard as a floor. The Chelsea, or Revere Beach, nearer Boston, is a favorite resort of the masses. To the north are Salem, Marble- head, Beverly, Lowell Island, and the famous Sing- ing Beach of Manchester. Farther north are Gloucester, Rockport, Pigeon Cove, Cape Ann, Newburyport, and Salisbury Beach. The Isles of Shoals, eight bleak and barren little islands off the coast of New Hampshire, ten miles south-southeast of Portsmouth, are famed for the wild beauty of their scenery, and are a very popu- lar resort. Rye Beach, the fashionable beach of New Hampshire, and Hampton Beach, are on the mainland south of Portsmouth. Old Orchard Beach, the finest in New England, is on the coast of Maine, twelve miles southwest of Portland. Southwest are \Vells Beach and York Beach, and northeast are Scarborough Beach, Cape Elizabeth, Cushing’s Island, and Portland. IlIoantDeser2‘, an island off the coast of Maine, 110 miles east-northeast of Portland, is an assem- blage of mountain peaks, one of which is 2,000 feet above the ocean. There are a number of charming lakes, the largest being several miles long. The area of the island is about 100 square miles. Lone ISLAND CoAsT.-Ooney Island, the most pop- ular pleasure resort in the world, is on the sea-coast of Long Island, ten miles south of New York. The beach is hard, and gently sloping; it is five miles long, and has practically four divisions—l\Ianhattan Beach, Brighton Beach, West Brighton, and Nor- ton’s, or West End. 1241 Rochaway Beach, east of Coney Island, affords excellent surf-bathing on the south and still-water bathing in Jamaica Bay, on the north. Close by are also Rockaway village and Far Rockaway. Long Beach, including Hempstead Bay, Babylon, and Islip, on Great South Bay, Fire Island Bay stretching far eastward, the quiet town of East Hampton, and many other resorts on the south shore, afford excellent surf-bathing, boating, and fishing. Sea Ohfi (on a picturesque bluff in Hempstead Harbor), Roslyn, Glen Cove, Sands Point, Great Neck, Bayside, Whitestone, College Point, and Flushing are on the north side, near New York. Eastward are Oyster Bay, Cold Spring, Northport, Setauket, Port Jefferson, Greenport, Orient Point, and Shelter Island. NEW JERSEY CoAsT.—Long Branch, the “Summer Capital of America,” situated on a broad plateau and bluff overlooking the Atlantic, thirty-one miles south of New York. The beach is one of the finest in the world, and the drives are excellent. In the vicinity are Seabright, Monmouth Beach, Atlantic- ville, Pleasure Bay, Oceanic, Red Bank, Monmouth Park, Race-course,Elberon, Deal Beach, and the village of Deal. Cape May, the “Long Branch of Philadelphia,” near the entrance of Delaware Bay. The fine surf and the long drive are especially noticeable. Neighboring resorts are Schellinger’s Landing, Cold Spring, and Sea Grove. Atlanfic City, a popular summer and winter re- sort on Absecom Beach, between Cape May and Long Branch. The beach is noted for its safety. To the north are Brigantine Beach. Long Beach, and the hunting-grounds of Barnegat and Tuck- erton. -ltlantz'c Highlands is on the Highlands of Nave- sink, in full view of Staten Island, Coney Island, Rockaway, and Sandy Hook. Here are also Nave- sink Park and Highlands. .-lslrury Par]: is between Deal Beach and IVesley Lake, five miles south of Long Branch. It em- braces about 500 acres beautifully laid out. Ocean Grove. separated from Asbury Park by IVesley Lake, is six miles south of Long Branch. Farther south are Ocean Beach, Spring Lake, Sea Girl; and Manasquan. Island He?'_(/his is on an island in Barnegat Bay, between Ocean Grove and Atlantic City. Sea- ward, on the beach is Sea-Side Park. Ocean City is six miles south of Atlantic City. It has a fine beach, seven miles long, with excel- lent facilities for bathing. Hunsox Rrvnn AND EASTERN Nnw Yonx.—Fort Lee is a popular pleasure resort crowning the brow of the Palisades opposite New York. Above are Yonkers, Tarrytown, Sing Sing, Cruger’s, Ver- planck’s, and Peekskill on the right, and Nyack, Rockland Lake. Haverstraw. Stony Point, and Caldwell’s Landing on the left. West Point, seat of the United States Military Academy, in the heart of the Hudson Highlands, fifty-two miles north of New York, is famous for its magnificent scenic attractions. In this region are Cranston’s. Garrison’s. and Iona Island, south, and Cold Spring and Cornwall Landing, north of \Vest Point. (‘ormcall Landin_<7, the chief resort on the river, and the most romantic, lies at the foot of Storm King, four miles above \Vest Point. Between this and Albany are Newburg, Marlborough. Rondout, and Catskill on the left, and Fishkill Landing, Poughkeepsie, Hyde Park, Rhinebeck, Trivoli, and Hudson on the right. EAsTEnN AND Sournnnx NoTABLE SPRI.\'GS.-~80)" 1242 atoga, the great fashionable watering-place of America, thirty-eight miles north of Albany. There are twenty-eight acidulous, chalybeate, and other springs. The waters are cathartic and tonic, and are of world-wide celebrity. Six miles south are the famous springs of Ballston Spa. Sharon, the “American Baden-Baden,” is fifty- nine miles west by north of Albany. There are four springs, Chalybeate, Magnesia, White Sul- phur, and Blue Sulphur. Ten miles northwest are the \Vhite Sulphur springs of Cherry Valley, and twenty miles southeast is Howe’s Cave, after the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky the most remarkable cavern known. The Virginia Springs Region embraces a consid- erable portion of the mountain land of Virginia and West Virginia. The springs are almost num- berless, and of widely various medicinal character. The most noted are the Greenbrier IVhite Sulphur, Old Sweet, Red Sweet, Salt Sulphur, Red Sulphur, Blue Sulphur, Warm, Hot, Healing, Bath Alum, Rockbridge Alum, Rockbridge, Rockbridge Bath, J ordan’s Alum, Coyner’s, Alleghany, 11/Iontgomery VVhite Sulphur, Yellow Sulphur, Blue Ridge, Berkely, Capon, Rawley, Bedford, Alum, Grayson \Vhite Sulphur, Sharon Alum, Pulaski Alum, Eg- gleston’s, Huguenot, Fauquier White Sulphur, J or- dan’s, Shannondale, Holston, and Orkney. In this region are also the famous Natural Bridge, IVey- er’s Cave, and the Caverns of Luray. Other noted springs in the United States are Avon, Chittenango, Clifton, Columbia, Lebanon, Masse- na, Richfield, and Vallonia in New York; Bedford Crossing, Doubling Gap, Gettysburg, Minnequa, Mount Holly, and Perry '\Varm, in Pennsylvania; Abenaquis, Alburg, Clarendon, Highgate, Middle- ton, Missisquoi, and Sheldon in Vermont; Berk- shire Soda and Sand, in Massachusetts; Stafford, in Connecticut; Blue, Green Cove, Green Sulphur, Silver,Suwanee, and Wakulla, in Florida; Glen Alpine, Warm, and Wilson’s, in North Carolina; Glen and Limestone, in South Carolina; and In- dian, New Holland. Porter, and Warm, in Georgia. NOTABLE FALLS IN THE UNITED STATEs.—Niagara, the most celebrated cataract in the world, is on Niagara River, twenty-two miles north of Lake Erie, and fourteen miles south of Lake Ontario. Goat Island separates the falls into the American, 164 feet high, and the Canadian, or Horseshoe, 158 feet high. The principal places visited are Goat Island, the Rapids, Luna Island, Cave of the VVinds, the Three Sisters, Prospect Park, the new Suspension Bridge, Table Rock, and the passage under the Horseshoe Fall. Trenton Falls are on ‘West Canada Creek, fifteen miles northwest of Utica, N. Y. The falls consists of a series of six beautiful cascades and cataracts. having an aggregate descent of 312 feet in two miles. The place is a popular summer resort, and is celebrated for the wild and varied beauty of its scenery. The Waterfalls of New York are a noteworthy feature of its natural scenery. Baker’s Falls are 70 feet high, Birmingham 70, Black Chasm 300, But- termilk 100, Carthage 75, Cauterskill 180, 80, and 40, Clavsrack 90,Cohoes 70, Corinth 60, Fawnleap 30, Genesee 96, 25, and 84, Glen’s 60, Hadley’s 60, Haines’ 150, 80, and 60, Hoosac 40, Ithaca 160, Little 44, Lodi 125, Lyon’s 63, Luzerne 25, Portage 70, 110, and 90, Roaring Brook 500, Sawkill 80, Split Rock 100, Taghkanic 215, Tekaharawa 100, Ticonderoga 100 and 30, Piercefield and Rainbow Falls in the Adirondacks, Shelving Rock Fall near Lake George, and the Falls in \Vatkins Glens are pretty cascades. Yosemite, the highest water-fall in the world, is PLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORTS in Mariposa county Cal., where the Yosemite Creek plunges 2,600 feet into the Yosemite Valley. There is first a clear fall of 1,500 feet then a series of cascades aggregating 600 to 700 feet and finally a plunge of 400 feet to the base of the prec- ipice. In the same valley are the beautiful Bridal-Veil Fall, 900 feet, Virgin’s Tears 1,000, Illi- louette 600, Vernal 400, and Nevada 600. Other Famous Falls in the United States are the Austin, in Me., 100 feet high; Belden’s, Vt., 37; Bellows, N. H. and Vt., 40; Berlin, N. H., 80; Carp, Mich., 200: Chattahooche, Ga., 110; Clifton, O., 50; Crystal Cascade, N. H., 80; Dead River, Mich., 96; Georgiana, N. H., 80 and 80; Glen Ellis, N. H., 80; Great, Neb., 88; Housatonic, Conn., 60; Lewiston, Me., 100; Minnehaha, Minn., 60; Passaic, N. J., 70; Potomac, Va., 76; Puncheon Run Cascades, Va., 1,800; Rumford, Me., 150; St. Anthony, Minn., 18; Saco, Me., 72; Shelburne, Mass., 150; Shoshone, Idaho, 200; Silver Cascade, N. H., 800; Sylvan Glade, N. H., 174; Tallulah Falls and Rapids, Ga., 86; Willamette, Ore., 40; Yellowstone, Mon., 140 and 360. MOUNTAIN REsoRTs.—-The White Mountains, the “Switzerland of America.” rise in two groups from a plateau in New Hampshire 1,300 square miles in area, and 1,6000 feet high. In the east group Mt. \Vashington is 6,285 feet high, Adams 5759, Jeffer- son 5,657, Madison 5,415, Monroe 5,349, Franklin 4,850, Pleasant 4,712. The Principal centers of in,- terest are North Conway, the Glen House, Gorham, the Notch, the Crawford House, the Fabyan House, and the Twin Mountain House. In the ‘Nest or Franconian Groupe Mt. Lafayette is 5,290 feet high, Profile, Haystack, Flume, and Twin over 4,000. The principal points are the Profile House and the Old Man of the Mountain. The Green Mountains extend from south to north through Vermont. The highest summits are Mt. Mansfield 4.348 feet, Camel’s Hump 4,188, Kelling- ton Peak 3,924, and Ascutney 3,320. VVaterbury, Stowe, and Rutland are popular summer resorts. The Adirondacks, in northern New York are five parallel ranges of more than 500 mountains, trav- ersing a plateau 15,000 square miles in extent, and nearly 2,000 feet high, from the southwest to Lake Champlain. Mt. Marcy is 5,337 feet high, Seward, M’Intyre, M’Martin, Whiteface, Dix Peak, Colden, Sanantoni, Snowy and Pharaoh, about 5,000. There is a labyrinth of over 1,000 lakes, and the region is one vast wilderness. A popular ten days’ tour is from Crown Point to Root’s, to Tahawus, to Long Lake, to Tahawus, to Adirondack, to summit of Mt. Marcy, to Indian Pass, to North Elba, to Martin’s, to Keesville and Ausable Chasm. The Catskills, are west of the Hudson and south of the Mohawk, Slide Mt. is 4,205 feet high, Hunter 4,050, Round Top 3,800, High Peak 3,720, the Moun- tain House, on a terrace of Pine Orchard Moun- tain, 12 miles west of Catskill 2,500, and the Over- look Mountain House, near Rondout, about 3,000. The Hudson Highlands are on both sides of the Hudson,between Cornwell and Peekskill. Beacon Hill is 1,685 feet high, Storm King 1,529, Cro’ Nest 1,428, Breakneck 1,187, Anthony’s Nose 1,128, Sugar Loaf 865. Other Mountain Resorts are the Shawanguk Re- gion northwest of the Hudson Highlands, School- ey’s Mt. in the New Jersey Highlands, Delaware Water Gap in the Kittatinny Gorge, the Wyoming Valley, the J uniata Valley in the Alleghanies, Mauch Chunk and the Lehigh Valley, the Virginia Springs Region, Asheville and the Mountain Re- gion of North Carolina, South Carolina and. Georgia, Denver and the Natural Parks of Colorado, the Yellowstone Park and the Yosemite Valley. PLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORTS 1243 Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina, 6,701 feet high, is the highest peak east of the Mississippi. Mt. Whitney in California, 15,086 feet, the highest in the United States. THE LAKE Rnerons.-—The Great Lakes abound in summer resorts, and afford a delightful summer trip. The Twelve Apostles’ Islands, the Grand Portal, and the famous Pictured Rocks of Lake Supe- rior, Mackinaw Islands in Lake Huron, and Put-in- Bay Islands, including Kelly’s Island, in Lake Erie, are objects of peculiar interest. The Lake of the Thousand Islands, an expansion of the St. Lawrence near Lake Ontario, is forty miles long, and four miles wide. Some 2,000 islands, of every imaginable shape and size, present an end- less variety of charming scenery. Alexandria Bay, the chief resort, is on the New York side, and eight miles southeast are the romantic Lakes of Theresa. Lake George, the most famous of American lakes. is in Northern New York, southeast of the Adiron- dacks. It is one to four miles wide, and thirty-six miles long, from Caldwell, sixty miles north of Al- bany north-northeast, to its outlet into Lake Cham- plain. The waters are very clear, and in some places 400 feet deep, and the surface is studded with about 300 islands. Lake Champlain, celebrated for its magnificent scenery, lies between the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains, and forms nearly two thirds of the boundary between New York and Vermont. It is 126 miles long from south to north. from a few rods to fifteen miles wide, 55 to 400 feet deep, and con- tains about fifty islands. W'hitehall is at the south end, seventy-seven miles from Albany; Ticonder- oga, Crown Point, Port Kent, and Plattsburg are on the west, Burlington and St. Albans on the east and Rouse’s point at the outlet into the Sorel Riv- er on the north. Lake Winnepesaakee, south of the VVhite Houn- tains, in New Hampshire, is a beautiful sheet of pure, translucent water, twenty-five miles long, and one to ten miles wide, inclosing numerous islands, and surrounded by very picturesque mountain scen- ery. In the vicinity are Mt. Belknap, Coppie Crown, Mt. Red Hill, and Ossipe, Squam, and Newfound Lakes. Sunapee Lake is thirty-five miles southwest. Lake Memphremagog, in Vermont and Canada, is thirty miles long from south to north, and two to four wide. The waters are very cool and clear, and dotted with many beautiful islands. To the west are Jay Peak and Owl’s Head, and twenty- eight miles south the lovely crescent shaped Wil- loughby Lake, seven miles long and from a half a mile to two miles wide, and of unknown depth, lies between Mt. Pisgah and Mt. Hor. Moosehead Lake, the largest in Maine, is a deep and irregular body of water at the head of Kenne- bec River, 1,023 feet above the sea. Mt. Kiues rises on the west shore. To the south the Rangeley Lakes unite with the Magalloway River to form the An- droscoggin. Sebago Lake is seventeen miles north- west of Portland; three miles farther northwest is Long Lake. Other principal lakes in Maine are Baskahegan, Chesuncook, Eagle, Grand, Pamadum- cook, and Schoodic. Chataugua Lake, the highest navigable water in New York, is in the extreme west corner of New York. It is within eight miles of Lake Erie, and 726 feet above it, but empties its waters through the Conewango, Allegheny, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers into the Gulf of Hexico. Honeyoe, Hemlock, Canadice, Conesus, and Silver Lake, to the east, empty into the Genesee River. Watkins Glen, at the head of Seneca Lake, is one of the principal attractions of a group of fifteen beautiful lakes in central New York, including Canandai ua,Keuka or Crooked, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco, S aneateles, Cross, Otisco, Onondago, and Oneida, whose general outlet is Oswego River. Ha- vana,Montour, and Excelsior Glens are also in this vicinity. Otsego, Schuyler, Cazenovia. and Sum- mit Lakes, farther east, empty into the Susque- hanna. Lake Mahopac is in the southeast corner of New York, fifty-one miles north of New York. In the northeast of New York are some 200 lovely lakes and lakelets, besides more than 1,000, including the Saranacs and Fultons, Placid, Long, Tupper, St. Regis,Colden, Avalanche, Scroon, Henderson, Sanford, Eckford, Raquette,Forked, N ewcomb, and Pleasant Lakes in the Adriondacks. Round Lake, noted for its camp-meetings, is twelve miles south of Saratoga. Greenwood Lake, the “Miniature Lake George,” is in New York and New Jersey, forty miles north-northwest of New York; and in the New Jersey Highlands are Hopatcong, Budd’s, and other pretty lakes. Other Frequented Lakes are: Alpine, Col.; Bald Eagle, 1\linn.; Bass. Minn. ; Beaver,Col.; Bomoseen, Vt.; Bradford, Fla.; Brood of Lakelets, Mich; Cal- houn, Minn.; Cedar, Minn.; Cherry, Fla.; Chicago, Col.; Chocorua, N. H.; Clear, Cal.; Como, Minn.; Cupsuptic, l\Ie.; Devil’s, Dak.;Donner, Cal.; Dun- more, Vt. ; Echo, N. H.; Francis, Fla.; George.Fla.; Harris, Fla. ;Grand, Col. ; Great Salt, Utah; Green, Col.; Harney, Fla. ; Harriett, Minn.; Jackson. Fla.; Jessup, Fla. ; Kenoza, Mass. ; Lafayette, Fla. ; Little George,Fla. ; Lula, Tenn. ; Mahkeenac, Mass. ; Mary, Fla. ; Hikkosukie, Fla. ; Minnetonka, Minn. ; Mirror, Cal.; Mollychunkemunk, Me.; Mono, Cal. ; Monroe, Fla. ; Mooselucmaguntic, Me.; N ever-Freezing, Mon.; Onota, Mass.; Parmachene, Me.; Pellican, Minn.; Pend D’Oreielle, Mon. ; Pepin, Minn.; Pon- chartrain, La.; Pontoosuc, Mass.; Profile, N. H.; Pyramid, Nev.; Rachel, Fla.; St. Catherine, Vt.; Salt, Fla.; San Luis, Col.; Santa Fé, Fla.; Spring, Mich.; Stockbridge Bowl, Mass.; Tahoe, Cal.; Tu- lare, Cal.; Twin, Col.; VVellborn, Fla. ; lVelokenne- bacook, Me.; IVhite Bear, Minn.; IVild-goose Nest, Dak; and Yellowstone, Mon. IV1-:sTERN STATES.--SPRINGS.—-BOlZiHQ Springs are situated in southern Colorado, near the foot of Pike’s Peak, about ten miles from the City of Pueblo, at an altitude of 6,350 feet above the level of the sea. Calistoga, one of the most celebrated watering- places of the far ‘West, is situated in Napa county, California, sixty--eight miles north of San Francis- co. Its mineral springs are boiling hot. There is a large public swimming-bath of warm water. Five miles from here is the celebrated petrified forest. Colorado Springs, is the name of a beautiful and flourishing village situated about five miles from the famous group of springs known as Manitou, sixteen miles from Pike’s Peak, five from Cheyenne Caiion, five from Glen Eyrie, (the beautiful sum- mer residence of General Palmer, president of the Denver & Rio Grand Railroad), eight from Monu- ment Park, and four from the Garden of the Gods. The streets are well shaded, and the village is built upon the open plane in full view of the mountains. Its drives are a great attraction. Colorado Springs is fast becoming the Saratogo of Colorado. Hotel accommodations, guides, horses, and all that the tourist requires, are here to be had in abund- ance. The Geysers, of IVyoming, are the grandest and most numerous intermittent spouting thermal springs in the world. They occur in the Yellowstone re- gion, and are situated on Fire-Hole River. They lie in two groups; the Lower Basin, as it is called, containing an immense number bots. sf geysers 1244 and springs; and the Upper Basin, about eight miles south, including the famous geysers known as Old Faithful, the Giantess, the Grand Geyser, and the Giant Geyser. The average temperature of these is over 170 degrees. Geyser Springs, the famous thermal springs of California, whose waters are celebrated as a spe- cific for gout, rheumatism, and cutaneous diseases, are situated near the Pleuton River, in a lateral gorge of the Napa Valley known as the Devil’s Canon. A great number of springs, difiering in temperature, in degrees of activity, in color, in taste, and in smell, issue from the base of steep hills which surround the Geyser ravine, and which bear evidence of volcanic action. The ground in the immediate vicinity of the springs is hot and devoid of vegetation, but the surrounding scenery is among the most beautiful in the world. Bayard Taylor thought that it surpassed anything he had seen in the Lower Alps for loveliness. Gilroy Hot Springs. These medicinal springs of Southern California are situated east of the South- ern Pacific Railroad, fifteen miles from Gilroy Station. Harbin/s Springs, twenty miles from the terminus of the Napa branch of the California Pacific Rail- road, are among the most noted of the numerous mineral springs which abound in that vicinity. Hot Springs of Arkansas. These famous springs are situated on the Hot Springs Railroad, near the lVashita River, fixty-five miles from Little Rock. Numerous thermal springs, containing carbonic acid and several carbonates in solution, issue from the side of Hot Springs Mountain, discharging some 500.000 gallons daily. These waters are fast attaining a world-wide celebrity for the cure of various rheumatic, scrofulous, and other chronic diseases, and the place is already one of the most noted health-resorts in the United States. First settled in 1820. Hot Sulphur Springs, near Santa Barbara, are much frequented by the health-seekers of Southern California. In some of these springs the water is impregnated with iron, alumnia and potash; in others with sulphur and sulphurretted hydrogen. Hot Sulphur Springs, a principal point of interest with visitors to the great Middle Park of Colorado, are situated on a tributary of Grand River, some forty-five miles from Georgetown and sixty from Central City. The waters are used for bathing in cases of chronic cutaneous affections, neuralgia, and rheumatism. Hot Sulphur Springs, on the Northern Railway, California, are situated abont ten miles west of IVilliams Station. Quantities of crude sulphur are here found, and the springs are much resorted to by invalids. Idaho Springs, Colorado, on the Georgetown branch of the Colorado Central Railway, give their name to a beautiful village, nearly 8,000 feet above sea-level, and surrounded by high mountain ranges. The waters are both hot and cold, and are impregnated with iron, magnesia, lime and soda. The arrangements for bathing and swimming are extensive, and these springs are much resorted to both winter and summer, for the cure of rheuma- tism, paralysis, and general debility. Litton’s Springs, a favorite watering-place in So- noma county, California, are situated about a mile from Litton Station, on the San Francisco and North Pacific Railway. Hot Spring Valley, south of the Union Pacific Railroad, and about twenty miles west of Palisade, Nevada, contains a large number of intermittent hot springs. The waters are highly impregnated with sulphur, and shoot up from the ground in i above St. Louis. PLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORTS muddy streams from twenty to thirty feet into the air. Hot Springs, near San Bernardino, California, contain lime, soda, Iron and alumina, and are said to possess medicinal properties. Cottonwood Sprmgs, twelve in number, are located a few miles from Buena Vista, 135 miles from Den-, ver. A fine hotel, sanitarium, and bath-house have been erected, and many sufferers from rheumatism and other chronic diseases are patrons. El Dorado Springs, five in number, having differ- ent medicinal qualities, are located in Arkansas, on the western slope and base of the Ozark Moun- tains, three miles from the Indian Territory, and 35 from Vinta Station on the Missouri Pacific Railway. These springs are in a beautiful coun- try of streams and mountains, and in a latitude which climatic charts place in a most genial cli- mate. Deanesbnry Mineral Springs, in Platte Caiion, twenty-seven miles from Denver, is a location de- lightfully romantic and wild. Fish and game abound, and the hotel accommodations are good. The water is highly beneficial in cases where laxa- tive and alternative treatment is required. Hartsell Hot Springs are situated on the South Platte River, in the southern portion of South Park, 104 miles from Denver. The water is cele- brated for its cure of rheumatism, neuralgia, and chronic diseases. Heywood Springs, on the line of the Gunnison extension of the Denver and South Park Division, 148 miles from Denver, possess water of a very high temperature, and are attracting much attention now that they are accessible by rail. Though hot, they are agreeable to drink. Las Vegas Hot Springs-.—-The Hot Springs of Las Vegas, twenty-two in number, are located near the mouth of a beautiful cafion, which opens upon the plains four miles above the city of Las Vegas, and from that point winds romantically into the Span- ish Range of the Rocky Mountains, the latter ex- tending l50 miles southward from the Colorado line into New Mexico. The springs have an alti- tude of 6,400 feet—the elevation which has made Colorado such a favorite resort for those affected with pulmonary complaints. The character of the waters is similar to that of the famous Hot Springs of Arkansas. Leadville Soda Springs are among the most prom- inent health and pleasure resorts in Colorado, and they attract many visitors. Morrison Springs are situated sixteen miles from Denver, on a branch of the South Park Division, on Bear Creek. The waters are cold, sulphurous, al- kaline, and very beneficial in cases of dyspepsia and kindred diseases, and are supposed to have a heal- ing influence in kidney affections. Ojo Caliente, the famous hot springs at Ojo Caliente, the largest and best in New Mexico. They are sit- uated at a delightful altitude of 6,000 ‘feet, and have proved very efiective in severe cases of rheu- matism, scrofula, and paralysis. The location is about eleven miles west of Barrance, and near the entrance of Comanche Cafion. Poncho Springs, a group of over fifty hot mineral springs, five and a half miles from Arkansas, Col., composing the famous Poncho group. Springdale Seltzer Springs, ten miles from Boul- der, Colorado, in the midst of the rich mines, are reached by charming drives through pine forests, and by stage. Sweet Springs, near Brownesville station, on the Missouri Pacific Railway, are about the center of Missouri, in an elevated, healthy region, 500 feet Embraced in the spring grounds DLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORTS are thirty acres, gently rolling and well drained, the surface ornamented with a beautiful turf of blue grass, and abundant shade trees. Manitoa Springs, the general name given to a group of seven famous mineral springs of Southern Colorado, known particularly as the Manitou, Nav- ajo, Comanche, Shoshone, Arrapahoe, Mishana, Tunga, Pawnee. These waters possess valuable curative properties. They contain sulphur, but iron and soda prevail, and the springs are remark- able for their tonic effect in cases of general de- bility. N apa Soda Springs, a famous health and pleasure re- sort ofCalifornia, five miles from Napa City. These mineral waters have long been known, and are now quite extensively bottled for transportation, and freely used on the Pacific Coast. Pacific Congress Springs, a favorite summer re- treat four hours’ ride from San Francisco, are situ- ated ten miles southwest of Santa Clara. These waters are highly recommended by the medical faculty, especially in cases of rheumatism. They contain a large proportion of mineral contents, and closely resemble those of the Congress Spring of Saratoga. They contain chloride sodium, sulphate soda, carbonate soda, carbonate iron, carbonate lime, silicate alumina, and a little magnesia. Pagosa Springs, located about four miles south -of the San Juan River. Above and opposite the town, on aflat-topped, isolated hill, are the build- ings (constructed chiefiy of pine logs obtained in the vicinity) of the Government and military post. The great interest in the place centers in the boil- ing springs. The largest of these is at least forty feet in diameter, and hot enough to cook an egg or scald a pig in a few minutes. Carbonic acid gas and steam bubble up in great quantities from the bottom, and keep the water always in a state of agitation. The water has the faculty of dividing the light into its component colors, producing ef- fects very similar to those of the opalescent glass of commerce. Around the large spring, and ex- tending for a mile down the creek, are innumera- ble similar ones, many of which discharge large quantities of almost boiling water. These hot springs, being highly charged with saline material, have produced by deposition all, or nearly all, of the ground in their vicinity, and their streams meander through its cavernous structure, often disappearing and re—appearing many times before they finally discharge into the San Juan River. The place promises to grow into one of great popu- lar resort. Paso-Robles Hot Springs, situated on the Paso- Robles (“Pass of Oaks”) ranch, i11 Southern Cali- fornia. It is said that there are no better waters on the American continent for gout, rheumatism, and skin diseases. They contain sulphuretted hy- drogen, carbonic acid, soda,magnesia, potassa,iron, bromine, iodine, alumina, and sulphuretted acid. Piedmont Wlz.ite Sulphur Springs, a short distance from East Oakland, near San Francisco, possess good medicinal qualities. They are quite strongly impregnated with sulphur. Skagg’s Springs, a popular resort, are situated in Sonoma county, Cal., and are easily accessible by stage from Geyserville, on the San Francisco & North Pacific Railroad. Steamboat Springs, eleven miles south of Reno, Nev., are said to possess excellent medicinal quali- ties. They are quite hot, and are strongly impreg- nated with sulphur. Soda Springs, near the foot of Summit Valley, ~Cal., are large and numerous, and are believed by many who have visited them to contain the best medicinal waters in the State. The drink is said 1245 to be delightfully cool and sparkling, and to pos- sess the taste of the best quality of artificial soda- water. Near the springs are also others which emit clear boiling-hot water. Utah Hot Springs, on the Utah & Northern Rail- way, five miles from Ogden, clustered at the base of a rugged spur of the Wasatch range, are some mineral springs of great volume, and reputed to possess rare medicinal virtues. The water pours from crevices in the rocks, registering a tempera- ture of 125 degrees, and containing such ingredi- ents as chloride of sodium, iron, magnesium, and niter in strong solution. Baths here prove remarka- bly invigorating, and seem especially adapted to the cure of rheumatism and kindred chronic troubles. A large pool has been neatly walled up. These walls and the pebbly aisles surrounding, through which other springs send their waters to the great salt sea a few hundred rods below, are coated with a pretty, reddish, mineralized substance. Tl’amn Sulphur Springs, in Utah, inside the limits of Salt Lake City, and at the foot of a spur of the Wasatch mountains; temperature, 95 degrees to 104 degrees; emit 10,000 gallons per hour. Great bath houses of various kinds have been erected adjacent to grassy lawns and noble trees. Large numbers of visitors are attracted by the springs. A mile north are the Hot Sulphur Springs. The water spurts out with great force at a temperature of 200 degrees or more. Eggs thrust into the pools boil in about regulation time, and meat can be cooked thoroughly (and seasoned, too!) in an in- credibly short period. Flowing out into the meadow near by, the water has formed a pretty little lake, called Hot Springs Lake, a strange feature of which is the fact that trout and other fish have been seen in it, apparently flourishing in the tropical and sul- phur-scented waters. Large volumes of steam are often noticeable over the springs and along the streams. Wlzitc J[oz/m‘ai/2 H02‘ Sprz'ng.s.the most remarkable group of thermal springs in the world, are situated on Gardner’s River, extending for about 1,000 feet up the slope of the ‘White Mountain, in Montana. ll'hiz‘c Sulphur Springs, near Calistoga, Cal, are situated in a very deep gorge, from which the mountains on both sides rise to a height of nearly 1,000 feet. OTHER PLEASURE REsoR'rs.-—The Berkslfire H ills, between the Taconic and Hoosac ranges in IVest- ern Mass., the Housatonic Valley below the hills, and the Connecticut Valley from northern New Hampshire and Vermont. through Massachusetts and Connecticut to the Sound are celebrated for the picturesque beauty of their scenery. The Con- necticut shore of the Sound has many summer re- sorts. Rye, Mamaroneck, New Rochelle, City Island, and Glen Island belong to New York; Stat- en Island, the largest in New York Harbor, is a popular resort. Old Point (*0/nfort is a popular summer and win- ter resort at the entrance of Hampden Roads in Virginia, thirteen miles north of Norfolk, and in the immediate vicinity of Fortress Monroe. Deer Park, Mountain Lake Park and Oakland are on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad 240-46 miles west of Baltimore. Charleston, Aiken, and Sommerville in South Carolina, Savannah, Augusta, Thomasville, and Eastman in Georgia, and Jacksonville, St. Au- gustine, Fernandina, Gainesville, Cedar Keys, the St. John’s, Oklawaha, and Indian Rivers, Lake City, IVelborn, Olustee, Tallahassa, IVakulla Spring, Quincy. Monticello, Madison, Pensacola, Appalachi- cola, Tampa, Manatee, Charlotte, Harbor, Punta Rassa, Biscayne Bay, and Key \Vest. in Florida. are noted winter resorts. 1246 The Tour of the Mississippi begins at St. Paul, Minneapolis, St. Anthony, and the Falls of St. An- thony. Lake Pepin, Maiden Rock, Chimney Rock, Trempeleau Island, Eagle Rock, Rock Island, and the Meeting of the Waters are above St. Louis. A winter voyage down the Lower Mississippi is a de- lightful experience. Madison, Wis., beautifully situated between Lakes Monona and Mendota, is a popular summer resort. The Yosemite Valley is on the Merced River, in California, 140 miles east of San Francisco. It is six miles long, nearly one mile wide, nearly one mile in depth below the general level of the surrounding country, and inclosed in perpendicular granite walls 3,000 to 6,000 feet high. Its floor is clean and gen- erally level, and carpeted with a profusion of bril- liant and fragrant flowers, and its domes and water- falls are the wonder of the world. Other principal resorts in California are San Rafael, Pescadero, Santa Cruz, Monterey, San J osé, Santa Clara, Napa City, Calistoga, Santa Barbara, San Diego, Los An- geles, and San Bernardino. CANADA.-Cacouna, the favorite summer resort of the Canadians, is on the south shore of the St. Lawrence, 133 miles below Quebec. Above are Rivitere du Loup, Murray Bay, and Chateau Rich- ter ; below are Trois Pistoles, Ramouski, Metis, and Cape Rosier; nearly opposite Cacouna is the mouth of the famous Saguena. Noted mineral springs of Canada are St. Leon, Caledonia, and St Catherine’s. The principal Falls are Montmorency, 250 feet high ; Falls of the Chaudiere, 150; Great and Little Chau- diere Falls of the Ottawa, 40 and 13; Shawanegan, 150; St. Anne, 130, and Falls of the Du Loup, 80. PLEBICITE, the name given, in the political phraseology of modern France, to a decree of the nation obtained by an appeal to universal suffrage. Thus, Louis Napoleon, for example, was chosen president, and subsequently emperor, by a plebi- cite. The word is borrowed from the Latin; but the plebiscitum of the Romans properly meant only a law passed at the Comitia Tribata, that is, as- sembly of the plebs, or “commons,” as distinguished from the populus, or the “nobles,” and although it was ultimately obligatory on both classes of the community, it, of course, could only refer to such matters as it was within the province of the Oomitia T ribata to legislate upon, and could not funda- mentally alter or destroy the constitution. PLEIADES, in Greek mythology, according to the most general account, the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione, the daughter of Oceanus. Their history is differently related by the Greek mytho- lo ists. gPLEURODYNIA, a rheumatic affection of the intercostal muscles, characterized by acute pain in the side upon taking a full breath or coughing, and by great tenderness on pressure. The disease generally yields to local measures, such as blister- ing, or counter-irritation in a milder form by rube- facient liniments. A mixture of soap-liniment and chloroform rubbed over the affected parts two or three times a day, often gives relief. In the more persistent cases, leeches may be applied with bene- t. PLIFLIMMON, or PLYNLIMMON, a mountain of \Vales, 2,481 feet high, on the boundary between the counties of Montgomery and Cardigan, eleven miles northwest from Llanidloes. It is a huge mountain mass, with three chief summits. The view from the summit is very extensive. It was in ' the fastnesses of Plinlimmon that Owen Glen- dower took his stand in 1401, issuing thence to make inroads on the English borders. PLOJESHTI, or PLoYEsTI, a town of Walachia, thirty-five miles north-by-east from Bucharest, on . PLEBICITE—PLUMBAGO the Dinbow, a feeder of the Jalomnitza. It is a. place of considerable trade, and has a great annual wool-fair. Population about 27,000. PLOUGH. ‘ See Britannica, Vol. I, p. 311. PLOUGHGATE OF LAND: in the law of Scot- land, an expression denoting a quantity of land of the extent of 100 acres Scots. No person is quali- fied to kill game in Scotland who has not a plough- gate of land. PLUM. See Britannica, V 01. XIX, p. 230. Of the plum tree (Prunas) there are four species- native in America. The Chickasaw plum (P. Chic- asa) is a small shrub-like tree in the Southern States. It bears a yellowish-red globose fruit of agreeable flavor. The wild yellow or red plunn (P.Americana) is a bushy tree 10-20 feet hi h. It bears a roundish, oval fruit, of one and a ha f inch diameter. It grows wild in most States, and has also been cultivated. The beach plum (P. mar- itima) is a low, straggling shrub, which is found on. sandy casts from Massachusetts to New Jersey- Its fruit is three-fourths inch in diameter, and of pleasant taste, but slightly astringent. Prunus rlandalosa occurs in Texas. It is scarcely a foot high, and has crooked, thorny branches. Plums of the finer cultivated varieties forrm choice table fruit. The inferior kinds, being sour, are often used in pies, conserves, and sweetmeatsr They should only be eaten when they are fully ripe. Dried plums pass under the name of “prunes.” Great quantities are raised in France, Spain, Turkey, and Germany, and are imported. into the United States. They are mostly sun-dried, and constitute a favorite table fruit. Prunellosz are the finest grade of prunes. They are made from greengages and St. Catherine ‘plums, and are highly esteemed for dessert. PLUMB, PRESTON B., an American statesman,. born in Delaware county, Ohio, Oct. 12, 1837. He received a common school education; learned the art of printing; removed to Kansas in 1856; was a- member of the Leavenworth constitutional con- vention in 1859; was admitted to the bar in 1861; served in the lower house of the Legislature in 1862, and was chairman of the Judiciary Commit- tee, and subsequently reporter of the Supreme court; in August of the same year entered the service as second lieutenant in the eleventh Kansas infantry, and served successively as cap- tain, major, and lieutenant-colonel of that regi- ment; was commissioned as colonel of the same regiment in August, 1862, but not mustered for the reason that a mustering officer was not withim reach until after a part of the re iment had been mustered out; was a member an speaker of the Kansas house of representatives in 1867, and also- a member in the following year; has been elected). to the United States Senate for three successive-. terms, the last of which will expire March 3, 1895... PLUMBAGO. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp... 230-231. This mineral, which is also called“graph-- ite” and “black lead,” is widely distributed in the- United States. But it is in very few places foundi sufficiently pure for profitable mining. A mine im Sonoro, Cal., called the Eureka mine, is capable of yielding 1,000 tons per month. But most of the- graphite now used in this country is mined at Ti-~ conderoga, Essex county, New York. There is a vein there about 15 feet thick carrying 12 per cent. of" graphite. It is practicably inexhaustible. It con-- tains occasionally pockets of the purest graphite which is well adapted for pencil making, as it con- tains 99.9 per cent. of pure carbon. Beside its use in the manufacture of lead pencils"- plumbago is largely employed in making crucibles" and retorts. Its high resistence to heat adapts it \ .4 PLUMBING—PAGONIAS well for this purpose. Plumbago crucibles are es- pecially used in the manufacture of Bessemer steel. Another important use is that of dry lubri- cation, as in producing smoothness of action be- tween the frictional surfaces of the piano and or- gan. Plumbago thus applied must be absolutely free from grit. Of late years plumbago has come into extended use as a lubricant for machinery. For this purpose it is mixed with oily substances. If mixed in the proper proportion it makes a per- fect lubricant. Plumbago is also used for pig- ments, for stove polish, and for facing molds in foundries in order to produce smooth surfaces in casting as it is a good conductor of electricity, it is also used for coating molds in electrotyping and in various other processes of electro-deposition. PLUMBING, a word dorived from plu/nbum, lead, the material of which water-pipes in houses were originally made. It comprises the laying of such pipes and the construction of the necessary apparatus for carrying water and drainage through houses, including hydrants, basins, water-closets, faucets, etc. The use of such work is very ancient, the nations of antiquity from Nebuchadnezzar downward, having employed lead or iron pipes to carry water through their cities. Galvanized iron is largely used in the United States instead of lead. But the most commonly used pipes are ungalvan- ized iron pipes. See SANITARY Scrnxcn in these Revisions and Additions. PLUMED - MOTH, / the popular name of \ /)5-/_:~:~i)"-3 a group of small, del- \ ‘: ;&% mate moths which \\ 5/' compose the family _\ , \ \ Pteroplzo/~z'da’, or Alu- \\\\ // citidae. They are re- , markable for having at least a pair of the ‘XX, wings, and often all the wings, longitudi- nally cleft into two or more—sometimes six—-divis- ions, which are beautifully fringed at the edges. PLUMER, \V1LLIAM Swax, an American theolo- gian, born in Pennsylvania in 1802, died in 1880. He was prominent as a professor of theology. and author of many valuable works on Biblical criti- cism. PLUMPTRE, Enwxnn IIAYES, an English divine and educator, born in 1821. He became dean of IVells in 1881. He is a prolific writer of theologi- cal works. PLUTEUS, in Classical Architecture, a wall filling up the space between two columns. Also the space between two orders, placed over one another, as in the amphitheatres. PLUTONIC ROCKS, the name given by Lyell to the Granite Books, from the supposition that they were formed at considerable depth in the earth, and were cooled and crystallized slowly under great pressure. They were so designated in contra- distinction to the volcanic rocks, which, though they have risen up from below, have cooled from a melted state more rapidly upon or near the sur- ; /a-:' I ace. PLYMOUTH, a city, the county-seat of Marshall county, Ind., on Yellow River, thirty miles north- east of La Porte. It contains several mills and has a good local trade. Population in 1890, 2,723. PLYMOUTH, a town, the county-seat of Ply- mouth county, Mass. Population in 1890, 7,292. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 238; Vol. XXIII, p. 729. PLYMOUTH, a village of Michigan, about twenty-four miles northwest of Detroit. It pro- duces a variety of manufactures, and has an excel- lent high-school. 1247 PLYMOUTH, a village, the county-seat of Wash- ington county, N. C., and a port of entry, near the mouth of the Roanoke. It is a shipping-point for lumber, shingles and cotton, is the seat of a State normal school, and has a good local trade. PLYMOUTH, a village of Ohio, on the Huron River, thirty-five miles south of Sandusky. It pro- duces a variety of manufactures. PLYMOUTH, a borough of Pennsylvania. Popu- lgiéion in 1890, 9,34-l. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. PLYMOUTH, a village of Wisconsin, an active center of local trade, on the Mullet River, thirty miles east of Fond-du-Lac. PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, a sect which first ap- peared at Plymouth, England, in 1830. Twenty years afterwards they only possessed thirty-two places of worship in England and \7Vales. Mr. Darby, their founder, taught that all should be re- ceived into communion who confessed Christ, and acknowledged the inspiration of the Holy Ghost. They have no special order of ministers. The founder separated from the body before his death; their numbers now are considerable, and they are divided into various sects. Correct statistics of their actual numbers are not available, many of them being more or less connected with other re- ligious bodies. PLYMOUTH SOUND, a well-known roadstead on the southwest of Devonshire, important as a naval station. Its position at the entrance of the English Channel is much in its favor. It is two and a half miles wide, and extends inland for three miles. PODURA, or Ponounx, a genus of small, wing- less insects. corresponding to the order Thysoura, and typical of the family Podur/idae. They have a linear or cylindrical body, a distinctly articulated thorax, rather long antennae, and a long abdomen, terminating in a tail, which divides at its extremi- ty into two branches. They bend the tail beneath the abdomen, and by suddenly extending it, make prodigious leaps. Hence their popular name Spring-tail. The species of this and allied genera are numerous, and some are found on plants, some under stones and in other damp places, some on the surface of stagnant waters. Their bodies are covered with scales. POET LAUREATE, an office in the household of the sovereigns of Great Britain, the appellation having its origin in a custom of the English Uni- versities, which continued to 1512, of presenting a laurel leaf to graduates in rhetoric and versifica- tion, the king’s “laureate” being a graduated rhetorician in the service of the king. The first appointment of a poet laureate dates from the reign of Edward IV., the first patent being granted in 1630. It was formerly the duty of the poet laur- eate to write an ode on the birthday of the mon- arch, but this custom has been discontinued since the reign of George III. Among those who have held this office may be mentioned Dryden, Southey, \Vordsworth, and Lord Tennyson, the present poet laureate. POCY Y ALOY, FELIPE, a Cuban naturalist, born at Havana in 1799. In 1842 he was appointed pro- fessor of comparative anatomy and zoiilogy in the University of Havana. He made valuable re- searches in the natural history of Cuban fishes. His chief contributions to science are ll[emo2'1's sobre la Hz'st02“z'a Natural de la Isla de la Isla de Cuba (2 vols.); Synopsis Piscium Cubensizmz, which was revised under the title Enumeratio Pisciu m €'uben- sium (1875). PAGONIAS, a genus of acanthopterous fishes, of the family Sez'awzidzr, having two dorsal fins, one of I248 them deeply notched, and many small barbels un- der the mouth. The fishes of this genus are found on the coasts of warm countries; and are remarka- ble for the sounds which they emit, which some-l what resembled those of the drum, and have ob- tained for them the name of Drumfish. POINDEXTER, GEoReE, an American lawyer and politician, born in Virginia in 1779, died in 1853. He was twice in Congress; was governor of Mississippi; was United States Senator; and re- viser of the Code of laws of Mississippi. POINSETT, JOEL ROBERTS, an American states- man, born in South Carolina in 1779, died in 1851. He studied in England and Scotland, and trav- eled much in early life; held several diplomatic positions; and became United States Secretary of War 1837. He was very popular in Chili and in Mexico. POINT PLEASANT, a village, the county-seat of Mason county, W. Va., on the Ohio River, near the Kanawha. It produces a variety of manufac- tures. 27POISON S. See Britannica Vol. XIX, pp. 276- 9 POITRINAL, or PEoToRAL, in ancient armour, the horse’s breastplate, formed of metal plates riv- eted together as a covering for the breast and Shoulders. POKHURN, a town of India, in the Rajpoot State of J odhpoor, 340 miles southwest of Delhi. It is situated close to a deserted town of the same name, the site of which is marked by a very con- spicuous temple iii an elevated situation. Pokhurn being one of the great commercial tracks between Eastern Rajootana and Sinde, gains much by the transit trade. Population about 15,000. POLACCA, or PoLoNAIsE, a Polish national dance of slow movement in three-fourths time. It always begins and terminates with a full bar, and a pc- culiar effect is produced by the position of its ca- dence, the dominant seventh in the second crochet of the bar preceding the trial on the third crochet. POLACCA, or POLACRE, a species of vessel in use in the Mediterranean, with three masts and a jib- boom, the fore and main-masts being of one piece and the mizzen-mast with a top and top-mast. They generally carry square sails. POLAND. For general article on POLAND, now incorporated with Russia, see Britannica,Vol. XIX, pp. 285-312. The latest statistical reports (those of 1887) give the area and population as follows: Area, 49,157 square miles; population, 8,319,797 ; density of population per square mile, 169. In 1885 the re- turns showed a population in towns, 2,125,458; in country,5,83-1,846; males, 3,904,306; females, 4,055,- 998-a total of 7,960,304. , POLAND, a village of Ohio, five miles south of Youngstown. It contains mills and foundries and is a mining center. POLAR REGIONS. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 315-330, and also ARCTIC ExPLoRATIoNs in these Revisions and Additions. POLDER, a word of frequent occurrence in the topography of the Netherlands, being the name given to a piece of land below the level of the sea or nearest river, which, being originally a morass or lake, has been drained and brought under culti- Vation. POLICE MATRONS. In March, 189], the legis- lature of the State of New York passed, and the governor signed, a bill which makes the employ- ment of women under this designation, in police stations, imperative in all cities containing 25,000 inhabitants or over. The special work of such matrons is to look after and care for all females POINDEXTER—-POLITICAL PARTIES who are brought to the station, or who may have temporary lodgings there. POLISHING OF METALS, a process that is ef- fected by first removing any tarnish or oxidation by means of some material which will chemically act upon it. For this purpose, sulphuric, hydro- chloric, oxalic and acetic acids are used to different metals and in various states of dilution. Usually, it is necessary to remove the acid with clean water and dry rapidly, to prevent re-oxidation; and then either friction with various polishing materials, or rubbing with a smooth, hard surface or burnisher brings out the lustre of the metal. POLISHING SLATE, a mineral composed chiefly of silica, with a little alumina, lime, oxide of iron, and water; white, yellowish-white, or yellow; of a slaty texture, opaque, very brittle, and of specific 1 gravity not much more than half that of water; so that it swims in water till its pores become filled with the liquid. It it found in Bohemia, Saxony, and Auvergne, and has been supposed to be a volcanic product, but it consists of silicious remains of Diatomaceae. It is used for polishing glass, marble, and metals. POLITICAL ECONOMY. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 346-401. POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES. FEDERALIsTs AND ANTI-.l5'Ei)ERALISTS.—-— The advent of national political parties in the United States bears even date with the discussions incident to the formulation of national constitu- tion. In 1787 when the convention called for that purpose and composed of delegates from the sev- eral States, had unanimously agreed upon the form, and had sent attested copies to the State legislature for their consideration and approval, an earnest discussion arose among the people in all directions as to its merits. Its friends deemed it important to prepare and circulate the strongest possible popular arguments in its behalf. A series of eighty-two able papers were prepared chiefly by Alexander Hamilton, of New York and sent out under the name of “The Federalist” strongly supporting the proposed constitution. Imme- diately those who favored the.“Federalist” began to be called Federalists and their opponents Anti-Fed- eralists. Prominent leaders of the former were Washington, Hamilton, Jay and Madison, while Thomas Jeflerson was early recognized as the leader of the latter. Jefferson sought to attach the name Republicans or Democratic Republicans to the opposition, but with only partial success. The Federalists came into power with the date of the accession of Washington to the Presidency, April 30, 1789. On September 11 of the same year Alexander Hamilton was appointed Secretary of the Treasury, and applied himself with reat zeal, and remarkable success. to the relief 0 the gov- ernment from the burden of its debt. He pro- posed that the debt of the Federal Government, and that war debts of the State governments, then aggregating about $80,000,000 should be assumed by the general Government, and that provision made for their payment by revenue derived from customs and duties levied on ships. There was sharp opposition, but the plan was adopted, and the credit of the new Nation was assured. Two years later the United States bank was established with a capital of $10,000,000, three-fourths of which was to be paid in United States stock, at six per cent. interest, thus furnishing a market for the new bonds of the Government. Washington was re-elected without opposition in 1793; but during his second term a division of opinion arose in his cabinet, causing a serious rupture. This resulted, at his retirement, to a renewal of POLITICAL PARTIES party strife. The Federalists were led by Alex- ander Hamilton and Henry Knox; the anti-Fed- eralists by Thomas Jefferson and Edmund Ran- dolph. The Federalists were successful electing John Adams to the Presidency. Under the pro- visions of the electoral law then in operation, his competitor, Thomas Jefferson, having “the next highest number of votes” became vice-President This led to a divided and embarrassed administra- tion, resulting in the defeat of Adams for a second term, and the election of J eiferson to the Presi- dency. Thus at the end of twelve years, the power of the Federal party was destroyed. DEMOCRATIC PARTY, THE.—The administration of the anti-Federalists began in 1801. Its mem- bers soon began io be called “Democrats,” or Jef- ferson Democrats, and the other titles were gradu- ally dropped. One of Mr. J efferson’s early acts was to transfer at once the chief offices to members of his own party; internal revenues were abolished, and the Sedition and Alien laws were repealed. He was reélected in 1805. The sympathy of the Demo- crats with France, as against England, whose con- duct on the seas rendered her obnoxious to the people of the United States, caused the success of the party in the election of James Madison to the Presidency in 1809, and his ret-lection in 1818. The success of the administration in the war of 1812 still kept the party in power, as it did also dur- ing the two Presidential term of James Monroe. In the election of 1824 the party became divided. There were four presidential candidates—all claim- ing to be Democrats, viz: John Q. Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay and IV. H. Crawford. As no candidate received a majority of all the electoral votes, the election was thrown into the House of Representatives, and Mr. Adams was elected Presi- dent, John C. Calhoun being vice-President by the electoral votes. The next quadrennial election was without political party interest, and the choice one of popular personal preference resulting after a sharp struggle in the success of General Jackson, the “Hero of New Orleans.” The political features of President J ackson’s administration were the op- position to the United States Bank, the denial of the right of any State to nullify the laws of Con- gress, and the practical observance of the doctrine tlgt to the party in power belongs the spoils of o ce. In 1886, through the influence of General Jack- son and his friends, Martin Van Buren was nomin- ated and elected President. During his Administra- tion the country passed through a severe commer- cial ordea1.The many State banks that had come into operation after the overthrow of the United States Bank, deluged the country with an inflated paper currency, and disaster followed. The people held the Administration responsible and in 18-10 the op- position which had commenced during the incum- bancy of Jackson, became sufiiciently strong to se- cure the election of General Harrison. Thus, after forty years of Government control, the anti-Feder- alists, and the J eifersonian and J acksonian Demo- crats suffered defeat at the polls. WVHIG PARTY, Tnn.—The organized opposition which began under President Jackson was under the leadership of Henry Clay and Daniel \Vebster. During the candidacy of Mr. Clay the opposition bore the name of National Republiccm, but later the name of the Whig Party. Its first great political success was that of 1840, named above. President Harrison died after holding the office for a single month, and John Tyler, who had been elected vice- President with General Harrison, was inaugurated as the latter’s successor. The country was agitated during Mr. Tyler’s Ad- 12-19 ministration by the question of the annexation of Texas, and on that issue the Whigs lost the posi- tion they nominally held. In 18-18 they nominated and elected President Zachary Taylor, a popu- lar general 111 the Mexican war. The slavery ques- tion was now constantly intruding itself, and both parties were trying to avoid its diificulties. Mr. Clay, on May 9, 1850, brought forward a series of compromises known as the Omnibus Bill, of which the concessions made to Texas, the admission of California as a free State, and a more stringent Fugitive Slave law were the chief features. During its consideration General Taylor died, and Millard Fillmore became President, July 9, 1850. The bill was passed complete Sept. 18, but did not satisfy the growing sentiment against slavery and the slave power. There was little heart in the party, and the death of Ur. Clay June :28, and of Mr. VVeb- ster. Oct. 2-1, 1851, tended still further to its decline. In 1852 it put forward General Winfield Scott as its candidate but not even his splendid military record saved the party from defeat. Franklin Pierce, the candidate of the Democrats was elected President, and the Whig party passed away. ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, THE.-—In 1826 William Mor- gan, who was preparing a revelation of the secrets of Free Masonry, suddenly disappeared. It was rumored that he had been foully dealt with by members of the order. and intense excitement was the result‘ followed by the establishment of a po- litical party based on opposition to the order. It cast in New York, in 1828, 80,000 votes; in 1829. 70,- 000; and about 128,000 in 1832. In 1832 it nominat- ed lVilliam \Yirt for President, but only carried one State—Vermont. In 1835 it elected Joseph Ritner governor of Pennsylvania. The excitement gradually died out and the party disappeared. William H. Seward owed his start in political life to this party which sent him to the New York Sen- ate in 1880. LIBERTY PARTY, THE, grew out of the Anti- Slavery Society, and was more widely known for the persistent agitation of its adherents than its numbers. In 18-10 it nominated James G. Birney, secretary of the Anti-Slavery Society, for Presi- dent, casting 7,059 votes; and again in 181-1, when he received 62,800 votes. It contained such men as Lewis Tappan, Gerrit Smith, Samuel Lewis, and Salmon P. Chase. It merged into the Free Soil Party in 18-18. FREE Son. PARTY, THE, was organized at Buffa- lo, N. Y., in 1818, and comprised the Liberty party, the Barnburners, (anti-slavery Democrats of New York), and anti-slavery Whigs. Their first candi- date was Martin Yan Buren, but he received no electoral votes. 111 1852it nominated John P. Hale, who met with no better success; and in 1856 it be- came part of the Republican party. AMERICAN PARTY, THE, more generally known as Know-Nothings, appeared in 1851. It was based on a widely-spread secret society, and advocated twenty-one years’ residence as a qualification for citizenship. and native-born citizens as office- holders. It swept the country like a tornado, car- rying the elections in nearly every State. In 1856 it nominated Millard Fillmore for President, but the slavery question took precedence of everything else, and he received only 871,534 votes, after which the party disappeared. CONSTITUTIONAL UNION PARTY, TIIE, consisted of moderate Southerners and some ‘Vebster YVhigs. It claimed for its platform the Constitution of the United States and the enforcement of the laws. At its convention held May, 1860, it nominated John Bell for President and Edward Everett for Vice President. They received only thirty-nine elector- 2 POLITICAL PARTIES. THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION.—The subjoined table gives the list of the principal presidential can- didates at each election from the date of the approval of the National constitution; the names of the States severally from which the candidates were selected; the names of the political parties with which they were affiliated; the dates severally of their elections; the total number of electorial votes cast in each election, and the number cast for each candidate; and the total number the popular vote for each of the chief candidates at each quadrennial election since 1824: - 5’ 3 $2 to 0,, O :1 - <9 .4 6:9 ‘> _ Electors’ > E 8'6 8 Total Presidential State Political 1PO‘1‘;G§1g£. Vote gg "1 § 52 3 Popular Candidates. lected from. Party. Elelction Counted by += "5 HO 3 Vote ' Congress. 1'3 Q SQ -1 for Each. "1 .2 823 ‘*4 O ‘H r—l B Q r=r° 5 George Washington . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Federalist... Jan 7,'1789 Ap1 6, 1789 10 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. John Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Massachusetts... Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34 91 . . . . . . . . . .. George Washington . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Federalist Nov. 13, 1792 Feb 13, 1793 15 _ , 132 _ . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . .. John Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Massachusetts... Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 135 . . . . . . . . ..q John Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Massachusetts... Federalist.... Nov. 8, 1796 Feb. 8, 1797 16 71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Dem.-Rep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. .. . 67 138 . . . . . . . . . .. Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Dem.-Rep. Nov.11, 1800 Feb 11, 1801 16 . . *73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Aaron Burr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . .. Dem.-Rep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73 138 . . . . . . . . . .. Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Dem.-Rep..... Nov 13, 1804 Feb 13, 1805 17 15 162 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C. C. Pinckney . . . . . . . . . . . .. South Carolina. Federalist . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 14 176 . . . . . . . . . .. James Madison . . . . . . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Dem.—Rep..... Nov 8, 1808 Feb 8, 1809 17 12 122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. C. C. Pinckney . . . . . . . . . . .. South Carolina.. Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 47 176 . . . . . . . . . .. James Madison . . . . . . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Dem.-Rep. Nov 10, 1812 Feb 10, 1813 18 11 128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. DeWitt Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . .. Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 89 218 . . . . . . . . . .. James Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Dem.-Rep. Nov 12, 1816 Feb 12, 1817 19 16 183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Rufus King . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . .. Federalist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 34 221 . . . . . . . . . .. James Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Virginia . . . . . . . . .. Dem.-Rep Nov 14, 1820 Feb 14, 1821 24 24 231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. John Q. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . .. Massachusetts... Opposition.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 235 . . . . . . . . . .. J. Q. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Massachusetts... Coalition..... Nov 9, 1824 Feb 9, 1825 24 8 +84 . . . . .. 105,321 Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . . .. Tennessee . . . . . . .. Dem.-Rep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 99 261 155,872 Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . . .. Tennessee . . . . . . .. Democrat..... Nov 11, 1828 Feb. 11, 1829 24 1*“ 178 . . . . .. 647,231 J. Q. Adams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Massachusetts Nat.-Rep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 83 261 509,097 Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . . .. Tennessee . . . . . . .. Democrat..... Nov 13, 1832 Feb 13, 1833 24 15 219 . . . . .. 687,502 Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Kentucky... ..... Nat.-Rep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . .. 7 49 288 530,189 Martin Van Buren . . . . . . . . .. NewYork . . . . . . .. Democrat..... Nov. 8, 1836 Feb. 8, 1837 26 15 170 . . . . .. 761,549 W. H. Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . .. Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ’hig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. '7 73 294 . . . . W. H. Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . .. Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Whig . . . . . . . . .. Nov 10. 1840 Feb. 19, 1841 26 19 234 _ . . . .. 1,275,017 Martin Van Buren . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . .. Democrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 60 294 1,128,702 James K. Polk . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Tennessee........ Democrat..... Nov 12, 1844 Feb 12, 1845 26 15 170 . . . . .. 1,337,243 Henry Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Kentucky . . . . . . .. Whig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 105 275 1,299,068 Zachary Taylor . . . . . . . . . . .. Louisiana . . . . . . .. Whig . . . . . . . . .. Nov. 7, 1848 Feb 11, 1849 30 15 163 360,101 Lewis Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Michigan . . . . . . . .. Democrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 127 290 1,220,544 Franklin Pierce . . . . . . . . . . .. New Hampshire. Democrat..... Nov 2, 1852 Feb. 9, 1853 31 27 254 . . . . .. 1,601,474 Winfield Scott . . . . . . . . . . . .. New Jersey . . . . .. Whig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 42 296 2,386,578 James Buchanan . . . . . . . . . .. Pennsylvania.... Democrat..... Nov 4, 1856 Feb. 11, 1357 31 19 174 . . . . .. 1,838,169 John C. Fremont . . . . . . . . . .. California . . . . . .. Republican... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. 11 114 296 1,341,264 Abraham Lincoln . . . . . . . . .. Illinois . . . . . . . . .. Republican... Nov 6, 1860 Feb 13, 1861 33 17 180 . . . . .. 1,866,352 John C.Breckenridge . . . . .. Kentucky; . . . . . .. Democrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 72 303 845,763 Abraham Lincoln . . . . . . . . .. Illinois . . . . . . . . .. Republican... Nov. 8, 1864 Feb. 8, 1865 36 22 213 . . . . .. 2,216,067 George B. McClellan . . . . . .. New Jersey . . . . .. Democrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 21 314 1,808,725 Ulysses S. Grant . . . . . . . . . . .. Illinois . . . . . . . . .. Republican... Nov. 3, 1868 Feb. 10, 1869 37 26 214 . . . . .. 3,015,071 Horatio Seymour . . . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . .. Democrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 80 317 2,709,613 Ulysses S. Grant . . . . . . . . . .. linois . . . . . . . . . .. Republican... Nov. 5, 1872 Feb. 12, 1873 37 31 286 . . . . .. 3,597,070 Horace Greeley . . . . . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . .. Dem.-Lib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 366 2,834,079 R. B. Hayes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. io . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Republican... Nov 7, 1876 Feb. 14, 1877 38 21 185 . . . . .. 4,033,975 Samuel J. Tilden . . . . . . . . . .. New YO1k . . . . . . .. Democrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 184 369 4,284,873 James A. Garfield . . . . . . . . .. io . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Republican... Nov 2, 1880 Feb. 9, 1881 38 19 214 . . . . .. 4,454,416 W. S. Hancock . . . . . . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . Democrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 155 369 4,444,952 Grover Cleveland . . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . .. Democrat..... Nov. 4 1884 Feb 11, 1885 38 20 219 . . . . .. 4,874,986 James G. Blaine . . . . . . . . . . .. Maine . . . . .. Republican... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 18. 182 301 4,851,981 Benjamin Harrison . . . . . . .. Indiana . . . . . . . . .. Republican. . Nov 6, 1888 Feb. 13, 1889 38 20 233 . . . . .. 5,440,708 Grover Cleveland . . . . . . . . .. New York . . . . . . .. Democrat... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18 168 401 5,536,242 * Tie vote; choice decided b House of Representatives on 36th ballot. -i— No choice by Electoral Col ege; choice decided by House of Representatives on first ballot. ‘POLITICAL PARTIES 1251 9 The following table shows the summaries severally of the party votes, both popular and electoral, ’ at the last Presidential election (Nov. 6, 1888), and also the party electoral votes cast at the previous five quadrennial elections: *Popular Vote. Electoral Vote. 1888. 1888. 1884. 1880. 1876. 1872. 1868. fitates _ - T :3 _ ‘ Q Q H E Q ~; Q - , 4 - ' E D 1” <5 » 7* * Q L: E Q :5 ~ _ rg >1 ~ >1 1; “U A C 1,; » ' - T‘ . - . :1 Q . ,; : 3;‘, Q :3 o q -1 : *8 .2 ,.: Q *1 :2 Q, 1- Q’, 6 Q 11, Q <.-31-‘ OH ;> c: _O :3 4 <3 ,3 2 _ L-4 _ :3 A ,-4 U’) 0 H C5 ‘U5 33 '—‘ ‘*3 ‘H, 9 O Q) Cl 0: "U 4.; O 4; 0 : - 0 Q: .-< ,1 H .-< _Q_> r‘ e 5 C C O Q S H C > H -*4 Q) > H G3 I E: > .,_ :3 M ,6 >3 Q) '-1 ~,_, Cl ,2 <43 ;/3 3 3 c3 *5 ,2 cs 3 2 :3 1-6 1: C5 5 E 5* E 0 C-1 7-7-1 (/2 O E E1 ' E O Q Fl U El :2 -1- I5 c/2 C5 Alabama. .. . 117,320 56.197 583 . . . . . . . . 61,123 _ . . . . . . . 174,100 10 . . . . 10 10 . . . . 10 . . . . 10 8 .Arkansas . . . 85,962 58,752 641 10,613 27,210 . . . . . . . . 155,968 7 . . . . 7 6 . . . . 6 _ , _ , 5 ~€alifo1'11ia . . 117,729 124,816 5,761 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,087 251,339 8 . . . . 8 5 1 . . . . 6 6 5 Colorado .. . 37,567 ‘ 50,774 2,191 1,266 . . . . . . .. 13,207 91,798 3 .. . . “ .... 3 . 3 . . . . . . . . €onnecticut 74,920 74,584 4,234 240 P36 . . . . . . . . 153,978 6 . . . . 6 . . . . 6 6 . . . . 6 . 6 Delaware . . . 16,414 12,973 400 . . . . . . . . 3,441 . . . . . . . . 29,787 3 . . 3 3 . 3 3 3 . . . . Florida .. . . . 39,561 26,657 423 . . . . . . .. 12,904 . . . . . . .. 66,641 4 . 4 4 . . .. . , .. 4 .. .. 4 . . .. 3 ~Georgia. . . .. 100,499 40,496 1,808 136 60,002 . . . . . . .. 142,939 12 . . .. 12 . . . . 11 . . . . 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 . . .. Illinois... . .. 348,278 370,473 21,695 7,090 . . . . . . .. 22,195 747,686 . . . 22 . . . . 22 . . . . 21 . . .. 21 . . .. 21 . . .. 16 Indiana . . . . 261,013 263,361 9,881 2,694 . . . . . . . . 2,348 536,949 . . . . 15 15 . . . . . . . 15 15 . . . . . . . . 15 . . . . 13 10 W2, . . . . . . . . 179,877 211,598 3,550 9,105 . . . . . . . . 31,711 404,130 . . . . 13 . . . . 13 . . . _ 11 . , . . 11 11 . . . . 8 Kansas . . . . . . 102,745 182,904 6,779 37,788 . . . . . . . . 80,159 334,035 . . . . 9 . . . . 9 . . . . 5 . . . 5 5 , . . . 3 .Kentucky.. . 183,800 - 155,134 5,225 622 28,666 . . . . . . . . 344,781 13 . . . . 13 . . . . 12 . . . . 12 8 . . . 11 . . . . Louisiana,. . 85,032 30,484 160 3 54,548 . . . . . . . . 115,744 8 . . . . 8 . . 8 . . . . . 8 . . . 7 . . . . 21:1-ine....... 50,481 73,734 2,691 1,311 ...... .. 23,2'3 128.250 6 6 7 7 7 7 .Maryland. . . 106,168 99,986 4,767 . . . . . . .. 6,182 . . . . . . .. 210,921 8 . . .. 8 . . .. 8 .... 8 . . .. 8 . . .. 7 .... Mass... . . . . .. 151,855 183,892 8,701 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32,037 344,448 . . . . 14 . . . 14 . . . . 13 . . . . 13 . 13 . 12 Michigan . . . 213,469 236,387 20,942 4,555 . . . . . . . . 22,918 476,273 . . . . 13 . . . . 13 . . . . 11 . . . . 11 - 11 . 8 Minnesota. . 104,385 142,492 15,311 1,094 . . . . . . . . 38,107 263,306 . . . . 7 . . . . 7 5 5 . 5 . 4 .Mississippi.. 85,471 30,096 218 22 55,375 . . . . . . .. 115,807 9 . . 9 . 8 . . . 8 . . . . 8 . . . . . Missouri. . . . 261,974 236,257 4,539 18,632 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523,198 16 16 15 . . . . 15 . 6 . . . . . 11 .Nebraska . . . 80,552 108,425 9,429 4,226 25,717 27,873 202,603 . . . . 5 . . . , 5 . . . 3 . . . . 3 3 3 Nevada . . . .. 5,326 7,229 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,903 12,596 .... 3 3 3 .... .... 3 3 3 Eblew Hamp.. 43,382 45,724 1,566 13 . . . . . . . . 2,342 90,730 .. .. 4 . . . . 4 . . .. 5 . . . 5 5 5 New Jersey. 151,493 144,344 7,904 . . . . . . .. 7,149 . . . . . . .. 303,471 9 .. .. 9 .... 9 .. .. 9 .... 9 7 . . . . New York... 635,757 648,759 30,231 626 . . . . . . . . 13,002 1,320,109 .. .. 36 36 .... .. .. 35 35 . . .. 35 33 .. .. N. Carolina. 147,902 134,784 2,789 47 13,118 . . . . . . . . 285,512 11 . . . . 11 . . . . 10 . . . . 10 . . . . 10 . 9 ,R?,',""""jjj “ £8’888 Ahmedabad .... .. “ 127,021 $3211.: ----------- --1§§8 1.23.322 Ib&d€tIl “ 50,000 I)a’uti1lg_.fI.l'HH N 120,000 S1I1‘&l) . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 113,4-17 IC]-Otto ' . ' ‘ I ' ' ‘ ' ' ' " “ 2-:‘,_g0 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' “ . - . . I . . l H . . . - . - - - - - “ I ' ‘ . I . I _ I ' ' “ KRDGDC . . . . . . . . . .. “ 50,000 VictO1.ia . . O I I ' H u 120.000 HO\V1'& . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 105,200 I_1-a’kO'd&'t'e' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' " “ 52‘693 l§'IO1‘OOCO . . . . . . . . .. “ 50,000 cs 100,000 B€tl‘Od€t . . . . . . . . . .. “ 101,818 Kallaaaza ' . ' ' ' ' ' " “ 961,52 09b0m0Sch0----- “ 50,000 Hu,;che,°,_',',',"‘j;_ .. 1001,00 Meerut ......... .. ‘- 99,505 H,1.OS*i1,m,i ------ -' ,, 843,3 Salaga . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 50,000 Shaklung ___________ __ iO0:0OQ 1O(:)r1"C . . . . . - .. Y()1(Oll9,ll19.‘.......‘.'.‘... “ 1191753 ‘ 0- J 7 . . . - . . - -.... , ; _, _, “ ASIL l‘$9$??f.9'.'.'.'::::: “ 1383888 Tr1ch1nopo1y-.--- ;; 89849 ..é,‘e?.19t1f“.‘"?:1';'; -- .. gg»g¥;; Afghanistan. 1Yluentschueng ggigglvur - ' - ' ' ' " ,, Kove.1i . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 1153954 'a O . . . . . . . . . . . .. ., - - - - ' - - ' - - ' "‘ Pi’ - ‘ _ _ _ _ _ _ __“ Cabul . . . . . . . . . . . ..Est. 60,000 H,,fftsC11ung-fu__ “ 80 000 Gm - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - -~ ‘ /6,§_)l5 r¥g%:,1,’1§,9u1m?’H “ Chulum . . . . . . . . . .. “ 60,000 Jiugtse _ _ _ ' _ _ _ _ _ H “ 80’000 Jubbulpore . . . . .. “ 75,/05 Ku~mam('){_IO ‘ ' ' ' " ,, 523% Maimene . . . . . . . . .. “ Liaovang . _ _ _ _ _ _ __ “ Ind-Qre - - - - - - - ~ - - -- “ Fukuoka _ ‘ ‘ . . I H H Herat . . . . . . . . . . . .. “ 60,000 TSch‘inting-fu “ 75’000 Shajehanpore.... “ 74,530 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " ’ I§“ra’ng_t,Sc]_-lung- , RRHIPIIT . . . . . . . - .. “ Pe,),s.£a- Ambim Z6 . . . . . . . . “ 70 000 1\'Ifi50 Wiesbade1'1' "" " . 51,055 P61‘11crj& """""" ~ “ 53.924 Br kl P 1-a’13a-~ “ 1.044804 ‘Maria-T 75,000 G“ -. ---- -- ‘ 50238 B *-° ------- -- “ 1-~ . 9° 711-55.... “ 80’ _ eres1op_ Orlltz . . . , ,_ “ ..’ egg1o..,_ .. D -004 Chicago 111 ,, 4-377 . . . . . _ _ H “ “ - - - - . . ._ ’ Boston “ .eCZ1I1 _ _ _ _ H n a_ - ... , St Lolxfi . . . . . . #177 - “ 52,013 Gl~eatB I - _ 115. . . . . ._ “ - . . t 1’ _ ' Balm - \ gfi-240 HOd_Mez0VaSar_ 53,000 London rz am and Ireland, Lisbon. . ls Cincin1;101}1%,l€) . ég-2,5247 Pres '5 """"" -- “ 50,956 Liver "1 """" "1890 *4,4‘31,661 Oporto....'.'III"' Z8 245373 Sim Francisco.cai. ‘~ 9 9°09 S urg . . . . . .. “ 50 735 Glascpoo - - - - - . .. “ - 613 453 105,858 -\6W Orleans La, h "9"990 ‘ ’ l3i1~m°-OWE1 - - . . _ - -. “ .53()’2()g R ,. Cleveland, 0’. " “ 2451.992 Belgium Ma\1c11;i1egs.,-§?“"" “ 461365 0W'ama' r1i>,1t,l-Ffsburghi P5." “ g9§’ii6 . “ _ - I . . A3 ' ‘ “"9,” B h ,_ u alo.l\.Y.._ .. °’ 3 Antwer igéigsrd . . . . . . . . .. “ ';.;2:5J§3g’; .T.s1.1scsv£jL_1'eSt ----- ..l8‘f9 221,000 Washington, D_ '(j' “ 25‘*=‘15' Brusselg """ "H590 221,360 Shefieid """" " “ 863 799 Galatz """"" " .. 90.000 Bewark, ' .. 228-160 Ghent ............ " “c 4,’7.7’398 Dublin _________ " ' “'7 . I . . . ‘ . ' ' ' “ 80000 %0mSVm-e’ KYJII ““ ii1eg§'-"""-'-1'-' “ 4Zg’i§% lfid-inburgh'-I-i-‘-'-7 “ R”'8Si“‘- Dei§ts1~Ei>:vitC1§[‘}’C§'J-- “ 1683987 ec 1111 . - - - . . , ,_ “ - - - - . . . . . .. “ st.PeteI_sbur Mi1W_au,kee,W-iis-_" sc Cristol . . . . . . . . .. “ 208;l12 MOSCOW g~---1%:-90 1,003,315 P1'ov1dence,R, 1" ., 24,150 Denmark Nottin - . . . _ , __ 5, 232 248 Xvarsaw - - - - - - - - . -. “ 753569 Albany, N. Y“ -- “ 102,099 C ' 1‘... """ " “ Y?-1 “ .,- . M -- - ----- ~— ‘.1 1 . ~~ 525 ~ eras-..,<. ----- ~ 1§.nd1gan%i>%’1i?'1'n'a' 1 an - - . . . . , _ _ _ _ _ H. “ q H . 7 -...,._ b n ‘ .‘ - Frcmce. 1§Ttec"\1‘Vfe ‘2n'Tre11t... “ §§§Q£<>% ' ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ‘ " 11987 N$i1}1ii§$g5.‘c3;"" it $9,838 . Gate(;81:1b=t1(e1"'---... “ 115559 Kharkofir ----- -- lb-88 125.110 L9we11.Mas's.. -1 59981 Paris . . . . . . . . .. 188 Dund L8‘ “ 65’3()P-; Kasan ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ° " 1883 183,469 “ 01'C‘este1-_ ]§1aq'9'," .. ‘H6911 Lyons . . - . . . . , ' " H 2259.023 Weht ee . . . . . . . . . .. “ 140,232) Yilna ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ‘ ‘ ' ' " W 132.208 Kansas Citv M0" cc 84,655 Marseilles “ 576,613 P H8-V€n . . _ . __ u 1981399 -,\—ikO‘1"-"1 ' ' - - - - - -- “ 39.636 Trov, N Y ' ’ " “ 182.416 Bplrdemlx ''''''''''' H “ 33f’§39 th"""' “ 112.955 ;I‘f1°“1n£i'1c?; """" " 1‘. 66,335 Ctlrilbriiigé-i\i£1's's" “ 68’605 .' ‘ I-- ‘‘ -‘ ‘ _ h‘ D ‘ ' - - - - . .. ‘‘ s>''' " Q 1 7 I ’-Q‘ Téé<1B(.)i1.s.e. . . . . . . .. “ 1733142 Sl1C111l(11e1‘1and"""‘ ., {Illa . . _ _ . . . . _ __ u '%33oll‘1‘1‘i]111]b)4.‘;'3§Q At1§nt)aO(§é, ' ' ' ' I: 82,652 Havre . . - I - . . - . . - . . “ qeen . . . _ . _ . _ . K QiIn1‘f]111' . . . . . . . . . . . _ “ CharleS:C‘On -S. .-(3-.. “ Rhei1ns.._,'_'''''° “ 109,867 1>1~"1f'1*b\11‘11------.. “ 1‘>3’55-3 D1inae‘gOp01"""" “ °‘~’»535 Davtoll O ’ ' " M 54‘’592 Roubaix....IIIII -‘ Noerb\:r(i)(i,11i""""~-- “ 155."1<>.§ San1ar§urg""'"- If 52.251 Deiwerl (>£>'1'.'.'.'._' " 5 S3868 Jléglggps . . . . . . . . .. " 74’i% Bi1‘kenhé;-fl"""‘ l?)‘—-535° Re"a1~-Z ......... "R81 96,243 llb)-Aefn§1Oi.1111eS, Ia..'.'. “ . . . . . . . . . ._ “ 0 ~- -‘.119 “ 0,855 ' SW e._.I d.. * ‘-"' ']l3‘,(l).u,1On ' ' ' ‘ - - - ' -- “ Hiléiégrsfiéifi‘ 1137.012 S]Ju1'7z 135111 Ri".e1', Mlilssf :‘ Anewbetrs "" “ 691110 Qerbv. . ...'.' I " 5 1343.93 , . ' I%a(}-t]f{(§1P(idS’ Mich. “ 1';-iii?‘ N_i<§’e ,,,,, " I: 68,049 (éggkd ............ __ “ i3I§*f§e11<1 ......... .,1cs7 472.2% Lincol111.l\’(<-§l2nn"' 1: 03.152 ‘ ‘ . . “ _y 011 ‘ ' - - - - . . . . “ - - - . . _ _ - .. i‘ I408 'C' ' - - . ‘ u 22’??? “ 78780 Sevilrluena ' ' ' . . ' ' ‘ ‘ " “ 171563 l\J1nm‘fia‘SSH alu J @9334 enne . _ , _ . . ‘~ $00‘-1 - 7 - - - . . _ ,_ “ -,‘ D ' ' ' ‘ - - - - - . . ,. “ 14?‘ C, e 11‘k . . ' ' ' ' " ‘ 00,- F gi-1ea.nSs...__.1‘_" 3 (559.33: §§§1,fggCk ------- H “ iiiiiii --------- -- J; 1:-i.<1>Bi lyliiiliii-.11§"1,-rfe§f;‘,-,-Ii .1 12335:; ll 7;‘ ' ' ‘ ‘ ' ' - -- “ "3" I ., . . - . ' ' ‘ ' ‘ ' ' ‘ 9:‘ 5?g 7 »-11 7‘ M‘ - Y’-n Monébce(ll1i'e'1-UH" 57,067 §°.°hd“'1e ' ' ' ' ' - - -' “ (Sail-1;f’g°5S“ ‘ ' ‘ ' ‘ - - - -- “ lO1§1q111;;1 §"erlI)enn"' 2‘ 7"éO2 hon . . . - . . . . . .. “ 50,005 sgafilsea ........ __ c 653”; Carp? as ......... .. “ R006 Readm~g_pq ..... .. 3 130,526 %e Mans...lI “ Std1cl:a2>1i~t)tOn""‘ “ 60051 Cadizaben8"""'" I‘ 84171 §t-J0Sei>h.‘i\io'''' “ 237225 Ours _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ' " do H. p . . . . . . . ,_ u =.__n - - . . . . . . _ . _ _ __ ~ 62$; gt P - . 7k11 '5-;°u1'@o1ng.-I111" if §§;2,gg if i'7%11it%51'i5 ------- ~ W N53?-“"" Its I‘(%110b1e _ _ _ _ _ _ . ,0. . - - . . . . . , _ , _ “ 5q‘,- ' - - - . . . ‘ 62.018 by-rac ~ T '; - - - - 3’ 58 Versailles . ‘ _ -- Z“ _ 51,071 El‘/. Helens . . . . . _ _ _ ‘g 8 - . . . . . _ . . . . . “ 55:61,; T1‘entg1Ql£j Nb :9 - - .. 87.871 - . .. , _ _ . “ D6>q7g Iiorecbade 13: FTOtGIS “ --D. . " N _ mwlch . . . . . . _, “ 563 t Bil -, . . . . . . . . . . .. ‘f 58,327 Portland Or’ 6 " ,, 51,437 Gama -I1_dd1esb0rOu,,h .. Y Q3 bu-0 . . . . . . _ _ _ . _ __ 5 50 W0 , e . . . . __ 69 25‘ M‘ gyadtsleciy . . . , _ _ _ L‘ “ Q d ’/Id SOUTH ADIEBICA ’ Berli . 5 Ta, Yfodwo-,___ “ _ ’ 0“ ‘-106 rm and _N0-7--L D . _ ' Ha‘n1]1;1m;é:::.....1§§5 1,316,382 ifiston Llano,-f’_, _ __ .. qtockh my Igiloe 1ale Jane1ro. . . .1885 357 3..., Breslau ' _ . . . . . . . . “ 2895859 Nlllgl.1 . . . . . . _ - . . . _ _ c 59521., tCh]_iSt_01I‘I1 . . . . . . . .1889 5243.500 131111 0 Alres . . . . . .1890 356-1361 Munich‘ “ 298,898 Or ampton..._ “ 5*’ O , Mina . _ _ . . . ..1886 130 ()0~ PM a . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1884 1-10’ Dresden . . . .. 280 023 Bath . . . . . . . . _ _ ,, 1.811 Gothenburg . . . . . ._1SS9 102~r_E‘1 Wcmambuco.. . . , .. G ,000 Lei ;>z‘<>- ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' “ 245,550 Ipswich . . _ _ ' ' " it 51314 “L2 Lurdobii - - ' - ~ H18 " 1'?Q’O00 Ko1l1i1°b ------ .. “ 1700/0 *Registrati'on-1)‘-<1; - 50,546 Szuit:c1'Zand Rosmio ---------- " 5?’ ‘M00 ‘C010 gs erg . . , _ . _ n 149,009 lb I‘lCt_ " . " L21. P18.‘f-ll. . . . . . l ‘ . . “ 55,000 Fran f(em ...... .. :2 1441722 Netlzmands %I11‘1Ch ........... ..1sss 90 008 §‘,a1i1t1'a,gq ____________ -1885 .H&nO\'er..::::::: “ 1§3,7(-35 Amsterdam 13 . lggéleelva ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ‘ ' " 71’-807 Lf“mpa,m'a'lSO"""--- “ 105.008 %t11ttga1‘t . . . . . . ._ “ l?z7,9I2 Rotterda1n.:..“H 30 4O§»316 ‘ ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ° ' ' ' ' " 69,809 hlonteyid I ' ' ' ' ' ' "1876 101388 femen . . . . . . . “ 10g’3<91 The Hague ......... " “ 20°37? Turks Quito... eo ' ‘ ' ' ' “1S§7 13‘1*34O ...1 Utrecht...,,___u'_ 11- 1,,,P&z__-‘-_-_ ------- ..1s 50,000 , 5 Constantinople 1335 -s - .- Bogota . . . . ' ' ' ' ' “E 90 56.849 875.560 Cmncas _ _ - » - - - . .. st. 50,000 ... .1888 70.455 1258 POPULATION As AFFECTED BY DEATH-RATEs.—-The comparative average death rates per 1,000 inhabit- ants in various countries, as tabulated by Mulhall from the official reports of those countries for twenty years, closing with 1880, were as follows: Twenty 1861-70. 1071-80. \ Years. England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22'6 21'3 21.9 Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 218 21.9 Ireland. . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . 168 183 17.5 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . 21'4 21'0 21.2 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 243 23'6 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27'1 271 271 Austria proper . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 312 30'8 Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 401 38'9 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30'1 29'7 29'9 Spam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 297 29'7 Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22'8 / 22'6 22'7 Holland ................... . . 24-9 243 24'6 Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 193 197 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 184 192 Switzerland . . . . . .7. . . . . . . . . . 24'0 240 240 Where the same rate is quoted above in both dec- ades it means that the rate previous to 1870 is only an estimate. PORCHER, FRANCIS PEYRE, an American physi- cian and author, born in South Carolina in 1825. He graduated at Columbia and at Charleston; assist- ed in the production of the “Medical Journal and Review ;” and is the author of works on therapeu- tic microscopy and of Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, Medical, Economical, and .4gm'cultural. PORK. See SWINE in Britannica, Vol. XXII, pp. 772-776, and also in these Revisions and Additions. PORPHYRIUS, one of that series of ancient phil- ' osophers to whom is due the reformation of the Greek philosophy known as Neo-Platonism, prob- ably born at Batanea in Syria (the Bashan of Scripture) A. D. 233/ His original name was Mal- chus, the Greek form of the Syro-Phoenecian Me- lech, or king. The name by which he is known in history, Porphy/m'us,“one clad in purple,” is but a Greek epithet intended as a sort of paraphrase of his name. He is said by Socrates, the historian, and by St. Augustine, to have been originally a Christian, but this seems improbable. It was at Rome that he entered upon what must be regarded as, historically considered, the career of his life. Here he became ascholar of Neo-Platonist Plo- tinus, with whom he entered into an animated con- troversy, but eventually adopted so fully the opin- ions of Plotinus, that he became himself, if not the leader of the school, at least the most trusted of the disciples of its master. After six years’ residence in Rome he went to Sicily, where he wrote his once celebrated treatise in fifteen books against the Christians. Porphyrius was a very voluminous writer. Of his works, the titles of more than sixty are preserved, forty-three of which are entirely 1OSu- PORTAGE, a city, the county-seat of Columbia county, Wis., on the Wisconsin River and on Fox River, thirty miles north of Madison. It is an im- portant manufacturing town and center of trade. Population in 1890, 5,130. PORTAGE DES SIOUX, a village of Missouri, on the Mississippi, thirty miles above St. Louis. PORT BYRON, a village of New York, ten miles north of Auburn. It contains an academy and manufactories of paper and barrels. PORT CARBON, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the Schuylkill, four miles northeast of Pottsville. It is engaged in coal-mining and in the manufac- ture of iron. PORCHER—PORTER PORT CHESTER, a village of New York, on Long Island Sound, twenty-five miles northeast of New York. It contains an academy and several foundries, factories and mills. Population in 1890, 5,538. ~ PORT CLINTON, a village, the county-seat of Ottawa county, Ohio, at the mouth of Portage River, on Lake Erie, fourteen miles west of San dusky. It has a good harbor and contains several mills. \ PORT CLINTON, a borough of Pennsylvania, on the Schuylkill and Little Schuylkill rivers, twenty miles north of Reading, is a center of manufacture and local trade. . PORT DEPOSIT, a village of Maryland, near the mouth of the Susquehanna, forty miles east of Baltimore. It is an important lumber-shipping \and granite-quarrying place. ORTE, SUBLIME PORTE, or OTTOMAN Ponrn the name, given to the Turkish government. The origin of this name is to be referred to the ancient Oriental custom of making the gates of cities and of king’s palaces places of assembly in connection with the affairs of government and of the adminis- tration of justice. - PORTER, ANDREW, a Revolutionary soldier, born in Pennsylvania in 1743, died in 1813. He rendered good service throughout the war; rose to the rank of major-general of State militia; and became sur- veyor-general of_ the State in 1809. Of three sons who occupied high political positions, DAVID RIT- TENHOUSE PORTER (1788-1867), was governor of Pennsylvania (1839-1845); GEORGE BRYAN PORTER (1791-1834) was governor of Michigan ; and JAMES l\’IAn1soN PORTER (1793-1862), was a distinguished jurist. HORACE PORTER, son of David R., born in 1837. He graduated at West Point; was an eflicient chief of ordnance in the civil war ; was on General Gran t’s staff, and was military secretary to President Grant; is interested in railroad operations, and is manager of the Pullman Palace Car Com- pany. PORTER, DAvIn, a distinguished commodore of the United States Navy, known in history as the gallant commander of the 32-gun frigate Essex, born in Massachusetts in 1780, died near Constan- tinople in 1843. His grandfather and father, who were sea-captains, had both rendered valuable services to the Revolutionary cause. He entered the navy in 1798, and served with great distinction throughout his life. His son, Commodore VVILLIAM DAVID PORTER (1809-1864), was distinguished as the builder and commander of the iron-clad Essex and as the destroyer of the Confederate ram Arkansas, near Baton Rouge, in 1862. Another son, ADMIRAL DAVID DIxoN PORTER (1813-1891) was in the Mexi- can navy during the Spanish-Mexican war; entered the United States Navy in 1829; served during the Mexican war; was widely known during the civil war as commander of the famous mortar fleet which acted against the Confederate strongholds on the Mississippi; be- came rear-admiral in 1862, vice-admiral in 1866 and admiral in 1870. \ PORTER, Frrz-JOHN, an American military commander, a nephew of Commodore David Porter and cousin of Commodore William David and Admiral David Dixon Porter, born in New Hampshire in 1822. He graduated at West Point; served throughout the Mexican war, in which he was wounded; was instructor at West Point; be- came major-general of volunteers in 1862; was charged with having disobeyed orders, and cash- iered in 1863; made numerous appeals for redress during many years; the sentence was partially re- mitted in 1882, and he was fully restored in 1886; 4PORTER—PORTUGAL withdrew from the army; and was police commis- sioner in New York from 1884 to 1888. ' PORTER, NOAH, an American metaphysician, president of Yale College, born in 1811, at Far- mington, Conn., where his father was minister about sixty _years. He succeeded President Wool- sey of Yale in 1871, and resigned in 1886. Died 1892. PORTER, PETER BUEL, a soldier of the war of 1812-14, born in Connecticut in 1773, died in 1844. He was distinguished for bravery in the operations in Western New York and across the Niagara River. He fought at Chippewa, and led the volun- teers at Lundy’s Lane and at Fort Erie; he was twice in Congress; and became Secretary of VVar in 1828. His grandson, PETER AUGUSTUS PORTER, was born at Black Rock in 1827; was a member of the New York legislature; colonel in the civil war; and was killed at Cold Harbor in 1864. . PORT EWEN, a village of New York, on the right bank of the Hudson, four miles below Kings- tgn. Ilt is an important point for the transhipment 0 coa . PORT HENRY, a village of New York, on Lake Champlain, forty miles north of Whitehall. It has valuable iron-mines and-several furnaces. Popula- tion inl890, 2,436. PORT HOPE, a town, the county-seat of Dur- ham county, Ontario, and a port of entry, on Lake Ontario, sixty miles east of Toronto. It has a fine harbor, and is an important manufacturing town gnd center of trade. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 28. - PORT HURON, a city, the county-seat of St. Clair county, Mich. Population in 1890, 13,519. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 528. ' PORT JEFFERSON, a village of New York, on Long Island and Long Island Sound, about sixty miles east of New York City. It is engaged in shipbuilding. PORT J ERVIS, a village of New York. Pop- ulation in 1890, 9,327. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 528. ' PORTLAND, a village of Connecticut, on the Connecticut River, opposite Middletown. It is en- gaged in the quarrying of red sand-stone and in manufacturing. PORTLAND, a village, the county-seat of Jay county, Ind., on Salamonie River, thirty miles northeast of Muncie. PORTLAND, a city, the county-seat of Cumber- 1and.county, Me. Population in 1890, 36,608. See Britannica,Vol. XIX, p. 528. PORTLAND, a village of Michigan, on the Grand River, about twenty-five miles west of Lansing. It has an abundant water-power and produces a var- iety of manufactures, including sash, blinds and woolen goods. PORTLAND, a city, the county-seat of Multno- mah county, Oregon. Population in 1890, 47,294. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 529. PORTLAND, a town of New Brunswick, adjoin- ing St. John. It contains several foundries, saw- mills, and ship-yards. Plumbago and sulphate of barytes are found in the vicinity. PORT ORCHARD, located on Puget Sound, and the place selected by a Congressional Commission for the construction of a dry dock. The selection was approved by President Harrison, Dec. 23, 1890. As a strategic point in time of war the commission holds that Puget Sound is an important place and one that can be easily defended. Regarding the feasibility of Port Orchard for a dry dock, the re- port states that it has a depth of fourteen fathoms of water, and is in other respects the most desirable place for a dry dock on the Pacific. The commis- sioners estimate that the land required for the 1259 dock (about 307 acres) could be purchased for $37,- 000 PORTREEVE, the principal magistrate in a mar- itime town. This was the early name of the oflicer afterwards called mayor in London and elsewhere. PORT RICHMOND, a village of New York, on the north shore of Staten Island, about nine miles from NewYork. It contains important manufac- tories of white lead, linseed oil, and brick. PORTSMOUTH, a city, the county-seat of Rock- ingham county, N. H. Population in 1890, 9,827. See Britannica, Vol. XIX., p. 535. PORTSMOUTH, a city, the county-seat of Scioto county, Ohio. Population in 1890, 12,387. See Bri- tannica. Vol. XIX., p. 535. . PORTSMOUTH, a city of Virginia, on the Eliza- beth River, about a mile southwest of Norfolk. Population in 1890, 12,345. See Britannica, Vol. XIX., p. 535. PORTUGAL, Kmenom or. For general article on PORTUGAL, see Britannica, Vol. XIX., pp. 536-558. The latest published ocial estimates of the area and population are those of 1881, as follows, by pro- vinces and districts. Provinces and Districts. sétrglahigso POp1u818%fi’n Entre Minh-e-Douro :- Vianna do Castello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867 211,539 Braga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,058 336,248 Porto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 466.981 Tras-os-Montes :— ' 2,807 1,014,768 Villa Real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.718 225,090 Braganza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 171 ,586 B eh, & :_ 2,293 396,676 Aveiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.124 270,266 Vizeu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,920 387,208 Coimbra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500 307,426 Guarda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,146 234,368 Castello Bronco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,558 178,164 Estremadum:_ 9,248 1.377.432 Leiria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,343 199,645 Santarem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,651 227,943 L1SbOIl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,882 518,884 A1 em, 83- 0 :_ 6,876 946,472 Portalegro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,484 105,247 Evora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,738 112,735 Beja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,209 149.187 9,431 367,169 Algarve (Faro) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,873 204,037 Total Continent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32,528 4,306,554 Islands :— Azores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,005 269,401 Madeira (Funchal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 132,223 Total Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,510 401,624 Grand total population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,038 4,708,178 REIGNING KING AND ROYAL FAMILY.—G&1‘1OS I., born Sept. 28, 1863, son of King Luis I. and his Queen Pia, daughter of the late King Vittorio Emanuele of Italy, who still survives; married May 22,1886, Marie Amalie, daughter of Philippe Duc d’Orléans, Comte de Paris; succeeded to the throne Oct. 19, 1889. Clz.iZd7'e'n. of the King.—1. Louis Philippe, Duke of Braganza, born March 21,1886. 2. Manuel, born Nov. 15, 1889. B/r0t7z.e7~ of the King.—Prince Afionso, Duke of Oporto, born July 31, 1865. Aunt and Uncle of the K-z'ng.——I. Princess Antonia, born Feb. 17, 1845; married Sept. 12, 1861, to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, born Sept. 1260 22,1835. Offspring of the union are three sons:— 1. Prince WVilhelm, born March 7,1864. 2. Prince Ferdinand, born Aug. 24, 1865. 3. Prince Karl, born Sept. 1, 1868. II. Prince Augustus, Duke of Coim- bra, born Nov. 4, 18-17. Carlos I. has a civil list of 365,000 milreis*; while his consort has a grant of 60,000 milreis. The whole grants to the royal family amount to 571,000 mil- reis. For two centuries the members of the line of Braganza kept up the ancient blood alliances with the reigning house of Spain; but the custom was broken through by the late Queen Maria II., who, by a union with a Prince of Coburg, entered the great family of Teutonic sovereigns. Carlos I. is the third sovereign of Portugal of the line of Bra- ganza-Coburg (see Britannica). CONSTITUTION AND GovERN.\rENT.——Tl1e crown is hereditary in the female as well as male line; but with preference of the male in case of equal birth- right. The constitution recognizes four powers in the state, the legislative, the executive, the judic- ial, and the “moderating” authority, the last of which is vested in the sovereign. There are two chambers, the “Camara dos Pares,” or House of peers, and the “Camera dos Deputados,” or house of commons, which are conjunctively called the cortes. The law of July 24, 1885, abolishes hered- itary peerages, though only by a very gradual process. The number of life peers appointed by the king will be 100, npt including princes of the royal blood and the 12 bishops of the continental dioceses. Until such time as the life peers are re- duced to 100 in number, the king can only appoint 1 peer for every 3 vacancies that take place. Peers living at the time when the law was passed, and their immediate successors, will continue to enjoy the right of sitting in the chamber of peers. There will be 50 elective peers, who must be chosen from one of the classes from which the king, under the law of May 3, 1878, may select life peers. They must possess certain property qualifications, and be over 35 years of age. Five of these peers mentioned above are to be chosen indirectly by the University Coimbra and certain other Portuguese scientific bodies. The delegates to meet at Lisbon. The remaining 45 peers will likewise be chosen indirect- ly by the different administrative districts. The delegates for Lisbon will return 4 peers; those for Cporto, 3; those for the other districts, 2 each. The members of the second chamber are chosen in di- rect election, by all citizens twenty-one years of age who can read or write possessing a clear annual income of 100 milreis, and by heads of families; electors must register themselves. The deputies must have an income of at least 390mi1reis per an- num; but lawyers, professors, physicians, or the graduates of any of the learned professions, need no property qualification. Continental Portugal is divided into ninety-four electoral districts, which with Madeira and the Azores,.return 1-10 deputies, or 1 deputy to 30,540 people. Each deputy has a remuneration of about 2 % milreis a day during the session. The annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections must take place at the end of every four years. In case of dissolution a new parliament must be called together imme- diately. The general cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without the intervention of the sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law passed twice by both houses. The executive authority rests, under the sover- eign, in a responsible cabinet, divided into seven “ 41/2 milreis equal £1 or $5. PORTUGAL departments, in charge of the ministries. The sov- ereign is permitted, in important cases, to take the advice of a council of state, or privy council, con- sisting, when full, of thirteen ordinary and three extraordinary members nominated for life. RECENT GOVERNMENT Conrnovnnsms. —— During the year, 1890, grave differences arose between the Portuguese and British governments. On J an. 12, certain diplomatic negotiations relating to the Af- rican disputes, which had been in progress for some months without result, were brought to a head by a British government dispatch embracing substantially an ultimatum to Portugal, insisting upon an immediate and unequivocal acceptance of the British demands. This ultimatum was accepted, but under protest, by the Portuguese government. By the people at Lisbon, and in other parts of the country indescribable animosity was displayed against England in consequence. The British con- sulate was stormed by mobs, and all the newspa- pers were filled with the bitterest denunciation of all things English. The cabinet bent before the storm, and resigned, to be succeeded bya new min- istry with Senhor Serpa Pimental as premier and minister of foreign affairs. In March another subject of dispute arose in connection with the seizure of the Delago Bay Railway by the Portu- guese authorities at Mozambique, £28,000 being ul- timately paid (Aug. 8) as indemnity to the British government on this account. In April the complete failure was recorded of an attempt to float aPortu- guese loan at Paris. In August a convention was concluded between Great Britain and Portugal respecting the delimitation of their territories in Africa, but was received with such determined hos- tility by the press and in parliament that another resignation of the ministry resulted (Sept. 17). The utmost difiiculty was experienced in forming another government, but ultimately a coalition ministry was formed, with General D’Abreu-e-Sou- za, a progressist, as president and minister of war, the new cabinet appearing before the cortes on Oct.15, when it was announced that the govern- ment would do all in its power to obtain such modi- fications in the convention as would enable the parliament to consent to its ratification. The Port- uguese authorities at Quilimane (Nov.) seized the British ship James Sfmenson when in ballast, ran her ashore, and imprisoned the crew, on the ground that when in Portuguese waters she did not stop when called on to have her papers examined. It was announced \9th) that Great Britain agreed to the modus m‘/vendz’ suggested by Portu ~al\ during the consideration of a new treaty, by w llCl1 it is ar- ranged that neither she nor the South African Company will make any treaties of vassalage with any African chiefs in the territories which, by the convention of Aug. 20th, were acknowledged to be Portuguese territory ; and that the treaty with l\lu- tassa and others made since that date shall be an- nulled, Portugal agrees to open the Zambesi and Shiré to free navigation by all nations, and concedes transitfacilities for passengers and postal service. Both governments entirely reverse all their rights to negotiate a later final treaty. The present ar- rangement is valid for six months. A patriotic battalion of 200 men left Rio de Ja- neiro (11th) to defend the Portugese colonies in Africa, but the Portugese government did not know where to place them. An agreement which will form a modus m'vendi, was signed on Nov. 14th in London by Lord Salisbury and the Portugese minister, to the following effect: “The undersigned, duly authorized to that effect b their respective governments, have agreed as follows: 1) The government of his Most Faithful Maaesty the King of Portu- PORTVILLE-APOST -gal and the Algarves engages to decree at once the freedom of navigation of the Zambesi and of t e Shiré. (2) The gov- ernment of his Moat Faithful Majesty the King of Portugal and the Algarves engages to permit and to facilitate trans1t over the waterways of the Zambesi, the Shire and the Pun.- gné, and also over the landways which supply means of com- munication where those rivers are not navigable. (3) The government of his Most Faithful Majesty the King of Portu- gal and the Algarves further agrees to facilitate communica- tions between the Portuguese ports on the coast and the ter- ritories included in the sphere of action of Great Britain, es- pecially as regards the establishment of postal and tele- graphic communications, and as regards the transport ser- vice. (4 The government of Her Majesty the Queen of the United ingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the gov- ernment of his Most Faithful Majesty the King of Portugal and the Algarves engage to recognize the territorial limits indicated in the convention of Aug.20, 1890, in so far that, from the date of the present agreement to the termination there- of, neither power will make treaties, accept protectorates, or exercise any act of sovereignty within the s heres of in- fluenoe assigned to the other party by the sai convention. But neither power will thereby be held to prejudge any ques- tion whatever which may arise as to the said territorial limits in the course of the ulterior negotiations. (5) The present agreement shall come into operation from the date of itssig- nature, and shall remain in force for a period of six months. Done at London, the 14th day of NO\'en1b€I',1890.-—--SALISBITRY. Lurz DE Sovnaan” Such was the general status of the Anglo-Portu- .guese controversy at the close of this record. MovE.\IE.\"r on POPULATION.—ThC yearly emigra- tion from Portugal to Africa, America and Ocean- ia and the total to all countries from 1882 to 1888, inclusive, is shown by the following table: Years. Africa. America. Oceania. Total 1882 479 17,732 . . 18,272 1883 438 17,850 956 19,226 1884 587 15,343 1,581 17 ,518 1885 858 11.853 4.24 15,004 1886 270 13,039 426 13,998 1887 422 15,803 292 16,923 1888 656 22,952 5 23,981 FINANCE. The budget estimates for the fiscal year ending in 1891 were: Total revenue, 40,962,694 milreis; total expenditures (ordinary) 42,861,117 milreis. In addition there arose an extraordinary -expenditure of 2,506,500 milreis. The national debt reached a total of 533,316,612 milreis. The quota of the funded debt to each in- habitant was about $120. DEFENSE. The fortified places of Portugal in 1891 were in state of decay. They were Elvas, J erumenha, Campo Mayor, Marvao, Peniche, Non- sando, Almeida, and the forts of Lisbon; there are several naval harbors. The army of the kingdom is formed partly by conscription and partly by voluntary enlistment. Its organization is based on the law of June 23, 1261 1864, modified by subsequent laws in 1868, 1869, 1875, 1877, 1884, and 1885. All young men of twen- ty-one years of age, with certain exceptions, are obliged to serve. The effective is fixed annually by the Cortes. By the law of 1884 the army con- sists of twenty-four regiments of in."antry.twelve regiments of chasseurs, ten regiments of cavalry, three regiments of mounted artillery, one brigade of mounted artillery, one regiment and four com- panies of garrison artillery, and one regiment of engineers. The duration of service is twelve years, three with the active army, five in the first, and four in the second reserve. The strength of the army was in 1889, 33,294 men of all ranks, including municipal and reserve guards. There were 4,034 horses and mules. The war effective is about 150,000 men, 12.690 horses and mules, and 264 guns. There are maintained in the colonies 8,880 officers and men, besides native troops. The navy in 1890, consisted of one ironclad (of seven guns); six covettes (42 guns); 24 gunboats (65 guns); two transports, and four torpedo boats. The navy was ofiicered by two vice admirals, five rear-admirals; 41 captains; 35 lieutenant-captains, etc., etc., and a total of 3,600 men. Couunnon, Snrrrrxe AND INTERNAL COMMUNICA- TION. Imports in 1889, 47,981,438 milreis; exports, 32,955,776 milreis. The imports from the United States in 1888 amounted to 4,483,784 milreis, and the exports to the United States amounted to 553,606 milreis. IVine was the chief export. The commercial navy of Portugal consisted, on January 1,1890, of 457 vessels of 60,214 tons, in- cluding 57 steamers of 30,512 tons. Including coasters and vessels calling at differ- ent ports, there entered the ports of Portugal, the Azores, and Madeira in 1889, 2,737 sailing vessels of 441,518 tons and 3,823 steamers of 4,610 340 tons; there cleared 2,903 sailing vessels of 435,639 tons, and 3,802 steamers of 4,381,488 tons. Of the 6.560 vessels of 5,051,858 tons which entered, 566 of 219,- 382 tons (53 coasters of 64,686 tons) were Portu- guese; 2,488 of 2,836,140 tons British; 715 of 785,248 tons German; 589 of 527,137 tons French; and 1,074 of 130,898 tons Spanish. The length of railways open for trafiic in 1890 was 1,284 miles, 505 miles being state. and 779 miles being companies’ lines. At the same time 393 kilometres were under construction. All the rail- ways receive subventions from the state. PORTVILLE, a village of New York, on the Alle- gheney River, seven miles northeast of Olean. It manufactures lumber and leather. POST, THOMAS M., an American divine. and educa- tor, born in Vermont in 1810, died in 1886. He was author of The Skeptical Era in Modern History. 1262 POSTAL SERVICE OF By act of Congress approved March 3, 1883, the rate of postage on first-class matter was reduced from 3 to 2 cents a half ounce, the tariff of money- order fees was considerably lowered, and the issue of postal notes was authorized. By act of June 9, 1884, postage on transient newspapers was fixed at one cent for each four ounces. By act of March 3, 1885, the unit of weight of first-class matter was increased-the rate of post- age being fixed at two cents an ounce instead of a half ounce; the special-delivery system, herein- after described, was authorized; and the rate of postage on newspapers and periodicals was reduced to one cent a pound. By act of June 29, 1886, the fee for money-orders of less than $5 was reduced. In August, 1886. the issue of stamped letter-sheet envelopes was begun, under authority of the act of March 3, 1879. By act of J an. 3, 1887, the free-delivery system was extended to places of 10,000 population, or $10,- 000 of annual postal revenue. By an act of March 3, 1887, authority was given for the issue of postal-notes by other than money- order oflices. By act of July 24, 1888, the rate of postage on seeds, plants, bulbs, roots, scions, and cuttings was reduced from one cent an ounce to one cent for two ounces. The existing rates of postage are as follows: On letters or written or sealed matter, two cents an ounce. On postal cards, one cent each. On newspapers and periodicals mailed by pub- lishers and news-agents, one cent a pound. On books, circulars, miscellaneous printed mat- rer, and seeds, bulbs, plants, cuttings, roots and scions, one cent for each two ounces. On all other matter, one cent an ounce. All matter on official business of the Government enclosed in distinct envelopes or under lables, free. Newspapers and periodicals sent out by publish- ers to actual subscribers residing in the county of publication, free. All matter sent out by agricultural colleges and agricultural experiment stations on the subject of agriculture, free. Letters to countries of the Postal Union, five cents a half ounce. There are several branches of our postal service which deserve special description: (1) The Money- Order System was created by act of Congress ap- proved May 17,1864. It provides the public with the means of making small remittances of money by mail cheaply and safely. This is accomplished through the issue of orders by one postmaster upon another. These orders are issued upon written applications therefor, the purchaser of the order being required to deposit with his application the amount of money for which he desires the order to be made, in addition to the fee. After the order is delivered to the purchaser. he sends it to the payee. The latter obtains the amount called for in the order from the postmaster at the receiving ofiice upon presentation of the order. Money orders are limited by law to $100, the fees for amounts up to that being as follows: For an order not exceeding $5, five cents; over $5 and not over $10, eight cents; over $10 and not over $15, THE UNITED STATES ten cents; over $15 and not over $30, fifteen cents; over $30 and not over $50, twenty-five cents; over $50 and not over $60, thirty cents; over $60 and not over $70, thirty-five cents; over $70 and not over $80, forty cents; over $80 and up to $100, forty-live cents. The order is always upon adesignated post- master, and therefore can be paid by no other, and it is invalid if not presented within one year from its date. The principal security in the money order lies in the leaving out of the order the name of the payee, and in the sending by the issuing to the paying postmaster of a secret letter of advice, giving the pa.yee’s name and all the other particulars of the order, which renders it almost impossible to make a mistake in payment. If an order be lost or in- validated by improper assignment or lapse of time, or otherwise, it may be duplicated; if it be paid to the wrong person, the Government is liable to the owner. The report of the superintendent of the Money- order System for 1890 presents further evidence of the tendency shown in late years towards a de- crease of the average amount of domestic money- orders, there being an increase of nearly a half a million in the number of orders issued, but a de- crease of over $700,000 in the amount of such or- ders. This is in consonance with the true theory of the system, which is to providea means of re- mitting small sums without interfering with vested banking interests. The postal notes show an in- crease of a little less than 2 per cent. in number and of over a half of 1 per cent. in amount. In the aggregate the amount of issues of money-or- ders amounted to nearly $140,000,000, the same be- 1 ing an increase of 3.68 per cent. over the previous year. The international money-order business exhibits an increase of over 34,000 in the number of orders issued and of nearly a million dollars in the amount thereof; of nearly 7 ,000 in the number of orders paid and of over $350,000 in the amount thereof. These figures show, in contradistinction to the do- mestic business, an increase in the average amount of remittances from the United States to foreign countries, and an increase likewise in the average amount of the remittances from foreign countries to the United States. ' There seems to be no dimination of the steady flow toward foreign countries of the savings of new citizens who find in our own land remunerative fields of labor. As shown in the report in question, it was necessary to liquidate balances abroad by reason of the excess of orders drawn in this coun- try over those drawn upon us to the amount of $8,- 353,561.50. The benefits Of an interchange of money-orders with this country will be extended, by means of conventions, to the Republic of Chili and also to the Republic of Ecuador. These conventions await only the approval and ratification of the home gov- ernments before the business may be begun. Ne- gotiations for alike purpose are in progress with the Republic of Salvador, Central America, and the British colonies of Triridad and Tobago and of the Bahamas. (2.) The Registry System was first authorized by act of Congress of March 3, 1855. It gives addition- al security to valuable matter in its passage through the mail. The means relied on for giving this se- POSTAL SERVICE OF curity consists in the recording, or registering, of all matter presented for registration, the giving of receipts to the senders at the time of mailing, the receipting and careful handling of the matter by all persons through whose hands it passes through- out its journey, and the final acknowledging of hav- ing received it by the addressee. A letter register- ed may be traced from hand to hand until it gets to its destination, or, in case of loss or miscarriage, up to the oflicial who is responsible for it. Regis- tered matter is inclosed in large colored envelopes, termed “resistered package envelopes.” They may contain one or more letters to any one post otfice. The condition of these envelopes must be indicated by the indorsements of all who handle them. A bill of lading or “registry bill,” accompanies these envelopes, which bill, after verification, is returned by the receiving postmaster to the sending post- master. A great part of the separate handling of registered matter has lately been obviated by the use of “through pouches” between prominent post otfices, the pouches being locked with the tell-tale looks, that can be opened only by the sending and receiving postmasters. Vast amounts of money, bonds, and other valu- ables are transmitted by registered mail, as we may see from the following report of the postmaster-gen- eral for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890. He says: Safety of Mail Matter.-—1,223,444 pieces of register- ed mail matter, valued at $1,114,491, 446.07 were for- warded for the Post-ofiice and Treasury Department. It is not practicable to state accurately the value of the remainin 13,723,637 pieces of registered matter transmitted or the public during the year, but such value may be to some extent estimated by taking as a basis of calculation the known or the supposed contents of the 1,951 pieces reported to have been rifled or lost. The aggregate amount of the inclosures for these 1,951 pieces is reported at $24,116.57, an average value per piece of $12.36. Value of Registered Mail.—By computing the 13,- 723,637 pieces at this rate, the result is $169,624,- 153.32. This is without much doubt an underesti- mate. This sum added to that of the official values given above creates a total of $1,284,115,599.39. The net loss amounted in all to $14,411.86, or W161“ of 1 per cent. Value of Ordinary Mail.—-As to the ordinary mail matter, it is just as diificult to deter mine its value because there are no declared values, and it is not the business of the otficials to inquire what letters contain. It is interesting to know, however, that the average value of the money letters opened in the Dead Letter Otfice was $1.65 ; of the letters containing postal notes, $1.51; and of the letters containing negotiable paper, $55.07. By taking into account all letters open in the Dead Letter Of- fice, the average value per letter is found to be little more than 25 cents (25.2). It is estimated that three are carried in the mails 1,854,667,802 or- dinary letters per annum, these figures being based upon the general count of mail matter made for one week in May last. At the rate of 25.2 cents per letter the value of the ordinary letter-mail of 1Ignited States for one year would be $467,376,- Percentage of Loss.—There has been no loss at all in the department proper. The total supposed losses of ordinary mail throughout the United States, as reported by the office of the Chief Post- Ofiice Inspector, amounted to 51.745 pieces. Of these 20,900, or 40 per cent., were packages, the re- maining 60 per cent. being letters. The total losses ascertained to be due to carelessness or dep- redation of postal employés number 23,985; 60 per , THE UNITED STATES I263- cent. of which would be 14,391. Assuming the av- erage value to be 25.2 cents, the total ascertained loss of ordinary letters chargeable to the postal ser- vice would be $3,626.53, or -1-T,-§{’,lO—G of 1 per cent.; and it is a cause of sincere congratulation that the practical termination of the lottery business as conducted through the mails will in great measure- remove from postal employés the temptation to steal letters. (3). The Free-Delhery System was authorized by act of Congress, March 3, 1863. Its function is to deliver letters and other mail matter at the places designated in the addresses. This is done by car- riers employed by the Government. The same car- riers also collect mail matter from the street boxes, wherein the letters are deposited by the senders. The term “free—delivery” is not correct; for while no direct charge is made for delivering matter by the carriers. there is an indirect charge, made by doubling the local or drop rate of postage on letters at all free-delivery offices. Thus. at an office where carrier delivery is not made, the drop rate on letters is one cent an ounce or fraction thereof; at a free-deliver otfice the drop rate is two cents——the diiference being originally intended to maintain the system. Under the law passed by Congress afiecting the free-delivery system, au- thority is given the postmaster-general to establish it at any place having a population of 10,000, or where the gross revenue of the post-ofiice for the preceding year shall have amounted to $10,000. The total number of free-delivery offices in exis- In 1889, 43 post-- tence on June 30, 1888. was 358. ofiices were enlarged to free-delivery ofiices, and in 1890 53 ofiices were made into free-delivery offices. Village Free-D€Z1'2‘(’7'y.~—CO11g1'eSS, by joint-resolu- tion late in the session of 1890, gave authorit) to the Postmaster-General to use $10,000 of the annual appropriation for the free-delivery for the purpose of ascertaining in a practical way the feasibility and cost of extending the free delivery to small towns and rural districts. Applications are now being received from various communities for the benefits of the free delivery. The experiment will be made in as many places as the appropriation will warrant. In villages one plan is to allow to the postmaster sufiicient money to pay for the ser- vice of a man or boy for one or two hours per day, as the case may require. Those who prefer to go in person to the post-ofiice may do so as hitherto, but those who cannot get a daily paper because they cannot go to the post-office every day for it, can have it delivered at their doors if they live, say, within a radius of two miles. In thinly settled rural districts it has been proposed to ask the school teachers to distribute the mails to pupils 3.1:l11thOI'lZ€d by parents and neighbors to receive t em. (4) fire Special-DeZiz'ery System was authorized by act of Congress of March 3, 1885. Its function is to~ deliver mail matter immediately to the addressee, when it arrives at a post-ofiices. Special messen- gers are employed for this service. At first this system was confined to places having a population of 4,000 or more. But by a subsequent law it was extended to all post-ofiices. To secure special de- livery the sender must aflix to the letter, in addition to the postage, a large “special-delivery” stamp, which costs ten cents. Messengers are allowed eight cents for every special delivery. The gov- ernment thus makes a profit of two cents on each letter. The amount of this profit is about $30,000» a year. At large post-ofiices permanent messen- gers are employed on special-delivery duty. At other offices the postmaster efi°ects delivery by arv practicable means. IBM POSTAL SERVICE OF The following table gives the number of pieces of mail matter specially delivered since the intro- duction of the system at offiees which are required to make returns : Fiscal year (encung Pieces Pieces 3 June 50). ord. matter. drop matter. Total. 1886—Nine months only and at 555 ofliees 622,054 274.000 896,334 1887—.-kt free-delivery oflices 725,330 299.237 1,024,567 l888—At free-delivery oflices 899,494 320.782 1,220,276 (5) The Dead-Letter Ofjice has the function to re- store to the owners letters and other mail matter that have failed of delivery. Everything is restored except printed matter of no apparent value or in- terest, such as advertisements, circulars, etc. If the matter bears upon it on the outside the name and address of the sender, it is returned to him di- rect by the receiving postmaster at the end of 3 days; if it bears a request to return within a given time, it is returned direct at the end of the time named. If it does not bear the name of the sender on the outside it is advertised, and, if not delivered, it is retained in the post-olfice for 30 days, and finally sent to the dead-letter office in \Vashington, where it is opened, if found necessary, and restored to the owner. )Veekly returns of such matter are made by postmasters at the larger olfices; monthly returns by all others. The registered matter is recorded and promptly restored to the senders, Matter of which the ownership cannot be ascer- tained, is held subject to reclamation. All foreign dead letters are returned without examination to the country of their origin. Much of the matter that reaches the dead-letter office is never restored, especially if neither the sender or addressee of the matter can be found, and if no inquiry concerning it is received, or if the writer of a letter has failed to sign his or her name, as it happens very fre- quently. 7 We insert here a few passages from the report of the postmaster-general for the fiscal year ending June 30,1890, touching the curiosities of the Dead- Letter Ojjioe. He says: Pains were taken to ascertain why so much mail matter continually comes to the Dead-Letter Ofiice. The evidences are convincing that the miscarriage and non-receipt of such letters and parcels as reach that offiee are due in the main to the careless- ness and omissions 011 the part of the public, and in very small measure only to any fault in the the system or in the work of the employés. Of the more than six million and a half of pieces of mail matter received annually at that ofiice, nearly five millions and a half contained nothing of value, and it is almost inconceivable, but none the less true, that about one-half of this number contained no signature which would enable the Department to return them to the writers. They consist in the main of letters from one member of a family to another, or letters passing between in- timate friends; and the signature may be, for ex- ample, “Mother,” “Jack,” “Your alfectionate sis- ter,” or some equally indefinite appellation. About 5% per cent. of the whole number, or, in round numbers, 319,000, of all letters opened con- tained valuable inclosures, either of money, nego- tiable paper, postage-stamps, or miscellaneous pa- pers and articles. The money enclosures alone amounted to over $40,000 and those representing negotiable paper to over $1,400,000. There were nearly 11,000 letters which contained lottery tickets, and nearly 200,000 contained pictures and papers ot a character unfit for circulation. These were all destroyed. Nearly 300,000 letters which contained inclos- u.res were returned to the owners, and about three THE UNITED STATES and three quarters million pieces, on failure after every effort had been made to reach the owners, were destroyed. Parcels of merchandise unclaimed for two years are annually disposed of at auc- tion. Last year there were offered nearly 39,- 000 such parcels, the proceeds amounting to $2,- 766,53. (6) The Transportation of the Mails, is done by 5 general methods, namely by railroads, by steam- boats, by mail-messengers, by ocean steamers, and by what is known as “star” service. The pay for “railroad transportation” is prescribed by law of Congress. The companies are required to trans- port the mails on their fastest trains, and also to carry them to and fro between railroad stations and post-ofifiees at their own expense, if the dis- tance is not over 1/4 mile. “Mail-messenger” ser- vice comprises the carrying of the mails between post-offiees and railroad and steamboat stations where the distances are over }£ mile; between one station and another of different railroads; between post-ofiices and their branches in large cities; and over routes not regularly established as post-routes. “steamboat” service is usually contracted for 4 years at the lowest obtainable rates; while “ocean steamship” service is let for periods of 2 years. The latter is confined to the foreign mails. The “star” service includes transportation by wagon, carriage, stage, horseback or afoot. The routes are desig- nated by a star in the book of routes at the depart ment. This service is let every 4 years to the low- est bidders. Competition has brought the pay over the star routes down to low rates, in some cases too low to secure good service. In order to give an idea of the work performed by the Post-Office Department of the United States government we take the following table from the report of the Postmaster-General for the year 1890, being a statement of matter sent through the mails during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, as estimated upon the basis of an actual count at all the post-ofiices, for the seven days beginning at 6 o’clock A. M., on Monday, May 5, a1g)8 ending at 6 o’cloek A. M., on Monday, May 12, 18 . Amount of Postage. No. of Mail Mattel‘. Pieces, Weight. DOMESTIC FIRS'l.‘—CLASS MAT- TER 1. Letters mailed to other post-oflices (postage 2 cents an ounce or frac- tion thereof) . . . Dro -letters for loca de ivery (p 0 stage 2 L, cents an ounce or frac- tion thereof) . 258,681,155 5,482,946 5,338,650.42 Wrapped parcels, seal- ed, mailed to other post-oflices (postage 2 cents an ounce or frac- tion thereof) . . . . . . . Wrapped parcels, seal- ed, for local delivery (postage 2 cents an ounce or fraction thereof) . 5. Drop-letters at 1 cent an ounce 6. Wrap ed parcels forlo- cal elivery at 1 cent anounce . 7. Postal cards mailed to other post-oifiees 8. Postal cards deposited for local delivery.... Pounds. 1,561,452,742 37,872,584 $2,516,625.53 NJ 0!: 4,978 ,096 582 ,371 196 ,076 ,17 ,.;.. 258,939 34,533,905 45 ,730 820,835 16,844.43 347,385 .51 534,828 322, 136 ,518 107 ,378 ,837 61 ,679 1 ,71l,350 570,450 12,589 .88 3,228,102,6S 1,073 ,788 .37 Total first-class mat- ter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,289,950,015 47 ,147 ,445 42,7 24,652.44 POSTAL SERVICE or Mail Matter. ,' No. of Pieces. Weight. Amount of Postage. SECOND-CLAS s M ATTER (PREPAID). 1. Mailed by publishers and news agents apost- age lcentapoun ). . .. 2. Newspapers, other than Weeklies, and periodi- cals not exceedmg two ouncesinweight(post- age, 1 cent for each weighing over two ounces (post- age, 2 cents each). . . .. T o t al second-class matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transient newspapers and periodicals prepaid with ostage stamps aflixed Fpostage, 1 cent for each four ounces or fraction thereof) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. THIRD-CLASS MATTER. 1. Mailed to other post- o ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2. Deposited for local de- livery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Total third-class mat- ter . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . snnns, s 0 I o N s, BULBS, Roors, ETC. 1. Mailed to other post-of- fices . . . . . .._ . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2. Deposited for local cle- v ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Total seeds, scions, bulbs, roots, etc. . . .. FOURTH-CLASS MATTER. 1. Mailed to other post-of- ces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2. Deposited for local de- v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. T 0 t a 1 fourth-class matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. MATTER TO FOREIGN COUN- TRIES. 1. Letters and sealed par- cels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2. All other matter to for- eign countries . . . . . _ . .. 711 ,915,450 7,973,123 1 ,573,332 174,046,764 975 ,290 304,436 1,740 ,-167.64 92,638.29 38,899.76 721 ,461,905 56,966,610 416 J87 .099 60 ,787 .57 175,326,490 11,717,160 -10,388,611 3,223,270 1,873,005.69 889,507.39 5,792,418.05 669,434.48 476 ,974,675 4 ,605 ,53l 117,293 43,611,881 2,410 ,836 17,964 6,461,852.53 222,310.09 3,0-11.61 4,782,821 05,472,901 2,016,766 \ 2 ,-128,800 11 ,027,136 461,709 225,352.50 1 ,868,0l3.89 93 _.-153.6-1 37,489 ,7 00 27,102,215 11,111,097 11,488 ,815 799,658 3,151,113 1,961,467.53 1,481,234.48 334,908.76 Total foreign matter. Total paid matter. . .. FREE MATTER. 1. Second-class m a t t er mailed free in county of publication . . . . . . . .. 41,273,312 3,628,899,011 007,141,050 50,100,154 3,950,771 295,671,392 1,819,113.24 55,954 ,981 .32 2. Letters inclosed in free- penalty envelopes... .. 3. Supplies blanks, twine, etc., and all other mat- ter mailed under free- penalty labels or pen- alty envelopes used as labels 4. Franked matter, books, pamphlets, rep 0 r t s, seeds, etc., mailed free, under frank or other- wise, as provided by section 409 to 414 of the Postal Laws and Reg- ulations of 1887 . . . . . . .. - - . - I . . . - - - - - . - . . - Total free matten. . . . Total paid and free matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,587,821 11,591 ,840 7 ,1 60,228 30 ,71-1,135 27,513,016 4, 279 ,616 . - - - - - ‘ ‘ - . . Q I . . \ - - \ . ¢ ~ ~ - U \ 376,509,165 -1,005,408,206 69,697,025 365 ,368,417 ~ - - - - \ \ . - - . - ‘ - THE UNITED STATES 1265 Total amount of prepaid postages as shown in .. . above table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Amount of due postages collected. . . $280,059.04 Amount of special-delivery stamps 1955,95-1,961.02 mailed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176,952.80 Amount of registry fees on paid mat- ter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,216,416.90 Letter postage paid in money . . . . . .. 108,725.41 Box rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,257,505.70 Fines and penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6,180.26 Dead letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12,310 73 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20,80 1,00 Money-order revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824,220.21 . —--—-—-— 4,903,805.08 Total revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60,858,783.40 ORGANIZATION.—Th8 U. S. postal service is under the control of the Postmaster-General, who is, and has been since the Administration of President Jackson, a member of the Cabinet. Under him are the first, second, and third assistant postmas- ters-general, the superintendent of the money- order system, the general superintendent of the railway mail service, the superintendent of foreign mails, the chief post-office inspector, and the super- intendent of the dead-letter office, each of whom has under him a corps of clerks and other em- ployés at the seat of Government. Besides these there is an officer of the Treasury Department, known as the auditor of the Treasury for the Post- Oflice Department, who has a close and important connection with the postal service. The several classes of postal oflicials outside of the Department proper at VVashington are postmasters and their clerks, letter-carriers, railway postal clerks, mail- messengers, and mail contractors. The first assist- ant postmaster-general has charge of the appoint- ment and qualification of postmasters, the estab- lishment of post-offices, the apportionment among them of the appropriations for clerk-hire, rent, light, and fuel, the supply of stationery, and the operations of the free-delivery system. The sec- ond assistant postmaster-general has control over the transportation of the mails, the making of con- tracts therefor, the ascertainment of the pay of railroads for mail service and the supply of mail- bags, locks and keys. The duty of the third assist- ant postmaster-general takes in all business relating to the classification of mail matter and the rates of postage, the collection and deposit of the postal revenues, the payment of postal indebtedness, the control of the registry and special-delivery sys- tems, and the issue to postmasters of postage- stamps, stamped envelopes, and other forms of stamped paper. The duty of the auditor is to au- dit and settle quarterly the accounts of postmas- ters and other postal officers, and to certify for pay- ment the several classes of postal indebtedness. The duties of the other ofiicers named are indicat- ed by their designations. THE NUIEER or Posr-orF1cEs.-—The number of post-ofiices of each class at the close of the fiscal year ending 30th of June, 1890, was: Class. ‘ 1890. 1889. 1872. First . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102 97 . . . . . . .. Second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 497 1,200 Third . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,119 2.090 . . . . . . .. Fourth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . 59,603 50,315 30,663 Total ............................ 62.401 1 50,999 31,863 The number of new ofiices established in 1890 was ..... .. -1.236 OP-F The number of new oflices established in 1889 was.. . . . . . .-,/1 The net increase in the number of offices. taking into account all the offices discontinued, was 3,905. 3 ‘There was about a car load of it. -1266 * -.a considerably larger number than ever before in the history of the service, the next largest being immediately after the close of the war (1866), when the net increase was 3,278. ‘The number of oflices enlarged to free-delivery oflices in 1890 was . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._. . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 ‘The number of oflices enlarged to free-dehvery offices in 1889 was . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 The number of substations and stamp agencies estab- lished in 1890 was . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ‘The number of substations and stamp agencies estab- lished in 1889 was . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84 From 1860 to the close of the fiscal year lately -ended—June 30, l890—the progress of the postal establishment has been most marvelous. The number of post-offices has more than doubled, the aggregate now being 62,401; the total length of all the mail-routes in ‘the country, not including letter- carrier routes in the cities, has increased to about 428,000 miles, and the gross postal revenue has grown to a little less than $61,000,000, representing an increase over the revenue of 1860 of more than -600 per cent. The free-delivery service, which now, in 454 cities of the country and by means of more than 9,000 carriers, makes deliveries and collections of the mails, without extra tax, to the doors of the ~oitizens, has been added. The great money-order system has been established, a system under which, at any one of 9,382 post-ofiices, remittances, in sums from one cent to a hundred dollars, may be made to every part of the world with absolute safety, and which is used so largely by the people to-day that the amount of its annual business in the issue and payment of orders is nearly $156,- "0O0,000. From a total business of a thousand lettersa day, which is the estimate of the postmaster-general in 1789, letters and other pieces are now steadily "dropping into the numberless receptacles of the postal system at the rate of nearly 8,000 a minute. ‘This marvelous system employs more than 150,000 -persons to-da . Y POSTAL TRANSIT, RAPID. The New York “Evening Sun” of Sept. 2, 1891, wrote as follows: ‘The steamship, Empress of Japan, left Yokohama on Aug. 19, carrying the usual mail for Europe. She reached Vancouver, B. C., on Aug. 29, which was very fast time. The authorities had a Cana- '-dian Pacific special train waiting to take the European mail and hurry it across the continent. The New York Central was ready to take it up with another spe- ~-cial train at Morristown, N. Y., and bring it to New York City in the quickest time possible. The exact time of the Empress of Japan from ‘Yokohama to Vancouver was ten days, fifteen hours, breaking the record for the Pacific by eight hours. From Vancouver to Brockville, 2,859 miles, the time was three days, ten hours. The schedule time for express trains is five days, eighteen hours. The Canadian Pacific train reached Brockville at 9:40 P. M., transferring its load to the New York Central train at Morristown, N. Y. This train started at 9:45, and made the run of 353 miles to theGrand Central in New York, in six hours, fifty- -eight minutes, arriving at 4:43 this morning. Be- tween Utica and Albany this train ran ninety-five miles in ninety minutes. The transfer of the mail from the Grand Central Depot over the New York pavements to the Inman .~steamship in twenty-seven minutes——for the City of New York sailed at 5 :10 A. M., is, perhaps, a greater feat than anything done by the railroads. It was performed by assistant superintendent Bradley of the United States Railway Mail Service. The City of New York was expected to connect at Liverpool with a train reaching Brindisi in POSTAL TRANS_.;IT—POSTAL UNION forty-eight hours. From Brindisi to Port Said the time is two and a half days. Sixteen hours takes you through the Suez Canal, and three days more to Aden. Aden to Columbo is five days; Columbo to Singapore, three days; Singapore to Hong Kong, three days; Hong Kong to Yokohama, four days. The total time for the round-the-world trip, will thus be reduced to forty-four days. This performance shows vividly the, powerful en- ergy. displayed by the United States Postal au- thorities for the purpose of quickening the foreign mail service. POSTAL UNION, UNIVERSAL. This is an asso- ciation of States. The aim of this Union is to form, for purpose of international and mail communica- tion, a single postal tewm'tory embracing the whole 'wo?'ld, with uniformity of postal charges and con- ditions of international exchange for all descrip- tions of correspondence. The International Postal Convention concluded at Berne, in October, 1874, went into operation on July 1, 1875. It began a new era in correspondence with the rest of the world. Nothing has contrib- uted so much to a state of universal peace and amity, or to promote civilization and to dissemi- nate truth and correct principles. THE ORIGINAL MEMBERs.—The countries forming the Postal Union on June 30, 1876, were as follows: The United States, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Den- mark (including Iceland and the Faroe Islands), Egypt, France (including Algeria), Germany(in- cluding the Island of Heligoland), Great Britain and Ireland (including Gibraltar, Malta, and the dependencies of Malta), Greece, Italy, Luxemburg, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal (in- cluding the Island of Madeira and the Azores), Roumania, Russia (including the Grand Duchy of Finland), Servia, Spain (including the Baleric Isles, the Canary Islands, the Spanish possessions on the North Coast of Africa, and the postal establish- ments of Spain on the VVest Coast of Morocco), Sweden; Switzerland, and Turkey. ADDITIONAL MEMBERs.——The following table shows the countries and colonies which, since June 30, 1876, have been added to the original Postal Union formed by the treaty concluded at Berne, Oct. 9, 1874, and the dates upon which the said countries and colonies adhered to the Union: British India._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1876 French Colonies (except Bassam and Assinie) July ‘’ 1, 1876 Bermuda, Islands of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Ceylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1377 Guiana, British . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Labuan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Mauritius and dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Straits Settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Trinidad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Tunis,Italian postofiice at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1877 Netherlands Colonies in Asia, Oceania, and America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 1, 1877 Spanish Colonies in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 1, 1877 Tunis, French post-ofiice at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. May 1, 1877 Tangier, French post-office at . . . . . . . . .., . . . . . . . .. May 1, 1877 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 1, 1877 Portuguese Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. June 1, 1877 Brazil . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1877 Hong Kong post-oflices at Canton, Swatow, Amoy, Foo Chow, Ningpo, Shanghai, and Hankow (China) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Aug. 18, 1877 Danish Colonies of St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. Jean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 1.1877 Greenland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept. 1, 1877 Persia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Sept 1877 Shanghai,French post-ofiice at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 1, 1877 Cambodia, French post-ofiice at. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 1, 1878 Tonquin, French post-ofiice at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 1, 1878 Argentine Republic . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1878 Hong Kong postoflices at Hai-phung and Hai- _ noi (Tonquin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 23, 1878 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Aug. 1, 1878 POSTURES—POTTER Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Aug. 14, 1878 Cyprus, Island of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Dec. 20, 1878 British Colonies on the west coast of Africa. . . Jan. 1, 1879 Falkland Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 1, 1879 Honduras, British . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . Jan. 1, 1879 Newfoundland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan. 1, 1879 Andorra, Republic of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1879 Ionian Isles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 1, 1879 Liberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1869 Lichtenstein, Principality of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1879 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1879 Monaco, Principality of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1879 Nubia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1879 Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1879 San Marino, Republic of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1879 Tripoli, Italian post-oifice at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1879 Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1879 Leeward Islands (British) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1879 Honduras, Republic of...., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 1, 1879 Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Jan 1 1880 Bahama Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1880 Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1880 French Colonies of Grand Bassam and Assinie (dependencies of Gaboon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. uly 1, 1880 Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1880 Dominica, Republic of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Oct. 1, 1880 Chili, Republic of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. April 1, 1881 Colombia, United States of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1881 Hayti, Republic of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1881 Paraguay, Republic of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. July 1, 1881 Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Aug. 1, 1881 Almost all the countries and colonies of the world maintaining organized postal services are now embraced in the Universal Postal Union. The principal countries and colonies of postal and com— mercial importance not yet embraced in the Union are the Central and South AmericanlStates of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Bolivia. The Sand- wich Islands, New Zealand, and the British Colo- nies in Australia have recently taken preliminary measures for entering the Union at an early date, and it is confidently expected that all the other countries and colonies now outside the Union will adhere thereto, thus realizing the grand idea and aim of the founders of the Union. On Feb. 4, 1885, a congress composed of members delegated by the States of the Postal Union met at Lisbon, Portugal, and adopted a new conven- tion, which went into effect on April, 1, 1886 and which is now in force. Under the Postal Union an International Bureau is maintained at Berne, Switzerland, through which correspondence is car- ried on between the several countries of the Union relative to its common business, to the settlement of disagreements between two or more countries, to the tabulation and publication of statistics, and to all other matters that may be of interest or ben- efit to the postal world. The rates of international postage as now fixed by the convention are as fol- lows: Letter, 5 cents a half ounce if prepaid, and double this rate (to be collected on delivery of the matter) if not prepaid. Postal cards, 2 cents each. Printed matter, commercial papers, and samples of merchandise, 1 cent for each two ounces if pre- paid, and double this rate if not prepaid. POSTURES, the name given to the attitude ob- served in worship, whether private or public, but especially the latter. Four postures are found to have been used by the ancient Christians in their prayer——the standing, the kneeling, the bowing or inclined, and the prostrate. Of these, the ordinary -one was kneeling; but for it was substituted, dur- ing the Easter-time and on the Sundays, a stand- ing posture, which was understood to symbolize the resurrection of our Lord. The question as to the use of particular postures was a subject of much controversy between the Puritans and the Church of England ; and has recently been revived in the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. POTASH. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 588-593. Ordinary commercial potash consists of the crude carbonate and hydrate of potash. It is chiefly ob- tained from wood ashes which contain it in abund- 1267 ance. The method pursued in the United States is to burn large heaps of wood to ashes. These are then placed in tubs made from barrels sawn in half, and with perforated false bottoms. About 5 per cent. of lime is added, and the ashes are leached by successive applications of water, each of which is allowed to stand for an hour or two. The water is then drawn off from the bottom, the first drain- ing being taken to the evaporating pans, while the succeeding portions are kept to use on fresh ashes. Broad, shallow iron pans are used in which the li- quid is boiled till it becomes syrupy. It grows solid on cooling. The substance thus obtained is intensely alkaline. "W hen purified by heat it be- comes of a white, bluish, or pearly cast, and is known as pearlash. The lime used in its prepara- tion acts to decompose the sulphate of potash, which forms one of the salts of the ashes and frees the potash. Potash exists to the amount of 12 per cent. in the mineral glauconite of the greensand de- posits of New Jersey. This is more easily decomposed than feldspar, and is capable of yielding large quan- tities of potash. The greater cheapness of soda has enabled it to replace potash in most cases where an alkali is needed, but a steady demand exists for potash from its special adaptation to certain uses. Its principal uses are in the manufacture of soft- soap and of several important salts of potassium. It is also used in the manufacture of glass; some of the best and most costly glasses now made, such as Bohemian white and English flint, being potash glasses. POTATO. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 593- 598. POTATO BEETLE. See Insncrs I.\'JURIoU-s TO Vnenrarrom in these Revisions and Additions ; also in Britannica, Vol. VI, p. 134. POT—METAL. an alloy of lead and copper, ob- tained by throwing lumps of copper into red-hot melted lead. It is of a gray color, brittle and granular. POTOSI, a village of VVisconsin, on the Missis- sippi, fifteen miles above Dubuque. It is pictur- esquely situated in a narrow ravine, and is an im- portant shipping-point for the products of the county. POT-POURRI: in French, the name of a mixture of sweet scented materials, chiefly flowers. dried and usually placed in a vase with a perforated lid, in order that their perfume may be diffused through rooms in which it is placed. But it also signifies a dish of diiferent sorts of viands, and corresponds, in this sense, to the Izotch-potch of Scotland and the Olla Podrida of Spain. POT-POURRI: in Music, a selection of favorite pieces strung together without much arrangement so as to form a sort of medley. POTSDAM, a village of New York, on the Racket River, eleven miles east of Canton. It has an abundant water-power, many mills and quarries of Potsdam sandstone; and is the seat of a State nor- mal and training school. Population 1890, 3,961. POTT, Auensr Fnnnnrcn, a German philologist, born in Hanover in 1802, died in 1887. He became professor in Halle in 1833, and was distinguished as a leading representative of the science of com- parative philology. POTTAWATTAMIES, a tribe of North American Indians of the Algonquin family. See Ixnrans NORTI-I Annmcan, in these Revisions and Addi- tions. POTTER, ALONZO, bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born in Dutchess county. Y. Y., in 1800, died in 1865. He became bishop of Pennsylvania in 1845, and was a founder of the Di- vinity School and of the Episcopal Hospital in 1268 Philadelphia. His son HENRY GODMAN Porrnn, bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, born in Schenectady in 1835, was educated in Philadelphia, and consecrated there in 1883. Honarrro POTTER, bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, brother of Alonzo, born in Dutchess county, N. Y., in 1802, died in 1887, was consecrated in Trinity church, New York City, in 1854. POTTER’S CLAY or FIGULINE, a kind of clay used in potteries for the manufacture of earthen- ware; the different varieties of it being adapted to different kinds of earthenware. Houses are built in Egypt of pots of this material. Potter’s clay is also employed in agriculture for the improvement of light sandy and calcareous soils. POTTSTO\VN, a city of Pennsylvania, on the Schuylkill, twelve miles northwest of Phoenixville. Population in 1890, 13,201. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 643. ' POTTSVILLE, a city, the county-seat of Schuyl- _kill county, Pa., on the Schuylkill, at the base of Sharp Mountain. Population in 1890,14,194. See Britannica, Vol. XIX., p. 644. POTY, a district town, and rising seaport of Russia, in the Caucasian government of Kutais, at the mouth of the river Rion, on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. The Rion connects the port with the interior, and since the establishment of regu- lar steam communication by the Russian Trade and Navigation Company in this quarter, the com- merce and especially the transit-trade of this town have greatly increased. Population 1,309. PO UCHED RAT, a group of Rodentia, of which there are several species, natives of parts of North America west of the Mississippi and along the Gulf, some of them very troublesome from the ravages they commit in fields and gardens. POUGHKEEPSIE, a city, the county-seat of Dutchess county, N. Y., on the left bank of the Hudson, about midway between New York and Albany, Population in 1890, 22,836. See Britan- nica, Vol. XIX... p. 644. POUJOULAT, J. J. Fnangors (1808—1880), a French historian. He studied at Aix and at Paris; traveled in Italy and the east; and wrote largely in connection with Michand. POULTNEY, a village of Vermont, near the Poultney River, about eighteen miles west of Rut- land. lt contains quarries and manufactories of slate, and several foundries and mills. POULTRY. See FOWL in Britannica, Vol. IX, pp. 491-2. PO URTALES, Lours FRANCOIS DE, Couxr, a Swiss naturalist, born at Neufchatel. Switzerland, in 1824, died at Beverly, .WIass., in 1880. He followed Louis Agassiz to America and served in the United States Coast Survey as civil engineer. By his papers on the Gulf Stream and the Caribbean Sea he obtained a high reputation as a hydrographer. He was as- sociated with Agassiz in the study of natural his- tory, and succeeded him in 1873 as custodian of the hiuseum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, 1 ass. POWDERLY, TERENCE VINCENT, an American labor-organizer, born at Carbondale, Pa, in 1849. His parents were Irish Catholics. At 19 years of age he was at Scranton working in a machine shop. He became secretary of the Machinists’ and Black- smiths’ Union there and remained so till 1880. In 1874 he was a delegate to the International Union at Louisville, Ky. Returning to Scranton he joined the Knights of Labor, and was made secretary of the District Assembly. He was then foreman in locomotive works. In 1877 he was elected mayor of Scranton, and reélected in 1878. In 1879 the Knights of Labor, at their convention in Chicago, POTTER"S (l\LAY--PREBLE \ elected him as General Master Workman. Since that he has been continuously reélected to the same position. Mr. Powderly urged upon the Knights of Labor the abolition of the oaths and the removal of the obligation of secrecy, which de-- mand was finally acceded to. POYVELL, BADEN (l796—l860), an English math- ematician and philosopher. He became professor of geometry at Oxford in 1827. POWELL, JOHN \VEsLEY,an American geologist, born at Mount Morris, N. Y., in 1834. He studied at Oberlin; traveled in the \Vest; lost an arm in the Union army; began in 1867 a scientific explor- ation of Colorado ; became director of the United States geological survey in 1881; and president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1887. PONVER, THOMAS C., an American statesman,. born near Dubuque, Iowa, May 22, 1839. He went with a surveying party to Dakota in 1860; engaged in the mercantile business on the Missouri River,. and continued in that business till 1867, in which year he located at Fort Benton, the head of navi- gation; was president of the “Benton P.” line of steamers; is interested in cattle. mines, and vari-f ous mercantile companies; located at Helena, his present home, in 1878; was elected a member of the first Constitutional Convention of Montana in 1883; was elected to the United States Senate Jan- uary 2, 1890; and took his seat April 16, 1890. His- term of service will expire March 3, 1895. POWNAL, a village of Vermont, on the Hoosac River, ten miles south of Bennington. It contains- excellent schools, and manufactories of cotton and woolen goods. PRAIRIE DU CHIEN, a city, the county-seat of Crawford county, Wis, on the Mississippi, about three miles above the ‘Wisconsin, and seventy above Dubuque. It is the seat of a number of flourishing educational institutions, and, of a variety of important manufactures. Population‘ in 1890, 3,122. PRATIQUE, strictly, a limited quarantine. A ship is said to have performed pratique when her captain has convinced the authorities of a port that his ship is free from contagious disease; and he is thereupon permitted to open trade and com-- m unication with the shore. PRATT, CHARLES, an American philanthropist, born in Massachusetts in 1830, died in 1891. He became a merchant in New York City; established! the Standard Oil Company; and was the founder; of the Pratt Industrial Institute in Brooklyn. PRATT. Enocn, an American philanthropist, born at Middleborough, Mass., in 1808. He re- moved to Baltimore and became a merchant and* financier; founded the House of Reformation and: Instruction for Colored Children at Cheltenham; established the Maryland School for the Deaf and Dumb at Frederick; endowed an academy in his native town, and established the Enoch Pratt Free Library in Baltimore, opened in 1886. PRATTSBURG, a village of New York, about forty miles north of Elmira. It contains mills and foundries and an academy. PRAYER FOR THE DEAD, the practice which prevails in the Roman Catholic, Greek and other‘ Oriental churches, of praying for the souls of the deceased, with the intention and expectation of" obtaining for them an alleviation of their sup- posed sufierings after death, on»account of venial~ sins, or of the penalty of mortal sins, remitted but not fully atoned for during life. PREBLE, EDWARD, an American commodore. born in Maine in 1761, died in 1807. He distin- guished himself in the Revolutionary war; and PRE-EXISTENCE—JWHCE commanded the squadron sent against Tripoli in 1803. His nephew, GEORGE HENRY PREELE (1816- 1885), was made rear-admiral in 1876, retired in 1878; was author of History of the American Flag and many other valuable works, and collected the exceedingly valuable sets of naval publications now in the navy department at \Vashington. PRE—EXISTENCE, DOCTRINE on. The notion that human souls were in existence before the generation of the bodies with which they are united in this world. was anciently, and is still, widely spread throughout the East. The Greek philosophers too were familiar with the conception. Among the early Christians, the assumption of such pre-existence was connected with the belief, that God had created the souls of men before the world, and that these were united with human bodies at generation or at birth. Direct intellect- ual interest in this doctrine has nearly ceased in modern times. PREGEL, a river of Prussia, which rises in the province of East Prussia, where it is formed by the union of the Pissa and the Anegrap near Insterburg. It flows west, and after a course of more than ninety miles, enters the Frisches Haif. The Pregel is nav- igable even at Insterburg; and at Kiinigsburg, is 270 feet broad. Its principal tributaries are the Alle from the south, and the Inster from the north. The canal of Deine connects it with the Kurisches aff. PRELUDE : in music, a short preface or introduc- tion to a piece. intended to awaken the attention of the audience, generally smooth and flowing, and consisting of a short motivo which is kept through- out; or it may be composed of a succession of har- monies uninterrupted or connected by passages. It is in the same key with the piece which it is to intro- duce, and to which -‘t is intended as a prepara- tion. PRENTICE, GEORGE DENISON, an American poet and journalist, born in Preston, Conn., in 1802, died in Louisville, Ky., in 1870. He was long known as editor of the “Louisville Journal,” and as an in- cisive and witty writer. PRENTISS, SERGEANT SMITH, a highly gifted American orator, born in Maine in 1808, died in 1850. He became eminent as a jury lawyer in Vicksburg; represented Mississippi in the National Congress. His brother, GEORGE LEWIS PRENTISS, born in 1816, is a noted divine and educator. Geor¢re’s wife, ELIZABETH PRENTISS (1818-1878), daughter of Rev. Edward Payson, wrote Stepping Heaoenward. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. ca. Vol. XIX, pp. 678-701. See Britanni- PRESCOTT, a town, the county-seat of Yavapai \ county, Ariz., situated in the Pine Mountains, near- ly two hundred miles north of Tucson. It is an important center of trade, and deals largely in bullion, wool, lumber, and cattle. The climate is delightful. PRESCOTT, a village, the county-seat of Nevada county, Ark., pleasantly situated in a healthful region. It has excellent facilities for trade and shipment, and is the center of a rich cotton and corn producing region. PRESCOTT, ILLIAM, an American Revolu- tionary officer, born in Massachusetts in 1726, died in 1795. He served against the Acadians in 1756; fought in Lexington; is said to have commanded the provincials at Bunker Hill where a statue perpetuates his memory; took part at Sarato a, and sat in the Massachusetts legislature. Iis brother, OLIVER PREscoTT (1781-1804), was also a noted military ofiicer. William’s son, VVILLIAM PREscoTT (1762-1844), was an able jurist. 1269 PRESSEN SE, Enmoxn, DEBOULT DE, a French Protestant divine and author, born at Paris in 1824, died 1891. He was elected a life senator of the Republic in 1883. PRESTISSIMO (Ital. very quick), the most rapid degree of movement known in musical com- position..\ PRESTO (Ital. quick) : in music, a direction that a piece should be performed in a rapid lively manner. PRESTON, WILLIAM CAMPBELL a United States Senator, born at Philadelphia in 1794, died in 1860. He settled in South Carolina in 1822. His brother, JOHN SMITH PRESTON (1809—1881), was a wealthy planter and a popular States Rights orator. Their uncle, JAMES PATTON PRESTON (1775-1843) was gov- ernor of Virginia and a distinguished statesman. PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. The “Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to ani- mals” of the State of New York, the first institution of the kind ever organized in America, was founded by Henry Bergh, of New York, and incorporated by an act of the legislature of the State of New York passed April 10, 1866 (see BERGH. HENRY, in these Revisions and Additions). In spite of great oppo- sition from cruel drivers of horses, and the ridicule of many thoughtless people, Mr. Bergh continued his efforts to secure proper treatment of all do- mestic animals, and often arrested offenders per- sonally in the streets of New York, until he at last succeeded in winning general commendation and.’ public interest for the cause to which he had de- voted himself. This was shown by the adoption in thirty-nine States of laws for the protection of ani- mals. But most clearly by the last will of Louis Bonard, a Frenchman, residing in New York City, who died in 1871, and bequeathed to Henry Bergh $150,000 worth of property for the use of the So- ciety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Since this example was given, numerous other contributions have been received by this society, and several similar societies were formed in other large cities. At present thirty-four such societies exist in the United States. These societies suppress the unnecessary inflic- tion of pain upon animals, as it is done by beating them uselessly, by overloading draft-horses, or by using lame, sore, weak or disabled animals; they suppress cock-fighting and dog-fighting, and nu- merous other abuses of a similar nature. The New York society has uniformed oflicers in both New York City and Brooklyn. These oflicers see that all disabled animals are transported in ambu- lances to places where they can be properly treated. Two of these ambulances are in daily use in New York and one in Brooklyn. The society has also taken an active interest in the erection of drinking fountains to provide water for both men and animals. The New York Society has from its beginning in 1866 till the present time prosecuted about 20,000 cases in the courts for the needless infliction of pain to animals, and has temporarily suspended from work some 40,000 disabled horses. PRICE, BONAMY, an English economist, born in the island of Guernsey, died in 1888. He was edu- cated at Oxford; became professor of political economy there in 1868; lectured on free trade in America; and wrote much on financial and eco- nomical subjects. PRICE, STERLING, a major-general in the Con- federate army, born in Virginia in 1809, died in St. Louis in 1867. He was a member of Congress; served in the Mexican war; was governor of Mis- souri; served with distinction throughout the civil war; and organized a colony in Mexico. 1270 PRICKLY HEAT, the popular name in India and other tropical countries for a severe form of the skin disease known as Lichen. It more fre- quently attacks strangers from temperate climates than the natives. The sensations of itching and stinging which attend it are intense. Little or nothing can be done in the way of treatment, ex- cept keeping as cool as possible. PRIMA DONNA (Ital.), the first female singer in an opera. PRIME, SAMUEL IRENEUS, an American clergy- man and editor, born in Ballston, N. Y., in 1812, died in 1885. He was well known as the able edi- tor of the “Irenaeus” of the New York “Observer,” and author of The Power of Prayer. His brother, NATHANIEL SOUDDER PRIME, (1785-1856), was a noted divine and reformer, Their brother, WILLIE COWPER PRIME, born in 1825, is an eminent journalist, well known for his letters to the New York “Journal of Commerce” and as a pa- tron of art. Another brother, EDWARD DORR GRIF- FIN PRIME, born in 1814, is the “Eusebius” of the New York “Observer.” and was its editor from his brother’s death to 1886. PRIMROSE (Primula), a genus of plants of the natural order Primulacew, having a bell-shaped or tubular 5-toothed calyx, a salver-shaped corolla with five segments, five stamens, a globose germen containing many ovules, and a many-seeded cap- sule opening with five valves, and generally with ten teeth at the apex. The species are all herba- ceous perennials, generally having only radical leaves; and the flowers in a simple umbel, more rarely with scapes bearing solitary flowers. Almost all of them are natives of Europe and the north of Asia. Some of them are among the finest orna- ments of our groves and meadows; some are found in mountainous regions. Their fine colors and soft delicate beauty have led to the cultivation of some of them as garden flowers, probably from the very beginning of floriculture. The name primrose (Fr.Primew?re, Lat. Primula) is derived from the Latin primus, first, and refers to the early appear- ance of the flowers of some of the most common species in spring.——The common primrose (P. rul- garis), abundant in woods, hedgebanks, and pas- tures, has obovate-oblong, wrinkled leaves, and single-flowered scapes; the flowers about an inch broad, yell,/wish-white. This is the plant to which the English name primrose specially belongs. Akin to the primrose is the cowslip which some botanists regard as an extreme form of a species of prim- PRICKLY HEAT—PRINCIPAL rose. The American cowslip, Dodecatheon Meaolia, is one of our most beautiful wild flowers. It is found in woods from Pennsylvania to Wisconsin and southwardly, and bears a gracefully drooping cluster of pale purple flowers. The Polyanthus and Auricula are beautiful garden flowers, the first being the result of cultivating a variety of cowslip. and the latter of an Alpine species of primrose (P. auricula). See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 737-8. PRIMROSE LEAGUE, a league originated in England in 1883, in memory of the late Earl of Beaconsfield, and so called because on the anniver- sary of his death every member wears a bunch of primroses. The members, who include both sexes, are styled Knights, Dames and Associates, and their branches are called Habitations. The mem- bers of the Primrose League have taken active part in electoral campaigns, and have exercised considerable influence in London and its neighbor- hood in favor of the Constitutional-Unionist can- didates. In 1891 there were 949,118 members, including Scotland, divided among 2111 Habita- tions. Habitations have been established in India, Malta, Cyprus, Sydney, British Honduras, Maur- itius and Hong Kong. The oflicial organ is “The Primrose League Gazette.” PRINCETON, a village,the county-seat of Bureau county, Ill., about twenty miles west of Mendota. It is engaged in mining coal and in manufacturing agricultural implements and flour. PRINCETON, a village, the county-seat of Gib- son county, Ind., twenty-five miles south of Vin- cennes. It is aflourishing center of local trade. Population in 1890, 6,494. PRINCETON, a village, the county-seat of Cald- well county, Ky., about forty-five miles east of Paducah. It is the seat of Princeton College, and contains a number of mills and factories. PRINCETON, a village, the county-seat of Mer- cer county, Mo., at the outlet of Big Lake, twenty- two miles west of Calais. It contains manufactories of lumber, shingles, woolen goods and leather. PRINCETON, a borough of New Jersey, ten miles northeast of Trenton. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 742. PRINCETON, a village of Wisconsin, on the Fox River, thirty-five miles west of Fond du-Lac. It contains a number of mills, foundries and carriage shops. PRINCIPAL, a presiding governor, or chief in authority. The word is often applied to the head of a college or university. 1271 PRINTING PRINTING, PHJJTING Panssss and TYPOGRAPHY. For the complete history of the invention and pro- gress of the art of printing, in all its many de- partments, and a full exposition of that art, to- gether with accurate definitions and descriptions of the phraseology of the composing room and press room, the reader is referred to Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 681; also to the Index under the various titles. The evolution in the mechanics of printing has during the past generation, been greater than ever before known in the whole his- tory of the art. Especially is this to be noticed in the matter of presses. In order to better appreci- ate the remarkable developments, it will be well to trace the various stages of growth. In the primitive Chinese method of printing, copies were obtained from the engraved blocks by merely rubbing or tapping with a stiff brush the backs of the sheet of paper to be printed. The pro- cess was necessarily very slow. In the Old Wine Press of Gutenberg, the sheets were laid on by hand, and the ponderous screw turned slowly down, also by hand, to form the im- pression. Not more than fifty impressions could be made in an hour. The Blaew press of 1620, was a radical improvement, and of so marked a character that for more than a century and a half it stood alone, no attempt at advancement being made. The screw as a lever was not abandoned, but simplified, as well as the carriage. A “cofiin” was built serving as a receptacle for a stone, usu- ally of marble, which was the bed of the old presses. The capacity of the Blaew press was about 150 im- pressions an hour, with two men. The Sta/nhope press, built in the latter part of the 18th century was wholly of iron, and was im- mediately received by the printing world as a re- markable advance in the art of printing press con- struction. It may be considered as the first real improvement upon the press as originally invented having been preceded by an incomplete attempt in America afterwards perfected into the Colum- bicm press, and also in France by a plan proposed by Annison. Its capacity was about 180 impres- sions an hour, with two men. The Franlchn press, also brought out in the latter part of the 18th century was a modified form of the “Blaew,” and was capable of giving 250 im- pressions per hour. The press that was worked by the great philosopher and printer, Benjamin Franklin, is treasured in the Patent Ofiice at Washington, as one of the choicest relics of the nation. The (1-olumbian press invented by George Cly- mer about 1817, unquestionably exhibited the greatest amount of improvement ever attained in any one instance in hand printing machinery. Its strength of material and scientific combination of power took off an amount of wear from the press- man never before achieved. Its elbow pulling-bar, its diagonal connecting rod, which changed a hori- zontal movement into a perpendicular one, and its main lever, applying its weight directly to the form, commended it to all pressmen. It became especially popular in England, where large num- bers were manufactured and sold, although the in- ventor was an American. The Washington press, invented in 1829, by Rust, was the last of the leading representative hand presses, and the best. It is in general use to- day in the United States, and undoubtedly marks the limit of inventive genus in the line of hand presses. It avoided the complexities of the Co- lumbian, and, while it combined every good feat- ure required in a hand press, avoided all the objec- tionable ones. The toggle-joint, which is peculiar to this press, gives with the minimum of exertion, avery heavy impression when desired; the parts are generally simple, and easily understood. The bed slides on a track, and is by the left hand run in under the platen by two turns of a crank with a belt attached to its pulley. The right hand seizes the lever handle, and the platen is depressed by a compound lever acting on the toggle-joint. The platen is restored to its normal position by lifting springs on either side. Its tympan is a frame covered with cloth and attached to the bed. It is on this that the sheet of paper is laid. A delicate frame above it, called the frisket, is folded down holding the sheet of paper by the margin. The crank is turned, the bed run under, the impression given, the crank reversed, the tympan and frisket lifted, and while the sheet is being removed. an at- tendant inks the form preparatory to the working of the next sheet. The Washington has stood the test for two generations, and it is doubtful if any hand press can be invented that will be an improve- ment onit. It is the highest type of hand press. The only improvement thus far suggested, is an elaboration of an idea suggested and acted upon by Dr. IVilliam Church, of Connecticut, in 1821. In the press invented and manufactured by him, he dispensed with the roller boy, and other hand features, accomplishing the work by mechanical appliances. He laid the sheet on the tympan, and applied his hand to the rounce, by the turning of which the form was inked. Then the frisket and tympan turned down; the bed ran in, and the im- pression was given. A reverse of the motion re- versed the process; and while the press was in ac- tion it prepared for the next sheet. Doctor Church was one of the greatest inventors of his age: and his name is justly linked with the noblest of those emblazoned on the escutcheon of the Art Preservative of all Arts, for originality of thought, and far-seeing ideas of invention. His genius, as shown on the hand press especially, elaborated three distinct principles: First, the mode of obtaining the pressure: second, a particu- lar arrangement of the inking apparatus; and, third, the raising and lowering of the frisket, whereby the paper was placed and automatically removed after having received the impression of ink. His ideas were, however, regarded as chi- merical by the majority of printers, principally by reason of jealousy. Had his life and courage been prolonged, he might have seen his improvements fully carried out in his own time as they have since been. The London “ Journal of Arts and Sciences” said in reference to Church that his “extraordinary association of mechanism embraced a more exten- sive range of invention than vie remember ever to have seen before projected by any one individual and combined under one patent.” Two generations have passed, and the dreams of Church have been realized. There is now (1891) manufactured an excellent hand press which has an automatic inking and delivery attachment and is known as the “Schorn” (fig. 1) from the inventor, T. G. Schorn, of Iowa. The form is rolled during the movement of the bed forward and backward. The ink is supplied from a fountain and conducted 1272 by a feed roller to the distributing table, from which the form rollers receive their supply in turn. The distribution is accomplished by angle rollers. The feed is similar to that on cylinder presses, and may be done by the pressman, or by a feeder stand- ing on the opposite side of the press. When the latter is done the pressman has only to run the bed in, pull the impression, and run the bed out, everything else being done automatically, even to the delivery of the printed sheets. The register is equal to that of ordinary cylinder work, and the inking is far better than is generally done by hand. The attachments are manufactured for seven, eight, and nine column presses. The capac- ity of the press is doubled. Jos Pnnssns.-—The first step in the way of labor- saving appliances in connection with the art of printing, was the treadle-—a utilization of foot power, whereby the hands were left free for other use than giving power. The treadle machine is necessarily very different from the hand press as previously used, inasmuch as the power is to be applied from below by the feet, instead of from above by the hand and arm. The pioneer press (fig. 2) of this description was invented by an American, Daniel Treadwell, who Went to England in 1820, and took out a patent. It was the first of a very important series of inven- tions pertaining to printing, each one an improve- ,- FIG. 2—'J.‘r1E “ Scnorm ” Panss. ment upon its predecessor. There~was great origi- nality in the construction of the Treadwell; its operations were conducted with much facility by one man, and as the rolling of the table, and the horizontal movement of the bar were dispensed with, the labor was greatly reduced. A general description of the principles involved in the construction and working of a treadle or job press, especially one of the present day, will show a frame work with the pedal necessarily at the bot- tom. It is the simplest of machine presses worked other than hand power. It consists of a bed for the reception of the form of type properly secured in its chase. The bed, unlike that in the hand press, which has bed and platen both horizontal, is fixed at a convenient angle, usually perpendicular, or nearly so, while the platen on which is placed the blank sheet or card, is at an angle convenient for examination and any needed adjustment. The two, the bed and the platen, are like open jaws at an open angle of about 50°. The form of the type secured in the chase, is clamped to the bed, when the platen, by the action of the treadle, rocks on a pivot and comes into parallelism with the bed. As it approaches the type the gearing operates a lever varying in different machines, and at the instant of absolute parallelism gives an im- pact of regulated strength. The inking of the form is automatic and is done by feeding the ink from a reservoir in the back PRINTING I part of the press, by a series of rollers playing in an erratic manner on a revolving disc where the ink is evenly distributed, and given by the final rollers controlled, to the surface of the type, from which as the platen advances toward the type, the rollers are quickly and automatically withdrawn, leaving the surface of the type ready for the im- pression. The operator, while one foot is working the treadle, has both his hands for use in feeding the blank sheets or cards, and taking away the printed work. The speed varies in different ma- chines from 800 to 1,500 impressions an hour ac- cording to the skill of the operator. While there are very many job or treadle presses in the market, there are four which may be called the best representatives of the class in general: the “Ruggles,” the “Degener” or “Liberty,” the “Gordon” and the “Universal” or “Gally.” The “Ruggles ” press was invented by S. P. Ruggles, about 1830. It simplified very materially the features of its predecessor, the Treadwell, and be- came such a favorite that it was universally popu- lar, and was in use for many years. The “Degener” _\' "\._ . '.,._ J ,u ~.|.. ~ ., ‘ ‘I I. FIG. 2 —THE PIONEER TREADLE, on Jon PRESS. or “Liberty” press (1858), was the invention of a Mr. Degener who made America his home. His principal idea was to cause the approach of the platen and bed in such a way that the type should not receive any wearing at the lower edges. This was attained by what was technically called the “goose-neck joint,” whereby the pressure was ap- plied with absolute evenness to the bed. While the press is an American invention, the output of the factory is almost entirely shipped to Europe. It obtained the prize medals at the London Expo- sition in 1862, and the Paris Exposition in 1867. The Gordon Press.—Possessing an ample genius, Geo. P. Gordon, of New York, took up the matter of treadle presses in 1850, and simplified them very greatly, adding new features, and correcting er- rors in old ones. until he built up an enormous bus- iness. He realized a fortune, and the name of Gordon Press ranked, and still ranks high amen the presses on the market, because of its origina features. The Universal Press (fig. 3), invented in 1869 by Merritt Gally, of New York, combines‘all the best features of every previously named press, with marked improvements. Simplicity of mech- anism, and ease of action have been studied and PRINTiNG M attained. As the Washington has for two gener- ations been regarded as the highest type of hand press, so the Universal or Gally would seem to be the highest type of treadle press yet attained. It is adapted to the finest and most delicate kmds of printing, and can by the change of a few screw reg- ulators, be converted into an embossing press of most marvelous power. ii!” 1, ‘ _ I _”l'* __ , “nu \ Fig. 3.—THE GALLY UNIVERSAL, THE To the foregoing list may properly be added the Champion, Prouty, Kidder, Globe, Pearl, Nonpa- pareil, Novelty, Hoe, Model, and \Villard presses, all of American invention and manufacture. Nearly all the manufacturers of treadle presses have of late years added a wheel for belt power, thereby increasing their capacity, and affording a steadier working to the machine. STAMPING AND OREASING PR1-‘.ss.——The first printing presses adapted to the work of cutting and creas- ing paper and pasteboard for boxes were made by M. Gally, of New York, early in the year 1876; since which time they have become universally popular. 1273 The press is something on the principle of the Universal in its construction, and made with the most enormous strength and solidity of build. The cutting face is 33 inches by 30 inches. An im- proved platen movement has peculiarly adapted this machine for either stamping or paper-box cutting. So universal has the desire for knowledge re- garding the art of printing become in America, "M \\\\\\‘ {- ,.,- . /-'-A 2/'-1 _ -' *2 ‘ll l,W Ii A l..li!l Hremssr TYPE OF TREADLE Panssss. that immense numbers of presses of every size, style, and make, are to be found in the market. They range from the small boy’s outfit costing a dollar, onward through the various grades of ama- teur work, and small ofiice requirements to the most costly oi the mighty perfecting press. Of the small presses one of the most serviceable was the Army press. This was small, portable, and made of very great strength and compactness, being designed especially for service in the field. These presses were attached to many camps during the civil war in the United States, and proved remarkably ser- 1274 viceable. In general construction there is a bed, the tympan, on which the sheet is placed; a roller platen carefully adjusted to the bed, and a crank. Their simplicity of mechanism, and extreme dura- bility rendered them available for the hardest service. POWER OR CYLINDER PREssEs.—For other mat- ter concerning CYLINDER Pnnss, see Britannica, ' Vol. XXIII, pp. 705-6. Self-actin g presses were total- ly unknown before the present century. The first conception of such a mechanism originated with William Nicholson, of England, in 1790, but the first PRINTING“ central cylinder, were made and successfully worked. , In the United States an immense amount of care, ingenuity and talent were displayed by various manufacturers in perfecting printing machinery-- ' much more so than in any other country in the world—and adapting it to the latest needs. The im- mense number of presses in use is a sufiicient proof of their popularity among printers, both in Europe and America. " The first advance on the Koenig cylinder was made by Applegarth and Cowper, in 1827, sixteen FIGURE 4. man to construct a working model was Frederick Koenig, in 1811. In his machine ordinary type was used; the form was flat, and passed beneath a large cylinder, which delivered the impression. This was the first actual cylinder known to history. It was a success, and at its first trial startled the printing world by throwing off 800 impressions an hour, afterwards increased to 1,100. The London “Times” immediately ordered two machines to be made, and, Nov. 29, 1814, went into an ecstacy of editorial delight over their successful working. A careful examination of the Nicholson machine, as described in his specification, shows that all sub- sequent attempts at machine printing are but modifications of the principle evolved in his fertile brain, whether they be cylinder or rotary in ac- tion. Ever since the practicability of using a cylinder in p1 esswork was demonstrated, improvements and extensions of the idea have rapidly progressed, until eventually presses of two, four, six,eight, and even ten cylinders, working upon a principal years after Koenig’s success, when they produced an improved press for the “London Times.” It had four cylinders, and gave 4,000 to 5,000 impressions in an hour on one side of the sheet. It was re- garded as a remarkable advance in the matter of presswork. Donkin and Bacon’s Machine (1813) was built for the University of Cambridge. Several forms were attached on the sides of a prism, and were present- ed consecutively to the inking cylinder and paper cylinder. This machine was cumbersome and soon passed out of date. It was the first printing ma- chi'ne in the world to discard the ancient hand-ball, and to adopt composition inking-rollers made of glue and molasses. For a long time there were serious prejudices against cylinder press printing work, because of its inacuracy, and it is only in very late years that -the problem has been satisfactorially solved. As a re- sult of the improvements made, cylinder presses are now used for the finest of book and engraving work. Improvements have followed with wonder- PRINTING ful rapidity, and what was but a few years ago deemed an impossibility, has now become an ac- knowledged fact. The large number of manufac- turers, and the consequent rivalry for the highest point approaching completeness in manufacture and perfection in work, have given to the printing world a series of presses that are the wonder of even the present age. In some of the cylinder presses the adjustments are so exquisitely refined in their movements that it is impossible to print a sheet out of register. If the sheet be fed with the slightest variation from absolute correctness, it is automati- cally thrown out unsoiled. Cylinder presses may be generally described as having a reciprocating bed, which is passing back- ward and forward over a limited track. Above this there is a fixed, revolving cylinder to carry the paper over the type which is itself placed in a flat form for the impression. As the cylinder revolves, the bed with its form passes beneath, receiving the pressure, then returning, receives a new inking, nil‘ W? nmnnnmulllll-111111113 ____ —-_ _-—-_____:.'__‘—--=-‘_"_-';—‘__'4- _ ___,__’_ __f_..___. - __________’—‘._'d_=T-_—7*__’—-—'—"__-'-—-‘:--—_7'.__-=_‘-_'—— ‘ITmi|i:|n|||m||m|um III! um 1 I ma |1| nun: I I ‘Pk _ __ -_ ____.__...:.:- ..-o - ... --\\-e-'"" 1275 The “Large” Cylinder gives but a portion of its surface to the impression of the form, a large seg- ment being removed which, while the cylinder re- volves, permits the form to return without the cyl- inder being lifted. The “Drum” Cylinder is a single large cylinder press, bearing the name “ Drum ” be-. cause of similarity in form to a huge bass drum. It is not very rapid, but has peculiar advantages in fine work. The “Stop” Cylinder is so arranged that the cyl- inder stops automatically after the sheet is printed, and remains stationary while the bed is running back, during which time a fresh sheet is placed in position. The “Double Ender” is fitted with two fountains, one at either end of the press, which supply the ink in equal quantities, and, at the head and tail of the form receive exactly the same amount. The remarkable, as well as rapid development in the mechanics of the cylinder press is best shown by a comparison of the first one built in 1814, and -|"i. I l|fi1|||||i|i|iifi|i|_T|—'|=|fln|i1'r' 1 _. -_= .;n-_:''‘_ G . ‘_‘*__,~ as :4, . \- Fre. 5——T1-IE “ Orrmus.” when it is ready for the next sheet. The sheets are fed in from a table, or “feed board” at one end, and above the press, while the inking is accomplished at the other. In some .of the later improved styles inking fountains are put at both ends. To such a fine point has inventive genius reached in the matter of inking, that in many presses an abso- lute uniformity of color is secured by taking the needed amount at each succeeding impression. Power, or cylinder presses, are variously designat- ed as “Single,” “Double,” “Large,” “Small,” “Drum,” “Stop,” “Double Ender,” etc. The “ Single" Cylinder is a press with but one cylinder whether “ Large,” “ Small,” or “ Drum.” The “Double” Cylinder has two cylinders over which the sheets of paper are fed to one form. The form travels under both, and each cylinder has a feed-board with an attendant, one on either side of the press. At each round trip of the bed an impression is taken from the two cylinders. An inking fountain is pro- vided at each end. While very popular for a, time, they have yielded to improvements and are rapidly becoming things of the past. “Small” Cylinder has the circumference of its cylinder so constructed that it will cover the form complete in a single revo- lu-tion. It is especially adapted for quick work. the highest type of those built at the present date. THE Annrs Pnnss.—In 1824 Daniel Treadwell conceived the idea of a power press, but was unfor- tunately burned out, and abandoned the matter. Isaac Adams took up the work and produced a press which, while it was neither a hand press nor a cylinder, held an important place in the printing world. The Adams had a stationary platen, and a bed that did not move backward and forward. Its only movement was up, to press against the platen, and down to its former place again. This rise and ‘fall was a considerable one, as the rollers had to pass between the form and the impression surface. The sheet was fed in from above the ends of the machine, and was taken to the point of impression upon a frisket, with a power estimated at from forty to sixty tons. Fifty-four sizes and styles were made including two, four, and six roller presses. The Adams presses were favorites for more than fifty years, and some are in use even at the present date. Rorxnv Pnnssns.—R-otary presses are those that, instead of having a flat bed upon which the cylin- der acts, have two cylinders, one of which carries the type, and the other the paper. Both revolve, 1276 and the paper passes between them and receives the impression. The rotary press was originated by Nicholson in 1790, but his attempt to produce a working machine proved unsuccessful, because he tried to use bevelled type. The matter was com- pletely remedied by the stereotyping process. CoLoR PRINTING-- Chromatic Printing Press.-—An . American invention by Suitterlin, Claussen & Co. The surface of the inking cylinder is divided into three equal parts, which are supplied with adjusti- ble sectors (or color strips) of various sizes. Each part is also supplied with a color from one of the distributing rollers. Each color has its own vi- brating and distributing rollers, with lateral mo- tion, giving as much distribution to each color as is given to the ordinary one color job press. No sectional rollers are used. The colors are printed Without blending, leaving the line of demarkation J%€%e' Jfifibi ; fifi b A 1.5/)de’(’l/.'l"'('fl Ibllo . Q ) /A\ ” \VJ fi’/'/'f1.s'// /'11/e/I/‘.- O FIG.l5.—TI-IE NAPIER TEN CYLINDER PRESS (1837), CALLED IN AMERICA “THE TEN CYLINDER LIGHTNING PRESS” (1847). clear and distinct. The form may be placed in any part of the bed, and worked equally as well as in the center. NEWSPAPER CYLINDER PR1-:ssEs.—After Koenig’s success in printing 800 impressions an hour, and later, 1100, the multiplication of cylinders was be- gun. The Applegarth and Cowper (1827) used in their machine four vertical cylinders, but the ca- pacity of each was not greater than that of the Koenig cylinder. Napier, in 1837, obtained a Brit- ish patent for a ten-cylinder press, the ten cylin- ders lying horizontal to, and around the great cyl- inder which contained the forms. Each cylinder necessitated a feeder. Napier’s press had a ten- dency to throw the type out, as did indeed all the presses up to his time. But the thickening of the upper portion of the column rule, an American in- vention by mechanics in the Hoe & Co. printing press factory, caused the rules to act as binders, and a higher speed was obtained. The Napier press / Fig. 6), called in America the “Lightning” (1847), was a mammoth affair. It was PRINTING simply ten presses working on one great cylinder, and was probably the largest press or combination of presses ever manufactured. Tue noise it made was terrific. The name of “Lightning? was after- ward abandoned, and that of “the old threshing machine” substituted. All the foregoing presses, and styles of presses printed the sheet on one side only. The paper was then turned over, new forms adjusted, or another press used, and the impression for the second side taken. , PERFECTING PREssEs.—The original of Perfecting Presses (fig. 7) was invented by William Nicholson, in England. A British patent was granted him in 1790, but nothing was ever done with it. Accord- ing to his idea the sheets were to be fed by hand, as in the ordinary cylinder presses, then passed over and between a pair of cylinders for the first impression, and then over and between a second pair for the second impression, thus completing the print, and perfecting the sheet. \Vhether Mr. Koenig was indebted to Mr. Nichol- son for his elementary principles in the construc- tion of his celebrated presses for the “London Times” in 1814, or whether almost the same ideas occurred spontaneously to each individual, is a question that can -only be satisfactorily answered by Koenig himself, and he is beyond recall. Fig. 7.—TI-IE ORIGINAL or“ PEEFECTING” Pnnssns. The “London Times” press of 1814 was not, how- ever, a perfecting press. The first practical work- ing machine of this class was built by M. Koenig, and was set up in 1817, thus following within three years his famous cylinder press driven bylsteam for the “Times.” Bensley, the Messrs. Bensley having contributed financial and moral assistance, and Koenig desiring to show his gratitude for their efforts in his behalf. In fact, without their aid Koenig would have failed in his enterprise. The “Bensley” was credited with turning out from 800 to 1000 finished sheets per hour; but some very peculiar conditions regarding price and roy- alty prevented its general adoption ; and its man- ufacture was gradually stopped. More than forty years passed by, when American genius stepped to the front, picked up the scat- tered links, and produced a machine which com- pletely revolutionized the printing press and everything connected with it. In 1860, William A. Bullock, of Pittsburg, Pa., built the celebrated Bullock press and the Cin- cinnati “Times” had the honor of using the first machine turned out from his shops. It was a suc- cess. In carrying into practice his plans, Bullock fed the paper from a roll containing five or six miles of linear measurement, moistened it by pass- ing it through a spray, carried it between the im- pression cylinder and the form, first one side, then for the other, and cut the sheets at proper in- tervals with great precision with a serrated knife which struck the paper with lightning-like rapidity. This knife was so constructed as rarely to need sharpening. - The new machine was called the ‘ PRINTING The forms of stereotype plates were mounted on cylinders, each having its own impression cylinder and inking apparatus. The -roll of paper having been mounted in its place, the machinery was started, and the paper unwound as fast as needed. . In the earlier presses the sheets were automatic- ally delivered on the receiving board at the rate of 11,000 finished sheets an hour. By a most un- happy accident the celebrated inventor lost his life ‘by be.’ .ig crushed in his own machinery, and a gloom fell on the printing world. ' Fortunately for the success of the “Bullock” press Mr. Bullock had for an assistant a skilled workman who entered heartily into all his confidences. This .assistant named Holberg, feeling proud of the suc- cess so far enjoyed, spurred on by his own genius, pushed ahead until in 1877 he had so improved the mechanism, that the“Bullock” press readily struck off 20,000 complete newspapers inside of sixty min- utes, and did it in such a way that the counting could be verified by the looker-on. Thus the “Bul- lock” took the first place in the world of printing mechanism. The remarkable changes indicated by the intro- duction of the“Bullock” Perfecting Press, set man- ufacturers and inventors in Europe and America to work with renewed zeal, and various improvements -were suggested, made, patented, and put in opera- tion. These efforts gave to the printing world a series of machines that are doing their best to out- rival each other. The “Walter,” the “Victory,” the “Alauzet,” the “Ingram,” the “Augsburg,” the “Mar- anoni,” the “Campbell,” the “Hoe,” and the “Scott,” are all representative presses, and deserve more mention than the limits of this article can afford. The daily demand for the latest news began to reach herculean proportions. and in 1868 the Wal- ter Press was imported from England, where it had superceded a Hoe on the “London Times.” Up to the date of the Bullock and the Walter, with the exception, as mentioned, of the Bensley, the im- pressions had been made on one side only. The paper was then turned over, new forms adjusted, or another press used, and the impression for the second side taken. In the new \Valter, the paper, as in the Bullock, dropped out printed on both sides. The \Valter claimed a capacity of 11,000 complete papers in an hour, or 22,000 single im- pressions. The rush of invention had begun. Walter began to improve his presses, and Maranoni, of Paris, came forward with some original ideas and pro- duced the celebrated Maranoni press. The Web Perfecting Press.—The history of the Web Perfecting Press begins in 1835, when Sir Rowland Hill, who became famous for his advo- cacy of penny postage in Great Britain, obtained Letters Patent for a Web Perfecting Press, that is a press capable of printing from a roll of paper on both sides, and cutting and folding the sheets. The roll is one continuous sheet of paper vary- ing in length from three to nine miles, and of a width required by the size of the sheet to be print- ed. It is so compactly wound that it is easily handled. and when placed in its bearings at the end of the press (or sometimes above it), uncoils very readily, being fed into the machine at any speed required. In some presses the roll is cut into sheets before being fed to the forms; in others, the cutting is not done until after the final impression and just previous to entering the folder. The Serrated Blade.—-In 1853, Victor Beaumont, of New York, patented the serrated cutting blade, set lengthwise in one of a pair of cutting I277 cylinders, having elastic surfaces inserted to hold the paper on each side of the cutting blade when the sheet was cut from the web. To this device is largely due the success of all web printing presses. The Improved W'aZter.—-The Walter Press, had in 1876, been so improved, that at the United States Centennial there was exhibited a specimen machine from which 17,000 copies of finished papers were produced in an hour, as against 1,100 sheets impressed on one side only fifty-eight years before. This was in the ratio of 34,000 to 1,100 impressions. It shows the evolution of one press, the “Falter, in a trifle over half a century. The Victory.—This machine was invented in 1877 by Messrs. Duncan & WVilson of Liverpool, Eng. IVhile it was generally built on the same prin- ciple as the “Bullock,” yet there were many impor- tant variations, and an added advantage in the facil- ities for folding the sheets as they left the press. It would print, cut, fold and deliver 8,000 complete papers per hour, of an eight-page paper fifty inches square; or print, cut, fold and paste, at the back, 7,000 24-page sheets per hour. The Alau-zet.—The Perfecting Press of M. Alan- zet, of Paris, was built in an extremely com- pact form, and embraced, with varying motions, the same general features for the giving of perfect impressians on a curved surface where it is desira- ble and even necessary to use cuts and engravings in book and newspaper work. He accomplished by different methods what was also gained by IValter in his most successful effort in reference to cut and engraving printing. Ingrczm lllust-rated llbrlc PM-nting Maehz'ne.-—So fast has one improvement followed another in the past two decades that that most difficult of all work, printing cuts and engravings is at last most thoroughly accomplished. It has heretofore been so surrounded with apparently insuperable obsta- cles, that the flat bed press with its comparatively slow movement has‘been obliged to be relied on, but the difficulties have been overcome, and web presses with plates curved over the cylinders have been introduced with marked success. In 1877, William J. Ingram, son of the founder of the “Illustrated London News,” secured a patent for an invention on a web printing machine whereby the sheet was fed into the mechanism re- ceiving the first imprint from the letter-press form ; thence it was carried diagonally downward to the picture cylinder which printed the illustrations on the other side. A species of uillotine cuts off the sheets at the proper places, w ience they were car- ried to the folding machine. The finished papers were delivered at the rate of 6,500 an hour. It has always been found in practice that cuts or engravings require much more careful inking than the letter press, and that the ordinary inking ar- rangements, which are found to answer very well for letter press, will give but very imperfect work from engraving or cuts. It has been found well- nigh impossible to obtain satisfactory impressions from cuts or engraving plates bent to the sharp curve required to correspond to printing cylinders of the ordinary size. These difliculties were overcome by increasing the diameter of the cylinder on which the plates for the cuts were placed, so that the curves to which the cuts or engravings were fitted might be gentler and of longer radius than the curve of the other printing cylinders. In 1878 there was built by Ingram and exhibited at the Paris Exposition, a second machine, which had the cylinders of such size that three whole sheets could be printed at each revolution. The 1278 curvature of the plates was so slight that the printing was regarded as fully equal to that done on the ordinary flat surface. The Campbell Web-Perfecting Press.—In 1876, Andrew Campbell, of Brooklyn, N. Y., contracted to build for the Cleveland “Leader,” a press from which 12,000 copies could be printed in an hour, and constructed the first press that printed. inserted, pasted, folded, and cut in one continous operation. A second press was built on the same pattern, and exhibited at the 1876 Centennial. It was afterwards erected in an ofiice in Jersey City, where it is still at work. The machine is remark- ably simple in construction. The type-cylinders with their corresponding impression cylinders are placed in a perpendicular plane. The sheet is fed in at one end; it passes between the respective pairs of cylinders, and is then carried over an arch- way to the folding department, where it passes downward by successive stages until it reaches the delivery board folded and ready for the carrier. PRINTING might justly appear that no further improvements could be effected in this department of the art of printing. But there is no limit to human ingenu- ity. Each year is producing some valuable addi- tional to the mechanism used in the printing world, and no one can foresee the developments that may yet follow. The Scott- Webb-Perfecting Press.—-In 1879, Wal- ter Scott, of Chicago, a machinist of rare abil- ity,concluded to take up the “Bullock” where the ill-fated inventor and his able assistant had left off, and devoted himself to the production of a press which should be a legitimate and natural develop- ment of the “Bullock Revolutionizer.” He succeeded, and built a machine in Chicago, with a capacity 50 per cent. greater than any of its predecessors. He improved upon his own im- provements, and in 1881, produced a press that would feed, print, out, fold, and deliver 32,000 eight- page papers inside of sixty minutes. No man can spring to the front and present a good thing without finding an abundance of imi- r1-l‘'V417[n .“ I 7 ' I ‘Pu|u‘rf2f3T‘T‘c?i J1 1-~-. The arch-way referred to is for the especial pur- pose of giving easy access to the interior parts of the maching as well as to the outer parts. It readily permits a man to stand up and work with- out injury while the press is in operation. Only two of these presses were ever built, and both are still in use. Costly litigation was entered into against Campbell by the Hoe Manufacturing Company, which eventuated in {the com- pany’s purchasing of Campbell’s patents and then shelving them. This press is a marvel of simplicity and easy manipulation. The cylinders are very small, the parts few, and the feeding of the web so gauged “ that the machine performs the best work with the least friction, noise, and inconvenience. With the improvements made in the past twenty years, the press of America presents the most ex- traordinary combination of intellectual and me- chanical power in the world. It is not only the means of disseminating knowledge among our own population, but also secures the high moral advan- tage of giving a tone to the literature of other na- tions,-which should be favorable to peace, and a right understanding of the common interests of mankind. Judging from the extraordinary perfection to which printing machinery has been brought, it ‘ THE Soorr ROTARY '\VEB-PRINTING AND Fo1.nmo MACI-IINE. r-:_.__;. ‘ -my-I38! I WALTER scorr &co PLAINFIELD M USA -._ z~\ _\--\_:{ I _ .'-q;,__, tators ready to pounce upon him and dispute his every step in progress. But Scott fought for his rights, and after a severe contest in the courts with his opponents, was paid large royalties for the privilege of using his inventions. He then set up his own works, and began to invent still fur- ther. The Scott press of 1890 is regarded as combining all the best features of any and every machine yet put before the public. The folding appliances are especially simple and complete, and with a mini- mum of parts in general, the machine produces the maximum of results. MAMMO'PH Pnnssns. The desire to build single machines that will produce the greatest number of papers in a given time, has led to the construc- tion by Various manufacturers of “quadruple” and “sextuple” presses. They are simply machines of mammoth proportions; or like the ten-cylinder ro~ tary press invented by Napier, and culminating in the once celebrated “Hoe Lightning,” consist of a multiplication of cylinders and forms in the same general frame-work. The largest of these kind of machines are popu- larly designated as “J umbos,” and are simply mammoth in their construction. A press of this kindweighs about fifty-eight tons. It is ordina-= rily fed by three rolls of paper, each of sixty-three. ‘ moth has not accomplished anything. .. PRINTING inches width. When under way, the machine runs at the rate of fifty miles of white paper in an hour, and will print, cut, fold, and deliver, 144,000 4-page papers an hour. While these monster presses perform prodigies of successful work, the sligtest difficulty in any one part, serves to paralyze the whole of the machin- ery, causing an uncomfortable delay, hence they are by many regarded with disfavor. The difference between a “Jumbo” machine, and a machine of moderate size, is easily illustrated. Let it be supposed for the sake of illustration, that a four-page paper is to be issued. The four forms are ready for the stereotyper. Their preparation requires on an average ten minutes, we will as- sume, before the plate can be put upon the cylin- der of the machine. A “Jumbo quadruple” will furnish four papers at every revolution, but it requires four sets of stere- otype plates, and until they are all ready the pon- derous machine is waiting. Four ordinary machines, each capable of receiv- ing the plates for a single paper complete, will ac- ~ complish a greater amount of work than a “Mam- moth,” as is easily evidenced by a trial at any critical juncture. For example: A mammoth press can produce 120,000 complete four-page papers in an hour, while each of four ordinary presses can pro- duce but 30,000 in an hour. The stereotyper for either a large or a small press will require on an average ten minutes for the preparation of his plates. At the end of ten minutes the first set of plates is ready. One is put upon an ordinary press and the other upon the mammoth. The smaller press begins to move, while the mammoth is obliged to wait. At the end of ten minutes, when the sec- ond set of plates is ready to be put in place, the first press has turned out 5,000 papers. The greater press is not yet ready; it cannot work until all the plates are in place. At the end of the next ten minutes the first press has reeled off 10,000 copies, and the second press 5,000, when the third small press begins to move. Up to this time the mam- At the end of the fourth ten minutes, when the fourth set of plates are ready, the fourth press receives its plates at the same time as the mammoth. Meanwhile the first press has delivered 15,000 copies, the second press 10,000, and the third press 5,000, before the monster has begun to move. Here is a total of 30,000 copies already in the mail or on the street before the mammoth makes its first pufl’. There is thus an immense saving of time. Besides, there is no more cost in four ordinary- sized presses than in one monster, as is easily veri- fied. Again, if anything goes wrong, or one of the monster presses breaks, either in little or in much, the whole machinery has to stop until the accident has been remedied. If an accident befalls a small press, its companions keep right on, and the delay is reduced to a minimum. The four machines of moderate size cost no more than the one of greater size, and are far more serviceable. Nevertheless, the fact is before the printing world, that a ma- chine has been constructed which will give 144,000 complete copies of a printed four-page paper with- in sixty minutes, and improvements in it are still going on. What the next ten years may develop is a matter of conjecture. COMPARATIVE GROWTH.-—II1 order to show prop- erly the wonderful advancement made, especially in later years, a table is submitted, that gives at a glance the successive steps of growth and improvement in printing machines from the begin- nmg-: I HAND Panssns. Capacity Year Name. per hour. Impressions. 1450 The Old Wine Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50 1620 The “ Blaew ” Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 1720 The “Stanhope” Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180 1800 The “Franklin” Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 250 1817 The “Columbian” Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 1829 The “Washington” Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 300 Pownn Panssss. 1811 The “Kcenig” Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 800 1814 The “Koenig” Press (London Times)... . .. 1,100 1827 Applegarth& Cowper, with 4 cylinders, each cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,100 1837 I g Napier, 10 cylinder, also called “ Hoe 1847 S Lightning ” each cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . .. 2,500 The foregoing presses gave impressions on one side only. In the following table, the reckoning is made of“perfected” four-page papers per hour. The “Nicholson” Machine. Patented but not built . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790 1817 The “Bensley” Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1,000 1860 The “Bullock” Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,000 1868 The“Walter” Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,000 1876 The “Improved Walter” Machine . . . . . . . .. 17,000 1879 The “Scott” Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25,000 1881 The “Scott Improved” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64,000 1891 The “Scott Improved” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96,000 1891 The "Sextuple’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144,000 The larger presses are especially built for print-- ing eight, ten, twelve, sixteen, twenty and twenty- four pages at a revolution. 1‘/IECHANICAL TYPE CO.\fPOSITION.—It is estimated that in the last two decades no less than $10,000,000 has been expended in assisting inventors to de- velop a successful type composing machine, using that term in all its applications; while added to this, the amount of brain power and innate genius that have been put forth for its attainment is in- credible. What have the results been? A great many brilliant ideas, some exceedingly ingenius toys, and a very few genuine accomplishments in a practical way. Of the few which in their particular adaptations can be pronounced successful, there are two gen- eral classes: Those which handle type, setting the matter by use of regular, or especially constructed types and those working on the casting principle, that is, casting lines from assembled matrices. Of type-handling machines, there would seem to be a sub-division into three classes: ((1) those which are devised with the purpose of aiding in the type setting; (b) those which depend on gravity to bring the letters to a common point; and (c) those in which the letters are carried to a common point by mechanical means as belts, disks, and recipro- cating bars. There can be no doubt that the approximate re- sults are very satisfactory, and offer warrant for predicting the early accomplishment of compara- tively practical machines in each of the classes, al- though many machines have fallen short of satisfac- tory practical results, because the amount of labor saved in their use has not been sufficient to over- come the cost of the devices and the sacrifice of time and money required for their mastery. The prejudice that the working classes usually exhibit towards machine methods is rapidly disap- pearing, so far as the printing world is concerned, and among intelligent printers even a feeling of friendliness is becoming manifest. Of the theoretical machines but little more can be offered than a comment upon their constructive character. Some machines require special type of different size and shape from the ordinary. while all work on the key-board principle, first crudely suggested by Church, in 1822, whose idea had 1280 doubtless been drawn from Herhan’s old specifica- tion in the British Patent Oflice records, under date of 1794, the method proposed by whom, however, was widely different from anything seen since. This principle of operating the machine by means of keys subtly responsive to the fingers of the workman has been considered the only way in which the primary work could be done; its objec- tionable features are those of the type-writer accentuated and multiplied many times. Type-setting is an occupation demanding intel- ligence, a wide experience. and extended and never-ceasing study, and there would be a con- tinued necessity for a machine to be improved with current development. An ordinary operator may be competent to strike keys, but in type-setting, something more is required. There must be the knowledge demanded and possessed by the practi- cal printer, as well as the thoroughly trained com- positor, both as regards spelling, punctuation, the “style” of the ofiice, etc., and mere type-writer manipulation counts but little. Ohurch, of Oonnecticut, suggested the key-board principle in 1822. The casting system was pursued and was intended to supersede the manipulation of separate types. Movable matrices were cast in single lines. His attempt was designated as the “Guide plate” principle. He put the types in channels, and oper- ated them with keys arranged like the keys of a harpsichord. The machine was necessarily crude, and although embodying ideas which have since met with successful development, they were not at the time regarded with favor. He devised the casting of types ready for the compositor, and have them (1) absolutely new every time they were used. That feature has reached its highest point up to this writing, in the improvements made by lklergenthaler and Rogers. Church also devised (2) the composing of the words so cast into words and sentences by the same process of casting; and (3) he produced printed impressions from the composition in the highest style of the art as known at that time, and with unexampled celerity. Variations,modifications and improvements be- gan to follow rapidly, beginning with about 1840, when Delacambre and Young took out the first of a rapid series of patents. Clay and Rosenberg, also in 1840; Joseph Mazzini, in 1843; William Mar- tin in 1849; Mitchel, Boule, and Oarlland, in 1853; Simoncourt, and 'Wiborg. in 1854; Ooulon in 1855; Delacambre and Alden, in 1856; and Robert Hat- tersley. in 1857; all followed with their different ideas of improvement. The Alden (England, 1856, and United States, 1857) was in practical use for many years in the large publishing house of D. Appleton & Go, in New York, on book work. Its capacity was rated at 3,500 ems an hour. Type of ordinary manufac- ture was used but each character had a nick pecu- liar to itself. The machine was about the size of an ordinary table, the upper part describing the outline of the letter D. The operator sat at one end of the flat side. The curved portion contained a horizontal wheel, holding the type in cells. By the rotation of the wheels several receivers were also made to rotate, and these picked up the prop- er types from their respective cells. It was reserved for Hattersley to produce the first machine to remain in practical use for any length of time. Hattersley was a practical engineer, and in the construction of his machine utilized the experi- ments made by his predecessors, but attained dif- ferent results. He avoided the erroneous conclu- PRINTING sions which had operated to produce the failure of the previous machines, simplified the parts very materially. and reduced complexities, as far as he could, to a minimum. To the main frame, Hattersley fastened a type table. containing ametal case in which the types could move freely. “Followers” were arranged in the rear, that pressed the type against a fixed plate by means of a vulcanized india-rubber spring. The last type of a row was depressed by a piston into a guide-plate provided with grooves converg- ing to a single outlet below. As the composition proceeded, a lever pushed the stick forward. The types were placed in the composing stick direct by only one motion. The floor occupied by the ma- chine was two feet by three feet, while the machine was simple and comparatively inexpensive, the price ranging from $375 upwards. Distribution was accomplished by placing the types in an inclined galley, the line lowest in the column resting on a sliding bar, having within it a series of loose metal pieces equal in length to the width of the column. The ends of these pieces pro- jected, and when the bar was moved, pushed against the contiguous lower line of type in the galley, thus sliding it into the groove, each piece working upon a separate line. The matter was read as it approached a given point; the operator touched a key on the board before him, and the letter which answered to the key was instantly conveyed to its proper receptacle. By this ma- chine one distributor could supply two setters. The machine worked ordinary type, no special niching being required. By later improvements the distribution was accomplished direct into the channels of the composing machine. This machine was not a success, for the reason that one man can by manual operation easily distribute for five com- positors. An ingenious principle was touched upon, but not rendered practicable. In the “Brown” type setting machine (1870), there were channels set at such an angle that they could slide downward by their own gravity, and rest upon the bar which closed the lower ends. Below, and in front of the machine was the “ stick,” or mechanical hand, which took the letter from the case. By the depression of a key, its correspond- ing type was thrust into the stick, and when the stick was filled, it was run to the end of the track into the “justifier.” Justification was by hand, the usualmethod with all machines up to and after this date for many years. Brown’s distributor consisted of a rotating ring about ten inches in diameter. At one side was a galley which received the page to be distributed. Radiating from this were the channels into which the types were distributed, and which, when full, were transferred to the “setter.” Beginning with the year 1822, there were in Eng- land thirty-five patents granted on type-setting machines up to the year 1872; and beginning with 1840, and ending at the same time (1872), the United States granted thirty-five patents. Since that time the advance is counted by the hundreds. Those attracting the greatest amount of public attention are at the present time: the “Frasier” described on p. 701, of Vol:XXIIT of the Britan- nica; the “Thorne,” the “McMillan,” the “Mer- genthaler,” and the “Rogers.” The “ Thorne ” and ‘ McMillan” use single types, while the others cast in solid lines. MAcK1E’s TYPE-SETTING MACHINE.—ThlS machine, invented in 1869, is divided into two parts, one of which consists of a tiny instrument with fourteen keys. by means of which narrow strips of paper are perforated by hand, either in the printing oflice, PRINTING or elsewhere. The machine proper consists prac- tically of three horizontal rings, and is about 8 feet in diameter, and 2 inches broad, the -under ring and the top one being at rest. On the top ring twenty pockets are inserted, each of which contains compartments for seven different kinds of type, and sufficiently open at the bottom to allow "he proper apparatus to extract the bottom type from any one, or from all the seven divisions, as wanted. The middle, or traveling ring has twenty “pick-pockets,” each carrying seven of what are called “legs-of-man,” and seven “fingers.” As an initiative there is a drum two inches in diameter, with perforations in the upper surface. Over this drum the paper is made to travel by a positive mo- tion of one-tenth of an inch at every movement. Over the top of the drum and the paper are four- teen levers with pegs ready to enter perforations in the drum, but are only able to enter those which have corresponding perforations in the paper. One-half of the perforations regulate the “legs- of-man” and the other half the “fingers.” On the type being extracted, it remains upon the travel- ing ring till it has reached the delivery channel, when a pusher places it on a traveling belt from which it is carried down to a syphon spout, one let- ter upon another, ready for justification. A ring carrying twenty “pickpockets” each with seven fingers, may extract 140 type in one revolution. The capacity for composition of this machine is rated at 12,000 ems an hour. The perforating is done at the rate of 10,000 ems an hour, and the per- forated-slips can be used indefinitely. An appli- ance permits the printing of the proof as fast as the type are set. THE Tnonmz TYPE-SETTING MAcH1NE.—In the “Thorne” Type-setting and Distributing Machine (fig. 9), invented in 1880, there are two principal features, namely, a key board and two vertical cyl- inders having the same axis, the upper cylinder resting upon a collar above the lower one. The mechanism, which is simple, consists pri- marily of two cast-iron cylinders, each 15 inches in diameter, placed one above the other. In the surface of these cylinders are cut ninety longitudinal chan- nels, in depth nearly equal to the length of a type, and corresponding to the body of the type to be used. The channels of the lower cylinder, or “set- ter,” are fitted with wards corresponding exactly with nicks on the edge of the type, no two charac- ters having the same combination of nicks. The ' upper cylinder is the distributor, and into its chan- nels is loaded type in lines just as it comes from the form, face out, from a special galley. The operation is very simple and rapid, less than five minutes being required to “load ” 6 000 ems of brevier. The distributing cylinder revolves above the “setter” with an intermittent movement, paus- ing an instant at the points where its channels coincide with those of the lower cylinder. The lowest type in each channel soon finds a combina- tion of grooves corresponding to its nicks, and drops down. It cannot, under any circumstances, go into any but the proper groove; and as the ninety channels coincide or match one hundred and fifty times per minute, the speed of this automatic distribution is equal to 10,000 ems per hour. “ Over 8,000 ems can be loaded in and distributed within an hour. Provision is made for taking out surplus type in any channel when an excess of a particular letter or “sort” has accumulated, and for replenishing, when a sort is exhausted before dis- tribution supplies it, the latter, however, being a rare occurrence. These sorts are kept in type- founders’ galleys, placed in a cabinet convenient to the machine. 1281 The key-board is like that of a typewriter, ex- cept that it is larger and has more keys. Each key is attached by a lever to a plunger, or ejector, which, when a key is depressed, forces out the low- est type in the corresponding channel of the setting; cylinder. Each type is pushed out upon a rapidly revolving disk, a short curved guide starting it in the right direction. The disc, whose axis is the same as that of the cylinders, carries the type quickly to the righthand side of the machine, where it is received on an endless belt, which trans- fers it to a lifting apparatus, or packer, where each successive type is placed in proper position in the line. The marvellous accuracy and nicety of the operation is one of the phenomenal features of the machine. As one type follows another, the line is pushed along across the front of the machine be- tween the key-board and the “setting” cylinder to FIG. 9. THORNE TYPE-SETTING AND D1s*rn1Bu'r1i\'e MACHINE- the justifier, who, with a “grab” set to the required measure, breaks up the long line coming from the “ packer.” As each line is justified, a lever operated by the foot pushes the line into the galley. Between the operator and the justifier is placed a double case for sorts, etc., containing on the operator’s side italics, reference marks, commercial marks, etc., and on the justifier’s side, duplicate sorts of the type played out of the machine. Under this double case, convenient to both operator and justifier, is a third case containing small caps. Any character not played out from the key-board is placed on the disk, which delivers it to the belt, and it is carried into the line the same way as any letter played out from the machine. In an iron case in front of the justifier are held the spaces required for properly justifying the lines. It is so arranged that one, two, or three of any particular space can be drawn out by a single 4 ‘ out fault. 1282 motion. The machine is driven by two small belts, one of which transmits power to the revolving disk, packer, and ejector apparatus, and the oth'er,'by means of an eccentric shaft operating an index pawl, produces the step-by-step motion of the dis- tributor. Three persons are required to operate the machine—an operator, a justifier, and a boy to “load” the distributor. Proof corrections are made in the ordinary way. The “Thorne” is adapted for all kinds of book and newspaper composition, with the exception of head- lines and display advertisements. All sizes of body type,from agate to pica, are set with equal facility, although any given size of the machine will set only its corresponding size of type. Ordinary type, as it comes from any foundry, is used, but it must be specially “nicked” before its introduction into the machine. The shortest “ takes ” can be handled as expeditiously on the machine as by hand compositors, a feature which will be especially ap- preciated on daily newspapers. The speed attained in daily use averages over 4,000 ems an hour of type distributed, set, and justified; but in trials of speed 6,000 ems an hour have been delivered on the gal- ley. The capacity of the machine is dependent solely upon the expertness of the operator. The distribution being automatic is absolutely correct, consequently there can be no typographical errors in proofs if the operator manipulates the keys with- The “distribution” and the “setting” go on in the same machine at the same time. A sin- gle machine occupies about the same floor space as a compositor’s double frame. THE MCMILLAN TYPE-SETTING MAoHINE.—This machine, invented in 1883, belongs to the class utilizing gravity as the force for gathering the type to a common center. There are three parts, each independent of the other: The type-setting machine; the distributor, and the justifier.- The type-setting machine bears a resemblance to the Frasier, described in Vol. XXIII, page 701 of the Britannica, but an examination will show very rad- ical differences. The machine proper occupies about half the space of the compositor’s “frame.” The operator sits before a Remington key-board, and works the keys as in the ordinary Remington type-writer. Set above the key-board are four “sections,” each containing twenty brass channels, each about 24 inches in length. These contain the various types. Each “channel” swings on a hinge as a door swings. By the touching of akey the required type is re- leased and drops by gravity into a race,‘ whence it is carried forward to its destination, a peculiarly constructed “storage galley,” where line after line of “set” matter is “stored” for manipulation. The “storage” galley is rectangular in shape; is about 24 inches in length; will hold from twenty to forty lines, according to the size of the type, and reserve in temporary store 5,000 or 6,000 ems of matter. I rom this “storage galley” a proof is taken, and when corrected the final justification is made. The “storage” of matter, instead of obliging the justifier to “keep up” with the key-board operator, is a peculiar feature of this machine. The distributor is distinct from the type-setter. It consists of a disc revolving within a series of “sections” radiating from its outer circumference. The type is fed line after line into the disc chan- nels, while the steady revolution of the disc carries it around, and when the appropriate place for the type is found, as is indicated by the nicks, it is “dis- charged” into the “channels” severally designated by mechanical appliances. When a “channel” is filled, it is removed and stored on a “channel rack,” an “empty” channel being put in its place. The PRINTING proof havingbeen taken from the “storage galley,” nothing remains but the final justification into line measure, which is done ' on a machine with one'op- erator, when the matter is ready for the form. A REvoLU'rIoN IN TYPE-SE'rTING.——-Type setting has been conducted substantially for four hundred years by hand. Each letter has been picked up by itself, and placed in the stick, marshalled with others into lines, and then again into columns. The compositor’s portion of the art has made little, or no change in the method, although he is rich in appliances. The problem of composition, and at- tendant distribution, of type Ly machinery has, for forty years past, absorbed more brains and money than almost any other problem with which inventors have struggled. Comparatively it is not a very difficult task to set type by machinery; the 0 ..\-L. 31‘ i‘ . . . -i """“ "-M ‘ \ ' . . . , _ ‘ \ -‘_‘--‘:::::>\4:\- ' .. .WW \ \\\\“' Awe rww THE MERGENTHALER “LYNoTYrEJ’ distribution is more difiicult; and the justification ‘ is the most difiicult of all. The objects sought by inventors are to do away with the use of movable type in printing, to reduce to a minimum the cost of composition, and to dis- pense with the labor and cost of distributing type, which is a necessary item in any printing office. The most difficult of all the problems to be con- quered, however, is the automatic justification of the lines—that is, equal spacing of the words cin- stituting the line of printed characters. The diffi- culty of accomplishing this task will be apparent when it is remembered that the compositor at the machine cannot tell, until his line is full, either the size or number of the spaces that will be needed; hence this problem has proven a great stumbling block in the path of the inventors, and, as a consequence, with few exceptions, they have contented themselves with the production of ma- chines that will set and distribute type, and have left the justification of the lines to be done in the old way-—by hand. - The great difiiculty about 'ustification arises from the fact that the size of t e spaces required L not known until the line is set-. The hand com- PRINTING positor goes back over his line and changes the spaces as may be necessary to justify. There is no easy way to imitate this by machinery. As the spaces cannot be of greater body than the type, or even as much as “type high,” it has been imprac- ticable to use expansible spaces. While all the machines previously mentioned in the progress of the evolution of printing me- chanics, were improvements on the old method of type setting, yet there was not in any one of them anything like a revolutionizing tendency. The slight gain was met by the greater expense, and the constant liability to get out of order. It was re- served for the “Mergenthaler” and the “Rogers” ma- chines to open the way for a complete and radical change in the matter of newspaper and book com- position. Types are really unknown in these ma- chines, the solid and perfectly justified line taking their place. To Ottmar Mergenthaler, of Baltimore, belongs the credit of utilizing the many brilliant thoughts of inventors in this field. His inventive genius, has produced a machine (fig. 10) which accomplishes all that is claimed for it. Patents were granted in 1885, and were rapidly followed by others. He has also secured by purchase and otherwise, many brilliant suggestions patented by others. .\Ir. Mergenthaler conceived the happy idea of setting up a line of matrices, and using expansible spaces operated automatically. After the line of matrices is set up and automatically spaced so as to justify, he casts against this mold a linotype (of type metal) which is the exact equivalent of a solidified line of type containing the same charac- tors as the matrices set up. Freed from the re- strictions imposed when using type, he can make the matrices of whatever size and material the purpose requires. The matrices in the “Linotype” are made of brass. In shape, they are circumscribed by a par- allelogram, and are an inch and a quarter long by three quarters of an inch wide. The thickness of the matrix corresponds with the width of the letter, thick for an “m,” thin for an “i” or an “l.” The character is stamped on the side edge of the matrix, the depth corresponding to the shoulder on the type, and is about one-third the distance from the bottom of the matrix. These matrices are stored in what may be likened to atoboggan slide, shown at the upper right hand of the cut. It is composed of two parallel plates separated by five-eighths of an inch and containing grooves in their opposing faces. These plates are set at a steep incline. The matrices lie with their side edges engaged in the groves. Each set of.grooves (one at the top and one at the bottom), contains the matrices for only one character. At the lower end of each set is an anchor escapement, connected indirectly to a key on the key-board. VVhen a key is depressed it operates the escapement so as to allow the bottom matrix to escape by force of gravity from the grooves, and fall to a traveling belt which urges it to the left toward the assembling point. The other matrices in the groove slide down the distance of one ma- trix. The spacing devices, which are made of steel, are about 4 inches long by T‘% of an inch wide. They are in two parts, fitted by a dove-tailing pro- cess, along piece sliding on a short piece. They form double wedges, the outer faces being par- allel. The spacing is eifected by releasing, one by one, at the end of each word, a wedge-shaped bar, a series of which are stored in a separate maga- Zine, from which they are discharged into the re- ceiver in a manner similar to that in which the matrices are fed. 1283 It is this peculiar spacing feature that has been heretofore regarded as one of the impossibilities in the construction of a machine that could take the place of hand-justifying. but the simplicity of the wedge, the ease with which it falls into place, and the certainty of a correct spacing, has been so thoroughly accomplished, that the wonder is that it had not been thought of before. The wedges are about 3 inches in length, and, while the thin part only is first inserted by the space key at the proper places, the whole series will be, by the touching of another key, driven to just the right pressure for the complete and even justification of the line. The first possibilities of such a procedure were born in the brain of Merrit Galley, of New York, who built a machine and secured the necessary letters patent in 1872. The wedging space-bar was wholly original with him, and he is the pioneer in the revolution of type setting, which for four hundred years had seen no appreciable change. The Galley space-wedge was first a pair of plain wedges playing on each other; then, to give a better alignment, a shoulder- ing feature was introduced, whereby a perfect press- ure between the type or matrices was secured, and the justification made perfect. In the original machine electrical connections were made, so that what was done on one machine could be repeated on as many machines as were put in connection with the original worker. Thus, a machine at IVashington, with one operator, could report proceedings in New York, Boston, Philadel- phia, Chicago, San Francisco, etc., and cast the lines of type, all under the manipulation of the single operator in Washington. Mr. Mergenthaler caught at the idea, and devoted his energies to making it practical. He has succeeded very largely, and the Mergenthaler “Linotype,” with its rival, the Rogers “Typograph,” has begun a radical revolution in the work of composition. To correct a mistake, or for any other reason,the operator can by hand and with facility transpose, change, add to or subtract from the line, any matrices. By an easy short movement of the hand lever the completed line is started over to the casting mechanism. A pair of rails fastened to a vertically sliding frame carries the line of matrices down be- tween two metal jaws projecting from a plane face of iron. These jaws close to the exact pressure or length of line. A cross-bar below rises and strikes the bottoms of all the long sliding pieces of the justifying spaces, forcing them in their wedge form further into the line, and so widening all the spaces until the line fills the distance between the jaws. Thus is accomplished the act of justification. The mold is made of hardened steel, and is the segment of a cast-iron disc 14 inches in diameter, capable of rotation, and carried on a frame that slides in the direction of the axis. This mold ad- vances and aligns the line by pressing it against the fixed plane surface behind the matrices, the stamped characters just meeting and closing the opening at the front face of the mold. The pot containing the melted type-metal follows behind the mold, and closes the opening at the back face. The hot metal is injected from a row of holes in the pot into the mold, and, when chilled, the pot, mold, and line of matrices are separated. The cast linotype is ejected, having passed by and between knives so as to have it machine-finished to exact size, and placed on a galley. The sliding frame raises the line of the matrices up to the height of the space box; an arm comes down from above, separates the brass matrices from the spaces, allowin the latter to slide en masse into their box, an carries the matrices up 1284 to the top, where they are fed by a simple arm, vibrating, into the distributor. THE DIs'rRIEU'rIoN.——To explain the distribution it must be said that a large V is cut in the top edge fill e.- _ -v . . Q I I ,- nu: R065" 5 H """?i"“":."“’;“:‘.'\I""\';"“§> . ‘.5-’: I “'-'" yYP06RAP '1' :4’ -'.';\Qf.'1;; ;_-__.,___-:-_ ts"-'-‘-1'-'--'i\*.'=* ._....._-—;_-;—_.1 _ , Mj'!:e',li \.-M __~_____,__.--v—P ' I I ' 1 ‘ ‘ _-*'---'_I_’_' I ' ' ’ ‘ ‘ ‘ -,,.__..I.._ .- re‘--E W . M “-3'5-'*"~""-”i Q’ ‘B "2" "0' N .")".\‘|\lf)‘;‘ — i'\!‘,.('. -—- .. --; ‘--- ii14“.“-' # K _ . W X?’ 1’ i%‘r\'“:\‘$\“ ‘ll 1 ' \¢"¢\“"\\“\‘\\‘~‘v "- ' \"\\\.\l'l|l“\\“\\ l) \ \\|\‘\1\‘\|\“\\‘.‘ ‘.\“\‘\"‘.'\\".'-""/ \‘ |l‘.--‘.‘/ ’ -' \ I §)=' l \\ /’.;;',i;{fi|j,,v ‘J - /fl/,. a ‘ - ii _-_—.:“- I’: . /I.-17 / THE ROGERS Trroenarn. This V is serrated with seven of each matrix. teeth on each side, that is, originally. The distri- buter bar is horizontal, of steel, shaped at its bottom 1 \ '\l {D ':,¥‘\.\’ '_ ‘Qt-. \ - ‘ .~_._.' \ I ‘ q. ‘I ,\ \\ Q / '/ , ASSEMBLING THE MATRICES. edge to correspond to the serrated V of the matrix. The matrices are fed onto this bar and are sup- ported by their engaged teeth. As they hang from this bar, they are urged to slide along by conveyer screws, and are driven through a set of passages leading to the toboggan slide previously mentioned. These passages are distant 1/4 of an inch from cen- ~ line. PRINTING tre to centre. The teeth on the bar are cut away in sections, so that at every 1/4 of an inch there is a different combination of teeth left full on the bar. Certain of the teeth on the matrices are also cut away, the combination being the same for all of any one character, and different from any other characters. So long as there is on the matrix one pair of full teeth corresponding to a pair of full teeth on the bar, the matrix is supported, but when it arrives at a point on the bar over its appropriate passage, there are no teeth on the bar andlmatrix corres- pondin , hence, nothing to support the matrix, and it rops into its passage and slides from there into the toboggan groove. As those in advance of it in the groove are used, it follows down, and finally becomes the bottom matrix once more, and starts over the same circuit again. There are ninety keys on the key-board. There are also other characters, such as are not used DISTRIBUTING TIIE MATRICES. frequently, kept on a convenient frame, which can be readily inserted by hand. Blank matrices are used as “ quads.” Any size type from agate to small pica, inclusive, will run in the same grooves, so that any of the in- cluded fonts may be used in one machine. The machine can also be changed to any reasonable length. As soon as one line is completed and started to the castor, the operator proceeds to set up another The keys are operated like type-writer keys. The operator has nothing to do but to manipulate the keys and start the line. The capacity of the machine is from 8,000 to 10,000 ems per hour. The moment the linotypes leave the machine they are ready to go into the form without any second operation. New type is obtained for each issue. The spacing in any one line is uniform. After a line is once set up, the casts from it may be repeated as often as desired at the rate of six a minute. The lines being solid, there is no pi-ing. Leads are inserted at the pleasure of the maker- up of the forms. The old style hand-distribution does not exist, as the linotypes are melted over when they have served their purpose. The metal is kept hot by Bunsen gas flames consuming a total of about fifteen feet of gas per hour. The space occupied by each machine is five feet by five feet, and its weight is about 2,000 pounds. With ' PRISON DISCIPLINE the single exception of touching the keysby the operator, every operation of the machine IS auto- matic. The “ Linotype” (condensed from ‘ line-of- type’) gives a solid and perfectly justified line, Which is the central principle of the invention. It is a radical departure from any previously known methods, and its general acceptance by the news- paper and book-making world is a proof of its suc- cess as a revolutionizer in the art of printing. THE ROGERS TYPOGRAPH. -—The Rogers Typo- graph named after the inventor, John R. Rogers, while it has certain features in common with the Mergenthaler is yet in many other feat- ures radically different. Its size is about four feet by four feet on the floor space, and it is four feet, six inches in height. Its weight is 450 pounds. The floor space occupied by it is little more than that taken up by an ordinary sewing-machine. It can be run by foot, hand or machine power, only one-eighth horse power being required. The speed of the ma- chine is limited only by the capacity of the opera- tor. On a sixteen-em pica line, a speed of 7,000 ems per hour has been attained. The Typograph is simple in construction, and the matrices from which the type is cast, slide into their places by gravity. The finished product of the machine is a solid line of type ready to be placed in the form to be printed from directly, or to be used for stereotyping. The lower half of the Typograph contains the receptacle for the melted type-metal, the casting box, and the machinery for trimming the line of type. Above this and con- nected with it, is the frame upon which the matrices are hung. This frame is like a rounded arch, with a steel wire devoted to each matrix in a font of type. The matrices are strips of brass dangling at the back side of the machine. In the steel side of each is cut the perfect impression of the printed letter from which the type is to be made. At the upper end of each stretched wire in the frame hang several matrices containg a given letter, but each wire contains a different letter. The dangling matrices are so attached at the top of the wires, that when released, they slide along the wires downward one at a time at an incline of about forty-five degrees into line-form position. There is no disarrangement, as no matrix ever leaves its own wire, and it is sent back to its place when the line is completed by simply lifting the wire-frame. When the matrices are gathered into line, the spacing is accomplished by the rotation of a rocking disc of circular form which at the ini- tial point is thinner than a three-em space. The touching of the space key throws one of these discs into position at the end of each word. When the line of matrices is assembled, the touch of another key causes the discs to revolve to the necessary point of pressure which indicates that the line is full. Pressure on a foot treadle is given, when the casting and delivery of the line is made in about two or three seconds. The key-board is about one foot wide, and the stiff wires, as they emerge from under it, cover about the same space. These wires then spread out and extend upward and outward, so that at the end from which the matrices hang, they form almost a semi-circle, with the. diameter parallel with the edge of the key-board. This gives all the wires an upward slant. A black pipe, whose mouth protrudes from the hot flame of a gas jet, or a lamp, or whatever may be used, preferably a Bunsen burner, connects with an iron box which is filled with molten type metal. This is so arranged that when a rod in the back of the machine revolves, it forces a stream of 1285 the molten material through small apertures in the pipe against the matrices, and the line is form- ed in a single solid piece, as in the Mergenthaler machine. In operation, after the line is set, by touching a pedal, one revolution of a wheel forcing the flowing metal into the casting box, makes the line of type before it solidifies, and then sends it between a pair of knives which trim it into proper shape. The key- board is then raised by the operator, and the ma- trices slide back to their places at the upper end of the wires by force of gravity. The frame is lowered again, and the operation of “setting” is continued. A circular stand on one side of the machine contains matrices for characters seldom used. These can be rapidly inserted by hand, so that italics, rare commercial characters, etc., may be used when necessary. The advantages which these machines, and the Mergenthaler type-setter will work to publishers, to compositors, and to the public at large are al- most incalculable. The publisher can give his paper a new dress every day, for there are no type to be worn out, or become nicked, no dots upon the i’s broken off. no commas bruised into periods, no f’s converted into mongrel t’s, and there is no in- complete or improper spacing. There can be no pi-ing under any circumstances, for every line is solid. It is also cheaper to have extra sets of ma- trices than to carry extra fonts of type. It is pos- sible to obtain any unexpected million ems of composition without having to wait for type, and to lock up any number of matrices without losing interest on expensive type, and with the ability to put the whole affair into the melting pot when de- sired, thus closing the interest account for the type metal. Thousands of small towns which have not been able to support even a weekly newspaper, can now boldly enter upon the support of a daily, without risk to the publisher. This feature alone will cause an increase in the amount of composition done, over what a compositor can do by hand; thus paying employment will be found for every one capable of running a machine. Compositors and proof readers will also find the machines giving proofs that do not injure the eyesight, particularly where the type is small, or where a complicated face. as in German, is used. PRISON DISCIPLINE. XIX, pp. 747-764. Up to the present century the typical prisons were the Bastile in Paris, the Tower in London, the Plombs in Venice, the Mamertine at Rome, the Spielberg in Austria, and the dungeons of the In- quisition in all Catholic countries. The manage- ment of these prisons was organized and systemat- ic cruelty. Most prisons were dark and damp; cold in winter. and the Plombs insufferably hot in summer; the prisoners were usually half-starved, and clad in rags; often loaded with chains, and oftener yet pestered by rats. PENOLOGY is the science and art of proper pun- ishment. It is a practical science, and has been originated by John Howard, a retired London mer- chant. He investigated many prisons in Europe and America. He began his work in 1778. In 1776 the first Prison Reform Association was organized in Philadelphia. It was called “The Philadelphia Society for Assisting Distressed Pris- *oners ” Benjamin Franklin was one of its first members. This society recommended “The classi- fication of prisoners, and individual reformation with labor in seclusion, and the interdiction of all intoxicating drinks.” The legislature of Pennsyl- vania passed an act in 1790, in which the principle See Britannica, Vol. I 1286 of separating the prisoners was recognized as far as hardened offenders were concerned. In 1794 this act was amended so as to require the sepa- ration and seclusion of all convicts. The death penalty was abolished in all cases except for mur- der. In 1829 the Eastern Penitentiary of Phila- delphia was built. This prison soon became famous. lt was imitated in many countries. In this institution the solitary confinement of prison- ers, known ar the “Pennsylvania System” was for the first time put into operation,every prisoner being confined in a separate cell. It is now only in prac- tice for prisoners awaiting trial, but not for con- victed felons. The first prison in America which adopted the Philadelphia system, was that at Auburn, N. Y., which introduced it in 1830. But no employment was provided for the prisoners at Auburn, the cells there being too small to permit such employment. The result was the early abandonment of the Penn- sylvania system at Auburn. In its place labor in as- sociation by day was provided for the prisoners and solitary cellular confinement at night. This soon became known as the "Auburn” or “congregate system,” and is still so recognized. After trying the Pennsylvania system in many prisons, especial- ly at Sing Sing, N. Y., at Thomaston, lWIe., at Prov- idence, R. I., at Trenton, N. J ., and at the West- ern Penitentiary of Pennsylvania, at Allegheny, it was soon abandoned and replaced by the Au- burn system. Since then the latter system has been universally adopted in American penitenti- aries. In the South the “lease system” has been intro- duced after the civil war. Upon the liberation of 4 million slaves in the Southern States there were so many of them convicted for stealing, that suffi- cient room for their confinement could not be found in the existing prisons. In order to dispose of them they were leased out to the highest bidders for the term of their respective sentences. The lessees were to have the entire control of the pris- oners, and for this privilege they were to maintain them and pay the State a stipulated price per capita. This system is a modification of slavery, with the dangerous adjunct that the master has no property interest in his slaves. Nothing hinders him to be cruel to the prisoners to get more work out of them. The system is against the humanizing spirit of the present civilization. It exists at pres- ent in the States of Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana. In 1815 the “ Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline and for the Reformation of Ju- venile Offenders” at Boston was organized, and in 1824 it was followed by the organization of “The Boston Prison Discipline Society.” Through the influence of these two societies the reformatory for men at Concord, Mass., the prison for women at Sherborn, Mass., and the Suffolk county jail at Bos- ton became models for the treatment of prisoners, especially in the absolute separation of all prison- ers awaiting trial, and in the reformatory en- deavors regarding all convicts. In the State of New York the “ House of Refuge” was opened in 1825, and is still in operation at Blackwell’s Island. It was the first reformatory for juvenile delinquents in the United States, and was the work ‘)f the “ Society for the Prevention of Pauperism,” established in 1818, and reorganized in 1823 as the “ Society for the Reformation of J u- venile Delinquents.” The reformatory prison at Elimra, N. Y., in 1877 is another forward step in prison management. It is now the model prison of the world in its methods of dealing with felons under 30 years of age convicted for their first of- PRISON DISCIPLINE fence. The prisoners at Elmira are segregated into 3 classes under the mark system ; their sentences are mostly indeterminate, depending greatly on good or bad behavior; and the prisoners after being trained in some branch of industry, are often discharged conditionally, that is, under supervi- sion. New York was also the first State in the Union to establish a hospital for the custody of insane criminals, which has been in operation at Auburn since 1858. In 1844 the “New York Prison Association” has been organized. This society exerted a wide in- fluence in all matters pertaining to prisoners in the United States. By its efforts the “National Prison Association” was formed in 1870, and also the International Prison Congress in 1872. Both of these have contributed very largely to the ad- vancement of prison reform, and are still in active operation. In Ohio, jails are provided which secure the ab- solute separation of all prisoners awaiting trial; also district workhouses for misdemeanants; and an intermediate penitentiary for young men under 30 years of age convicted of felony for the first time, the latter institution being at Mansfield, while life-prisoners and incorrigibles are kept at the Columbus penitentiary. For delinquent children Ohio first established re- formatories, upon the family or cottage system. The first of these was for boys, at Lancaster, in 1858, and the second for girls at Delaware in 1878. Ohio has also taken the lead in establishing a sys- tem of paroles for penitentiary prisoners, and also in making a third conviction for felony conclusive evidence of incorrigibility, and subjecting the of- fender to imprisonment for life. Through the influence of State boards of correc- tion and charity, and the activity of the national and local prison associations, manifested by con- ferences and publications, there has been a revival of public interest in the United States upon prison subjects, and annual improvements are indicated by the enactment of reformatory laws in almost every State. There is also a growing sentiment all over the Union in favor of separate prisons for women, which are to be entirely managed by women. Beside the prison for women in Sherborn, Mass., there is another female prison in operation at Indianapolis, Ind., and others are contemplated in several of the larger States. In the United States there are no prisons owned and controlled by the federal government except a few territorial jails and the militia prison at Fort Leavenworth, Ks. Prisoners convicted of felonies under the United States laws are confined in such State penitentiaries as may be designated by the Attorney-General of the United States, un- der agreements with State authorities. Over these State penitentiaries the general government has no control. This state of affairs ought to be changed by the establishment of a federal peniten- tiary. NUMBER OF CoNvIcTs IN PENITENTIARIES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1890. —— The table here- with submitted shows the total number of con- victs in penitentiaries to be 45,233. The num- ber reported in 1880 was 30,659, but the increase in the population of penitentiaries is not so great as would appear from a comparison of these figures, since a different rule of classification has been adopted. In the tenth census 4,879 prisoners in some of the southern States, who were leased out and not confined within prison walls, were separated from the penitentiary population. For instance, in Georgia, which has no penitentiary of its own, 1,504 leased prisoners were not counted Parson DISCIPLINE' among penitnetiary convicts though nearly all of them might have been properly so classed. The same remark applies to the State of Florida. In the statement herewith submitted 9,561 leased prisoners are included, because they were serving sentences in the penitentiaries of the States in which they were found.~ It cannot now be ascer- tained how many of the 4,879 leased prisoners in 1880 were serving penitentiary sentences and how many of them were serving short terms for minor offenses in county convict camps, but it is certain that a large majority of them, probably nine- tenths, were penitentiary convicts. The percent- 1287 age of error will be so slight that it is safe to say the number in- penitentiaries in 1880 was 35,538, but in 1890, as above stated, it was 45,233—an increase in ten years ofl9,695, or 27.28 per cent. The increase in the total population was 24.86 per cent. appears that the penitentiary population is grow- ing somewhat more rapidly than the population at large, but the difference is not very appreciable. The number of leased prisoners in the South has almost doubled in ten years. The tables on this page and the next exhibits the distribution of penitentiary convicts in 1890 by States and Territories and nativity and race: PENITENTIARY CoNvIcTs or THE UNITED STATES IN 1890, BY STATES AND TERRITORIES. White. Native. States and Territories. Aggregate. Colored. Total Foreign Nat-ivity Total Parents One parent Parents Orllflggnlggth Born" Unknown‘ N atlve. fore1gn. foreign. unknown. The United States.. . .. 45,233 30,546 23,094 12,842 (11,747 6,584 b1,921 I 7,267 I 185 014,687 NORTH ATLANTIC DIVI- ' . . . . . . . . . . . 14,477 13,324 9.435 3,960 791 3,993 691 3,780 9 d1 ,253 Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 170 233 82 11 23 17 36 1 . . . . . . . . . . New Hampshire... 116 116 82 58 7 17 . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 91 74 43 10 13 8 16 1 . . . . . . . . . . Massachusetts, . . . . . . . . 1,530 1,457 1,072 397 107 527 41 385 . . . . . . . . . . . (:73 Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . 122 111 87 39 11 34 3 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 303 221 114 10 83 14 80 2 37 New York ............ .. 8,190 7,583 5,302 1,959 431 2,401 511 2,280 1 f607 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,557 1,330 412 47 420 6 445 . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . 2,361 2,063 1,579 856 157 475 91 480 4 g298 SOUTH ATLANTIC DIVI- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,466 1,204 1,112 891 47 87 87 87 5 I15 262 Dela,wa,re _ , _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ , _ __ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 296 246 139 21 59 27 48 2 394 District of ()Q1umbi3,_ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,179 206 195 176 4 5 10 10 1 961 West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . 278 194 186 136 7 14 29 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 North Carolina . . . . . . .. 1,422 235 230 218 9 3 . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 . . . . . . . . . . .. k-1,187 South Carolina . . . . . . .. 806 55 54 51 1 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . .. 751 Georgia ............... . . 1,729 107 161 151 5 4 1 6 .......... . . 1,552 Ylorida. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 51 40 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20 9 2 323 WORTH CENTRAL Divi- . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,990 9,261 7,478 4,575 594 1,570 739 1,760 23 Z1,729 Dhio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,652 1 332 1,148 678 70 267 133 183 1 111320 lndiana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.410 1,220 1,117 855 73 138 51 95 s 196 Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,057 1,799 1,361 751 122 378 110 433 5 11253 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,108 1.045 785 405 83 188 109 ‘ 58 2 063 Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 507 311 149 35 117 10 196 . . . . . . . . . . . . p23 Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 416 258 127 24 76 31 156 2 16 iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 577 487 289 50 88 60 89 1 46 Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,701 1,140 1,004 558 83 180 183 134 2 q561 North Dakota . . . . . . . . . ~“ 62 39 15 4 16 4 . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 South Dakota . . . . . . . . .. 97 92 66 36 8 21 1 26 . . . . . . . . . . .. T5 Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 350 26 253 7 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 1 841 Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 721 633 459 35 92 47 87 1 i197 0. Includes 707 convicts with a native father and foreign- born mother and 1,040 convicts with anative mother and foreign-born father. - b All white, and all natives of the United States. 0 As reported by the enumerators, these figures include 10,889 p)ure negroes 3,378 mulattoes or negroes of mixed lood, 240 Chinese, and 180 Indians. d Includes 6 Chinese and 11 Indians. 9 Includes 4 Indians. ~ f Includes 4 Chinese and 7 Indians. Includes 2 Chinese. Includes 2 Indians. 2' Delaware has no penitentiary. 3' There 1s no penitentiary in the District of Columbia. I: Includes 2 Indians. I Includes 5 Chinese and 39 Indians. an Includes 13 Indians. 71 Includes 4 Chinese and 1 Indian. 0 Includes 1 Indian. p Includes 1 Chinese and 10 Indians. q Includes 1 Indian. '7'‘ Includes 4 Indians. 5‘ Includes 2 Indians. t Includes 7 Indians. It thus , . Oregon, 25; 1288 PRISON DISCIPLINE PENITENTIARY Convrors or THE UNITED STATES IN 1890, BY STATES AND TERRITORIES-—C'oncZudeol. White. %g%¥ie€0;LiIéSd_ Aggregate- Native‘ Colored. TOta1_ Foreign Nativity Total Parents One Parent Parents OII1,e;%I1B,;(;th Born‘ Unknown’ ' Native. Foreign Foreign. Unknown SOUTH CENTRAL DIVIS- ION - - - - - - , - - - - . - - - - - 9,241 3,271 2.609 1,971 123 241 274 518 144 a5,970 Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,235 515 367 293 12 30 32 26 122 720 Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,484 402 359 266 14 26 53 34 1,082 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,086 159 148 133 7 6 2 11 . _ . . _ . . . _ . . . 927 Mississippi ----------- - - 429 39 38 27 ........... . . 3 s 1 .......... . . 390 Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 856 129 l 108 48 16 32 12 21 . . . . . . . . . . .. b727 Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 ,319 1 ,704 1 ,278 960 57 130 131 414 12 c1 .615 Indian Territory . . . . .. (<1; . . . . . .._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . .. . (e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 323 311 244 17 14 36 11 1 f509 WESTERN DIVISION.. . .. 4,059 3,586 2,460 1,445 192 693 130 1,122 4 g47f? Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 225 205 152 88 5 59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1 h20 Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 9 8 3 2 1 1 . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 488 368 193 39 109 27 120 . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . .. 112 109 80 59 5 5 11 27 2 3 Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 117 51 30 4 14 3 66 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1'27 Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 174 99 48 8 25 18 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . 3'6 Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 75 41 26 3 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 . . . . . . . . . . .. [:21 Idaho . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . 102 94 58 30 12 9 7 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . Z8 Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. (m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 224 152 81 10 55 6 72 . . . . . . . . . . . . n27 Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 322 241 158 4 51 28 81 . . . . . . . . . . . . 040 Cahfornia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,051 1,769 1,210 729 100 352 29 558 1 p282 a Includes 2 Chinese and 33 Indians. b Includes 1 Chinese and 1 Indian. 0 Includes 1 Chinese and 3 Indians. d There is no penitentiary in the Indian Territory. e There is no penitentiary in Oklahoma. f Includes 32 Indians. g Includes 227 Chinese and 92 Indians. h. Includes 6 Chinese and 10 Indians. 71 Includes 4 Chinese and 17 Indians. j Includes 1 Chinese and 5 Indians. k Includes 10 Chinese and 1 Indian. Z Includes 4 Chinese and 2 Indians. an There is no penitentiary in Alaska. 12. Includes 3 Chinese and 10 Indians. 0 Includes 25 Chinese and5 Indians. p Includes 171 Chinese, 3 Japanese, and 42 Indians. ' In respect to color, this table shows 30,546 white and 14,687 colored; of the latter, 15,267 were ne- groes, 237 Chinese, 3 J a-panes'e, and 180 Indians. Of the negroes, 3,378 are reported to be mulat- toes or persons of mixed blood. This enurrieration is probably very inexact, for some enumerators made no attempt to discriminate between the two classes, and there is reason to believe that in some instances negroes of a light brown or chocolate tint have been improperly described as mulattoes. As was to be expected, about four-fifths of the negro convicts were found in the South Atlantic and South central divisions. The Chinese were distributed as follows: zona, 4; California, 171; Idaho, 4; Illinois, 4; Louis- iana, 1; Montana, 6; Nevada, 10; New York, 4; Pennsylvania, 2; Texas, 1; Utah, 1; Washington, 3; Wisconsin, ~ 1. The 3 Japanese reported were all in the California State prison at Folsom. The Indian were distributed as follows: Ari- zona, 17 ; Arkansas, 32; California,42; Idaho, 2; Illinois, 1; Kansas, 7; Louisiana, 1; Massachusetts, 4;Michigan, 1; Missouri, 1; Montana, 10; Nebraska. 2; Nevada, 5; New York, 7 ; North Carolina, 2; Ohio, 13; .Oregon, 5; South Dakota,4; Texas, 3; Utah, 1; Washington, 10; Wisconsin, 10. It will be observed that there is no State prison. or penitentiary in Delaware, the District of Colum- bia, the Indian Territory, Alaska, or Oklahoma. in Florida and Georgia there are nominally peni- tentiaries, and convicts are sentence to them; but in fact these States neither own nor occupy grounds Ari-' or buildings for this purpose, and'all such convicts are leased to private parties. In respect of nativity, not including the colored convicts, who may all be supposed tobe natives ex- cept the Chinese and Japanese, of the 30,546 white convicts 23,094 are native born, 7,267 foreign born, and the place of birth of 185 is unknown. Before the present census this is all that could have been said on this important topic. But an examination of the table will reveal the fact that the native white convicts are divided into four or really five sub-classes, as follows: 12,842 had both parents na- tive; 1,747 had one parent native and one parent foreign born; 6,584 had both parents foreign born ; and in 1,921 cases the birthplace of one or both parents is unknown. Of the convicts with one for-_ eign-born parent 707 had a foreign-born mother and 1,040 had a foreign-born father. Leaving out of view the 1,921 whose parentage is unknown in whole or in part, there remain 21,173 cases in which the proportion of native and foreign blood can be estimated. If to the 12,842 native convicts born of native parents is added one-half of the number with one parent foreign born, the sum is 13,715.5. If to the 6,584 native convicts born of foreign par- ents is added an equal amount, the sum is 7,457.5. But to this latter figure must also be added 7,267 foreign-born convicts, which gives as a result 14,- 724.5. In other words, the foreign population of ‘his country contributes, directly or indirectly, in the persons of the foreign born or of their imme- diate descendants, considerably more material for our State prisons and penitentiaries than the en- PRIVATEER-—PRUSSIA tire native population, the difference being repre- sented by 1,009. This makes a very different show- ing from that in any former census, and it is nearer correct. It is an interesting remark, easily retained in the memory, that of 43,127 penitentiary convicts whose birthplace and parentage are known the foreign- born element of the population furnished 14,725, the colored population 14,687, and the native white population, which probably out numbers them both, only 13,715. In other words, each of these elements furnishes about one-third of all the inmates of our State prisons and penitentiaries. It is also interesting to notice how remarkably the penitentiary population divides itself into three approximately equal parts by geographical lines: the North Atlantic division reports 14,477, the South Atlantic and South Central divisions 15,707, and the North Central and Western divisions 15,- 049. The numerical order of the States, according to the number of convicts in penitentiaries reported in each of them, is as follows: New York, 8,190; Texas, 3,319; Pennsylvania, 2,36]; Illinois, 2,057; California, 2,051; Georgia, 1,729; Missouri, 1,701; Ohio, 1,652; New Jersey, 1,557 ; Massachusetts, 1,- 530; Tennessee, 1,484; North Carolina, 1,422; Indi- ana, 1,416; Kentucky, 1,235; Virginia, 1,167; Michi- gan, 1,108 ; Alabama, 1,086; Kansas, 918; Louisiana, 856; Arkansas, 832; South Carolina, 806; Maryland, 690; Iowa, 623; VVisconsin. 530; Colorado, 526, Min- nesota,432; Mississippi, 429 ; Nebraska, 391 ; Florida, 374; Oregon, 362; Conneticut, 340; West Virginia, 278; Washington, 251; Montana, 225; Utah, 180; Maine, 170; Arizona, 144; Rhode Island, 122; New Hampshire, 116; New Mexico, 112; Idaho, 102; South Dakota, 97 ; Nevada, 96; Vermont, 91; North Dakota, 65; Wyoming, 10. In respect to sex, 43,442 penitentiary convicts are men and 1,791 are women. The percentage of women is somewhat less than it was ten years ago. It then slightly exceeded 4.5 per cent. of the total number. but now it falls a trifle below4 per cent. PRIVATEER. an armed vessel,owned by private parties, who are subjects of a belligerentpow- er. The sovereign of that power can commission the vessel on an errand either ‘in war or of marque in time of peace. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 764. PROA, commonly known as the “flying proa,” is a peculiarly-shaped canoe in use by the natives of the Eastern Archipelago, and especially by the Ladrone pirates. It is about thirty feet in length by three in width, and has the stem and stern equally sharp, so as to sail backward or forward without being turned around. The pirates use these canoes to good advantage in their numerous invasions. PROCTOR, RICHARD Arrrnonv, an English astron- omer, born at Chelsea in 1837, died in New York in 1888. He was educated at London and Cambridge; published numerous very popular works on astron- omy, including Saturn and its System (1865); Gno- monte Star Atlas (1866); Half fIours with the Teles- cope (1868); Half Hou9's with the Stars (1869); Other Worlds than Ours (1870); A Treatise on the Cyeloid (1878); Chance and Lack (1887), and others mostly on scientific subjects. He visited America sev- eral times on lecturing tours, and in 1886 deter- mined to remain in the United States. PROFESSOR, an officer in a university, whose duty it is to instruct students or read lectures on particular branches of learning. The word pro- fessor is occasionally used in a loose way to denote generally the teacher of any science or branch of 1289 learning, without any reference to a university. It has been assumed as a designation not only by instructors in music and dancing but by con- urors. PROHIBITION PARTY. See POLITTCAL PARTIES in these Revisions and Additions. PROLETAIRES, a term used by the French to denote the lowest and poorest classes of the com- munity. It is derived from the Latin proletarii, the name given in the census of Servius Tullius to the lowest of the centuries. gROPHET. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, pp. 814- 82 . PROPLEURA, a genus of extinct tortoises from the Cretaceous of New Jersey, type of a peculiar family, which combines the characters of marine and fresh-water forms in the structure of the limbs, and has, in addition, one or two more pairs of costal bones. PROPOLIS, a substance used by bees in the con- struction of their combs, to give to the fabric a strength which it could not have if made of wax alone. It is also used for closing up chinks of the hive. It is a resinous unctuous substance, of a red- dish brown color, a somewhat bitter taste, and an agreeable aromatic odor, and is collected from the buds of trees. PROSODY is the name given, both by the an- cients and moderns, to that part of grammar which treats of the rules of rythm in metrical composi- tion. PROTECTION. See TARIFF, in these Revisions and Additions. ~ PROTECTOR, a title which has sometimes been conferred in England on the person who had the care of the kingdom during the sovereign’s mi- nonty. PROTEUS, a name given by many naturalists to certain animalcules remarkable for changefulness of form. PROTOHIPPUS, a genus established by Leidy for species of extinct horses found in the Miocene strata of North America, having some dental characters of the younger stages of Equus. Found also in South America. PROVIDENCE,a city of Rhode Island. one of the capitals of the State, the county-seat of Rhode Island county, and a port of entry. Population in 1890, 132,099. See Britannica, Vol. XIX, p. 883. PROVINCETOVVN, a village of Massachusetts, at the northern end of Cape Cod, about fifty-five miles east of Boston by water. It is an important center of the cod-fishing and mackerel-fishing in- dustries. Population in 1890, 4,642. PROVO, a city, the county-seat of Utah county, Utah, on the Provo River, three miles east of Utah Lake. It is the trade-center of a rich farming re- gion, and an important manufacturing and ship- ping point for flour. Population in 1890, 5,153. PROVOOST, SAMUEL, the first Protestant Episco- pal bishop of New York, born in New York City in 1742, died in 1815. He became rector of Trinity Church in 1783; was consecrated in 1787 ; became chaplain of Congress in 1785, and of the Senate in 89. PRUSSIA, KINGnoM or. For general article on PRUSSIA, see Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 1-19. The area of Prussia is officially reported as 136,075 Eng- lish square miles. The population in 1885 aggre- gated in the fourteen provinces, 28,318,470. The av- erage density per square mile was 208.1. The area at the close of the reign of Friedrich 1., king of Prussia, was about 43,400 square miles; in 1797 the area was 118,000 square miles; from 1806 to 1867, , 108,100; from 1867, 136,075. 1290 Of the total population, 45 per cent. in 1885 lived in towns. The population included 13,893,604, miles , and 14,424,866 females. AREA AND POPULATION BY PROVINCES. . Areain Po . Pr°V11‘ceS' Sq. Miles. 1885. East Prussia (Ostpreussen) . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,446 1,959,475 West Prussia (Westpreussen) . . . . . . . . . 9,964 1,408,229 Berlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1,315,287 Brandenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,560 342,4 Pomerania (Pommern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11,762 1,505,575 Posen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,311 1,715,618 Silesia (Schlesien) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,743 4,112,219 Saxony (Sachsen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,863 2,428,367 Schleswig-Holstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,360 1,150,306 Hanover (Hannover) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15,031 2,172,702 Westphalia (Westfalen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7,892 2,204,580 Hesse-Nassau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,128 1,592,454 Rhine (Rheinland) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10,543 4,344,527 Hohenzollern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I 447 66,720 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136,075 28,318,704 POPULATION OF PRINCIPAL TowNs. JAN. 1, 1886. Towns. Pop. Towns. Pop. Berlin (1890) . . . . . . . . .. 1,-574,485 Aachen . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95,725 reslau . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 299.640 Krefeld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90,236 Cologne (Kiiln) (1890) 282,537 Halle on Saale . . . . . . . 81,982 Magedeburg . . . . .. “ 201,913 Dortmund . . . . . . . . .. 78,435 Frankfort-on-Main 178,660 Posen . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68,315 Ktinigsberg . . . . . . . . . .. 151,151 Essen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65,064 Hanover . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139,731 Kassel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64,083 Altona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126,306 Erfurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58,386 Diisseldorf . . . . . . . . . . . 115,190 Gtirlitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55,702 Danzig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114,805 Wiesbaden . . . . . . . . . . 55,454 Elberfeld. . . . . . . . . . . .. 109,218 Frankfort on Oder . . 54,085 Barmen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103,068 Kiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,706 Stettin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99,543 Potsdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,877 CONSTITUTION AND GovERNMEN'r.—-The constitution of Prussia, has undergone many revisions. The last two were on Feb. 19, 1879, and May 27, 1888. The fundamental laws vest the executive and part of the legislative authority in the king, who attains his majority at the age of eighteen. The crown is hereditary in the male line, and in the order of primogeniture. In the exercise of the government, the king is assisted by a council of ministers ap- pointed by royal decree. The legislative authority the king shares with a representative assembly, the Landtag, composed of two chambers, the first called the “I-Ierrenhaus,” or house of lords, and the second the “Abgeordnetenhaus,” or chamber of deputies. The assent of the king and both chambers is requisite for all laws. Financial pro- jects and estimates must first be submitted to the second chamber, and either accepted or rejected en bloc by the upper house. The right of propos- ing laws is vested in the government and in each of the chambers. The upper chamber is now composed of, first, the princes of the royal family who are of age, in- cluding the scions of the formerly sovereign fami- lies of Hohernzollen-Hechingen and Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen ; secondly, the chiefs of the mediatised princely houses, recognized by the Congress of Vienna, to the number of sixteen in Prussia; third- ly, the heads of the territorial nobility formed by the king, and numbering some fifty members; , fourthly, a number of life-peers, chosen by the king from among the rich land-owners, great manufac- turers, and “national celebrities ;” fifthly, eight ti- tled noblemen elected in the eight provinces of PRUSSIA Prussia by the resident land-owners of all degrees; sixthly, the representatives of the universities, the heads of “ chapters,” and the burgomasters of towns with above fifty thousand inhabitants; seventhly, an unlimited number of members nomi- nated by the king for life or for a more er less re- stricted period. ' The second chamber consists of 432 members- 352 for the old kingdom, and the rest added in 1867 to represent the newly-annexed provinces; the proportion to the population is now (1891) 1 to every 69,300.* The king of Prussia and his chief ministers of state are the same as those of the German empire, for which see that topic in these Revisions and Ad- ditions. The salary of the president of the council is 54,000 marks; and the salary of each of the other ministers (11 in number) is 36,000 imarks. Members ' of the second chamber receive traveling expenses and diet from the state according to a scale fixed by law amounting to 20 marks or $5 per day. RELIGIoN.—Absolute religious liberty is guaran- teed by the constitution. Nearly two-thirds of the population are Protestants, and nearly one- third are Catholics. The numbers and propor- tions of the different creeds at the census of 1885 were as follows: Protestants, 18,244,405, or 64.4 per cent.; Roman Catholics, 9,621,763, or 33.9 per cent.; other Christians, 82,030, or .29 per cent.; Jews, 366,- 575, or 1.29 per cent.; others and unknown, 3,697. Protestants are in a decided majority in the prov- inces of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Branden- burg, Saxony, Berlin, Hanover, East Prussia, and Hessen-Nassau (from 98 to 70.3 per cent.) ; Roman Catholics are in the majority in Hohenzollern (95 per cent.), Rhineland (71), Posen (66), Silesia ('52) Westphalia (52), and West Prussia (50). Jews are most numerous in Berlin (4.8 per cent.), Posen (3), Hessen-Nassau (2.7), West Prussia (1.7), and Silesia (1.2). The Evangelical or Protestant Church is the state church, and since 1817 has consisted of a fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinistic bodies, from which, however, there are still a few dissenters. It is governed by “consistories,” or boards appointed by government, one for each province. There are also synods in most circles and provinces, and gen- eral synods representing the old provinces only. The constitution of the Catholic Church differs in the various provinces. In the Upper Rhenish ec- clesiastical province it is fixed by a concordat be- tween the government and the Pope Pius VII. In every part of the monarchy the crown has reserved to itself a control over the election of bishops and priests. There were in 1880 9,146 Protestant min- isters and 8,300 Roman Catholic priests, besides 300 monks and 4,600 nuns. The higher Catholic clergy are paid by the state, the Prince-Bishop of Breslau receiving 34,000 marks a year, and the other bishops about 22,700 marks. The income of the parochial clergy mostly arises from endowments. In the budget of 1888-89 the sum of 3,928,883 marks is set down as direct expenditure in Evangelical Churches, and 1,297,306 marks for the Catholic Church. _ EDUoA'rIoN.—Education continues to be compul- sory in Prussia. Every town, or community in town or country, must maintain a school supported by local rates, sdpplemented by the state, and ad- ministered by the local authorities, who are elected by the citizens, and called aldermen or town coun- cilors. All parents are compelled to send their children to one of these elementary schools, in *For much additional information concerning the func- tions of the two chambers, see Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 18. PRYQR-PULNEYS which all fees are how abolished. Q No compulsion exists in reference to a higher educational institu- tion than elementary schools. In the budget of 1890-91, the sum of 64,459,503 marks was appropri- ' ated for instruction. Of this amount 60,622,143 marks was for ordinary instruction. IMMIGRA'I.‘ION.—-— In 1889 the immigration from Prussia by German ports and Antwerp reached a total of 57,957. FINANCE.--The budget estimates for the year end- ing March 31, 1891, placed the revenues at 1,591,- 673,942 marks, and the total expenditures at the same amount. The national debt of the kingdom inclusive of the annexed provinces, was, according to the budget of 1890-91, as follows: Marks. National debt bearing interest: State Treasure Bills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60,541,500 Consolidated debt at 4 per cent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3,592,667,850 Consolidated debt at 31/2 per cent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,476,061,000 Non-consolidated loans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,103,150 Preference loan of 1855 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,750,000 War debt of the Kurmark and Neumark . . . . . . .. 803,210 State railway debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,796,900 Debt of provinces annex ed in 1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,000,651 Total national debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,204,724,261 The charges for interest, amortisation and man- agement of the debt amounted to 254,563,565 marks in the financial year 1890-91. The debt amounts to over 91. 36. per head of pop- ulation, and the annual charge to almost 96. per head. The clear income from the state railways alone in 1888-89 would more than pay for the yearly interest, amortisation, and management of the debt. Pnonuorrons IN 1889.—Among the summaries of the reports were the following: Establishments for manufacturing beet-sugar, 317, which consumed 6,282,440 metric tons of beetroot, in the production of 720,806 tons of raw sugar, 162,077 tons of mo- lasses; 22,074 tons of other products. There were 6,817 breweries in operation, brewing a sufficient quantity of beer to supply 15 gallons to every in- habitant of the kingdom. The coal mines reported an output of 61,436,991 tons. Prussia yields about half of the world’s an- nual production of zinc, copper and lead. The total value of the mining products in 1889 was 466,- 871,288 marks. For many other items see GERMAN EMPIRE in these Revisions an Additions. PRYOR, Roenn Arxmson, an American law- yer, born in Virginia in 1828. He edited various papers in the South; was brigadier-general in the Confederate army; and since the war has prac- ticed law in New York City. PSALMS. See Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 29-34. PUBLICANI, the name given by the Romans to those persons who farmed the public revenues. Only Roman citizens were eligible as publicani, and, as amatter of course, only the wealthiest among these could become such. As a wise regu- lation, no governor of a Roman province was al- lowed, during the period of his governorship, to have anything to do with these tax-gathering com- panies. The design of this was to place the gover- nor in such a position that he could afford to act justly towards the people, who were often cruelly oppressed by the exactions of the provincial under- lings—-—the “publicans” of the New Testament. PUBLIC LANDS. See Sunvnvs or PUBLIC LANDS or THE UNITED STATES, in these Revisions and Additions. PUEBLO, a cit , the county-seat of Pueblo county,Colo., on t e Arkansas River, forty miles 1291 east of Cafion City. It is a very important manu- facturing and commercial center. The chief indus- tries are car shops, rolling-mills, iron and steel; foundries, smelters and nail-mills. Trade and edu-- cation are in a flourishing condition. Population.- in 1890, 28,128. PUERTO BELLO, a small decayed seaport town of the United States of Colombia, on the firfithern shore of the Isthmus of Panama, and 40 miles north of the town of that name. It is surrounded by mountains, has an excellent harbor, is very un- healthy, and has fallen into decay since the year 1739, when it was stormed by Admiral Vernon, dur- ing the war between England and Spain. PUGGING, a coarse kind of plaster laid on deaf- ening-boards between the joists of floors, to pre- vent sound. PUGH, J AMES, L., United States Senator, born in Burke county, Georgia, Dec. 12, 1820. He received an academic education in Alabama and Georgia; came to Alabama when four years old, where he has since resided; was licensed to practice law in 1841, and was so employed when elected to the Senate; was Taylor elector in 1848, Buchanan elector in 1856, and State elector for Tilden in 1876; was elected to Congress without opposition in 1859; retired from Congress when Alabama or- dained to secede from the Union; joined the Eu- faula Rifles, in the first Alabama regiment, as a private; was elected to the Confederate Congress in 1861 and reelected in 1863; after the war re-- sumed the practice of the law; was member of the convention that framed the State constitution of 1875; was elected to the Senate in 1880, and was re- elected in 1884, and again in 1890. His term of office will expire in 1897. PULASKI, a village, one of the county-seats of Oswego county, N. Y., on Salmon River, near Lake Ontario, forty miles north of Syracuse. It is the headquarters of a variety of milling and manufac- turing industries. PULASKI, a village, the county-seat of Giles county, Tenn., on Richland Creek, thirty-two miles south of Columbia. It contains fine public build- ings and many mills, is an important shipping- point for cotton and the seat of two seminaries. PULASKI, CASIMIR (1748-1779), a Polish count and patriot, born in Podolia in 1748. He joined his fathers and brothers in the struggle against King Stanislaus Augustus, and after their death took command of the insurgents; was outlawed and sought refuge in various countries; became acquainted with Benjamin Franklin in Paris; came to America, and distinguished himself in the de- fense of the colonists; was mortally wounded at the siege of Savannah, and died Oct. 11, 1779, in that city, where a monument, the cornerstone of which5had been laid by Lafayette, was completed in 185 . PULITZER, Josnrn, an American journalist, born in Hungary in 1847. He was educated at Buda-Pesth; came to America and settled in St. Louis; became a member of the Missouri legisla- ture in 1869; attained distinction as a journalist; founded the St. Louis “Post-Dispatch;” became proprietor of the New York “II/’orld” in 1883; and a member of Congress in 1884. PULLMAN, GEORGE Monrrmnn, an American in- ventor, born in Chautauqua county, N. Y., in 1831. He went to Chicago in 1859; invented the sleeping- car, the palace-car, and the vestibule train; and founded the industrial city of Pullman (popula- tio9r(1) 12,000), which became a part of Chicago in 18 . PULNEY S, a range of hills in the Madura dis- trict of the Madras Presidency of India. The aver- 1292 age height of this range is about 7,500 feet above the level of the sea. The climate is one of the most equable anywhere to be found. PULSZKY, FERENCZ AUREL, a Hungarian patriot and author, born at Saros in 1814. He traveled extensively, and published in 1837 his Diary of the Travels of a Hungarian in Great Britain; became a member of the diet in 1840; was active in the movement of 1848; was Kossuth’s ambassador to England, and accompanied that patriot to Amer- ica; was sentenced to die; but returned in 1866, on the publication of the general amnesty; and has since held important ofiices. PUMPELLY, RAPHAEL, an American geologist, born at Oswego, N. Y., in 1837. He was educated in France and Germany; was employed by the Chinese government to investigate the coal supply of China, and afterwards traveled overland through Mongolia, Siberia and Russia; has done much im- portant geological work for the United States Gov- ernment, and is author of many scientific memoirs. PUN, the name given to a play upon words. The wit lies in the equivocal sense of some particular expression, by means of which an incongruous, and therefore ludicrous idea is unexpectedly shot into the sentence. PUNKAH, a gigantic fan for ventilating apart- ments, used in India and tropical climates. It con- sists of a light frame of wood, covered with calico, from which a short curtain depends, and is sus- pended by ropes from the ceiling; another rope from it passes over a pulley in the wall to a servant stationed without; the servant pulls the punkah backwards and forwards, maintaining a constant current of air in the chamber. PUNT, a heavy, oblong, fiat-bottomed boat, use- ful where stability and not speed is needed. Punts are much used for fishing. Some are fitted for oars, but the more usual mode of propulsion is by poles operating on the bottom. Punting is a very labor- ious exercise. PURCELL, J OHN BAPTIST, a Roman Catholic arch- bishop, born in Ireland in 1800, died in 1883. He became president of Mount St. Mary’s College, in Maryland, in 1829; bishop of Cincinnati 1833; arch- bishop 1850; was a noted controversialist, and a writer of school-books. An attempt to found a great theological seminary led to a serious finan- cial embarrassment, which clouded the closing years of his life. PURPLE IVOOD, or PURPLE HEART, the heart- wood of Copaifera pubtfloro and C. bracteata, a very handsome wood of a rich plum color. The trees producing it are natives of British Guiana, where the wood is called generally Mariwag/ana. The chief value of the wood lies in its remarkable adaptation to the purposes of artillery and fire-arms. PUTCH UK, an aromatic root, a considerable ar- ticle of commerce in India, where it is used both as a perfume and as a medicine, and of export to China, where it is much used for incense, as it gives out a very pleasant odor when burned. It appears to be the Costus of the ancients. PUT-IN-BAY, a village and summer resort of Ohio, situated on Lake Erie, forty miles east of Toledo. It is noted as being near the scene of Perry’s victory, Sept. 10, 1813. PUTNAM, a village of Connecticut, on the Quin- nebaug River, twenty-five miles south of Worcester. It has important manufactories of cotton and woolen goods. PUTNAM, FREDERICK WARD, an American an- thropologist, born in Massachusetts in 1839. He has been prominently connected with many scien- tific enterprises, and is said to be better acquainted with the subject of American archaeology than any PULSZKY-—PYRRHIC DANCE other man: became permanent secretary of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci- ence in 1873, and president of the Boston Society of Natural History in 1887. PUTNAM, IsRAI:L, a noted American Revolu- tionary general. See Britannica, Vol. XXIII, p. 790. His cousin, RUFUS PUTNAM (1738-1824), was also a noted general, and was one of the most prom- inent pioneer settlers of Ohio. PUY, the name commonly given in the high- lands of Auvergne and the Cevennes to the trun- cated conical peaks of extinct volcanoes. It is perhaps connected with putt or parts, “a well” or “vent,” and may have been given in allusion to the craters of these mountains. PUZZOLANA, a mineral substance, produced by volcanoes, and abundant in volcanic countries. It derives its name from Puzzuoli near Naples. It is earthy in character, consisting of particles in a very loose state of aggregation, but its chemical composition agrees with that of Basalt. It is found of various colors. PYNCHON, WILLIAM, a theologian and colonist, born in Springfield, England, in 1590, died at Wrays- bury, England in 1662. He was one of the founders of Springfield, Mass. His only son, J OHN PYNCHON, born in Springfield, Eng., in 1627, died in Spring- field, Mass., in 1703, was a distinguished colonial statesman. A great-grandson of thelatter, CHARLES PYNCHON, born in Springfield, Mass., in 1719, died there in 1783, was an eminent physician. Another great-grandson, WILLIAM PYNCHCN (1723—1789),was one of the most distinguished lawyers in the colony, a teacher of jurisprudence, a standard loyalist, and author of a remarkably interesting diary covering the Revolutionary period_ JOSEPH PYNCIICN (1737- 1794), William’s brother, was a merchant and a scientist. J oseph’s only son, THOMAS RUGGLTS PYNCHCN (1760-1706), attained great distinction as a physician and surgeon. THOMAS RUCCLES PYNCHON, the younger, grandson of the preceding, born at New Haven in 1823, was educated at Bos- ton and Hartford; ordained deacon in 1848 and priest in 1849; has been long connected with Trin- ity College, Hartford; became its president in 1874; and is a prominent member of many learned so- cieties. PYNE, LoUrsA, a popular English singer, daugh- ter of a well-known singer, James Pyne, born in 1832. She received instruction from Sir George Smart, and first appeared in public in London in 1842. She appeared in Paris in 1847, made her de- but in opera in 1849, and has since visited America. She is chiefly known from her being chief soprano of an English opera company, in which she was associated with Mr. Harrison at the Lyceum, Drury Lane and Convent Garden. PYRITZ, a very ancient town of Prussian Pome- rania, in the government of Stettin, twenty-five miles southeast of the town of Stettin. There are standing five high towers on the town-walls, built by the VVend s, under whom it was a place of great strength. There is a seminary named after Otto, Bishop of Bamb erg, near the spring where it is said, he, in 1124, baptised the first Pomeranian converts. Pyritz has manufactories of woolen cloth and leather. Population in 1871, 7,065. PYRRHIC DANCE, the most famous of all the war-dances of antiquity, said to have received its name from Pyrrichos, or, according to others, from Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. Ac- cording to Plato it aimed to represent the nimble motions of the warrior either avoiding missiles and blows, or assaulting the enemy; and in the Doric states it was as much a piece of military training as an amusement. 1293 Q QUACKENBUSH—QUAY QUACKENBUSH, JOHN A., a member of Con- ress, was born in Schaghticoke, N. Y., in 1828. €Vas supervisor of his town from 1860 to 1862; was chairman of the board of supervisors of the coun- ty of Rensselaer in 1862; member of the Assembly 1862; sheriff of Rensselaer county from 1873 to 1876' was elected to Congress 1891, and reélected for the term ending in 1893. QUADRANGLE, an open square, or court-yard having four sides. Large public buildings are usually planned in this form. QUADRILLE, a dance of French origin, consist- ing of consecutive dance movements, generally five in number, danced by couples, or sets of coup- les, opposite to, and at right angles to each other. The name seems to be derived fromits having been originally danced by four couples. QUAIL, see PARTRIDGE in these Revisions and Additions. QUAIN, RICHARD, an Irish physician, born at Mallow, Ireland, in 1816, died in London in 1887. He studied medicine in the London University, and graduated as M. D. in 1843. He was house _physi- cian to the University College Hospital in London. In 1846 he became a member of the Royal College of Physicians, and in 1871, he was elect- ed a fellow of the Royal Society. His principal work is a Dictionary 0 Medicine (1882). He also contributed valuable articles to medical journals and to tbe transactions of learned societies. QUAKER CITY, a popular name for Philadel- hia, which was settled by English Friends or Qua- kers under William Penn. QUAKER POET (1784-1849), the popular desig- nation of Bernard Barton, an English poet, and of the eminent American poet, John Greenleaf Whit- tier, born in 1807 ; both members of the Society of Friends. QUAKERS. See RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS, in these Revisions aud Additions. QUAKERTOWN, a manufacturing borough of Pennsylvania, eighteen miles south of Bethlehem. It contains many manufactories of stoves, musical instruments, agricultural implements, boots and shoes, cigars, carriages and wagons. QUAKING GRASS, a genus of grasses, having a loose pinnacle, drooping spikelets, generally re- markable for their broad and compressed form, suspended by delicate footstalks, and tremulous in every breath of wind. The species are few, and mostly European. They are all very beautiful. QUANG-NAM, KUANG-NAM, or TuRoN, a town of Anam, about seventy-five miles southeast from Hué or Phu-thuan-thien, the capital of Anam. It is sit- uated near the head of a beautiful gulf, and is a place of considerable trade. QUgARANTINE. See Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 153-1 8. The United States first adopted a quarantine law in February, 1799. This law required federal officers to assist in executing State or municipal quarantine regulations. On April 29, 1878, Con- gress enacted a national quarantine law, which authorized the establishment in certain contingen- cies of national quarantines. This law does not restrict or extend the time of detention to forty days. The detention lasts until the vessel or person detained is in a thoroughly sanitary condition. The detention may therefore be for only a few days or it may last longer than forty days. QUARTER-DECK of aship, an upper deck ex- tending from the main-mast to the poop, or, when there is no poop, from the main-mast to the stern. QUARTERS, in naval and military affairs, gen- erally, the positions assigned to persons or bodies of men. In a more special sense, the quarters in the army are the places of lodging assigned to of- ficers or men when not actually on duty. Head- quarters is the place of residence of the command- ing officer of a force, or of a section of a force. In the navy, quarters has the special meaning of the positions to be taken by every man in actual com- bat. QUARTER-STAF F, a stout pole of heavy wood, about six feet long, shod with iron at both ends, formerly a favorite weapon with the English for hand-to-hand encounters. It was grasped in the middle by one hand, and the attack was made by giving it a rapid circular motion, which brought the loaded ends on the adversary at unexpected points. QUARTETTE, a piece of music arranged for four voices or instruments, in which all the parts are obligati, that is, no one can be omitted without injuring the proper effect of the composition. QUATREFAGES, DE BREAU, JEAN LOUIS AR- NAND DE, a French naturalist, born at Berthe- zeme, Department of Gard. in 1810. After study- ing medicine and the natural sciences, he was made professor of zoblogy at Toulouse in 1833. But he soon went to Paris. In 1850 he was appointed pro- fessor of natural history in the Lycée Napoleon, and in 1856 professor of anatomy and ethnology in the Museum of Natural History. He wrote a num- ber of works on his favorite sciences. VVe mention his Physiologic comparée; Méfamorphose de Z’Homme et des Animaurc; Histoire de I’Homme; Charles Dar- win et ses Précurseurs francais; La Race prussienne, Crania ethica; L’Espece h'u'maine (1877); His Natur- al History of Man, and several other of his works have been translated into English. QUA SIM ODO SUNDAY, called also DOMINICA IN ALRIs, the first Sunday after Easter. The name Quasimodo Sunday is taken from the first words of the Introit (1 Peter, ii. 2) of the mass of the day. The name Dominica in Albis is derived from the custom which was formerly observed of the neo- phytes who had been baptised at Easter appear- ing in white garments in the church. QUASS, a sort of weak beer produced in Russia by fermenting rye-meal in warm water. It is usually bottled in stone bottles, and is a favorite beverage with the people generally. When it be- comes too sour, it is used as vinegar. QUAY, MATTHEW STANLEY, an American states- man, born in Dillsbury, Pa., in 1833. He was ad- mitted to the bar in 1854; elected prothonotary of Beaver county in 1856 and re-élected in 1859; was a lieutenant in the 10th Pensylvania reserves; colonel of the 134th Pennsylvania volunteers; lieutenant-colonel and assistant commissary-gen- eral; military State agent at Washington; private secretary to the governor of Pennsylvania; major and chief of transportation and telegraphs; mili- 1294 tary secretary to the governor of Pennsylvania, 1861—’65; member of the legislature, 1865—’67 ; .ecre- tary of the Commonwealth, 1872—’78; recorder of the city of Philadelphia, and chairman of Republi- can State committee, 1878—’79; secretary of the Commonwealth, 1879-’82; delegate at large to the Republican national conventions of 1872, ’76, and ’80; was elected State treasurer in 1885; elected to the United States Senate, 1887 ; was a delegate at large to the Republican national convention of 1888.; was elected a member of the Republican na- tional committee, and made chairman thereof, in 1888; conducted the campaign of 1888, which re- sulted in the election of Harrison and Morton. His term of service in the senate will expire in 1893. QUEBEC, a city of Canada. See Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 168. QUEEN ANNE’S BOUNTY. founded by that sovereign in 1703, consisted of the first fruits and tenths, which are apportioned by commissioners among poor benefices in England and ‘Vales. In 1890 the incomes of eighty-seven benefices, varying from mil to about $1,000 per annum, were aug- mented. The total amount of the grants voted is $110,000. QUEEN CITY, a popular name for Cincinnati, first used to designate it as the western metropolis. QUEENSLAND. For general article on QUEENS- LAND, a province of Australia, see Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 171-75. The latest reports place the area of Queensland at 668,497 square miles, with a sea- coast of 2,250 miles. The population on May 1, 1890, was returned at 406,658*. PRESENT CoNsTITUTIoN AND G'OVERNME.\IT.-—Th8 power of making laws and imposing taxes is vested in a parliament of two Houses—the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly. The former consists of thirty-nine members, nominated by the crown for life. The legislative assembly comprises seventy-two members, returned from sixty elec- toral districts, for five years, elected by ballot, a six months’ residence qualifying every adult male for the franchise. Owners of freehold estate of the clear value of 1001., or of house property of 10!. an- nual value, or leasehold of 10Z. annual rent, or holders of the pastoral lease or licence from the crown, have the right of a vote in any district in which such property may be situated. At the end of 1889 there were 73,957 registered electors. The executive government is vested in a gover- nor appointed by the British crown; salary, $25,- 000 per annum. He is assisted by a cabinet or executive council of eight ministers, each of whom receives a salary of $5,000 per year. They are jointly and individually responsible for their acts. The vice-president of the council receives a salary of $1,500. The present governor ( 1891) is General Sir Henry Wylie Norman. In 1862, military secretary to the government of India; 1870, member of the vice- roy’s council; 1878, member of council of India in London; 1883-88, governor of Jamaica; appointed governor of Qeensland, Dec., 1886. Queensland is now divided into twenty-eight “Municipalities” seven “Shires,” and 106 “Divis- ions.” These have local government much after the manner of the local government of smaller districts in Great Britain. MOVELIENT or PoPULATIoN.—The largest of the municipalities is the/ city of Brisbane, the capital of the colony, and the seat of government. It had a municipal population of 32,567 on May 1, 1886, but on the same date 73,649 persons were located * Stat~smnn’s Year-Book, 1891. QUEBEC—QUEENSLAND within a five-mile radius. The three next largest towns of the colony are Rockhampton, with an es- timated population of 13,212; Maryborough, with 12,000; Townsville, with 11,454; and Ipswich, with 9,575 inhabitants in 1888. In 1889 the immigration of Queensland aggre- gated 35,606, and the immigration from that prov- ince reached 24,680. FINANGE REVENUE AND EXPENDITURES. -The revenue in 1890 aggregated £3,211,795, and the ex- penditures, .£3,695,7 75. The following were the chief sources from which revenue was received: Customs, 1,209,586l.; excise, 37,1981; stamp duty, 133,984Z.; licenses, 56,8991. From land-—Rent, pastoral occupations. 318,440Z.; other rents and sale of land, 276,700l. From rail- ways, 776,060Z. From posts and telegraphs, 216,2197. The chief items of expenditure during 1889-90 Were as under :—Interest on public debt, 1,099,- 402Z.; endowments to municipalities, 92,120Z.; en- dowments to divisional boards, 186,921l.; public in- struction, 240,660Z. ; colonial treasurer’s department, 169-0101.; secretary of public lands department. 132,011l.; cost of working railways, 618,778Z.; posts and telegraphs department, 316,771l. The total expenditure from loans resulting on public works was 1,549,388l., of which the following are the prin- cipal items :—On immigration, 93,756Z.; on electric telegraphs, 23,964Z.; on railways, 1,073,323Z.; on har- bours and rivers, 137,592l. The estimated revenue for 1890-91 is 3,708,000Z., and the estimated expenditure 3,602,002Z. The es- timated value of tbe landed property of the colony in 1889, as taken for purposes of assessment under the several acts for providing local government, was 51,793,777l. This does not include lands leased for pastoral purposes, the lessees’ interest in which has been capitalized for assessment purposes at 4,180,419Z., nor unoccupied crown lands, nor lands the property of local bodies, churches, or reserves for public purposes. The public debt of the colony amounted, on June 30, 1890, to the sum of 28,105,684l. EDUCATION AND RELIGIoN——Education is, by stat- ute, compulsory. In 1880 there were eight grammar schools, with 45 teachers, and 742 pupils; 584 public schools, with 1,497 teachers, and an average daily attendance of 40,412 pupils. Besides these there were 130 private schools, with 457 teachers, and an average attendance of 7,809 pupils. For Religion of Queenland see RELIGIONS OF THE WoELD, in these Revisions and Additions. ARMY AND NAvY.——The defense of the colony was provided for by an act passed in 1884, by which, in addition to fully paid militia and volunteer corps to be maintained and assisted by the government, every man, (with a very few exceptions) be- tween the ages of 18 and 60, is liable for military service under this act. The government in 1890, organized a drilled force of 4,500 men, about 140 of whom were fully paid regulars; some 2,500 militia, paid for each day’s drill; the rest volunteers, as- sisted with uniform, etc. Naval defenses are pro- vided for with two gunboats, a torpedo boat and a picket boat and six corps of naval reserve and naval artillery. In addition, some of the tugs built for the harbor service were fitted with a bow gun for service if required. AGRICULTURAL LANDs.—-Of the total area of the colony 9,919,692 acres, or but little more than two per cent., have been alienated by the government up to Dec.31, 1889, yielding a return of 6,272,991l. Under a land act passed in 1884, a maximum of 1,280 acres of agricultural land can be selected on a lease for 50 years, and a maximum of 20,000 acres of pastoral land for 30 years. The agricultural land QUENTIN—QUlNN can afterwards be secured in fee simple under cer- tain conditions and in return for certain payments. In both cases there are numerous conditions and restrictions contained in the act, and in the rules framed in accordance with its provisions. NAVIGATION, SHIPPING AND CoMMERCE.—In 1889, 760 vessels of 506,780 tons, entered, and 773 of 494,- 229 tons cleared, the ports of the colony; of the former, 89 of 109,006 tons were from the United Kingdom, and 529 of 326,775 tons from the Austra- lasian colonies; and of the latter 24 of 53,453 tons were from the United Kingdom, and 596 of 365,358 tons were from the Australasian colonies. Vessels entering and clearing more than one port on the same voyage are only counted at one port of arriv- al and departure. There was registered in the col- ony 32 ocean steamers of 20,392 tons, 33 harbor steamers of 2,924 tons, and 58 river steamers of 1,955 tons. A very large number of articles are subject to tariffs. The total customs collected in 1889 amounted to £1,344,472. This was about 20 per cent. of the imports. INTERNAL CoMMUNIC.4TIoNs.——At the end of 1889 there were 2,604 miles of railway open for traflzic in the colony, and 571 miles more in course of construc- tion or authorized. The railways are all in the hands of the government, and the cost of construction on opened lines up to the end of 1889 has been 13,332,- 0461. The revenue from railways during 1889 was 796,344l., and the expenditure in working them 594.6491. The total expenditure to Dec. 31, 1889, has been 15,374,420l. QUENTIN, ST., a thriving manufacturing town in the north of France, department of Aisne, situ- ated on the Somme, about eighty miles northeast of Paris. It is a station on the railway from Paris to Liége, has a celebrated church, and is the cen- ter of the manufacture of linen, muslin, lace, and gauze. Population, 28,880. The Canal of St. Quen- tin, connecting the basin of the Somme with that of the Scheldt, was finished by Napoleon in 1810. It 1is carried through the intervening hills by tun- ne s. QUESATENANGO, a town of Guatemala, Cen- tral America, the capital of a department of the same name. It is sixty-six miles west of Guatemala, and stands in an elevated table-land, on a river which flows into the Pacific Ocean. After Guate- mala itself, it is the most important town in the state. It manufactures cotton and woolen fabrics, and carries on a considerable trade. Population, 25,000, mostly Indians. QUINCE (Cg/donia), a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Rosaceae, sub-order Pomeae, nearly allied to Pyrus, with which many botanists have united it, but distinguished by having many in- stead of two seeds in each cell, and by their very mucilaginous nature. The CCMMCN Quince (C. vulgaris), a native of the south of Europe and temperate parts of Asia, is a low tree, with gener- ally tortuous branches; ovate, entire, deciduous leaves, which are downy on the under side; and rather large, whitish flowers, which are solitary at the extremity of young branches. The fruit is in some varieties globose; in others, pear-shaped, of a rich yellow or orange color, with a strong smell. It is hard and austere, but when stewed with sugar, becomes extremely pleasant, and is much used in this way either by itself, or to im- art a flavor to apple-pies. It is also much used or making a preserve called Quince Marmalade. A delicious beverage, somewhat resembling cider, is made from it. The seeds readily give out their mucilage to water, so that they turn 40 or 50 times their weight of water into a substance as thick as 1295 syrup. Quince mucilage, or quince gum, Cydonin, is allied to Bassorin, but differs from it in being readily soluble in water, while it differs also in some particulars from Arabin. The quince was cultivated by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and is at the present day cultivated in the south of Europe, in England, and generally in temperate climates. In Scotland, the fruit seldom ripens ex- cept on a wall. The JAPANESE Quince (C. Japordca, better known by its older name Pyrus Japonica), a low bush, a native of Japan, but perfectly hardy in Great Britain, is often to be seen trained against walls, being very ornamental from the profusion of its beautiful flowers. See Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 182. QUINCY, a city of Illinois. Population in 1890, 31,478. See Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 182. QUINCY, a city of Massachusetts. in 1890, 16,723. 182. QUINCY, a village of Michigan. It has several mills and factories for the manufacture of lumberr flour, sash, door sand barrels. QUINCY, the name of a noted Massachusetts family. Josrnn QUINCY, Jr. (1744-1775), was renowned for his eloquent advocacy of the rights of the colonists. See Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 182-3. His son, J osmn QUINCY (1772-1864), was a leader of the Federal party, and an able president of Harvard University. See Britannica, ib/id. EDMUND QUINCY (1681-1738), was a member of the general court and of the governor’s council for many years. In 1737 he went to England to plead the case of Massachusetts in a boundary dispute with New Hampshire. He died at London in 1738, and the colony ordered a monument to be erected there to his memory. Another EDMUND QUINCY, son of President Josiah Quincy, was born at Boston in 1808 and died in 1877. He was secretary of the American Anti- Slavery Society, and published a novel, Wensley (1854), and and a biography of his father (1867). He also edited his father’s Speeches (1875). Population See Britannica, Vol XX, p. His brother, JOSIAH QUINCY (1802—1882),was pres- - ident of the Massachusetts senate in 1842 and mayor of Boston in 1845. He promoted several improvements in municipal affairs. especially the introduction of the water-supply from the Coch- ituate River. Near the end of his career he con- tributed to the “Independent” sketches which have been collected under the name, Figures of the Past (1882). His son, SAMUEL MILLER QUINCY,born in 1833,was a lawyer, and edited the “ Monthly Law Reporter.” He served in the Union army during the civil war,. and rose to the rank of colonel with the brevet of brigadier-general. His brother. Josmn PHILLIPS QUINCY. born in 1829, has published some dramas, Lyteria (1855), C’harz'cZes (1856) ,and a political essay on the Pro- tection of Mojorities (1876). QUININE. See Britannica, Vol. XX, pp. 184-- 86. QUINN, JCHN, member of Congress, born in Ireland in 1839. He immigrated to the United States at the close of the war; settled in New York City, where he entered enthusiastically into the agitation of that period for the education and improvement of the laboring classes; was conspic- uous as one of the champions of the eight-hour law 1868-70; was elected to the Legislature in 1882, and was a member of the board of aldermen 1885-87; was a delegate to the Democratic nation- al convention at Chicago in 1884 and to St.Louis. in 1888; member of Congress 1889-91. 1296 QUINTARD, CHARLES Tenn, an American di- vine, bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, born in Connecticut in 1824. He was a noted physician and professor of physiology ; was or- dained in 1855; was chaplain in the Confederate army; consecrated bishop of Tennessee in 1865 ; is a distinguished promoter of education. QUINTETTE, a musical composition for five voices, or for five instruments, each of which is ob- Zigato. The most remarkable quintettes for stringed instruments are those of Boceherini, Mozart, Beethoven, and Onslow, and for wind instruments, those of Reicha. QUINTUS CURTIUS ‘RUFUS, a Roman histo- rian who flourished probably in the time of Vespa- sian. His work entitled De Rebus Gestis Alecqandri Magni Regis M ocedonum, consisted of ten books; but of these the first two are lost, and the other eight are occasionally imperfect. Its style is flowing and ornate, but it wants the pure Latiny of Cicero, and the simplicity of Caesar. Along with the Greek history of Arrian it forms our most valuable source of information respecting the military career of Alexander the Great, although it is not entirely free from geographical, chronological, and stategic- al blunders. QUIRK, a small angle or recess between mold- ings. It is much used in Greek and Gothic archi- tecture, and sometimes in Roman. QUITMAN, a village of Georgia, on the Ocopilco River, twenty-five miles east of Thomasville. It is the seat of an academy, and has a good trade. QUITMAN, J OHN ANTHONY, an American gener- al and politician, was born at Rhinebeck, N. Y., in 1779, died in 1858. He attained distinction as a politician in Mississippi; was major-general during the Mexican war; became governor of Mississippi in 1850; and member of Congress in 1855. QUORUM. The word in Latin is the genitive of qui, “who,” and literally means “of whom.” As ap- plied to deliberative or any organized bodies means the number of members of a body whose presence in a meeting is necessary to make its proceedings legal. If no specific rule as to the number required has been required by the body, a majority of the members is a quorum. If the body is large it is customary in the adoption of rules to specify a less number as a quorum. In the British house of commons forty members constitute a quorum; in the House of Representatives of the United States of America a majority of all the members makes a quorum. In the New York State senate the rule requires the presence of three-fifths of the mem- bers. The great importance which the general question of a quorum has recently assumed in the United States makes the insertion of the authorized method, pursued by the United States House of Representatives, a matter of interest. The follow- ing is the full text of the chapter on “Quorum,” as found in the latest edition of the Rules and Prac- tice of the House of Representatives in the second Session of the Fifty-first Congress, closing March 4, 1891.* “The House of Representatives shall be com- posed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States.” Cons’r., 1, 2, 4—and “a majority of each house shall constitute a quo- rum to do business; but a smaller number may ad- journ from day to day, and may be authorized to *Each session makes its own rules of order, but always in harmony with the constitution. See Digest and Manual of the Rules and Practice of the House of Re resentati'i'es etc. Compiled by Heny H. Smith, Journal lerk of the House of Representatives, under Resolutions of the House of October 1, 1890. Vol. VIII, pp. 699. QUINTARD--QUORUM compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide.”——Const. 1, 5, R. In view of the foregoing clauses of the constitu- tion, it was decided, during the Thirty-seventh Congress, to which several of the States had failed to send Representatives, that a majority of the mem- bers chosen constituted a quorum to do business.— Journal, 1, 37, p. 117. In view of the important ruling of Speaker Reed on the 29th of January, 1890, on the point of order raised by Mr. Crisp that “no quorum” had voted on the question of “consideration” raised by him against the report of the Committee on Elections in the contested election case of Smith us. Jackson, from the F_ou_rth Congressional district of the State of West Virginia, that ruling is herewith given in full as a matter of interest and convenient refer- ence. . At the conclusion of the roll-call on the said question of consideration raised by Mr. Crisp, the Speaker announced the result to be, yeas 162, nays three. Thereupon Mr. Rogers, who had voted in the afiirmatwe, and Mr. Covert and Mr. Cowles, who had voted in the negative, withdrew their votes, leaving the vote, yeas 161, nays 1. The said vote having been announced by the Speaker, Mr. Crisp raised the question of “no quorum.” There- upon the Speaker directed the Clerk to enter upon the Journal the names of certain members as “present and refusing to vote,” and announced and ruled that a quorum was present within the mean- ing of the constitution upon the following grounds, viz : _The clerk announces the members votin in the afl5rma- tive_to be 161 and 2in the negative. The 0 air thereu on, having seen other members present, having heard t eir names called in their presence, directed the call to be re- peated, and, since gentlemen did not answer when thus called, the chair directed a record of their names to be made showing the fact of their presence as bearing upon the ques- tion which has been raised, namely, whether there is a quor- um of_this House present to do business, according to the Constitution of the United States; and accordingly that question is now before the House, and the chair purposes to give a statement accompanied by a rulincr, from which an appfial can be taken if any gentleman is issatified there- wi . There has been for some considerable time a question of this nature raised in very many parliamentary assemblies. There has been a great deal of doubt, especially in this bod , on the subject, and the present occupant of the Chair we 1 recollccts a proposition or suggestion made ten years ago by a member from Virginia, Mr. John Randol h Tucker, an able constitutional lawyer as well as an ab e member of this House. That matter was somewhat discussed and a propo- sition was made with regard to putting it into the rules. The general opinion which seemed to prevail at that time was that itwas inexpedient so to do; and some members had grave doubts whether it was proper to make such an amend- ment to the rules as would count, as a part of the quorum, the members present and not voting as well as those present and voting. The evils which have resulted from the other course were not then as apparent as now, and no such care- f})il _study had been given to the subject as has been given to 1 since. That discussion took place in the year 1880. Since then there has been various arguments and various decisions by eminent gentlemen upon the subject. and these decisions have very much cleared u the question,and it is much more apparent what the ru e is. One of the first places in Which the uestion was raised was in the senate of the State of New Yer . The present governor of New York was then the presiding ofiicer and upon him was devolved a duty sim- ilar to that which has been devolved upon me to-day. He met the duty in precisely the same manner. The question there raised was to the necessity, under their constitution, of the actual participation by voting of the three-fifths constituting a quorum for the passage of certain bills, and be held that that constitutional provision as to a quorum was entirely satisfied by the resence of the members even if they did not vote, and accor ingly he directed the recording oflicer of the senate to put down certain names as a part of the record of the transaction; that is, to put down the names of the members of the senate who were present and refused to vote in precisely the manner in which the occu ant of this chair has directed the _same thing to be done. T at decision must beB reggrded as in no sense partisan, at least as the chair ci es 1 . There has also been a de ision in the State of Tennessee, where the provisions of the aw require a quorum to consist I QUORUM of two thirds. In the legislature of 1885 the house cad ninety- mine members, of which two—thirds was sixty-s\ x. A reg- istration bill was pending which was ob'ected to by the Re- ublican members of the house. Upon t e third reading the Republicans refused to vote, whereu on the speaker, 1‘ mem- ber of the other party, directed the c erk to count as p‘ esent those there but not voting, and, aquorum being present, de- clared the bill passed upon this reading. These two decisions made, the first in 1883, and the other in the year 1885, seem to the present occupant of the chair, to cover the ground; but there is an entirely familiar process which every old member will recognize, which, in the opin- ion of the chair, is incontestable evidence of the recognition at all times of the right to re ard members present as con- stitutinga part of a quorum. t has been almost an every-day occurrence at certain stages of the session for votes to be an- nounced by the chair containing obviously and mathemati- call no quorum; yet if the point was not made of no quorum the ill has always been declared to be passed. That can only be upon a very distinct basis, and that is that every- body present silently agreed to the fact that there was a quorum present, while the figures demonstrated no quorum voting. There is no ground by which under any possibility such a bill could be passed constitutionally, un ess the pres- ence of aquorum is inferred. It is inferred from the fact that no one raised the question, and the presence was deemed enough. All methods of determining a vote are of equal value. The count by the speaker or chairman, and the count by tellers, or a count by the yeas and nays, are all of them of equal val- idity. The House has a right, upon the call of one-fifth of the members, to have a yea—and-nay vote, and then upon that the question is decided; but the decision in each of the other cases is of recisely the same force and effect. A ain, it as always been the practice in parliamentary bodies of this character, and especially in the parliament of Great Britain, for the speaker to determine the question whether there is or is not a quorum present by count. It is a question simply of the actual presence of a quorum, and the determination of that is intrusted to the presiding ofiicer in almost all instances. So that when a question is raised whether there is a quorum or not, without special arrange- ment for determining it, it would be determined on a count by the presidin ofiicer. Again, there is aprovision in the constitution w ich declares that the House may establish rules for compelling the attendance of members. If mem- bers can be present and refuse to exercise their functions and cannot be counted as a quorum. that provision would seem to be entirely nugatory. Inasmuch as the constitution provides for their attendance, only that attendance is enough. If more was needed the constitution would have provided for more. The chair feels very much disposed to cause to be read the action of the present governor of the State of New York, then lieutenant-governor and presiding officer of the senate. The action of the senate was this: The president put the question whether the senate would agree to the final passage of said bill, and eighteen senators voted in favor thereof, and Messrs. Allen, Bowen, Evans, Holmes, F. Lansing, Lord, Lynde, Pitts, Russell, and Thomas, being present and re- fused to vote. Then comes the votes. For the affirmative, for the neg- aéivet. Also the following,pursuant to direction of the pres- 1 en : “Mr. Allen: Present and not voting.” And so on down the list. The result having been an- nounced, the president thereupon ruled as follows: “The action of the senate just taken requires a ruling from the chair, and an explanation of that ruling is eminently pro er at this time. “ he parlramentary question presented is, whether this bill has been duly passed. It has received the votes of a ma- jority of all the senators elected to the senate. It has re- ceived all the aflirmative votes which the constitution re- quires to pass such a bill. This bill, so far as the aflirma- tive vote necessary to its passage is concerned, is controlled by section 15 of article 8 of the constitution, which only re- quires a majority of all the senators elected. “It is however, a bill by the provisions of which, it is claimed, a debt or char e is made against the State, and is, therefore, subject to t e provisions of section 21 of the same article of the constitution. That section is substan- tially as follows: ‘On the final passage in either house of the legislature of an act which * * * creates adebt or charge * * or ma es any appropriation * * * of public money, the question shall be taken by ayes and nays, which shall be duly entered on the journals, and three-fifths of all the member" elected to either house shall, in all such cases, be necessary to constitute a quorum therein. “This section is peculiarly and carefully worded. It does not provide that three-fifths of all the senators elected shall vote for the bill, or that such a number shall vote at all upon the bill, but simply that such a number must be present in order ‘to constitute a quorum’ when such a bill is upon its final pass e. If it had been intended that more than a ma- jority shou (1 vote for such a bill to secure its passage, or that there should be three-fifths voting evidenced by the yays and nays, it couly have been easily so expressed. The plain and only object of this section of the constitution was to provide that there should not only be a majority vote in favor of bills of such importance, which create debts or ap- 1297 propriate public moneys for public purposes, but that when they are finally voted upon in the legislature there should be more than a bare majority present, to wit, three-fifths of all the members elected. “If three-fifths are in fact present, they need not necessar- ily vote upon either side. The constitutlonal requirement is fully complied with by the fact of their presence. There need not be three-fifths voting, but three-fifths must be present to constitute a quorum when the majority pass the ill The ayes and nayes as entered upon the 'ournal may be the evidence of the votes given u on either side, but it is nowhere made the evidence, much ess the only evidences, of the passage of a constitutional quorum. There may be a full senate present, and a majority may vote for such abill, and the balance for good reasons may be excused from vot- ing, yet nevertheless the bill is legal y 1passed, although the record of the ayes and nays will not s ow that three-fifths voted. Such record is not the sole and only criterion from which to determine who are present. Neither the constitution, the statutes, nor the rules of this senate make it so. “The presence or absence of senators is a physical fact known to the president and clerk of the senate. It requires only the exercise or their senses to determine the question. If a stranger should intrude himself into a senator’s seat and insist upon responding to that senator's name when it is called, it would be the clear duty of the clerk not to re- cord the vote, and the duty of the president of the senate to see that it was not recor ed. The presence or absence of a response, when the clerk calls the roll, is not therefore ab- solutely conclusive. Whether the senator is in truth present, or does himself respond, is a question for the observation of the oificers of the senate, who are expected honestly and truthfully to determine. “In fact to-day there are present over three-fifths of all the senators elected. They sitin their seats before me. Rule 14 of the senate requires each senator to vote when his name is called, but a number—more than enough to constitute the requisite three-fifths—-refuse to vote at all, either for or against the bill, and remain silent. It is claimed that, therefore, they are to be deemed absent, and cannot be counted as constituting a quorum. They are not absentees within the meaning of the rules, because they are in fact present. There can be no “call of the house” or other ro- ceedings instituted to compel their attendance, because t ey are not absent. Their action is in defiance of the rules of this body. factions, and revolutionary. “If, because they refuse to respond to their names when called, they are thereby to be deemed absent, of what use are the rules of this body and the law which gives this body au- thority to send its sergeant-at-arms for its absent members, and forcibly bring them into this chamber, if, when brought in, the Y can still refuse to vote and still be deemed absent? It won (1 show that all such provisions in the rules and in the statutes were entirely nugatory and of no force or effect. There is no principle of arliamentary law which permits a senator to be present in is seat and refuse to respond to his name, and then be allowed to insist that he is not present. If he does not want to be regarded as present he must remain away from the chamber. This is common sense, and it is not antagonistic to parliamentary law. “If a senator is in fact present, his refusal to vote, which is a violation of his duty, does not make him absent in aparlia- mentary sense. He can be counted by the clerk and presi- dent as one of the three-fifths necessary to constitute a con- stitutional quorum It is peculiarly the duty of the presi- dent to see whether or not there is present a requisite quorum. It is made his duty by rule 6 of this senate to cer- tify the passage of all bills, and to certify the fact whether they are passe by the required vote and with the constitu- tional quorum present. His certificate is evidence of those facts to the governor, the secretary of state, and to all the world. He is the party held responsible for the truth or falsity of that certificate. He may obtain the information as to the number of senators who are actually present when a bill is passed either from his own observation or from the tgllv-list, if that shows it, or from the journal kept by the c er . uThere is no precise or prescribed method laid down either in the constitution or law, or in the rules of this body, as to how the presiding officer shall ascertain what number of sen- ators were present. He is bound to know the fact and certify accordingly, the same as he is required to know how many days senators have attended the senate before he gives the certificate which entitles them to draw their pay. There is no law which makes the tally-list showing who voted the only evidence as to the number of senators present when a bill is voted upon. “The resident of the senate is bound to know and certify as to w ether there was present the requisite uorum, and as his certificate is the evidence of such fact t e question presented is peculiarly within his province. It is very proper that the journal should show who were present when a bill was passed; not only for the protection of the presiding of- ficer and as evidence corroborative of his certificate, but sometimes for his information. He may have called a sena- tor temporarily to the chair and a bill, like the one in question, may have passed in his absence, and up( 1 his return to the chair he may be called upon to sign the certifi- cate of the passage of the bill. It is well in all such cases and for other reasons that the clerk should always keep a record as to what senators are present when a bill is passed. 2—45 1298 “If they vote he is bound to made a record of it, and if they are present and refuse to vote, he sees and knows the fact and should make record of that fact also. Then the rec- ord will show the exact truth and will harm no one. The presiding oificer can make up his certificate to the bill, not only from his own observation but, in addition thereto, from the journal kcpt by the clerk. It is very clear that this course will answer every requirement of the law and the constitution. The assertion that whether a constitutional quorum is present on the passage of a bill 1S only to be deter- mined by whether or not a constitutional quorum voted, and by that fact alone and without reference to anything else, has no substantial foundation on which to stand. “The jurat or certificate which the presiding officer of each house has always signed to such bills from time immemorial is that the bill received a majority of the votes of all the sena- ators elected, ‘three-fifths being present ;’ not three-fifths voting. The question as to how many voted in addition to amajority is wholly immaterial so long as three-fifths are present. Their presence is not to be determined solely and only by the yeas and nays. “I have accordingly directed the clerk as he called the names of the senators who were present but who refuse to vote, to mark opposite their names on the tally-list kept by him, and which is to be entered in the journal, the words ‘present but refused to vote,’ and he has done so in each -ease. Therefore. in accordance with the record so made, which shows that there are present over three-fifths of all the senators elected, and which agrees with my own obser- vation, I do hereby declare that this bill,having received the votes of a majority of the senators elected, three-fifths being present, has been duly and legally passed. "Ordered, That the clerk return said bill to the assembly with the message that the senate have concurred in the pas- sage of the same with amendments.” From this decision Mr. Crisp appealed, which said appeal was debated on that and the subse- quent day (see Record), at the conclusion of which it was laid on the table, on motion of Mr. McKin- ley, by yeas, 162; nays, 0, the speaker as before di- recting the clerk to enter upon the journal the names of certain members as “present and declin- ing to vote.” Thereupon the speaker stated that “162 members, as shown by the roll-call, having voted in the affirmative and none in the negative, that number in addition to the members above named recorded as present and refusing to vote, constituted a quorum, and that the said motion to lay on the table said appeal was agreed to.” The following extracts from the last edition (ninth) of Cushing’s Law and Practice of Legisla- tive Assemblies on the subject of “quorum/’are also given in accordance with numerous requests therefor, together with the citation from Black- stone’s Commentaries referred to in paragraph 247: 246. It being a general rule, that where authority is con- ferred upon several persons to be exercised with others, all the persons authorized must be present in order to exercise it, and that authority delegated to the discretion of an indi- vidual, can not be delegated by him to another; it would be a consequence of these principles if they were strictly ap- plied to the proceedings of legislative assemblies, the mem- bers of which have but a merely delegated authority them- selves. and constitute a representative body, that the mem- bers must all necessarily be present and concur, in order to the doing of any valid official act. But this would be ex- tremelfI inconvenient, in general, and, in the greater number of our egislative assemblies, which are bodies of considera- ble size would render their (proceeding wholly impracticable. Hence it has been found in ispensible, in the constitution of legislative assemblies, to make them an exception in both these respects, to the general principles above stated. 247. In all councils and other collective bodies of the same kind, it is necessary. therefore, that a certain specified number, called a QUORUM,* of the members, should meet and be present, in order to the transaction of business. This number may be precisely fixed in the first instance, or some proportional part established, leaving the particular number to be afterwards ascertained, with reference to each assembly, and this may be done either by usage or by ositive regulation; and, if not so determined, it is suppose that a majority of the members composing the body constitute a quorum If the required number is not present at the time appointed for the meeting of a legislative assembly, the members can ordinarily do nothing more than adjourn from day to day, and wait for the requisite number, unless they * For origin of this term see Blackstone’s Commentaries, ’ O QUORUM . are specially authorized to take measures to compel the at- tendance of absent members. In this countr the num- ber necessary to constitute a quorum is, in al the States respectively. and in the Congress of the United States, regu- lated by constitutional provisions. 261. When the number of which an assembly may consist at any given time is fixed by constitution and an aliquot roportion of such assembly is required in order to consti- ute a quorum, the number of which such assembly may consist and not the number of which it does in fact consist at the time in question, is the number of the assembly and the number necessary to constitute a quorum is to be reck- oned accordmgly. Thus, in the Senate of the United States, to which, by the constitution, each State in, the Union may elect two members, and which may consequently consist of two members from each State, the quorum is a ma'ority of that number whether the States have all exercised t eir con- stitutional right or not. So, in the second branch of Con- gress, in which, by the constitution, the whole number of Representatives of which the House may consist is fixed by the last apportionment. increased by the number of mem- bers to which newly admitted States may be entitled, the quorum is a majority of the whole number, including the number to which new States may be entitled, whether they have elected members or not. and making no deductions on account of vacant districts. 263. The right of the members of every legislative assem- bly to have the presence and attendance of other mem- bers in order to a due or anization of the assembly has al- ready been partly treate of in the preceding section in con- nection with the number necessary to constitute a quo- rum. Very nearly akin to this right is that of the assembly itself after it is constituted to have the attendance of all its members for the transaction of business. The present House being composed of 332 mem- bers a quorum of a full House is 167. See statement of Speaker Carlisle as to quorum. —-Record, 1, 49, p. 4338. See question of order raised by Mr. Crisp in this connection and statement of Speaker Reed.- Record, 1, 49, p. 10,235. A quorum of the Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union * * * “shall consist of of one hundred members.”-—Rule XXIII, clause 2. A quorum is not required in the Committee of the whole House on a motion that the committee rise, for the reason that it is the equivalent of the motion to adjourn in the House, on which a quorum is not required, and also for the further reason that as the motion to adjourn has been held not to be “ business,” the motion that “the committee rise ” is governed by the same rule.-—See Journal, 1, 44, p. 1,153, and also Congressional Record, 2, 46, p. 3,670, vol. 43. The point of order that “no quorum” is present or has voted can only be raised (and sustained) on a question on which a quorum is required.- Journal, 1. 51, p. 934. When, from counting the House on a division, it appears that there is not a quorum, the matter continues exactly in the state in which it was be- fore the division.——Manual, p. 170. When a rising vote is taken and the Chair an- nounces the result it is in order for any member, if no quorum has voted, to make that point of order, and it then becomes the duty of the Chair to appoint tellers (see Rule 1, clause 5). But if tellers are demanded and refused by the House (or committee) it is then too late under the practice for the point of “ no quorum” to be made.—See Record, 1, 50, p. 5362. A quorum of the House for the purpose of ob cos- ing the President shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the Ste tes.-Const., 12, p. 29. Tellers may be ordered upon motion, seconded by at least one-fifth of a quorum of the members. —Rule 1, clause 5. See ruling of Speaker Reed as to the methods of ascertaining a quorum on seconding a motion to suspend the rules.-Journal 1, 51, p. 243. The Speaker each day on the meeting of the House, “ and on the appearance of a quorum, shall QUO'WARRANTO cause the Journal of the proceedings of the last day’s sitting to be read.”—Rule 1, clause 1. It was formerly a very common practice, when no quorum was present upon the Speaker taking the c,hair, for him to entertain a motion for a call of the House befor 3 causing the Journal to be read.- Journal, 2, 27, p. 678, 679, 1, 35, p. 840. See also Journal 1, 50, pp. Where less than a quorum is present, a motion to take a recess is not in order; and no motion is in order except for a call or to adjourn.--Journals, 1, 29, p. 356; 2, 29, p. 343; 2, 32, p. 388. Where the rule (or order of the House) fixes an hour for tak- ing a recess, it is not necessary tbs?’ a quorum should be present at the hour so fixed.—Journal, 1, 51, pp. 915, 916. Of course it would be otherwise in case of an independent motion (if the point were made), but in the case above cited the recess was taken under a rule for the consideration of another (private) class of business. A quorum is not required on a motion to order a call, or dispense with further proceedings under a call.—Record, 2, 43, p. 1,731. Under the practice a quorum is not required on any motion or proposi- tion relating to a call. A resolution (or motion) revoking leaves of ab- sence does not require a quorum, being a proceed- ing to compel the attendance of absent members.— Journal 1, 48, p. 621. Whenever a committee of the whole house finds itself without a quorum, the chairman shall cause the roll to be called, and thereupon the committee shall rise, and the chairman shall report the names of the absentees to the House, which shall be en- tered upon the Journal; but if on such call a quorum shall appear, the committee shall there- upon resume its sitting without further order of the House.—Rule XXIII, clause 2. The words italicized are so printed for the pur- pose of calling attention to their mandatory char- acter. They are positive in terms, and specifically direct what course shall be pursued in the event of the failure of a quorum to vote on any propo- sition. It has been once held that a motion “that the committee rise” is first in order whenever a vote by tellers discloses the absence of a quorum, or even after the chairman has directed the roll to be called and before the first name thereon has been called; but the later—and undoubtedly correct- practice of the House is for the chairman, as soon as the final vote is announced and the point that “no quorum has voted” is made, to direct the roll to be called, as prescribed by clause 2, Rule XXIII. There must be a quorum on record before the House can proceed to business.—Globe, 2, 30, p. 624. Where the roll-call discloses the absence of a quorum, the chair cannot go outside of the record in deciding as to the presence of a quorum.—J our- nal, 1,44, p. 1,078. When a vote taken by yeas and nays shows that no quorum has voted, it is the duty of the chair, under the constitution (1, 5; 1, 5) to take notice of that fact.—Journ%1l, 1, 48, pp. 1,385, 1,386. The House thereby becomes constitutionally dis- qualified to do further business, except that busi- ness which the constitution authorizes the House to do when a quorum is not present, 2'. e., to adjourn or order a call of the House.-—Gongressional Globe, 2, 42, p. 3,857 ; proceedings May 24, 1872. On the demand of any member, or at the sugges- tion of the speaker, the names of members sufiicient to make a quorum in the hall of the House who do not vote shall be noted by the clerk and recorded in the Journal, and reported to the speaker with the names of the members voting, and be counted 1299 and announced in determining the presence of a quorum to do business.—Rule XV, clause 3. See instance where Speaker Reed counted the House, and debate and ruling thereon.-—Journal 1, 51 (Feb. 17, 1890), and Record of that date. In this case the House was dividing by tellers on seconding a motion to suspend the rules. and the tellers reported yeas 114, nays 8. The point of or- der being made that no quorum had voted, the speaker thereupon counted the House and an- nounced that 172 members—a quorum——were pres- ent and that the motion was seconded. The point of order was debated at length; and the final ruling of the speaker—-no appeal being taken—is herewith given: The speaker said the rovision of the rule-second clause of the twenty-eighth ru e—is somewhat peculiar. It provides that a motion to suspend the rules shall, before being sub- mitted to the House, be seconded by a majority by tellers. Perhaps a very proper construction might be, that those who assed between the tellers are alone to be considered in the etermination of the question of a second, it being im- material whether or not a quorum expressed an opinion or were present, were it not for the fact that a quorum must be present at all times in order to transact business. Therefore, the question before the House is a question very much like that which has been passed upon already repeatedly by the House of Representatives. Under the constitution of the United States it is necessary that a quorum, or a majority of the members, shall be pres- ent in order to transact the public business. Whether it is necessary for them to act or not is the point in dispute. Since that question has come u ) in the House. the matter has been discussed from one end 0 the country to the other, re- sulting in a display of precedents and in judgments of courts which can leave no doubt in the mind of any one who has examined them. The courts of very many of the States and the legislatures of very many of the States have taken that course in regard to the matter. so far as the principle and practice are concerned, which has been indorsed by the House of Representatives. We must, therefore, in this House at least, consider the question settled that if a majority are present to do business, their presence is all that is required in order to make a quo- rum. If they decline to vote, their inaction cannot be in the pathway of the action of those who do their duty. The idea. that silence can be stronger than a negative vote seems to have been unknown to our ancestors. It seems to be a mod- ern parliamentary fiction w hich has never been able to stand the examination of courts Vi here business questions were in- volved. I have yet to see a single decision of a court against the position which has been lately taken by the House of Representatives. The only uestion. then, remaining is one of detail: By what metho shall the presence of a quorum be ascertained? I think an examination of all the books of parliamentary practice will show that it has been the custom from time im- memorial for the presiding oflicer to determine. in such manner as he deems accurate and suitable, the presence of a quorum. The rules of this House contain nothing deroga- tory, not to that power. for it is not a power in his hands—it is merely the performance of his duty. He can do it by a count which satisfies him, or, if it is seriously questioned, as it has not been in this case, the fact can be ascertained by other methods. In truth, in the earlier days of the House of Representa- tives the determination of avote was made even by tellers difierently from what it is now, there being two tellers to take the aflirmative and two other tellers to take the nega- tive vote. If 1t be suggested that evil is likely to follow from any misconduct on the part of the person who counts, the answer is very sim le. It is, that whatever ofiicer is intrust- ed with the duty 0 taking a count, whether of a vote or of the presence of a quorum, is liable to the same objection, and that objection, which is inherent in all human affairs, is not to prevent action, which always proceeds upon the assump- tion of the right performance by public ofiicers of their pub- lic duties. Moreover, in the House of Representatives a correction of any material mistake is made very ready and very simple, because if any number of members,equal to or exceeding one-fifth, have doubt in regard to the transaction, they have the right to demand the yeas and nays ugon the passage of the hi 1, or upon questions arising. Un er those circum- stances it seems that there can no evil follow from the ractice. If members who are present and who are silent esire to record themselves against a measure they have full opportunity to do so. In this case the chair had repeatedly counted the House during the vote, and after the voting had ceased and before it was announced, and therefore, being satisfied that a constitutional quorum was present to do busi- ness, the chair announces that the yeas are 114 and the nays 8, and that the motion has been seconded. QUO \VARRANTO, a writ by which the govern- ment commences suit to recover an oifice, franchise I 1300 or privilege from a person or corporation which is illegally in possession of it. It is a proceeding to try the right to the oflice or franchise, and to re- cover it eventually. In the United States it has been superseded by what is called an iiformation to the court in the nature of a quo warranto. The person at whose instance it is instituted is called the “ relator.” In the case of any public officer quo warranto proceedin s are instituted at the suit of the attorney-genera , or at the suit of any person interested, as for instance, of a man elected to the same oflice. The State is not bound to show any- thing, but the defendent is bound to show in court his right to the ofiice in question. QUO'WARRANTO The judgment against an ofiicer in illegal posses- sion of an ofiice is ouster, that is, the judgment simply puts him out. Against a corporation in illegal possession of a franchise the judgment is‘ ouster and seizure of the franchise. This is done when a corporation has violated the conditions of its charter, and is to be deprived of it. 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